Detecting high overpressure

GLENN L. BOWERS, Applied Mechanics Technologies, Houston, Texas, U.S.

N ormal pressure is pore fluid pressure that equals the

hydrostatic pressure of a column of formation water
extending to the surface. Overpressure is pore fluid pressure
greater than normal pressure. However, no standard defin-
ition exists for what constitutes high overpressure. What
can be said is that high overpressure often means trouble.
For an explorationist, it could mean blown reservoir seals;
for a driller, it could mean excessive time spent fighting for-
mation fluid influxes and/or drilling fluid losses.
A practical upper limit for pore pressure is the overbur-
den stress. Pore pressures in this range are on the verge of
opening fractures that can vent fluid and bleed off pressure
like a pressure relief valve. Therefore, criteria for defining
high overpressure are sometimes expressed in terms of a per-
centage of the overburden stress, say, pore pressure greater
than 90% of the overburden stress. In this article, high over-
pressure will be defined simply as pore pressure that Figure 1. Laboratory example of the effective stress
approaches the overburden stress. principle (from Tosaya, 1982).
All but one potential cause of overpressure can produce
high pressure. Fortunately, the mechanism that cannot gen-
erate high pressure is the most common cause of overpres-
sure. Therefore, detecting high overpressure basically boils
down to determining where extraordinary overpressure
mechanisms may be encountered.
Overpressure detection is based on the premise that pore
pressure affects compaction-dependent geophysical prop-
erties such as density, resistivity, and sonic velocity. Shales
are the preferred lithology for pore pressure interpretation
because they are more responsive to overpressure than most
rock types. Consequently, overpressure detection centers
around shale deformation behavior.

Shale deformation behavior. For stress ranges of practical Figure 2. Shale compaction/rebound behavior.
interest, shale compaction is controlled by the difference
between total applied stress and pore fluid pressure. This
difference, termed the effective stress, represents the portion
of the total stress carried by the rock grains. Figure 1 illus-
trates the effective stress concept with laboratory data for
Cotton Valley shale (Tosaya, 1982). In tectonically relaxed
environments, compaction can be related to the vertical effec-
tive stress. The nature of this relationship depends on a for-
mation’s stress history; specifically, on whether the vertical
effective stress has ever been higher than it currently is.
Nondecreasing effective stress states. Clayey sediments
deposited on the seafloor can have porosities in excess of
80% and sonic velocities near the speed of sound in water.
Under increasing effective stress, the sediments compact, and
their density, resistivity, and sonic velocity asymptotically
approach limits set by the properties of the sediment grains. Figure 3. Pore structure models used to characterize
The effective stress relation followed by a compaction-depen- shale behavior. Pores with aspect ratios in the 0.001-0.1
dent geophysical property for nondecreasing effective stress range undergo most rebound. Higher aspect ratio
states is referred to as its virgin curve. pores are too rigid. Crack-like pores are too flexible
Effective stress reductions. Compaction is predominately (Bowers, 2001).
an inelastic process. Therefore, only a small amount of elas-
tic rebound occurs when the effective stress acting on a for- the original virgin curves.
mation is reduced (unloading). Instead of following the virgin Bulk properties versus transport properties. Sonic velocity and
curve, rebound occurs along a flatter effective stress path. resistivity generally undergo more elastic rebound than bulk
During reloading, the rebound curve is retraced until the past density and porosity (Bowers and Katsube, 2002). This is the
maximum effective stress is reached, and inelastic defor- case with the Cotton Valley shale data in Figure 2. The com-
mation resumes. Figure 2 compares laboratory reloading mon threads are that porosity and density are bulk proper-
data for Cotton Valley shale (Tosaya, 1982) with estimates of ties, while sonic velocity and resistivity are transport properties.

174 THE LEADING EDGE FEBRUARY 2002


Figure 4. Response of vertical effective stress to differ-
ent overpressure mechanisms.
Figure 5. Overpressure caused by lateral transfer.
Isolated sands A and B follow the shale far-field pore
pressure curve (thick red line). Dipping sand C-D
transfers deep shale pressures updip.
Bulk properties only depend on net pore volume, while
transport properties are sensitive to pore sizes, shapes, and
how pores are interconnected.
Bowers and Katsube propose that a rock’s pore space con-
sists of a combination of relatively large, high aspect ratio
storage pores linked together by a network of lower aspect
ratio connecting pores, with transport properties controlled by
the connecting pores (Figure 3). Storage pores undergo pri-
marily inelastic volume losses, while the more flexible con-
necting pores are capable of elastic rebound. Consequently,
effective stress reductions cause connecting pores to elasti-
cally widen without significantly changing storage pore
sizes.
As connecting pores widen, they increase flow path sizes
available for conducting electrical current, and decrease the
number of intergranular contacts for transmitting sound.
The net effect apparently has a much larger impact on trans-
port properties than bulk properties—suggesting that an
indicator of in-situ rebound (unloading) is a depth interval
in which sonic velocity and resistivity data appear anom-
alously low in comparison to bulk density measurements.
Overpressure causes. The causes of overpressure can be
divided into four general categories: undercompaction, fluid
expansion, lateral transfer, and tectonic loading.
Undercompaction cannot produce high overpressure.
The other three mechanisms can. The conditions that pro-
duce normal pressure and the four types of overpressure are
Figure 6. Wireline overpressure indicators. Shale resis-
tivity, sonic velocity, and density data fall below their
normal trends. Resistivity changes not related to pore
pressure can be caused by variations in pore water
temperature and salinity.
Figure 7. Detecting reversals without high overpressure.
Vertical projections of temperature-corrected resistivity,
sonic velocity, and density from a point inside the rever-
sal intersect the logs at a common point above the rever-
sal.
described below.
Normal pressure. Normally pressured formations are able
to maintain hydraulic communication with the surface dur-
ing burial. Consequently, their pore fluid can easily be
squeezed out to accommodate compaction, and their pore
pressure follows the hydrostatic pressure curve for forma-
tion water. The upper portion of Figure 4 characterizes nor-
mal pressure conditions. Effective stresses in normally
pressured environments continually increase with depth.
Undercompaction. Overpressure most commonly occurs
when low permeability prevents pore fluid from escaping
as rapidly as pore space tries to compact. Excess pressure
builds as the weight of newly deposited sediments squeezes
the trapped fluid, a process referred to as undercompaction or
compaction disequilibrium (Figure 4). Undercompaction typi-
cally occurs where there is a transition from a sand-prone to
a shale-prone environment.
For an impermeable seal and an incompressible pore
fluid, pore pressure would increase at the same rate as the
overburden stress once sealing occurred. Less perfect seals
and more compressible pore fluids would reduce overpres-
sure. The key point is that undercompaction can never drive
pore pressure toward the overburden stress curve. This also
means that undercompaction cannot cause effective stress
reductions.
Fluid expansion. Overpressure can be generated within
the pore space by fluid expansion mechanisms such as heating,
hydrocarbon maturation, and the expulsion/expansion of
intergranular water during clay diagenesis (Bowers, 1995).
Here, overpressure results from the rock matrix constrain-
ing the pore fluid as the fluid tries to increase in volume.
Load transfer from smectite grains to pore water during illi-
tization is another potential way clay diagenesis can cause
FEBRUARY 2002 THE LEADING EDGE 175
 overpressure (Lahann, 2002).
In very low permeability shales, fluid
expansion can produce high overpressure
(Gordon and Flemings, 1998), particularly
when acting in tandem with undercom-
paction (Figure 4). Unlike undercom-
paction, fluid expansion can cause the
effective stress to decrease (unloading) as
burial continues. Most people associate
unloading with overburden losses caused
by erosion. Fluid expansion reduces the
load carried by a rock’s grains in the same
way that pumping fluid into a hydraulic
jack reduces the load carried by a car’s
springs.
Lateral transfer. Fluid expansion-like Figure 8. High-pressure well example. Sonic and resistivity logs undergo
overpressure can also result from a sealed reversals not seen by the density log. Pore pressures are underestimated
interval having pore fluid pumped into it when undercompaction is assumed the cause of overpressure (Equivalent
from another, higher-pressure zone. Depth Solution). Curve R are raw resistivity data; curve R200 are resistivity
Sometimes this can be caused by charging data corrected to a common temperature of 200°F (93°C).
along faults. It can also occur along a dip-
ping sand enclosed in shale. As illustrated
in Figure 5, the sand transmits pore fluid
and pore pressure from deeper shales
updip, a process known as lateral transfer
(Yardley and Swarbick, 2000). Lateral
transfer can generate crestal pore pres-
sures high enough to fracture overlying
shale seals, especially when there are long
gas column.
Tectonic loading. Trapped pore fluid
squeezed by tectonically driven lateral
stresses induces overpressure in the same
way that undercompaction does.
However, unlike undercompaction, tec-
tonic loading is capable of generating high
overpressure (Yassir and Addis, 2002). This
Figure 9. Detecting reversals with high overpressure. Vertical projections
also means that tectonic loading can cause
of temperature-corrected resistivity, sonic velocity, and density from a
vertical effective stress to decrease, but in
point inside the reversal do not intersect the logs at a common point
tectonic environments, compaction is no
above the reversal; the density log is crossed at a deeper depth.
longer controlled by vertical effective stress
alone. stant after they depart from their normal trends (Figure 6).
Undercompaction can also be the source of overpressure
Detecting pressure conditions. During burial under normal when density, resistivity, and sonic velocity logs go through
pressure conditions, the effective stress continually increases reversals, meaning, they all drop below values at some shal-
with depth. Density, resistivity, and sonic velocity proceed lower depth (Figure 7). It is tempting to use the depth trend
up their respective effective stress virgin curves. Because each followed by a wireline log as an indicator of the burial his-
effective stress can be mapped to a particular depth, density, tory followed by each point along the log. If this were true,
resistivity, and sonic velocity data can be replotted versus then the only way a reversal could occur is through elastic
depth. The depth profile that a compaction-dependent geo- rebound. And that would mean undercompaction could not
physical property would follow during burial under normal be the only source of overpressure.
pressure conditions is termed its normal trend. However, it is also possible that point C in Figure 7 sim-
Overpressure prevents the effective stress from increas- ply stopped compacting once it became sealed at point A.
ing as rapidly as it would during burial under normal pres- In general, if undercompaction is the source of overpressure,
sure conditions. Consequently, the onset of overpressure any two depths with identical compaction-dependent prop-
(“top of overpressure”) generally occurs where a compaction- erties and similar lithologies should have identical vertical
dependent geophysical property first departs from its nor- effective stresses (the Equivalent Depth Method for pore
mal trend (Figure 6). In the deepwater Gulf of Mexico, pressure estimation is based on this concept). Therefore, each
overpressure can start within a few hundred feet of the point within a reversal should have at least one corre-
seafloor. sponding point above the reversal with the same density, tem-
Undercompaction cannot cause elastic rebound; it sim- perature-corrected resistivity (Traugott, 1997), and sonic
ply slows the rate at which compaction proceeds along the velocity values.
virgin curve. Therefore, the compaction state of a formation This defines a simple way to determine whether under-
overpressured by undercompaction can never be less than compaction is the cause of overpressure when density, resis-
it was at some earlier point in time. On depth plots, classic tivity, and sonic velocity go through reversals. Pick a point
signs of undercompaction are density, resistivity, and sonic at the same depth in each reversal, and project each point
velocity data that (1) continue increasing or (2) remain con- vertically until it crosses its log above the reversal. If all three

176 THE LEADING EDGE FEBRUARY 2002

logs are crossed at similar depths, overpressure was caused Suggested reading. “Pore-pressure estimation from velocity
by undercompaction. data; accounting for overpressure mechanisms besides under-
When fluid expansion causes high overpressure, it causes compaction” by Bowers (SPE Drilling and Completions, 1995).
unloading, and therefore elastic rebound. So, the search for “Pore/fracture pressure determinations in deep water” by
high overpressure is basically a search for rebound. One Traugott (Deepwater Technology, supplement to World Oil, 1997).
indicator of elastic rebound is a reversal, but not all rever- “Generation of overpressure and compaction-driven fluid flow
sals are caused by rebound. Therefore, we incorporate the in a Plio-Pleistocene growth-faulted basin, Eugene Island 330,
observation that bulk properties undergo less rebound than Offshore Louisiana” by Gordon and Flemings (Basin Research,
transport properties. This means that sonic velocity and 1998). All 2002 references in this article can be found in: Pressure
Regimes in Sedimentary Basins and Their Prediction, edited by
resistivity data in highly overpressure intervals should
Huffman and Bowers, AAPG Memoir 76, 2002. “Lateral trans-
undergo larger reversals than bulk density measurements. fer: a source of additional overpressure?” by Yardley and
Figure 8 shows an example of a high pressure well. The Swarbick (Marine and Petroleum Geology, 2000). Acoustical
fourth track compares pore pressure measurements (RFTs) Properties of Clay Bearing Rocks by Tosaya (PhD dissertation,
and mud weights used to drill the well with pore pressures Stanford University, 1982). “Abnormally high fluid pressures
computed from the sonic velocities using the Equivalent and associated porosities and stress regimes in sedimentary
Depth Method. The sonic velocity and resistivity logs basins” by Yassir and Bell (SPE Formation Evaluation, 1996).
undergo reversals not seen by the density log, and Equivalent “Determining an appropriate pore-pressure estimation strategy”
Depth Method underestimates pore pressure. by Bowers (OTC 13042, 2001 Offshore Technology Conference).
In cases in which density, resistivity, and sonic velocity LE
all go through reversals, the approach used to identify under-
compaction can also be used to detect high overpressure. Pick Corresponding author: glbowers@worldnet.att.net
a point at the same depth in each reversal, and project each
point vertically until it crosses its log above the reversal. If
the density log is crossed at a deeper depth than the sonic
and resistivity logs, that is an indicator of high overpressure
(Figure 9).
Because shales are not 100% impermeable, lateral trans-
fer should have a detectable effect on shales in the vicinity
of the sand. However, it is not unusual for shale geophysi-
cal data to show no evidence of lateral transfer. Why this
happens remains an open question. The bottom line is that
it does. Therefore, seismic evidence of sands with significant
vertical structure should raise two red flags: (1) pore pres-
sures near the crest of the sand may be high and (2) shale-
derived pore pressures may not reflect sand pressures.
Because tectonic loading creates overpressure by squeez-
ing the rock, it will not make the rock less compacted. In fact,
it could make the rock more compacted. Consequently, tec-
tonically induced overpressure generally cannot be detected
from either bulk density or porosity measurements (Yassir
and Addis, 2002). The response of resistivity and sonic veloc-
ity is less clear. These properties can be direction-sensitive,
so it seems possible they could detect a drop in the vertical
effective stress. However, it appears (Hottman et al., 1979;
Yassir and Bell, 1996; Hennig et al., 2002) that this typically
is not the case.
These masking effects are further exacerbated when tec-
tonic loading pushes formations closer to the surface. Most
accumulated compaction remains locked in, so uplifted over-
pressured formations may be more compacted than nor-
mally pressured rocks. Overall, geophysical measurements
tend not to be reliable indicators of tectonically induced
overpressure.

Summary. High overpressure affects shale in a fundamen-

tally different way than undercompaction, because it can
cause elastic rebound. Therefore, rebound is an indicator of
high overpressure. The geophysical signature of rebound is
a depth interval in which shale sonic velocity and resistiv-
ity data undergo larger reversals than bulk density mea-
surements.
High pressure may not be detectable when overpressure
results from lateral transfer, and generally will not be
detectable with tectonically induced overpressure. However,
seismic evidence of either sands with extensive vertical struc-
ture or significant tectonic activity should itself heighten
awareness of the potential for high overpressure.

FEBRUARY 2002 THE LEADING EDGE 177