1.

Utilization of wave energy has various significant advantages, such as a low level of negative environmental
impact [2,3], high energy density [4] and continuous power supply during the whole day [5], in comparison
with other forms of renewable energy. According to the present situation, however, the cost of utilization
of wave energy is much higher than that of large-scale traditional power generation stations [6] due to their
low efficiency. Multifunctional structures embedded with wave energy converters (WECs) may be a
promising alternative to make WECs more competitive [7].

In this paper, a novel integrated wave energy farm model is proposed and its dynamic characteristics are
examined. The wave energy harvesting system consists of an array of buoyance columns connected with a
flexible platform which is not only a wave energy harvesting system, but also a vast floating platform for
various purpose services. The platform, modeled as a classical plate, is coupled with multiple buoyance
columns through linear connectors. A linear hydraulic PTO mechanism with linear damping coefficient is
installed between each column and the platform to extract wave energy.

In this study, a compounded wave energy farm consisting of an array of buoyance columns coupled with a
flexible platform is proposed which can be a viable option for cost-sharing between a wave energy capture
and ocean space utilization structures. For each buoyance column only the heave motion is considered and
the platform is modeled as an isotropic plate

The results show that the energy harvesting system can reach better performance for energy absorption at
wave angle Θ = π/2 due to the anti-phase motions between the buoyance columns and the platform, while
the stationarity of the platform is relatively worse for beam sea conditions, although the wave energy
extraction is superior. In order to extract more wave energy, the PTO should be designed with a large
damping coefficient while a flexible connector with relatively small stiffness should be chosen. It is worth
noticing that the phase control method [36] may be used to improve conflict between the wave energy
extraction and the stationarity of the platform in future work.
2.

AtypicalWECincludesabuoythatdrawsinthepowerfromthemotionoftheoscillatingwave, and a power take-off

(PTO) system that converts it into electrical power [2,3]. Thus, the performance depends on both the buoy
hydrodynamics and the energy conversion processes. As a result, in the design of efficient WECs, the two
major approaches are either through the optimization of the fluid-structure interaction between the wave
and the buoy, or through the PTO design. The former often employs tools such as computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) or experiments, and the goals are to improve the efficiency of the buoy responding to the
wave motion.

due to the uncertainty of wave conditions during a short period in a region, contrasting with the stable
year-round mean wave power, it is difficult to maintain consistent performance. To generate electricity
more stably, multiple-step conversion WECs are developed. In such systems, most PTOs would employ a
rotary electric generator, driven mechanically [9–11], pneumatically [12], or hydraulically [13,14]. Though
the overall efficiency could be offset by the increased number of energy conversion steps, the architecture
could utilize more complicated energy conversion schemes, such as multiple connected bodies to resonate
to a particular band of wave frequencies [11,15], or the accumulators in hydraulic or pneumatic PTOs to
absorb excessive pressure fluctuations for more consistent power output [13]. For this reason, traditional
large-scale wave energy conversion facilities are often of multistage design [16–18]

To improve the limited output power of a small-scale WEC, this paper explores the feasibility of a new
electrohydraulic PTO design with energy storage to achieve greater power output.

The electrical output capability of a traditional small-scale WEC is limited by its physical dimensions. To
increase the electricity output of small-scale, portable WECs, a hinged twin-board designed WEC, utilizing
an electrohydraulic PTO system with compressed energy storage is proposed, modeled, and experimentally
validated. Initial test results showed that the derived model swell predict the performance of the system,
and the proposed PTO system with high pre-charge accumulator pressure can improve the peak electric
output by up to 122W.The two major conclusions derived from this combined simulation and experimental
study are: (1) Energy storage concept was proposed for the fluid-power-based PTO systems in a portable
WEC. Simulation and experimental measurements demonstrated output power improvements of two to
over 40 times, depending on the accumulator’s pre-charged pressure. (2) A combined kinematic-fluid
power model was derived, simulated, and experimentally validated for the proposed electrohydraulic PTO
system, laying the ground work for future parametric studies. Apart from the benefits of the proposed
approach, the pressure rating of the original system and
regulatingofhighflowratearethetwomajorchallenges. Infuturework,throughfurtheroptimization and
experimental study, the combined effects of the rotation speed, accumulator volume, storage
pressure,andtheconstraintsofmanufacturability,canbebetterevaluatedtoimprovetheoutputpower of the
PTO.
3.

The principals of function for a device operating in the sea, therefore in a six degrees-of-freedom
environment, are different among researchers and companies. Different is also the distance of the
installation from the shore. These are the two basic reasons for categorization of the device.

The limpet 500 is the first wave energy device connected to the grid of united kingdom in 2000, located at
Scottish island of Islay, developed in Wavegen in cooperation with Queen’s university Belfast and using a
Wells turbine for the production of, initially 500kW and then, downgraded to 250 kW. The Ceto is claimed
to be the only operating wave energy device that fully converts kinetic energy from ocean swell to electrical
power, while at the same time desalinates freshwater with reverse osmosis.

The aim of the present study is to look into the aspects of a different kind of mechanism, based on a
combination of current technologies, using a floating buoy and a hydraulic pump to store and not to
instantly produce, energy on an onshore water reservoir. The analysis of the mechanisms’s behaviour and
the calculation of the power output are aiming to assess and prove its prospects as an alternative-
innovative solution for harnessing wave energy, while the idea of energy storage from the oceans is not
something in common.

The specific device for the current analysis is a nearshore cylindrical body point absorber connected with a
piston oscillating inside a cylinder, which is founded on the sea bed. This hydro pump is storing water into
an onshore reservoir. Therefore the system constitutes a pumped storage hydro power plant and,
compared to other wave to wire designs, presents the important advantages of storing energy, allowing the
hydro plant to operate as the electrical network demands, without any energy rejections and disposals
from the grid. The usage of a reservoir instead of other techniques, such as accumulators has the
advantage of higher energy storage capacity. The connecting rod is coupled with the piston and the buoy
with ball connectors in order to provide higher degree of freedom for safety reasons against stress and
strain forces, and to leave free the heave motion of the buoy. When the buoy-piston mechanism moves
upwards, following the wave, the inlet valve opens and lets water to fill the cylinder. At buoy’s upper dead
point, the inlet valve closes and the outlet-pumping valve opens, assuring connection between the pipeline
and the cylinder and allowing the water inside the cylinder to move towards the reservoir. The aim of the
whole concept is the production of electricity. This purpose will be fulfilled, as mentioned before, by a
hydro turbine generator couple. The stored hydraulic potential in the reservoir of hydraulic head, will be
converted to electricity as it passes through the hydro turbine and rotates its shaft. Rotational energy is
finally converted to electricity by the generator.

The purpose of the present study is to investigate through modelling and numerical optimization the
performance of a special PTO wave energy converter that combines hydraulic energy storage in a coastal
reservoir. The advantages of storing energy instead of producing elecriticity right on the sport are becoming
more important in the modern electricity systems with very large share of intermittent RES production.

Supposing a steady harmonic regular wave, evaluations of the morion for the reference designed WEC
showed a periodic but not harmonic energy capturing function of the PTO. Calculations of the power
output for an optimized system give a CWR of almost 45%, whereas 19.7% of the wave energy is annually
stored in the reservoir as hydraulic energy. The no emergence and no submergence constraint of the buoy
are found to determine the variation range of the system size and mass. In a more realistic scenario the
annual duration curves of wave amplitude in Monterey Bay, California, US were considered coupled with
statistical analysis of wave time series. The optimum device for that case achieves a smaller annual energy
absorption and storage, of 15.3%. to address this inefficiency a more advanced design of the piston head
with two functional diameters is proposed, with the largest of them activated below an optimized
threshold of wave head. This improved design is found to increase by 30% the annually stored energy in the
reservoir.
4.

The utilization of ocean renewable energy, especially wave energy, is of great significance in ocean
engineering. In this study, a three-dimensional numerical wave tank was established to simulate the wave-
float interaction based on the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations and the Realizable K-Epsilon
Two-Layer turbulence model was applied. Firstly, convergence studies with respect to the mesh and time
step were carried out and confirmed by the published analytical and numerical data. Then, the resonance
condition of a particular float was solved by both numerical and analytical methods. The numerical and the
analytical results are mutually verified in good agreements, which verify the reliability of the analytical
process. Furthermore, a wave energy converter (WEC) consisting of a single float without damping constant
was adopted, and its hydrodynamic performance in different wave conditions was investigated. It was
found that the damping factor can affect the motion response of the float and the wave force it receives.
Under a certain wavelength condition, the WEC resonates with the wave, at which the wave force on the
float, displacement of the float and other parameters reach a maximum value. Finally, the influence of
linear damping constant on the power take-off (PTO) was studied. The results show that the damping factor
does not affect the wave number turning point of the optimal damping constant.
5.

The power production of the linear generator wave energy converter developed at Uppsala University is
affected by variations of mean sea level. The reason is that these variations change the distance between
the point absorber located on the surface and the linear generator located on the seabed. This shifts the
average position of the translator with respect to the center of the stator, thereby reducing the generator
output power. A device mounted on the point absorber that compensates for tides of small range by
regulating the length of the connection line between the buoy at the surface and the linear generator has
been constructed and tested. This paper describes the electro-mechanical, measurement, communication
and control systems installed on the buoy and shows the results obtained before its connection to the
generator.

The wave energy concept developed by Uppsala University comprises a directly-driven linear generator
placed on the seabed and connected with a point-absorber buoy floating on the surface via a connection
line. The heave motion of the buoy causes a translator to move within a stator, inducing electrical power
[1]. The energy absorption (and thereby, power output) for the current design of the studied waveenergy
converter(WEC) decreaseswhen the water level deviates from its average by more than±20cm [2], e.g., due
to tides. The reason is that the average position of the translator is no longer centered with respect to the
stator.

The goal of a compensation system for sea level variations is not only to optimize the power output of the
generator during tides, but also to compensate for the error due to misalignment of the center of the stator
with the center of the translator during deployment [8]. Misalignment may be caused by inaccurate
calculation of the depth at the site and/or miscalculation of the translator position when the buoy is
connected to the line. The average depth at the site determines how long the line between the translator
and the buoy should be. The measurement of average depth is typically influenced by the instantaneous
tidal level.

The operational energy and power requirements of the compensation system are presented, showing, as
expected, the relatively low energy efficiency of the system (a consequence of a simpler mechanical design
where the need for a locking system has been avoided). The results show that the level of the standby
energy consumption of the device, which is the dominant energy sink of the system during daily operations,
allows the buoy to function properly during the summer. The power collected by the solar panels is,
however, not enough to cover the energy requirements during the dark Swedish winters
6.

It has been well accepted that wave energy may have the potential to significantly contribute to the future
renewable energy mix but so far it remains as the largest untapped renewable resources since the current
wave energy technologies are technically immature for reliable and economic energy production. The
greatest challenges would be how the performance of wave energy converters can be reliably assessed and
how the wave energy conversion efficiency can be improved. These two challenges are strongly linked, with
the former producing the required tools for the latter, which is a critical part for reducing the overall cost of
wave energy production. For understanding the issues involved in wave energy conversion, the relevant
energy conversion technologies are discussed, with a focus on hydrodynamics modelling for the wave
energy converters. To achieve the goal, the review presents the fundamental understandings to wave
energy conversions and the descriptions and discussions are made for what are the challenges in wave
energy development, how the reliable numerical and physical modelling techniques for wave energy
converters can be carried out, and how to optimise the power take-off and wave energy devices for
improving wave energy conversion. Particularly, the issues with the hydrodynamics modelling are discussed
in details, including the important issues with the control technologies and the end-stop problems.

By comparing wave energy conversion with conventional electricity generation and other renewable
technologies, the difficulties for developing wave energy can be understood and recognised. The inherent
features in wave energy conversion with the low speed and large force in reciprocations may cause the
problems of low reliability and low energy conversion efficiency in the energy system.

- Reliable numerical modelling is very important and desirable for wave energy converters. Currently, the
most used numerical methods are the frequency-domain or time-domain analysis based on the potential
flow theory. However, the application of the potential flow theory in wave energy conversion may be
limited to certain conditions, and it may be quite different from the conventional ocean engineering where
the structure motions are intended to have small motions.

- Physical modelling could provide reliable and more acceptable assessment to the hydrodynamic
performance of wave energy converters. But this must be carried out under the correct setups, satisfying
the relevant similarity laws. The issues with physical modelling are the scaling effects, and the difficulties in
PTO scaling.

- The PTO and the device hydrodynamics are strongly coupled. For a given WEC under a certain wave
condition (or state), the PTO can be optimised for maximising wave energy conversion, and with the PTO
optimisation, it is possible to examine how good the device can be. This interaction may provide an
approach for optimisation of the wave energy converters.

- PTO control is a promising method for improving wave energy conversion, but so far the investigations of
control technologies in wave energy converters are mostly theoretical work. For practical implementations
it may be only feasible if the technological barriers can be overcome, including how the physical
implementation of the control is made and how the future events can be accurately predicted.

- End-stop is a really challenging issue for the reliability problem of wave energy converters. Using spring
cushions may mitigate the end-stop problem, but not fully solve the problem. Under the extreme wave
conditions, the PTO limit could be reached, unless the impractical long PTO stroke is used (but it is
expensive and maybe inefficient). It has been proposed the device should be locked in the survival modes,
but practical difficulties are challenging the researchers and developers. A survey carried out by Ocean
Energy Europe [48] showed the importance order in developing ocean energy is: to improve reliability and
survivability; to reduce technology risks and then to bring down costs. The foremost important aspect in
ocean energy is to improve reliabilityandsurvivabilityofthedevices,andthisisnotsomethingcan be reliably
obtained from numerical modelling or laboratory tests. Therefore, a lot of practical experience and the
learning process in sea trials is needed.

The theoretical annual energy potential of waves off the coasts of the United States is estimated to be
as much as 2.64 trillion kilowatthours, or the equivalent of about 64% of U.S. electricity generation in
2018.

The potential world-wide wave energy economic contribution in the electricity

market is estimated of the order of 2,000 TWh/year, about 10% of the world
electricity consumption, and with an investment cost of
Il potenziale energetico dell’energia del moto ondoso è stimato essere dell’ordine
dei 13 000 TWh/anno, ovvero circa il 10% del consumo elettrico globale.
Wave power varies considerably in different parts of the world. Areas of the world with
abundant wave power resource include the western coasts of Scotland, Ireland,
Portugal and Norway in Europe, northern Canada, southern Africa, Australia, and the
northwestern coast of the United States, particularly Alaska.
Xd

Gran parte della risorsa energetica globale si trova

concentrata lungo le coste di nord Europa, Sudafrica,
Australia e la costa nordoccidentale degli Stati Uniti.