LESSON 3.

THE RECEPTIVE SKILLS

A. READING
Introduction
What is reading? This is one question that seems so easy yet it is full of complexities. Leu
& Kinzer (1987) defines reading as a development, interactive, and global process involving
learned skills. As for Tarigan (2008), it is a process carried out and used by a reader to acquire
message which is conveyed by a writer through words and could be known and seen by reader.
Some definitions give emphasis on the mental processes involved in reading, while others
deal with the values derived from the process. No matter how reading is defined, they all boil
down to one thing: reading involves the use of a code that has to be interpreted for meaning
(Romero & Romero 1985).
As a college student, your workload may be overwhelming. Unlike in high school, you
need to read a lot now that you are in college if you want to succeed on all your undertakings in
this new phase of your life. You have to develop proficiency and fluency in reading.

Reading defined:
⮚ Reading is decoding written symbols.
⮚ Reading is getting meaning from printed page.
⮚ Reading is putting meaning into the printed page.
⮚ Reading is the process of interpreting the written symbols.
⮚ Reading is the process of communication between author and reader.

Characteristics of the reading process: (Romero & Romero, 1985)

1. Reading is a complex process.

Reading is a complex process because there are many factors involved that may affect
one’s performance in reading. Word recognition, identifying and making sense out of the
words being read are also a few of the requisites towards better comprehension of the text.

2. Reading is a two-way process.

Reading is not just receiving, or absorption of ideas; it is an interaction or communication
between the author and the reader. When the reader fails to understand the text, he may
have a problem of poor comprehension, thus communication gap between him and the
author occurs. The reading act is complete only when the reading is put to use in some way,
like communicating with others in discussion, reporting, summarizing, etc.

3. Reading is largely a visual process.

For one to be able to read well, he has to have good eyesight.

4. Reading is an active process.

The reader constructs meaning from a text and may have different interpretation of what
he reads because of his experiences and knowledge. As a reader reads, he asks questions
and looks for points to which he agrees or disagrees.
5. Reading makes use of a linguistic system which enables readers to be more effective
users of written language.
A reader would do better if he knows the syntax, orthography, and morphology of a
language. Having said this, he could interact more effectively with the printed page.

6. Effective reading is partly dependent on the reader’s prior knowledge or background

experiences.
A person’s knowledge of the topic facilitates comprehension.

STAGES OF READING

a. Pre-Reading Stage
During this stage, the individual is engaged in a program of experiences aimed to
enhance his oral language development to a level equal to or greater than the level of
materials for beginning reading. Experiences are provided for concept development. The
individual is also trained auditory and visual discrimination, listens to, tells, and discusses
stories and learns basic work and study habits. To develop his mental, physical, emotional,
and social readiness for reading, further experiences are provided.

b. Initial Reading Stage

The individual begins to use picture, context, and configuration clues to recognize
words and then goes on to beginning instruction in phonetic and structural analysis
techniques. He learns to use and handle books, acquires the understanding that reading
yields information, and begins to develop skills in finding main ideas, anticipating
outcomes, making inferences, finding details, and noting sequences.

c. Stage of Rapid Progress

The reader extends his use of a variety of word-recognition techniques and begins to
use the dictionary for word meaning for word meaning, spelling, and pronunciation. He
extends his vocabulary and comprehension skills, he reads with understanding a greater
variety of materials, and he begins to read independently for information and pleasures.

d. Stage of Extended Reading Experience and Rapidly Increasing Reading Efficiency

The individual, at this stage, uses word-recognition techniques automatically, and is
almost completely independent in reading. He reads with understanding in the subject
areas, extends his dictionary independently, and begins to use reading as a tool in problem
solving.

e. Stage of Refinement in Reading Abilities, Attitudes, and Tastes

The individual reader has acquired independence in locating and utilizing a variety of
materials, is aware of varied purposes for reading and has developed skills of critical
evaluation of material read. His reading interests are extended, and his literary tastes
refined. This refinement process actually begins with initial reading instruction and
proceeds into adult life.

Importance of Reading
✔ Reading is good for the brain. It makes us well-informed and smarter because we gain
access to various knowledge.
✔ Reading inspires you. Yes, reading can be a source of inspiration especially when you
encounter good things on the material that you read. For example, if you read the story of
a person who succeeded in life despite his hardships, one who rose from rags to riches, this
will give you more energy to strive until you reach your dream.
 ✔ Reading can be a source of recreation. Reading about something you enjoy can be a form
of relaxation; it can ease tension in your muscles and heart.
✔ Reading makes you a better writer. When you read, your vocabulary and spelling are
enhanced. You also get exposed to various writing techniques, which unconsciously, you
will be able to imitate these writing techniques.
✔ Reading can make you a good conversationalist. What do we get from reading? A lot of
ideas. When you have a lot of ideas, you have a lot to share when talking with others.

READING TECHNIQUES
Reading is one good habit that can do wonders in a person’s life; it can even change human
life significantly. It can entertain us, amuse us, and enrich us with knowledge and experiences.

If you want to become a better and more comprehensive reader, mastering these techniques
can help you a lot. https://www.iedunote.com/reading-techniques

1. Scanning. This is a reading strategy that is used for getting some specific points by
looking at the whole text. When you do the following, you do scanning technique:
a. Looking up the meaning of a word in a dictionary
b. Finding a telephone number in a directory
c. Finding statistical information in tables, charts, graphs
d. Finding the answers to certain questions from a text
e. Looking up a name from the telephone guidebook

Procedures for Scanning

a. Keep in mind only the specific information to be located.
b. Decide which clues will help to find the required information.
c. Move your eyes as quickly as possible down the page to find the clue.
d. Read the section containing the clues to get the information needed.
Scanning trains students to think of clues in finding specific
information and to move their eyes rapidly to obtain the information quickly
using clues like word/words, alphabetical order, numbers, etc.

2. Skimming. This reading technique is used for looking for main ideas in a text,
without going into the details. Under this technique, we read quickly to get the main
points and skip over the detail. https://literarydevices.net/skimming/
When skimming, try to do the following:
⮚ Don’t read everything
⮚ Read the first and last sentences of the paragraph.
⮚ Read the introduction and the summary.
⮚ Read a few examples until you understand until you understand the concept
they want to illustrate

3. Comprehensive Reading. When undertaking comprehensive reading, your aim must

be clear in mind. Student must read carefully and slowly in order to get information
and understand the text.

The following are necessary to do comprehensive reading:

a. Vocabulary Recognition
Students should be able to analyse words, use the dictionary, and use
context clues.
 b. Sentence Comprehension
Here are the techniques to understand a sentence:
1. Sentence analysis
Analyzing the parts of the sentence, knowing the subject and the
verb, etc. will help students understand the meaning of the
sentence.
2. Recognizing punctuation marks
Students should recognize the meaning and use of punctuation
marks in order to know the ideas the writer wants to convey.
3. Recognizing reference terms
A reference term is a word used to replace another word so that
the writer does not have to repeat the same word again and
again.
4. Recognizing signal words
A signal word is a word or phrase that functions as a connector in
a sentence, between sentences, or between paragraphs.
Examples of signal words
addition: and, as well as, besides
cause –effect relationships: hence, due to, as a result
condition: if, when, unless
contrast: but, though, despite
comparison: like, unlike, in the same way
doubt or hypothesis: possibly, probably
emphasis: above all, really, in effect
sequence or order of events: first, later, eventually, etc.
examples and restatements: for example, that is, namely

c. Paragraph analysis
The student learns to:
1. Find the topic
2. Find the main idea
3. Find major supporting details
4. Find minor supporting details
d. Interpreting illustrations
Pictures, tables, maps, etc. must be interpreted properly.

4. Critical Reading
To be able to read critically, the student must learn to:
a. Examine the reliability of the material
b. Distinguish facts from opinions
c. Draw inferences from the material
B. LISTENING
Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication
process. It is the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and/or
nonverbal messages.
It is an active process by which we make sense of, assess, and respond to what we hear. It
require concentration, which is the focusing of your thoughts upon one particular topic.

Listening vs Hearing
A person who receives and understands information or an instruction, and then chooses not
to comply with it or not to agree to it; one is hearing what others are saying, and another is trying
to understand what it means.

⮚ Hearing – refers to the sounds that enter your ears. It is a physical process that provided
you that you do not have any hearing problems.
- It happens automatically or naturally.
- It is passive.
- It is more of physiological.

⮚ Listening – is done by choice. It is interpretative action taken by someone in order to

understand and potentially make meaning of something they hear.
- It is a physical and mental process; active; learned process; a skill
- It is more of psychological.

TYPES OF LISTENING

• Appreciative Listening
- listening for pleasure and enjoyment, as when we listen to music, to a comedy
routine, or to an entertaining speech.

- describes how well speakers choose and use words, use humour, ask questions,
tell stories, and argue persuasively.

• Emphatic Listening
- listening to provide emotional support for the speaker, as when a psychiatrist
listens to a patient or when we lend a sympathetic ear to a friend.

- focuses on understanding and identifying with a person’s situation, feelings, or

motives.

- there is an attempt to understand what the other person is feeling.

• Comprehensive/Active Listening
- listening to understand the message of a speaker, as when we attend a classroom
lecture or listen to directions for finding a friend’s house.

- focuses on accurately understanding the meaning of the speaker’s words while

simultaneously interpreting non-verbal cues such as facial expressions, gestures,
posture, and vocal quality.
 - it is a particular communication technique that requires the listener to provide
feedback on what he or she hears to the speaker.

Three (3) Main Degrees of Comprehensive or Active Listening

1. Repeating - requires perceiving, paying attention, and remembering.
- repeating the messages involves using exactly the same words used by the
speaker.

2. Paraphrasing - requires thinking and reasoning. It involves rendering the message using
similar phrase arrangement to the ones used by the speaker.

3. Reflecting - involves rendering the message using your own words and sentence
structure.

• Critical/ Analytical Listening

- listening to evaluate a message for purposes of accepting or rejecting it, as when
we listen to the sales pitch of a used-car dealer or the campaign speech of a political
candidate
- focuses on evaluating whether a message is logical and reasonable
- asks you to make judgements based on your evaluation of the speaker’s arguments
- challenges the speaker’s message by evaluating its accuracy and meaningfulness,
and utility
- uses critical thinking skills

● Critical thinking Skills - the intellectually disciplines process of actively and

skilfully conceptualizing, applying, analysing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating
information gathered from or generated by, observation, experience, reflection,
reasoning, or communication as a guide to belief and action.

It is the process by which people qualitatively and quantitatively assess the

information they have accumulated, and how they in turn use that information to
solve problems and forge new pattern of understanding.

Critical thinking skills include observation, interpretation, analysis,

inference, evaluation, explanation, and metacognition.

Critical thinkers are those who are able to do the following:

1. Recognize problems and find workable solutions to those problems.

2. Understand the importance of prioritization in the hierarchy of problem solving tasks.
3. Gather relevant information.
4. Read between the lines by recognizing what is not said or stated.
5. Use language clearly, efficiently, and with efficacy.
6. Interpret data and form conclusions based on that data.
7. Determine the presence of lack of logical relationships.
8. Make sound conclusions and/or generalizations based on given data.
9. Test conclusions and generalizations.
10. Reconstruct one’s patterns of beliefs on the basis of wider experience.
11. Render accurate judgments about specific things and qualities in everyday life.

✔ Therefore, critical thinkers must engage in highly active listening to further their
critical thinking skills. People can use critical thinking skills to understand, interpret, and
 assess what they hear in order to formulate appropriate reactions or responses. These skills
allow people to organize the information that they hear, understand its context or relevance,
recognize unstated assumptions, make logical connections between ideas, determine the
truth values, and draw conclusions. Conversely, engaging in focused, effective listening
also lets people collect information in a way that best promotes critical thinking and,
ultimately, successful communication.

Process of Listening

⮚ Receiving – it refers to the response caused by sound waves stimulating the sensory
receptors of the ear.

⮚ Understanding – it is the stage at which you learn what the speaker means - the thoughts
and emotional tone.

⮚ Remembering – this is retaining messages for at least some period of time.

- What you remember is actually not what was said but what you think was
said.

⮚ Evaluating – It consists of judging the messages in some way. At times, you may try to
evaluate the speaker’s underlying intentions or motives.
- Effective listeners should deliberately reduce the influence of their own
viewpoint until they have first understood the speaker’s ideas.

● In language learning, some teaching methods, such physical response, involve

students by simply listening and responding. There two distinction involve in
listening learning process and these are:

1. Intensive Listening – in which learners attempt to listen with maximum

accuracy to a relatively brief sequence of speech.
- more effective in terms of developing specific aspects of
listening ability.

2. Extensive Listening – in which learners listen to lengthy passages for general

comprehension.
- more effective in building fluency and maintaining learner
motivation.
SPEAKING
Speaking is an act of making vocal sounds. It is a verbal skill that involves words and sounds. It is a
complex cognitive and linguistic skill.
Dell Hymes (1974), constructed the mnemonic, S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G to facilitate the application of each
representation as follows:
S – Setting and Scene
P – Participants
E – Ends
A – Acts Sequence
K – Key
I – Instrumentalities
N – Norms
G – Genre
Hymes grouped a sixteen components within eight divisions that can be applied to many sorts of discourse:
message form; message content; setting; scene; speaker/sender; addressor; hearer/receiver/audience; addressee;
purposes (outcomes); purposes (goals); key; channels; forms of speech; norms of interaction; norms of
interpretation; and genres. When two or more people speak or talk to each other, the conversation is called a
“dialogue”.
Speech can flow naturally from one person to another, or it can also be planned and rehearsed. Speaking
effectively involves different elements, to be able to communicate properly through speaking, it means to say that
you are able to say what you want in such a way that it is heard and acted upon. This means that considering every
possible tool and aspect to ensure that nothing distracts or detracts from your message.

1. TYPES OF SPEAKING SITUATIONS

a. Interactive – participants alternately speak and listen.
Ex. face-to-face conversations, telephone calls, group meetings

b. Partially interactive – only the speaker speaks and the feedback is the audience’s attentiveness,
small gestures like nodding, etc.
Ex. giving a speech to a large audience

c. Non-interactive – the audience cannot interact immediately.

Ex. Radio/Television broadcast

2. TYPES OF SPEECH STYLE

a. Intimate - This style is private, which occurs between or among close family members or
individuals. The language used in this style may not be shared in public.

b. Casual - This style is common among peers and friends. Jargon, slang, or the vernacular
language are used.

c. Consultative - This style is the standard one. Professional or mutually acceptable language is
a must in this style. Examples of situations are communication between teachers and students,
employers and employees, doctor and patient, judge and lawyer or President.
 d. Formal - This style is used in formal settings. Unlike the consultative style, this is one way.
Examples are sermons of priests and ministers, State of the Nation Address of the President.

e. Frozen - This style is "frozen" in time and remains unchanged. It mostly occurs in ceremonies.
Common examples are the Preamble to the Constitution, Lord’s Prayer, and Allegiance to
country or flag.

3. TYPES OF SPEECH ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

a. Exploratory/Informative Speech
This type of speech provides information history, theories, practical applications, and etc.
that can help the listeners understand something that is unknown to them or already known but
not yet clearly understood.

It is also meant to help the listeners understand a topic in a more in-depth manner by
providing the following in an organized way:

✔ new data
✔ data that are not readily available to everyone
✔ data already know to the audience but looked at in a different way

b. Persuasive Speech
A persuasive speech is written to persuade, or convince the listeners, of the validity of the
speaker’s argument. This might involve persuading someone to change their opinion or at the
very least take into account some elements that have not really been considered before.

Persuasive Idea Technique

✔ importance of signal or transitional words in idea presentation
✔ emphasis words
✔ addition words
✔ comparison or contrast words
✔ illustration words
✔ cause and effect words

Persuasive Verbal Technique

✔ Know the anatomy of and argument- argument > assertion
✔ Avoid contradiction of your argument
✔ Avoid casual causation
✔ Never create a false dichotomy
✔ Do not be a “straw man”
✔ Do the “even if” argumentation

Guide Questions on Persuasive Writing

✔ How are you writing for?

✔ How are you going to prove your points?
✔ How are you going to end your piece effectively?
✔ Strategies for concluding effectively (ask “so what?”, create a tieback, synthesize,
highlight implications, provoke)

c. Entertainment Speech
 It is a speech intends to captivate an audience’s attention and amuse them while delivering
a message. The purpose is not only to tell jokes. Neither is it the purpose of the speaker to have
the audience laughing throughout the speech.

4. PUBLIC SPEAKING
4.1. EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
Public speaking is a process, an act and an art of making a speech before an audience.
Absolutely everyone from the age of 10 to 90 has found themselves in situations where they have
had to speak publically. However, telling an anecdote at a corporate party, introducing yourself
in class or delivering a paper at a conference does not necessarily make you a public speaker.

The art of speaking in public is not new. Its long tradition can be traced back to Classical
Greece (approximately 490-322 BC). Any young men leaving at that time were expected to acquire
and develop public speaking skills as part of their duties as citizens. The first rules of a public
speech were elaborated on over 2000 years ago by the Greek philosopher and teacher of Alexander
the Great – Aristotle.

THREE PARTS OF PERSUASION BY ARISTOTLE

 ✔ Ethos (credibility or the speaker)
✔ Logos (logic behind any conclusions drawn by a speaker)
✔ Pathos (emotional appeal or ability to create connection between the speaker and
his audience)

These key elements still lie at the base of any successful public speech.

a. First, in order to be asked to share their thoughts, observations and ideas publically a
speaker should possess a certain level of authority and knowledge about the chosen topic
(ethos).

b. To make sure that the message is received and understood correctly by the audience, it has
to be conveyed in a clear, informative and logical manner (logos).

c. And to capture and hold the audience’s attention the speaker must first establish an
emotional connection with the listeners. (pathos).

CICERO’S FIVE CANONS OF RHETORIC

After the ascension of Rome, public speaking techniques developed in Greece were
copied and modified by the Romans. Here, oratory lost its dominance in the political arena, but
gained wide popularity as a form of entertainment, allowing famous orators to gain political
power and wealth by using their public speaking skills. Amongst such people was Marcus Tullis
Cicero – a lawyer, politician, philosopher, who gained fame as Rome’s greatest orator. Around
50 B.C. Cicero wrote his treatise called “De Oratore” where he explained his “Five Canons of
Rhetoric” that are widely used by many public speakers up to this day.

Cicero believed that the process of eloquent speech preparation consists of five main steps:

✔ Invention - development and refinement of the argument (finding ways to persuade)

✔ Arrangement - creation of the structure of a coherent argument
✔ Style - the process of determining how to present an argument, using rhetorical techniques
and choosing the words that have the greatest impact on the audience
✔ Memory - the process of learning and memorizing the speech while making it sound natural
✔ Delivery - the process of making effective use of voice and body language

4.2. MODERN ELEMENTS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

The widespread accessibility of mass media and especially, the Internet, has made it easy for us to
reach a vast audience and let our voice be heard. Public speaking has evolved from a skill reserved by a
selected few to one of the most powerful marketing, educational and brand promotion tools in any
business.
It is safe to say that in the modern business world just about every well-paid position requires some
form of public speaking, be it giving a group sales presentation, presenting your ideas to the board of
directors, speaking to a committee or telling a group of potential clients about your company during a
corporate event.
Most public speeches can be broken down into five basic elements, usually expressed as:

“Who is saying What to Whom using what Medium with what Effects?”
4.3. METHODS OF DELIVERY IN PUBLIC SPEAKING
The three most common styles of speeches that you encounter in today’s business and social world
are - impromptu, manuscript and extemporaneous. To become a great public speaker you will have to
learn and ace each one of them, as it will allow you to speak confidently and effectively in front of any
number of listeners and in any given situation.

a. Impromptu Speaking
Impromptu speaking is prompted by the occasion rather than being planned in advance.
While famous public speakers often joke that best impromptu speeches should be prepared weeks
in advance, usually in real life we have very little or no time to prepare before we speak in front of
the audience. Some examples of impromptu speech could be your boss asking you to bring the rest
of your team up to date, or a group of friends urging you to say a few words at a non-profit event.

Impromptu speaking is the presentation of a short message without advance preparation.

Impromptu speeches often occur when someone is asked to “say a few words” or give a toast on a
special occasion. You have probably done impromptu speaking many times in informal,
conversational settings. Self-introductions in group settings are examples of impromptu speaking:
“Hi, my name is Steve, and I’m a volunteer with the Homes for the Brave program.” Another
example of impromptu speaking occurs when you answer a question such as, “What did you think
of the documentary?”

The advantage of this kind of speaking is that it’s spontaneous and responsive in an animated
group context. The disadvantage is that the speaker is given little or no time to contemplate the
central theme of his or her message. As a result, the message may be disorganized and difficult for
listeners to follow.

b. Manuscript Speaking
This type of speech is written like a manuscript and is meant to be delivered word for word.
Manuscript speeches are used on many political and social occasions, when every word carries a
lot of weight and should not be misquoted. One of the most common examples of a manuscript
speech is a political figure delivering a speech that has been written by another person. In a
manuscript speech, the speaker maintains his or her attention on the printed page except when
using visual aids.

The advantage to reading from a manuscript is the exact repetition of original words. As we
mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, in some circumstances this can be extremely important.
For example, reading a statement about your organization’s legal responsibilities to customers may
require that the original words be exact. In reading one word at a time, in order, the only errors
would typically be mispronunciation of a word or stumbling over complex sentence structure.

However, there are costs involved in manuscript speaking. First, it’s typically an
uninteresting way to present. Unless the speaker has rehearsed the reading as a complete
performance animated with vocal expression and gestures (as poets do in a poetry slam and actors
do in a reader’s theatre), the presentation tends to be dull. Keeping one’s eyes glued to the script
precludes eye contact with the audience. For this kind of “straight” manuscript speech to hold
audience attention, the audience must be already interested in the message before the delivery begins.

c. Extemporaneous Speaking
 Extemporaneous speech is the most commonly used type of speech that helps to establish
emotional connection with the audience. It is built around key points, but the material can be
presented freely, allowing the speaker to make changes in their speech based on the listeners’
reaction.

Extemporaneous speaking is the presentation of a carefully planned and rehearsed speech,

spoken in a conversational manner using brief notes. By using notes rather than a full manuscript,
the extemporaneous speaker can establish and maintain eye contact with the audience and assess
how well they are understanding the speech as it progresses. The opportunity to assess is also an
opportunity to restate more clearly any idea or concept that the audience seems to have trouble
grasping.

Speaking extemporaneously has some advantages. It promotes the likelihood that you, the
speaker, will be perceived as knowledgeable and credible. In addition, your audience is likely to
pay better attention to the message because it is engaging both verbally and nonverbally. The
disadvantage of extemporaneous speaking is that it requires a great deal of preparation for both the
verbal and the nonverbal components of the speech. Adequate preparation cannot be achieved the
day before you’re scheduled to speak.

d. Speaking from Memory

Memorized speaking is the rote recitation of a written message that the speaker has
committed to memory. Actors, of course, recite from memory whenever they perform from a script
in a stage play, television program, or movie scene. When it comes to speeches, memorization can
be useful when the message needs to be exact and the speaker doesn’t want to be confined by notes.

The advantage to memorization is that it enables the speaker to maintain eye contact with
the audience throughout the speech. Being free of notes means that you can move freely around the
stage and use your hands to make gestures. If your speech uses visual aids, this freedom is even
more of an advantage. However, there are some real and potential costs. First, unless you also plan
and memorize every vocal cue (the subtle but meaningful variations in speech delivery, which can
include the use of pitch, tone, volume, and pace), gesture, and facial expression, your presentation
will be flat and uninteresting, and even the most fascinating topic will suffer. You might end up
speaking in a monotone or a sing-song repetitive delivery pattern. You might also present your
speech in a rapid “machine-gun” style that fails to emphasize the most important points. Second, if
you lose your place and start trying to ad lib, the contrast in your style of delivery will alert your
audience that something is wrong. More frighteningly, if you go completely blank during the
presentation, it will be extremely difficult to find your place and keep going.

4.4. OVERCOMING FEAR OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

According to national surveys and research results, fear of public speaking (or
‘glossophobia’) ranks among the top dreads, surpassing the fear of heights, fear of spiders and
even fear of death itself.
The fear of public speaking should not turn into an obstacle to your professional and
personal growth. It is much easier to build a business or to advance in your career when you are
able to speak with confidence and authenticity to any size group.
The following are some practical ways to overcome fear of public speaking:

a. Deep breathing
Such strong emotions as anxiety and fear trigger in your body very specific “fight or
flight” response: your muscles tighten, your heart rate increases, your blood pressure goes up and
your breathing becomes shallow. While this physical reaction may be helpful in escaping danger
it is hardly helpful during the presentation (as you can neither run away from your audience, nor
fight with it). However, since your breathing rate is directly connected to your emotional reaction,
the fastest and easiest way to take your emotions under control and regain confidence is through
deep breathing. Whether you are to talk to potential clients or make a presentation to your team,
make sure that you remember to breathe deeply and evenly before and during your speech.
 b. Shifting focus outwards
Many people perform worse than they could because they focus too much on their
physical symptoms (i.e. butterflies, shaky hands, sweaty palms) and on their embarrassment
instead of concentrating on their breathing and their speech. This problem could be easily avoided
by shifting focus from how we feel or look to the message we want to share with our audience.

c. Visualizing
Visualization or mental rehearsal has been routinely used by many top athletes as a part
of the training for a competition. In addition to athletics, research has shown that visualization
helps to improve performance in such areas as communication, public speaking and education.
To ensure that your presentation goes smoothly, aside from actual preparation and the
rehearsal of your speech, take 10- 15 minutes a day to relax, close your eyes and visualize the
room you are speaking in, the people in the auditorium and yourself confidently delivering your
speech, smiling, and moving across the stage.

d. Focusing on facts, not fears

Instead of focusing on irrational fears (e.g. mind going blank, audience getting bored)
concentrate your thoughts on positive facts such as: “I have practiced my speech many times”, “I
am an expert on this topic”, “I have notes with major bullet points to keep the structure of my
talk”. Focusing on positive facts and on what you can offer takes your thoughts away from
irrational scenarios about what can go wrong.

e. Building your speech on clarity, not complexity

While it is often tempting to include as much useful information in your speech as
possible, practice shows that this might not be a good idea. Organizing the speech or presentation
around two three main points, allows you to relax and not worry so much about running out of
time or forgetting to mention something important to the listeners.

f. Posture
Slouching shoulders and tensed muscles and abrupt, anxious movements might not be so
obvious to the speaker, but this nervousness, tension and lack of conviction are quickly
transmitted to the audience.
If you want your listeners to feel comfortable and interested by your speech, make sure
that you keep a relaxed and upright posture. Do not lean or grip the lectern as if your life depends
on it and avoid shifting your weight from one foot to another as it can become distracting.

g. Body Placement
Often, new speakers trap themselves behind a podium, using it as a ‘psychological’
barricade between themselves and their audience. Needless to say, doing this does not help to
establish a connection with the audience or keep them interested in the message. Even if you
usually speak from behind a lectern it is a good idea to step away occasionally. Movement in the
direction of your listeners is a sign of trust and openness. Movement is also a great way to make
a clear transition from one point to another, allowing a speaker to quickly regain the listeners’
attention.

h. Arms
While on stage, be careful of using hand gestures that reveal anxiety such as clenching
your hands together, clutching notes, fiddling with your clothing, or hiding your hands in your
pockets. Even if you feel nervous, practice speaking with your arms relaxed at your sides as it
helps to convey your calm attitude, sincerity and openness.

i. Facial expression
When it comes to establishing a connection with your audience and winning their
admiration there is nothing more effective than a genuine smile. As a speaker, you should be the
first one to demonstrate your sympathy and interest in your audience and the best way to do it is
by smiling and looking at your listeners as you talk.

j. Tone of Voice
A speaker’s confidence, emotional state and attitude is often revealed in the tone of voice.
In the area of public speaking your voice becomes a powerful instrument that allows you to engage,
charm and encourage your audience to listen.
 k. Paralanguage
The study dedicated to the vocal part of non-verbal communication is called
paralinguistics, while the term “paralanguage” refers to the non-verbal elements of
communication as:
✔ pace (speed)
✔ pitch (highness or lowness of voice)
✔ volume (loudness)
✔ enunciation of vocal speech.

l. The Power of Pause

“The right word may be effective, but no word was ever as effective as a rightly timed
pause.” - Mark Twain

Often when people feel nervous or excited, they tend to rush through their delivery, hoping
to get the presentation over as quickly as possible.
As you can probably guess, talking at a fast pace makes it challenging for the listeners to
mentally keep up with the speaker and follow the speaker’s train of thought. While some of the
message might get through, most will not, as people will quickly lose interest in the presentation.

4.5. THE THREE P’s OF SUCCESSFUL PUBLIC SPEAKING

The positive outcome of a speech does not depend solely on the oratory skills of the
speaker. It is influenced by many factors such as the topic of presentation, the attitude of the
audience, the quality of the material, the length of the speech and so on. Some factors are out of
the speaker’s control. However, the remaining percentage success will depend on how well the
presenter follows the Three P’s:

a. Preparation
⮚ It is true that the success or failure of a speech becomes evident on the day of the
speaking engagement. However, the outcome of the speech is largely
predetermined by the weeks of preparation undertaken.
⮚ It is important to consider three key elements:
✔ The audience – WHO is the speech written for?
✔ The purpose – WHAT is the main objective of the speech?
✔ The direction of the speech – HOW will the speech be presented?

a. Practice
⮚ Public speaking requires constant practice in order to be improved. The more you
talk in public, the more you train your mind and body to recognize speaking as a
familiar and safe situation, the more confident you will feel in the spotlight.
⮚ Practice allows you to discover awkward phrases and tounge-twisters that are hard
to notice when you first write your speech.
⮚ It reduces nervousness and helps transform anxiety into excitement on the day of
the presentation.
⮚ Practicing your speech in front of the mirror could be beneficial when you want to
“polish” your body language and gestures for the presentation.
⮚ Do the final “dress rehearsal”.

b. Performance
⮚ When getting ready for your speech, become a long-term optimist and a short-term
pessimist. Believe in your heart that your presentation will go wonderfully and that
audience will love it, but prepare yourself for little slips, unexpected technical
troubles, and other problems that may arise on the day of your performance.
⮚ Plan your presentation keeping in mind that every micro detail could go wrong and
finding effective solutions to either prevent or solve it.

4.7. TIPS TO IMPROVE PERFORMANCE IN PUBLIC SPEAKING

✔ Relax before you get up to talk. Remember to stop and take a few deep breaths to slow down
your heart rate and reduce muscle tension. Feel your feet on the floor. Gently roll your shoulders
back. This opens your chest, drops your shoulders, opens your throat, releasing tension and
making you look more confident.

✔ Greet your audience with a smile. Even if the topic of your business presentation is a serious
one, you can still greet your listeners with a genuine, welcoming smile to win their favour and
regain your confidence.

✔ Do not rush through your presentation. Give your listeners time to absorb your concepts and
key ideas.

✔ Make yourself be heard. Speak to the person sitting farthest away from you so that your
speech can be easily heard by everyone in the room.

✔ Face your audience at all times. In presentations where visuals are used avoid turning your
back to the listeners and looking at the slides too much. The audience is the focal point of your
speech. Visuals are merely a tool to convey a message. Besides, speaking towards the screen
or the wall makes it hard for your listeners to hear you.

✔ Talk to people, not at them. Find a few people that you know in the audience and imagine
yourself talk directly to them. Shift your gaze through your audience and as you feel more
confident, establish eye contact with other listeners as well.

✔ Claim attention. The attention span of an average person lasts about 5-10 minutes. It is the
task of the speaker to keep the listeners focused on the presentation by bringing their attention
back through fluctuation of the voice, storytelling, questions, and body language.

✔ Do not stick your hands in your pockets, hook your thumbs under your belt, or engage in
other creative diversions as you speak.

✔ Do not introduce a topic with “Just real quick,” “Briefly,” or similar words. The subconscious
message that your audience receives is “this isn’t really important or relevant, but I’m going to
inflict it on you anyway.”

✔ Answer any questions as succinctly and briefly as possible. Not everyone may be interested
in this specific question.

✔ Do not diminish or underestimate your audience. Even if you are a world-known expert in
your area of expertise, it is still not a good idea to use phrases like “this is probably new to you”
or “you probably don’t know what this means”, unless you are sharing ground breaking news
that nobody has heard of.

✔ Wrap up your talk on time. People rarely want to listen to someone, who talks longer than
was expected. Therefore, assign to a person that you know the task of giving you time cues,
indicating when you have ten minutes left, five minutes, two minutes and when you should stop
talking.

✔ Never apologize for anything: be it your presentation, your accent or your lack of knowledge
in certain areas or your mistakes. You will quickly lose your credibility.

✔ Be flexible. Organize your business presentation and know it well enough to have the flexibility
to skip certain parts or expand on others depending on the circumstances and non-verbal cues
that you receive from your audience.

✔ Be your best self. Too often, people giving business presentations believe that to look
professionally they need to act or speak in a certain way, a stiff way. There is a huge difference
between being professional and being downright boring. People came to listen to YOU, so let
your personality shine through. Share something real about yourself, either in words or
delivery, which connects you to your listeners.
✔ Have fun. If a speaker is relaxed and enjoying every moment of their speech, it will make the
speech much more enjoyable for the audience as well.

✔ Connect with people after the presentation. At the end of the speech, instead of recoiling
backstage and doing a vicious deconstruction of every little mistake made during the
presentation, continue to be fully present with your listeners. Talk to people, answer questions,
and accept invitations, exchange business cards, network and so on.

● As you have learned, speaking in public does not have to be something we should
avoid at all costs.
● With some creativity, intelligent planning and consistent practice absolutely
ANYONE can become a brilliant public speaker.
WRITING
Writing is a medium of human communication that involves the representation of a language with symbols. It is
the process of using symbols (letters of the alphabet, punctuation and spaces) to communicate thoughts and ideas
in a readable form.
A composition of writer’s thinking starts with letters, creating a word, to a group of words, turning it to a sentence,
and later on, composing a paragraph.
A paragraph basically is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. It is a series of sentences
that are organized and coherent, and are all related to a single topic.

The Basic Rules:

⮚ The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph.

⮚ If you begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph.

⮚ You can have one idea and several bits of supporting evidence within a single paragraph. You can also
have several points in a single paragraph as long as they relate to the overall topic of the paragraph. If the
single points start to get long, then perhaps elaborating on each of them and placing them in their own
paragraphs is the route to go.

⮚ Do not use word contractions in Academic and Formal Business writing.

⮚ Avoid using Passive Voice instead use Active Voice sentences.

A. ELEMENTS OF PARAGRAPHS
To follow a writer’s line of thinking, reader’s need a message that is sensibly organized. Writer must
shape the material into an organized unit of meaning. So, in setting out to organize a message, writer’s face
deliberate decisions:
What do I want to emphasize?
What do I say first?
What comes after that?
How do I stay on the track?
How do I end?

As with the decisions with the content, a writer’s decision about organization are guided by the audience’s
expectations. Most useful messages – whether in the form of a book, chapter, news article, letter or memo- usually
a common organizing pattern: introduction, body and conclusion.
The introduction previews the discussion and reveals the subject and purpose of the message. Here the
writer makes a commitment to the readers about what will be said. Knowing immediately what to expect, readers
can follow the message more easily.
The body delivers on the promise implied in the introduction, with a full explanation of the main point.
This section has unity in that everything expands on the main point. And it has coherence in that the thought
sequence is one continuous link idea to idea.
The conclusion brings the message to a perceptible end, instead of just stopping. Often, the main point is
re-emphasized.
In just about any message, the shape of an organized unit of meaning is basically the same. This shape is
best illustrated in the form of a standard support paragraph, a type of paragraph that develops a single main point
in enough detail to convey the writer’s exact meaning.
 Examples:
1. Computer literacy soon will be a requirement for virtually all educated people.
2. A video display terminal can endanger the operator’s health.
3. Chemical pesticides and herbicides are both ineffective and hazardous.
Each of these topic sentences only introduces a certain way of seeing subject. Without supporting
explanations, we couldn’t possibly grasp the writer’s exact meaning. Consider, the third sentence:
Chemical pesticides and herbicides are both ineffective and hazardous.
Imagine that you are a researcher for the Epson Electric Light Company and you have been given this
task: determine whether the company should begin spraying pesticides and herbicides under its power lines, as
many other utilities are doing or should continue with its manual ways of minimizing foliage and insect damage
to lines and poles. If you simply responded with the preceding statement, your manager would have a number of
questions:
Why exactly, are chemical pesticides and herbicides ineffective and hazardous?
What are the problems? Can you explain?
By answering these questions while writing your report, you provide the necessary supporting details:
Introduction: Chemical pesticides and herbicides are both ineffective and hazardous.
Body : Because none of these chemicals has permanent effects, pest populations invariably recover and
require respraying. Repeated applications cause pests to develop immunities to the chemicals. Furthermore, most
pesticides and herbicides attach species other than the intended pest, killing off its natural predators; thus, actually
increasing the pest population. Above all, chemical residues survive in the environment for years, often carried
hundreds of miles by wind and water. This toxic legacy includes such biological effects as birth deformities,
reproductive failures, brain damage and cancer. The ultimate victims of these chemicals would be our customers.
Conclusion: Therefore, I recommend we continue our present control methods.
Most paragraphs in tech. writing, follow this introduction- body-conclusion structure. The key is to begin
with a clear topic ( or orienting) sentence that states a generalization. Details in the body support the generalization.
In this connection, well- written sentences are not enough to make your writing clear and understandable.
Sentences must be further organized into meaningful units of thoughts.
Readers look to the first one or two sentences in a paragraph to orient themselves, to align their
perceptions with the writers. When readers know what to expect, they can follow more easily. By introducing
your way of seeing something, the topic sentence gives readers a framework for understanding your message.
Without this orienting framework, readers cannot possibly grasp your exact meaning. Consider, the following
paragraph, those topic sentences have been left out:
Besides containing several toxic metals, it percolates through the soil leaching out naturally present metals.
Pollutants such as mercury invade surface water, accumulating in fish tissues. Any organism eating fish – or
drinking the water – in turn, faces the risk of heavy metal poisoning; moreover, acidified water can release heavy
concentrations of lead, copper and aluminium from metal plumbing, making ordinary tap water hazardous.
After one reading, are you able to provide point for the paragraph?
Could you restate the message accurately in your own words? Probably not, even after a second
reading. Without the orientation of a topic sentence, you have no framework for understanding the information
in terms of its larger meaning. And because you don’t know what to look for, you can’t figure out where to place
the emphasis: on polluted fish, on metal poisoning, on tap water? Without the organizing thread provided by a
topic sentence, you have no way to tell.
Now, after inserting the following sentence at the beginning, reread the paragraph:
Acid rain indirectly threatens human health.
In the light of this organizing point, the exact meaning of the message becomes obvious. The topic
sentence gives us a framework by:
1. Naming the subject of the message(acid rain)
 2. Stating the topic – the writer’s specific viewpoint on the subject (that acid rain threatens human health)
3. Forecasting how the message will be developed (through an explanation of the process) in response to
the reader’s central questions: how exactly does acid rain threaten human health?
A topic sentence is the key to understand the whole paragraph and it ought to appear first in your
paragraph unless you have good reason to decide otherwise.
Before you can write a good topic sentence, you must identify your purpose, based on what you know
of your reader’s needs. Then you can tailor your topic sentence to meet those needs.
Assume, you are writing a report about whales, intended for readers you’d like to recruit as members of
the Save-the-Whales foundation. First, you must decide exactly what point you want to make about whales. And
when that point becomes part of your topic sentence, it must provide enough direction for you to develop a
worthwhile paragraph. Avoid topic sentence which leads nowhere:
Examples:
1. Whales are a species of mammal.
2. Whales live only in salt water.

The point in your topic sentence must be focused enough to be covered in one paragraph. Avoid broad
and abstract topic sentence:
Examples: 1. Whales are interesting animals.
What is meant by interesting? Their breeding habits, migration patterns, the way they exhibit intelligence or
something else?
Whales seem to exhibit some intelligence.
Whales are fairly intelligent.
Whales are highly intelligent.
You decide the final sentence as your point most accurate. Think of ways to make this topic sentence more
informative. Readers will be asking: “Highly intelligent relative to what? So you decide to relate whales to whales’
intelligence to that of other mammals.
Whales are among the world’s most intelligent mammals.
You have a clear direction for developing support in the body section. Let us look at some other directions
your topic sentence might have taken.
A good indication of whales high intelligence is the way they play in game like patterns.
Like children, a group of whales can spend hours playing tag.
● Depending on your purpose and your readers’ needs, you can make any main point more and more
specific by focusing on smaller and smaller parts of it. The paragraph should then deliver what the
topic sentence promises.
In this connection, after sentences, the most basic unit of thought in writing is a paragraph. The indention
of the first sentence of a paragraph tells the reader that a new unit of thought follows:

1. UNDERSTANDING TOPIC SENTENCES AND SUPPORT SENTENCES

A paragraph develops one main idea, which is usually stated in a sentence called the topic sentence. Every
other sentence, every fact, example and detail, should support the topic sentence.

✔ TOPIC SENTENCE
A good topic sentence captures the general idea of the paragraph better than any other sentence.
The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph.
 The topic sentence is usually found at the beginning of a paragraph, where it gives a preview of
and direction to the sentences that come after it, as in the following example. Notice that all of the other
sentences in the paragraph support the main idea with facts.
TOPIC SENTENCE Controlling the entry of the foreign pests is the job of the Department of
Agriculture. Some DA inspectors work around the clock at 100 ports of entry. In a
year’s time, they inspect some sixty-four million pieces of baggage carried by air
travellers from foreign countries. They also meet about 62,000 ships and inspect
roughly five million pieces of seagoing baggage. On the Palawan border, they
check more than forty-five million automobiles annually and about 100,000
railroad cars. They also screen some sixty million pieces of mail and examine about
four million cargo shipments.
Sometimes, however, the topic sentence comes at the end of the paragraph, where it draws a
conclusion or functions as a summary. In the following paragraph, the topic
sentence, which is at the end, states the conclusion of the preceding ideas and adds
a finishing touch.
SUPPORTING SENTENCES Smoke curled from under the eaves and rose from the roof. Flames
shooting from the window arched upward toward the sky. Some of the floors and
interior walls thundered downward, spraying sparks and glowing cinders through
lower doors and windows. The building could not be saved. (Topic Sentence)
Less frequently, a topic sentence comes in the middle of a paragraph, especially when the paragraph
is a part of a longer piece of writing. In such paragraphs the beginning sentences
may function as a transition between paragraphs as well as an introduction to the
topic sentence. In the following example, the first sentence paves the way for the
topic sentence.

INTRODUCTORY SENTENCES
Dancing and chanting to the rhythmic beat of the drums, Polynesian
students give visitors to the Polynesian Culture Center a glimpse of Hawaii’s past.
Through its exhibitions of the Polynesian’s Culture Center shows visitors the many
elements of Hawaiian culture brought to Hawaii by its original inhabitants,(Topic
Sentence),the Polynesians, For example, the Center shows the similarities between
Polynesian and Hawaiian villages with lie-size models. In addition, the Center
dramatizes Hawaiian legends of ancestors journeying across the ocean in large
canoes of hollowed logs. Gardens of banana, sweet potato, taro and breadfruit
plants exhibit the food carried by the ocean travellers to their new home.
(Supporting Sentences).

Whatever its position, the topic sentence will always state the idea that provides the logical connection
among all of the other information in the paragraph.

✔ Writing the Body

The body of your paragraph contains the supporting details that explain and expand on your
central idea and it also support material answers the questions about your topic sentence you can expect
from readers: says who? What proof do you have to support your claim? Can you give examples?
To answer these questions, you brainstorm your topic, listing everything you know about.
After selecting those facts that support the main idea, you arrange them in related categories.
You now have three categories of general evidence, which are further supported by details.
With your topic sentence and supporting details on paper, you are ready to write conclusion.
 ✔ Writing the conclusion

Your concluding statement signals readers that the discussion of the central idea stated in your
topic sentence is ending. It usually ties the paragraph together by summarizing, interpreting or judging the
facts. If the paragraph is part of a longer report, your conclusion can also prepare readers for a subsequent
paragraph.
An introduction-body-conclusion structure should serve most of your paragraph needs in report
writing. Begin each support paragraph with a solid topic sentence and you will on target.

2. UNDERSTANDING UNITY AND COHERENCE

A good paragraph has unity because all of the information supports the topic
sentence. It has coherence because the ideas flow naturally from one to another.

✔ UNITY
In a unified paragraph, all of the sentences stick to the main idea presented in the topic
sentence. A paragraph has unity if all of its sentences relate closely to the topic sentence.
A paragraph is unified when all its parts work toward the same end- when every
word, phrase, and sentence explains, illustrates and clarifies the central idea expressed in the
topic sentence. Paragraph unity is destroyed when you drift away from your stated purpose by
adding irrelevant details.
Example: A Dis-unified Paragraph
Whales are among the most intelligent mammals ever to inhabit the earth.
Scientists studying whales rate their intelligence on a level with higher primates
because of their complex group behaviour. For example, these impressive
mammals have been seen teaching and disciplining their young, helping wounded
fellow whales, engaging in elaborate sexual foreplay and playing in definite game
like patterns. Whales continually need to search for food in order to survive. As
fish populations decrease because of overfishing, the whale’s quest for food
becomes more difficult.

When you write a paragraph, check to make sure that all of the sentences belong. In
the following paragraph, for example, the fourth and the fifth sentences do not fit.

Every student should develop a good speaking voice. (Topic Sentence) A strong,
clear voice indicates that a speaker is confident of his or her knowledge of ideas. A
good speaking voice aids class discussions because more students become involved
if they can hear each other’s comments. Mumbling can indicate shyness or
unwillingness to cooperate. Or a student may speak indistinctively because of the
braces on his teeth. (Unrelated Information) Finally, the speaking so that others can
easily hear suggests that the speaker is interested in the topic and cares enough to
contribute.

✔ COHERENCE
In a coherent paragraph, supporting information is arranged in a logical order and linked
with transitions, repetition of main words and in some paragraphs, with concluding sentence.
A paragraph is coherent when it hangs together and flows smoothly in a clear direction –
when all sentences are logically connected like links in a chain, leading toward a definite conclusion.

Orders for Supporting Information

 When supporting information is presented in a clear, logical order, the reader can sense
where the paragraph is going.
The supporting information in a paragraph should be presented in a logical order.
Five orders are most frequently used to achieve a logical flow of ideas.

ORGANIZATION OF PARAGRAPHS
Order Use
Chronological( Time) Gives a sequence of events; tells what
happened first, second,
third and so on
Spatial ( Space) Arranges details from nearest to farthest, top
to bottom, left to right,
and so on
Order of Importance Ranks information from least important to
most important or vice
versa
Comparison and Contrast Presents similarities and differences between
items
Developmental Arranges information from one point in the
topic sentence to
another.

When a topic sentence calls for the description of an action, the recounting of an incident, or the
explanation of a process, the most effective order is usually chronological order. With chronological order, you
would present supporting information in a time sequence, usually from first to last.
● One way to damage paragraph coherence is to use too many short, choppy sentences. Two other ways
to damage coherence are: to place sentences in the wrong order and to use insufficient transitions and
other connectors to link related ideas.

Paragraphs developed logically

Once you have identified your reader and purpose, and gathered your supporting details, you will
have to arrange these details in a way that makes the most sense. Following a logical sequence within
a paragraph simply means that you decide on which idea to discuss first, which is the second, and so
on. The sequence you select for any paragraph will depend on your subject, purpose, and reader’s
needs. Some possibilities are as follows:

Spatial sequence
A spatial order of development begins at one location and ends at another. This order is most
useful in a paragraph that describes a physical or geographical item or a mechanism. Simply describe
the parts in the order in which readers would actually view the: left or right, inside to outside, etc. the
writer has chosen spatial order that proceeds from the needle’s base (hub) to its point:

Chronological sequence
A paragraph describing a series of events or giving instructions is most effective when its details
are arranged according to a strict time sequence: first step, second step etc.

Example sequence
Often a topic sentence can best be supported by specific examples, usually arranged for greater
emphasis.
 Effect –to - Cause Sequence
A paragraph that first identifies a problem and then discusses its causes is typically found in
problem- solving reports.

Cause- to – Effect Sequence

In a cause-to-effect sequence, the topic sentence identifies the cause( s ) and the reminder of the
paragraph discusses its effects.

Definition Sequence
For adequate definition, a term may require a full paragraph.

Reasons Sequence
A paragraph that provides detailed reasons to support a specific viewpoint or recommendation is
often used in job-related writing. For emphasis, the reasons usually are arranged in decreasing or
increasing order of importance.

Comparison / Contrast Sequence

A paragraph discussing the similarities or differences (or both) between two or more items often
used in job-related writing.

3. UNDERSTANDING EMPHASIS
Emphasis is the principle of the paragraph composition in which the important ideas are made to
stand.
● it is very important that the main points of the writer should be evident inside the paragraph.
● the idea should be made to stand from the rest of the elements inside the paragraph.
● in establishing emphasis, the main idea of what the author or the writer wants to say should show
to have more importance.

WRITING AN ESSAY
An essay is composed of a group of related paragraphs that works together to present one main point.
Once you understand the basic structure of an essay, you can adapt the form to fit to different topics and
assignments.

The Parts of an Essay

An essay has three parts: (1) an introduction, which presents the main point of the essay; (2) a body, which
consists of two or more paragraphs that support or explain the essay’s main point and (3) a conclusion, which
summarizes the main point and brings the essay to a close.

The Introduction
The introduction is a vital part of an essay. It indicates the purpose of an essay, telling whether the essay
will be expository or persuasive. The most significant function of an introduction, however, is to present the thesis
statement.
The introduction indicates the essay’s purpose and presents the main point in a thesis statement.
Most introduction begins generally, with background information or an incident and then lead into thesis
statement.
Example:
Introduction
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, whalers put to sea for two to three years a time. Armed only
with harpoons, lances and daring, they brought back needed whale oil, bone and ivory. In the twentieth century,
however, high speed boats, explosive harpoons and gigantic floating factories have mechanized the killing process.
Whale are being killed in great numbers even though synthetic materials can be used in place of whale products.
The International Whaling Commission (IWC) has recently outlawed factory ships, but whales remain in danger
of extinction. (Thesis Statement) Whale will survive only if the IWC declares a worldwide moratorium on hunting
whales and if pirate whalers are stopped.

The Body
Each paragraph in the body should support the thesis statement with examples, details, facts, reasons or
incidents. The supporting information should be organized by means of subtopics.
The body of an essay develops the thesis statement, treating one subtopic at a time.
The following chart lists common orders for arranging subtopics and suggests sample essay topics that might best
developed using each other.
ORDERS OF SUBTOPIC IN THE BODY OF AN ESSAY
Orders Sample Topics
Chronological (Subtopics arranged in a time How to clean a topical fish tank
sequence)
Spatial (Subtopics arranged by location or Some places to visit in Maine
position)
The structure of a hydroelectric power plant
Order of Importance(Subtopics arranged The need to tighten security on large university
from least important to most important or campuses
vice versa)
Reasons for establishing a work/study program at
school
Developmental( subtopics of equal emphasis Some of the benefits of a lower speed limit
arranged logically)
Three of the best rivers in the country for canoeing

The Conclusion
The conclusion is usually a short, separate at the end of the essay. It generally begins with a reminder of
the thesis statement. The conclusion should leave the reader feeling that the topic has been covered thoroughly.
In many cases, you may want to make the last sentence of the conclusion a clincher- a forceful sentence that
drives home the main point.
The conclusion refers back to the thesis statement and brings the essay to close.
The following conclusion demonstrates these functions.
(Reminder of thesis statement) Only by ending all hunting of whales be preserved. If the killing of whales
continues unchecked, the noble animals described in (clincher) Melville’s Moby Dick will soon become as
legendary as Moby Dick himself.