Table 1 Common cations and anions:
Positive ions (Cations) Negative ions (Anions)
Charge Name Formula Charge Name Formula
Hydrogen ion H+ Hydroxide ion OH-
Lithium ion Li+ Fluoride ion F-
Sodium ion Na+ Chloride ion Cl-
Potassium ion K+ Bromide ion Br-
+1
Silver ion Ag+ Iodide ion I-
Hydride ion H-
-1 Cyanide ion CN-
Ammonium ion NH4+
Nitrate ion NO3-
Magnesium ion Mg2+ Nitrite ion NO2-
Calcium ion Ca2+ Hydrogencarbonate ion HCO3-
Lead (II) ion Pb2+ Hydrogensulphate ion HSO4-
Copper (II) ion Cu2+ Permanganate ion MnO4-
+2 Zinc ion Zn2+ Oxide ion O2-
Iron (II) ion Fe2+ Sulphide ion S2-
Mercury (II) ion Hg2+ Sulphite ion SO32-
Manganese (II) ion Mn2+ -2 Sulphate ion SO42-
Cobalt (II) ion Co2+ Chromate ion CrO42-
Nickel (II) ion Ni2+ Dichromate ion Cr2O72-
Carbonate ion CO32-
Aluminum ion Al3+
+3 Nitride ion N3-
Iron (III) ion Fe3+ -3 Phosphide ion P3-
Chromium (III) ion Cr3+ Phosphate ion PO43-
-ide = simple anion; -ite = polyatomic anion with less O atoms -ate = polyatomic anion with more O atoms
Table 2 Colour of ions in aqueous solutions:
Ion Color Ion Color Table 3 Flame colors of some common metal ions:
Copper (II) Cobalt (II)
Blue Pink Metal ion Flame color
Cu2+ Co2+
Nickel (II) Chromate Sodium Golden yellow flame
Green Yellow
Ni2+ CrO42- Potassium Lilac flame
Chromium (III) Dichromate
Green Orange Calcium Brick-red
Cr3+ Cr2O72-
Iron (III) Permanganate Copper (II) Bluish-green
Yellow Purple
Fe3+ MnO4-
Pale pink
Iron (II) Manganese (II)
Green /
Fe2+
Mn 2+
colorless
Table 5 Solubility in water, colour and smell of gases
Table 4 Solubility of ionic compounds in water Solubility
Gas Color Smell
Compound of… Solubility in water in water
Potassium K+ All are soluble Ammonia NH3 Soluble Colorless Pungent smell
Sulphur dioxide
Sodium Na +
All are soluble Soluble Colorless Pungent smell
SO2
Ammonium NH4 +
All are soluble Nitrogen dioxide
Soluble Brown Pungent smell
Nitrate NO3- All are soluble NO2
Hydrogencarbonate Pungent smell /
All are soluble Greenish
HCO3- Chlorine Cl2 Soluble swimming pool
yellow
All are soluble smell
Halide X- Hydrogen
except AgX and PbX2
All are soluble chloride Soluble Colorless Acidic smell
Sulphate SO42- except CaSO4, PbSO4 and HCl
BaSO4 Hydrogen
Soluble Colorless Bad egg smell
All are insoluble sulphide H2S
Carbonate CO32- except Na2CO3, K2CO3 and Slightly
Oxygen O2 Colorless Odorless
(NH4)2CO3 soluble
All are insoluble Carbon dioxide Slightly
Colorless Odorless
except K2O, Na2O, KOH CO2 soluble
Oxide O2-and Hydrogen H2 Insoluble Colorless Odorless
and NaOH.
hydroxide OH -
CaO and Ca(OH)2 are Nitrogen N2 Insoluble Colorless Odorless
slightly soluble in water Carbon
Insoluble Colorless Odorless
monoxide CO
Table 6 Test for gases:
Positive result
Gas How to test
Chemical equation (if any)
Give a ‘pop’ sound
Hydrogen H2 Burning splint
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
Oxygen O2 Glowing splint Glowing splint relights
Blue litmus paper turns red and then white
Chlorine Cl2 Wet blue litmus paper Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
OCl-(aq) + dye (dye+O) + Cl-(aq)
Carbon monoxide CO Citrated blood Blood turns from dark red to cherry red
Limewater turns from colorless to milky
Carbon dioxide CO2 Lime water
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride paper Paper turns from blue to pink
Water vapor H2O Anhydrous copper(II) sulphate
Powder turns from white to blue
powder
Red litmus paper turns blue
Wet red litmus paper
NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ammonia NH3
Place near concentrated hydrochloric A dense white fume, NH4Cl(s) is formed
acid NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl
Dichromate solution turns from orange to green
(bubble into) Acidified potassium
3SO2(g) + Cr2O72-(aq) + 2H+(aq)
dichromate solution
3SO42-(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + H2O(l)
Permangate solution turns from purple to colorless
(bubble into) Acidified potassium
Sulphur dioxide SO2 5SO2(g) + 2MnO4-(aq) + 2H2O(l)
permanganate solution
5SO42-(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 4H+(aq)
Bromine water turns from yellowish brown to colorless
(bubble into) Bromine water SO2(g) + Br2(g) + 2H2O(l)
SO42-(aq) + 2Br-(aq) + 4H+(aq)
Table 7 Test for cations:
Observation
Cation How to test
Chemical equation and remarks
Potassium ion K+
No observable change
Sodium ion Na+
+ NaOH(aq): White precipitate is formed
Calcium ion Ca2+
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Ca(OH)2(s)
White precipitate is formed
Magnesium ion Mg2+
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Mg(OH)2(s)
White precipitate is formed
Al3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Al(OH)3(s)
Aluminum ion Al 3+
White precipitate re-dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide solution
to give a colorless solution
White precipitate is formed
Pb2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Pb(OH)2(s)
Lead(II) ion Pb 2+
Add sodium White precipitate re-dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide solution
hydroxide or to give a colorless solution
ammonia solution
White precipitate is formed
Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s)
Zinc ion Zn 2+
White precipitate re-dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide /
ammonia solution to give a colorless solution
Blue precipitate is formed
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Cu(OH)2(s)
Copper (II) ion Cu 2+
Blue precipitate re-dissolves in excess ammonia solution to give a
deep blue solution
Dirty-green precipitate is formed
Iron (II) ion Fe2+
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
Brown precipitate is formed
Iron (III) ion Fe3+
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Fe(OH)3(s)
Re-dissolve in excess NaOH(aq): Al(OH)3(s), Pb(OH)2(s) and Zn(OH)2(s) ‘又叻又醒就攞A’
Re-dissolve in excess NH3(aq): Zn(OH)2(s), Cu(OH)2(s) and Ag2O(s) ‘少少醒就攞C’
Warm with
A pungent gas which turns wet red litmus paper blue is produced
Ammonium ion NH4+ sodium hydroxide
solution NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l)
Table 8 Test for anions:
Observation
Anions How to test
Chemical equation and remarks
Chloride ion Cl- *Acidified silver nitrate White precipitate is formed Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)
solution
Bromide ion Br- *To prevent the Pale yellow precipitate is formed Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq) AgBr(s)
formation of other
insoluble solids like
Iodide ion I- Ag2CO3 Yellow precipitate is formed Ag+(aq) + I-(aq) AgI(s)
Gas bubbles produced which turns limewater milky
Carbonate ion CO32-
Dilute acid XCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) X2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Hydrogencarbonate ion HCO32-
HCO3-(aq) + H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
A greenish yellow gas is produced which will t
Add dilute acid and
urn wet pH paper to red and then white
test the gas
Hypochlorite ion OCl- OCl-(aq) + Cl-(aq) + 2H+(aq) Cl2(g) + H2O(l)
produced by a wet
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
pH paper
OCl-(aq) + dye (dye+O) + Cl-(aq)
Dichromate solution turns from orange to green
Acidified potassium
3SO32-(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) + 8H+(aq)
dichromate solution
3SO42-(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
Acidified potassium Permangate solution turns from purple to colorless
permanganate 5SO32-(aq) + 2MnO4-(aq) + 6H+(aq)
solution 5SO42-(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Sulphite ion SO32- Bromine water turns from yellowish brown to colorless
Bromine water SO32-(aq) + Br2(aq) + H2O(l)
SO42-(aq) + 2Br-(aq) + 2H+(aq)
Add dilute acid and
then test the gas A pungent gas produced which turns dichromate solution from
produced by acidified orange to green
potassium SO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) SO2(g) + H2O(l)
dichromate solution
Table 9 Structures, particles and bonding
Table 10(a) Metal reactivity series / methods of metal extraction from its ores / reaction with O2, H2O and dilute acids
Methods of Reaction with dilute acids
MRS Reaction with oxygen Reaction with water or steam
extraction (HCl and H2SO4)
Melts to a silvery ball
Moves rapidly on the water
Burns violently with a lilac surface
K flame Burns with a lilac flame
4K(s) + O2(g) 2K2O(s) Colourless solution is formed
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) Explosive reaction.
2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
Similar to K, but burns with a
Burns violently with a
golden yellow flame
Na golden yellow flame
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l)
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Sink in acid
Dissolves to give a colorless
Gas bubbles produced. Milky solution
Burns with a brick-red solution is formed. Gas bubbles are evolved
Ca Electrolysis flame Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq)
of its molten 2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s) Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
ores Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
*Ca(s) + H2SO4(aq)
no apparent reaction
Reacts similarly as calcium with
less vigor
Glows in steam
Burns with a bright white Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)
White powder is formed
Mg flame MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2O(g)
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
MgO(s) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq)
MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Reacts similarly as Mg with less
vigor
React similarly as Mg with less
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq)
White powder is formed vigor
Al 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) 2Al2O3(s) 2Al(s) + 3H2O(g)
Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g)
2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq)
Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g)
React similarly as Al with less
Reacts similarly as Al with less
vigor
vigor
Powder (yellow when hot, Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)
Powder (yellow when hot, white
Zn white when cold) is formed. ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
when cold) is formed
2Zn(s) + O2(g) 2ZnO(s)
Zn(s) + H2O(g)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq)
ZnO(s) + H2(g)
ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Heating with React similarly as Zn with less
C Iron powder burns with vigor
Reacts similarly as Zn with less
(other sparks A green solution is formed
vigor
possible Black solid is formed Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq)
Fe Black powder is formed
reducing 3Fe(s) + 2O2(g) Fe3O4 FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g)
agent: H2(g), (a mixture of FeO and
Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
CO(g) and Fe2O3) Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq)
towngas) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
*Pb(s) + HCl(aq)
Powder (orange when hot,
no apparent reaction
yellow when cold) is
Pb
formed
*Pb(s) + H2SO4(aq)
2Pb(s) + O2(g) 2PbO(s)
no apparent reaction
Black powder is formed
Cu No reaction
2Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s)
Red powder is formed
Hg Heating 2Hg(l) + O2(g) 2HgO(s) No reaction
alone
Ag
Exists as free No reaction
Au
element
* Due to insoluble layer (CaSO4(s), PbCl2(s) and PbSO4(s)) is formed between metal and acid, which prevents
further reaction.
Table 10(b) Colors of metal oxides
Table 11 Metal reactivity series (M.R.S.) & Table 12 Reaction between metal and acids:
Electrochemical series (E.C.S)
E.C.S.
M.R.S. Very dilute Dilute Concentrated
Cations Anions
K K+ OH- > Cu > Cu > Cu
Na Ca2+ I- HCl(aq)
Ca Na + Br- H2(g) H2(g) H2(g)
Mg Mg 2+ Cl-
> Cu > Cu ≥ Cu
Al Al3+ NO3- H2SO4(aq)
Zn Zn2+ SO42- H2(g) H2(g) SO2(g)
Fe Fe2+
Pb Pb2+ > Cu ≥ Cu ≥ Cu
HNO3(aq)
Cu H+ H2(g) NO(g) NO2(g)
Hg Cu2+
Ag Hg2+
Au Ag+
Table 13 Test for carbon compounds:
Observation
Functional group How to test
Chemical equation and remarks
Bromine will be decolorized from red-orange to colorless
rapidly.
Add bromine in organic
solvent in the dark
Alkene C=C
Permanganate turns from purple to colorless
Add acidified potassium
permanganate solution
Dichromate turns from orange to green
For 1o and 2o alkanol only: 1o alkanol:
Warm with acidified
potassium dichromate
Alkanol -OH solution
2o alkanol: 3o alkanol: no
reaction
Fruity smell produced
Warm with alkanoic acid and
a few drops of conc. H2SO4
Orange precipitate (2,4-dintrophenylhydrazone) is formed.
Carbonyl compound
2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine
(aldehyde and ketone)
Tollen’s reagent Silver mirror is formed on the surface of test tube
Aldehyde (Silver nitrate solution in CH3CHO + 2[Ag(NH3)2]+ + 3OH-
excess ammonia solution) CH3COO- + 2Ag + 4NH3 + 2H2O
Carbonate solution / Gas bubbles produced which turns limewater milky.
hydrogencarbonate solution 2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3COO-Na+ + H2O + CO2
Alkanoic acid –COOH
Warm with alkanol and a few
Fruity smell produced
drops of conc. H2SO4
Gaseous amines: smell of ammonia
Amine Smell
Liquid amines: fishy smell
Fruity smell
Ester Smell
Table 14 Reagents and conditions for organic reactions
Oxidation
Condition for obtaining carboxylic acid
Heat under reflux
Condition for obtaining aldehyde
Heat gently and distill off
Oxidation
3o alcohol and ketone is resistant to oxidation by Cr2O72-/H+
Dehydration
Conc. sulphuric acid as dehydrating agent.
Al2O3(s) as a solid catalyst
Addition (also an oxidation)
X2: Cl2, Br2, I2
Pure bromine is volatile and toxic.
Addition
富者愈富
Addition (also a reduction)
Suitable catalysts: platinum (Pt), nickel (Ni) or palladium
(Pd)
Addition (also an oxidation)
Brown solid MnO2(s) will be formed.
Substitution
Slow reaction.
A mixture of haloalkanes and hydrogen halides is formed.
Substitution
Equation (2020 DSE)
R-X + NaOH R-OH + NaX
Two immiscible layers are formed.
(Upper oily layer: haloalkane,
Lower aqueous layer: unreacted alcohol and acids)
Substitution
Equation:
R-OH + HX ROH +H2O
or
3R-OH + PX3 3ROH + H3PO3
NaBH4 is a weaker reducing agent than LiAlH4.
Reduction
It cannot reduce carboxylic acid but LiAlH4 can.
Esterification Conc H2SO4 as catalyst. Also, it can remove water produced,
thus shifting the EQM position to right to increase the yield of
ester.
Amide formation
Hydrolysis
Ester hydrolysis
Acidic hydrolysis is reversible. Yield of product is lower.
Alkaline hydrolysis will form -COO-(aq), acid has to be added
to regenerate the -COOH group.
Unsubstituted amide hydrolysis
Alkaline hydrolysis + Regenerate carboxyl group
Acidic hydrolysis
N-substituted amide hydrolysis Alkaline hydrolysis of N-substituted amide
Acidic hydrolysis of N-substituted amide
Table 15 Inter-conversion between different functional groups
Table 16 acid-base properties of the oxides of elements from Na to Cl
Table 17 Fossil fuels fractions Table 18 Strength and basicity of acid
Table 19 Le Chatelier’s principle
Table 20 Common oxidizing agents and reducing agents Table 21 Roles of Conc. H2SO4(l)
Conc. H2SO4(l) as dehydrating agent
Add into glucose (C6H12O6)
Conc. H2SO4(l)
Observation:
Glucose turns black and white fumes form
Conc. H2SO4(l) as oxidising agent
React with Cu(s)
Observation: Cu dissolves. / Solution turns
blue. / Colorless gas produced.
Conc. H2SO4(l) as an acid
React with sodium carbonate
Observation:
Colorless gas produced.
