Proceedings of the „George Enescu” International Musicology Symposium

Bucharest, Romania, September 20-21, 2021

Proceedings of the „George Enescu”
International Musicology Symposium

20th Edition,
Bucharest, Romania, September 20-21, 2021

Edited by:
Prof.dr. Mihai Cosma

Organizer:
Romanian Composers and Musicologists Society

Partners:
National University of Music Bucharest
ARTEXIM
National „George Enescu” Museum

Editura Muzicală & Editura UNMB

Bucharest, 2021
 Organizing Commitee

Prof.dr. Adrian Iorgulescu (President, Romanian Composers & Musicologists Society)

Prof.dr. Nicolae Gheorghiță (Vice-rector, National University of Music Bucharest)
Cristina Andrei (Manager, National „George Enescu” Museum)
Prof.dr. Mihai Cosma, coordinator

Scientific Commitee

Prof.univ.dr. Valentina Sandu-Dediu

Prof.univ.dr. Florinela Popa
Prof.univ.dr. Alexandru Leahu
Prof.univ.dr. Antigona Rădulescu

Editor: Norela Liviana Costea

Junior editors: Teodora Constantinescu, Sabrina Grigorescu, Sarah Rizescu

ISSN 2247-8175
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION 1: SYSTEMATICS

Configurations Of The Folkloric Source In Contemporary Music: 11

Sound Studies By Ghenadie Ciobanu
Svetlana Badrajan

Unleashing the Vocal Expression. 17

A Surveillance of 20th Century Vocal Outputs in the U.S.A.
Mihaela Buhaiciuc

George Enescu and Aurel Stroe, Oedipus and Orest: 25

Two Musical and Dramaturgical Archetypes of Modern Romanian Music
Petruța Coroiu-Măniuț

Enescu und die Synergie der Musik im Abendland – der kritische Romantiker 33
Dan Dediu

Sound Images of the Storm in George Enescu’s Works 37

Andreea Kiseleff

The Thanatic Theme in the Music of Dan Dediu 43

Olguța Lupu

Destins croisés ou „Comment l’avenir peut influencer le passé” 53

dans l’Opéra Oreste & Oedipe de Cornel Țăranu
Despina Petecel-Theodoru

Mazurk mélancolique, a Relationship-Driven Work 69

Oana Popescu-Kariotoglou

George Enescu et l’ attraction des Thèmes Bibliques: Intersections 75

Carmen Stoianov

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SECTION 2: HISTORIOGRAPHY
George Enescu et Alfredo Casella: Convergences musicologiques et culturelles 83
Ioana Cărăușu

George Enescu, the Pianist in the 103

Light of his Contemporaries’ Reviews and Recollections
Lavinia Coman

Ein Musikalishes Meisterwerk für Temeswar 107

Franz Metz

Documents from the Archives of the National „George Enescu” Museum 119
Irina Nițu

Eduard Caudella – Teacher and Composer. 180 Years since his Birth 131
Dalia Rusu-Persic

George Enescu’s Work in the Years of The First World War 137
Vasile Vasile

SECTION 3: ANALYTICAL STUDIES

Oedipe’s Triumphant Return to Berlin 147
Mihai Cosma

The Presence of Maestro George Enescu in Oradea. 155

First Audition of The 3rd Sonata for Piano and Violin „In Romanian Folk Character”
Constantin-Tufan Stan

SECTION 4: CULTURAL SYNTHESIS

Avant-la-lettre Reverbations of the „Cancel Culture” Phenomenon in Enescu’s Years of Exile 169
Norela-Liviana Costea

The Begginings of the Mamaia Festival 175

Octavian Ursulescu

The Neo-Musicology of Non-Musicological Musics 183

Marin Marian

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Richard Wagner’s Lohengrin and Its Religious-Sociological Environment 189
Helmut Loos

SECTION 5: STUDENTS’ ANALYTICAL RESEARCH

Tōru Takemitsu – The Zen Poet of Music from The Land of The Rising Sun. 195
Perception of Time in Japanese Musical Culture
Ioana Bîgu

Similarities between the Universe of Wagnerian Operas and that of 201

Thomas Mann’s Stories. From Music to Literary Fiction.
Ana-Maria Cazacu

Paradigms and Similarities in the Choral Creation of 209

Timotei Popovici and Marțian Negrea
Teodora Constantinescu

The Dissonance-Consonance Relation in Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s 217

and Pascal Bentoiu’s Vision.The Case of the Slow Introduction in the String Quartets
Vlad-Cristian Ghinea

Igor Stravinski and Mihail Jora. 221

Resemblances between the Ballets Petrushka and La piață
Ana-Luiza Han

Thinking the Enescu Museum’s Heritage as a 227

Digital Platform from a Socio-Semiotic Perspective
Maria Doina Mareggini

Symbolism and the Presence of The Sphinx in Art 235

Sarah Rizescu

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 SECTION 1:
SYSTEMATICS
 CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FOLKLORIC SOURCE
IN CONTEMPORARY MUSIC:
SOUND STUDIES BY GHENADIE CIOBANU
PROF. SVETLANA BADRAJAN, PH.D.

ACADEMY OF MUSIC, THEATER AND FINE ARTS, CHIȘINĂU, REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA

ABSTRACT: Through his Sound Studies, Ghenadie Ciobanu

creatively developed the genre of musical study, relating it to the field
of ensemble chamber instrumental music. The very name „Sound
Study” indicates a new vision in terms of exploring and exploiting the
sound music source. Each of these works tends to reflect artistic,
aesthetic, stylistic and technological phenomena that are specific to
contemporary music. Among the techniques used by the composer we
can mention sonoristics, present by combining short sound points,
separated by pauses, with „sound flashes” produced by various
instrumental groups; spectral technique; white noise etc. At the same
time, in this sound mass we find Romanian musical folklore specific
elements, semantic treatments of the popular organophony, creatively
integrated and channeled towards solving some compositional purposes
aiming at two aspects: the technical-applicative and the ideational one.

KEYWORDS: CIOBANU, SOUND, FOLKLORE, ORGANOPHONY

INTRODUCTION

HARNESSING the folkloric source in contemporary music is an issue as important as it was a century
ago and more important. Contrary to the opinion of some musicians that musical folklore has exhausted
its resources, new creations of different genres prove the opposite: there are unexplored ways and
possibilities to treat the elements of this huge cultural layer. It does not mean revision or other primary
approaches (or the sad part of the phenomenon- simplistic taking of some folkloric songs „for effect”
for an „immediate success”). I refer to works of high artistic value, in which the elements of the folkloric
source are integrated into a contemporary composition language, producing a qualitative, profound,
select and refined blending. Among such works are, the Sound Studies by Ghenadie Ciobanu (1957),
whose creation reflects the composer's permanent tendency to experiment, discover unused directions
or less treated in modern composition. The master remarks: „I have my own cultural approach to
creation. Some colleagues, musicologists, highlight the poly-stylistics of my creation, calling it eclectic.
I think that, in my case, poly-stylistics reflects rather the multitude of artistic, creative impulses. For me,
poly-stylistics is not just a technique or a process – it is a peculiarity of compositional thinking.” (Apostu,
2016, p. 12).
Being a descendant of a dynasty of musicians of oral tradition from the north of the Republic
of Moldova, Ghenadie Ciobanu knows in depth the folklore layer of the national musical culture. This
(the musical folklore) is incorporated into the composer’s musical language and applied in his writing,
either consciously or unconsciously in terms of the compositional project, passing through postmodern
aesthetics, one of the characteristic directions of his creation.
Following from the diachronic perspective the genre of musical study, in general, we see that
alongside the purely technical issues he addresses, his framework has widened gradually, covering
aspects of thematic content, expression of some feelings, images, etc. At the same time, the study,
proposing different concrete tasks from a technical point of view, materializes various ways of
experimenting with the musical sound. Namely this aspect (the last) is developed multilaterally in the
Sound Studies – original works through which Gh. Ciobanu explores the possibilities of the musical
sound under different aspects: instrumental group, composition techniques, timbre etc. At the same time
with the post-modernist musical language and experimentation with sound, we find a fine modeling, at
archetypal and semantic level of the elements specific to the musical folklore, popular organophony.

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Proceedings of the
Proceedings the „George
„George Enescu“
Enescu” International
InternationalMusicology
MusicologySymposium
Symposium

Further, we will refer to the Sound Studies No. 1, 2, 4, and 5, in which the subtle composition
transfigurations of the folklore source are integrated and dissolved creatively in sound substance, based
on contemporary writing techniques.

SOUND STUDY NO. 1: „EI VOR VENI DIN TĂCERE…”

...trad.: They will come from silence (1995), is the first work from the cycle Sound Studies. The title is
suggested by the phrase: They must come… from Chapter VI of the novel The Pendulum of Foucault by
Umberto Eco. The state of mystery, silence, and at the same time, of expectation from this fragment of
the novel constitutes the psychological foundation of the Sound Study. The sources, which are subject to
modeling represent a compact group of instruments, namely: oboe, clarinet, bassoon, violin, cello,
percussions with tambourine, triangle, cymbals, two tom-toms, wood block, crotala, maracas and guiro.
It is a well-known fact that The Pendulum of Foucault is a novel focused on the idea/ desire to
find out the meaning, an endless search, as if it were a spin in circles and when you feel that you have
found an answer, you try to assign it different meanings, leading to others, not being sure that you are
close to the result, „the feeling is that someone, in his life, hung the pendulum in many places, and it
never worked, and that there, at the Conservatoire, it works so well... are there privileged points in the
Universe? I don't know, maybe we are always looking for the right point, maybe it's next to us, but we
don't recognize it, and to recognize it we should believe in it...” (Teodorescu). The content of Sound
Study No.1 is also of philosophical nature, but the conceptions, symbols, which are intertwined in the
novel by Umberto Eco, such as the point of support, the beginning, the absolute, the truth, the unknown
or silence are coded in the musical texture by using different elements of the musical language,
composition writing techniques. Gh. Ciobanu conveys the timbre, intonation, sound, rhythm, dynamics,
pause (silence), as well as sonoristics, pointillism.
Scientific discoveries in physics and acoustics offer new interpretations in terms of sound
matter related to the penetration into the sound micro-universe, ideas that had a direct impact on
contemporary composition art. As vibration in time and space, the musical sound is subject to multiple
combinations, focusing on various sound patterns, it „follows a natural path of structuring, aggregation,
a transfer – as we find in certain mythologies – from darkness to light, from chaos to cosmos, from
primordial waters to our world, a fact that occurs, at each level, between two poles: asymmetrical and
symmetrical, the first being – as it seems – anterior to the second” (Teodoreanu, 2010, p. 236). The
researchers showed that all „the possible sound configurations are situated between two poles: that of
the consonant maxim, the harmony maxim (ideally achieved by the sinus sound), another one that of the
dissonant maxim (ideally expressed by white noise). These extremes circumscribe the complete sound
register, the total acoustic field, in which each kind of music, popular or scholar chooses a certain area
of manifestation” (Teodoreanu, 2010, p. 234).
Ghenadie Ciobanu made extensive use of this sound micro-universe, offering new
compositional treatments of ideas related to eternity, universe, space and time. Sources of inspiration in
this creative trend, as the composer mentions, were such works as 4'33 by J. Cage, Dimensions of Time
and Silence by K. Penderecki, Silence and Return by A. Zimmermann, The Breath of the Exhausted
Time by B. Tarnopolski, Silenzio and Stimmen... Verstummen... (Voices... Silence...) by S. Gubaidulina
etc.
In Sound Study No.1, alongside the conceptions and symbols pointed out previously (the
absolute, the truth, the point of support, the feelings caused by the unknown, silence etc.) is also created
the allusion at the early stage of the universe. It is as if we were in an ancestral vacuum, at the beginning
of the birth of the universe. From this aspect in the sound mass of the work, with a modern compositional
language, we find the use at semantic level of certain hypostases of folkloric rhythmic-intonational
sources and popular organology. Thus, the exploitation of the sonority and technical means of the
percussion and wind instruments in the musical-ideational context of the work also reflects an archetypal
treatment of the organophone source, creating the feeling of transposition into the ancestral, association
with the early knowledge and conquest by the prehistoric man of the sound world, when discovering the
fascination of the sound produced by the first sound tools such as drums, hit sticks or bones of animals
and birds used as a „wind instrument” etc. Even today, we can find vestiges of these sound tools in
folklore culture through the traditional children’s instruments or using a membranophone in the
execution of carols etc. We specify that in the so-called “melodies” of the incipient period, the rhythmic
element prevails, compensating for the lack of the organized intonational relationship of sounds and
having the function of establishing the sound entity. Ancient philosophies, considering the rhythm
phenomenon, initially identified it with the movement, and later specified that the rhythm was the order
of movement (Oprea Gh., Agapie L., 1983, p. 75). The ancestral and existential significance of the sound
and cosmos, the idea of order in space and time, of the ratio „silence/ sound”, exploitation of the rhythmic
element and that of the percussion-wind are reflected and materialized in the work of Gh. Ciobanu
through different instrumental means and composition techniques such as the combination between the

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modal and the timbre technique, heterophony, combinations, which open the inexhaustible possibility of
using sonoristics, but the elements of the pointillist technique gave the composer the possibility to
particularize each sound or group of sounds, forming a sound entity, surrounded by pauses. I must
mention once again the mastery with which the author conveys the rhythmic element, built-in on the
context of an instrumental group that he subjugates, channeling its possibilities for achieving the
ideational goal, but also directly those technical, study and creation ones.

SOUND STUDY NO.2: „...ȘI VENIND CÂTE UNUL, EI SE VOR UNI”

(„…and coming one by one they will get together) is written in the same year with Sound Study No.1
(1995). The epigraph is also taken from Umberto Eco's novel The Pendulum of Foucault. This quotation,
„...and coming one by one, they will merge together” is somehow a hint to the method of working with
the sound as well. The instrumental composition is similar to that of Sound Study No.1, but the group of
percussion instruments is more varied: two bongos-blocks, two tom-toms, three pairs of cymbals, bells,
two gongs, a big drum, two wood-blocks, two cow bells. If in Sound Study No. 1 it was not possible to
identify an architectural structure, and the musical texture is characterized by a certain freedom of
exposition, in Sound Study No.2 there is outlined a tripartite form with reprise. We will find the same
tripartite structure in Sound Studies No. 4 and No. 5 as well.
The ideational content and the sound, technical, compositional means work together to solve
the set objective, „the work focuses on the idea of dichotomy, opposition of images (one – many, apart
– together), conditioning a framework of expression formed on the basis of contrasts: discreet texture –
continuous texture; pointillism – heterophony, melodic lexemes – rhythmic lexemes, dynamic tension –
lyrical contemplation” (Mironenco, Armonia sferelor, 2002, p. 78). In terms of composition, Gh.
Ciobanu conveys the rhythmic, intonational element, the sonority technique and pointillism. The
important role of rhythm in the musical texture was pointed out in Sound Study No.1. In this work, as
well, one can see an allusion to the rudimentary, magic sense of this musical element. It creates the
impression of the existence of an imaginary character, that performs a ritual action, an invocation and
which represents a point of support, a pillar around which the rest of the participants will gradually get
together. Thus, using elements of pointillist technique on the clarinet, cello, percussion instruments is
created a certain impression – dispersed elements tend to be united, to fuse.
In terms of intonation, the composer exploits the sound E flat, both in the applicative sense, we
refer to its presence in playing on various instruments, the rhythmic variety as well as semantically, in
the sense of the symbol of the point of support or pillar mentioned above. In the musical texture, in the
sphere of rhythm, there appear configurations of folk-dance elements, predominantly asymmetrical. At
the base of the sound structure, there is a mode represented by a scale of four consecutive sounds that
follow each other in whole tones (B, D flat, E flat, F). As an ancestral sound code in this sound structure
a combination of the picnon type (D flat, E flat, F) is imposed, melodic formula considered by
ethnomusicologists as one of the oldest in the development of musical thinking. In our case, this sound
core is also an allusion to ritual, thus completing the technical and compositional orchestration and
contributing to the disclosure of the ideational concept of the creation. Moreover, the sounds D flat, E
flat and F play an important role in musical dramaturgy and architectonics, delimiting certain sections
of the work.

Ex. No. 1

The musical texture, the melodic line in the form of monody in measures 22-64, performed on
clarinet, reminds us of the sonority of the improvisations of the doina type, completed in counterpoint
on oboe and bassoon. We emphasize in this fragment, the special role as a landmark of the E flat sound
maintained on the bassoon and periodically on the oboe. The group of percussion instruments forms a
sound ensemble that interrupts the sound flow of the wind instruments and strings several times. In this
case, we find an example of experimentation and sound technique that gives the impression, at ideational
level, of a communication between different human groups, of a state of permanent search.

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Proceedings the „George
„George Enescu“
Enescu” International
InternationalMusicology
MusicologySymposium
Symposium

Starting with measure 69 the sound flow moves from a tetrachord structure to a mode of tritone
type. From the tetrachord construction specific to the previous material – B, D flat, E flat, F, the sound
of D flat is eliminated. The change of the modal essence contributes to the modification of the sound
accents. Around the pillar E flat, the sounds B and F are insistently imposed, which contribute to ensuring
a perpetual movement, which leads to culmination – measures 97-100. Thereafter, it returns to the
tetrachord original formula, the sound space gradually rarefies „the dispersion of the musical material
takes place, its decomposition in distinct sound „characters” and their immersion in the silence of
darkness. The four sounds of the mode disintegrated into singular sounds, grouping vertically, thus their
life ending, both in time and in space” (Mironenco, Armonia sferelor, 2002, p. 80). Thus, from the
semantic development of the pre-modal sound structures specific to musical folklore such as the picnon,
of the elements of folk dance, of the idea of ritual and their integration into the sound “alloy” of the
Study, focused on contemporary compositional techniques like sonoristics, pointillism etc., results in a
coagulated creative symbiosis, fully contributing to the solution of two fundamental problems: the
technical-applicative and the ideational ones.

SOUND STUDY NO.4: „DE DINCOLO”

(From Over There – 2004) differs from the previous ones by extending the multi-timbre sound space of
the wind, strings and percussion instruments. Also, an important sound source, which Gh. Ciobanu did
not use in the other Sound Studies, is the human voice. The vocal part from Sound Study No. 4, however,
has no solo function but is rather an instrument with equal rights from a sound entity, participant in a
musical action „an actor in a role, co-participating in the creation process of this tragic musical-theatrical
scene, on an equal footing with the other timbres-characters” (Mironenco, Creația componistică în
Republica Moldova la confluența secolelor XX-XXI (Genurile instrumentale, teatrul muzical), 2016, p.
31).
The literary text of the vocal part belongs to the poet Traian Vasilcău, its title is taken from the
name of Ghenadie Ciobanu's work – From Over There:
My name calls me at the window,
My name calls me at the window,
Knocks on the door of my soul, looks for my footmarks on the bank,
But I have myself a beautiful memory.
Passing with flowers in my hands,
I haven't been home for a long time,
But they don’t answer ...
These are verses with a content marked by the finest nuances of dissolution in a feeling of
endless sadness. A seemingly traditional theme is revealed - pain for the deceased. Traian Vasilcău has
his own vision on this subject: not the living man addresses the deceased, but the one who passed away
„beyond” addresses his dear people who remained in this world. These are virtual calls of those „from
over there”, eager to know new experiences, to feel, finally, to reach the memories, the living ones.
Unfortunately, the efforts of those who left this world, to communicate with related souls are futile.
Ghenadie Ciobanu paid special attention to the text, penetrated its essence and has found a profound
musical treatment.
The applied sonoristic technique is due to the instruments used. In this sense, four sound spheres
are exploited: woodwind instruments – the flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon; string instruments – violin and
cello; percussions and the human voice – mezzo-soprano. We emphasize that the percussion group is
extended to sixteen different timbres: gong con bacchetta di legno, metal block con bacchetta di metallo,
gong sim., tom medio wood block (grave), tom grave ptto acuto con bacch. di metallo, tam-tam con
bacch. di metallo, triangolo tom con bacch. di cotone, to con bacch. di legno, two tom-toms, ptti medio,
grave, gran cassa, ptto gran, tambourine.
A characteristic feature of Sound Study No. 4 „refers to the stylistic profile based on the
pluralism specific to the postmodernist current, which implies the rebirth in a renewed form of some
language styles of the past. Based on the sound space of the Study, the „linguistic codes” of the
Moldovan academic and popular music are developed, which descend to lamentation and to lyrical songs
of longing” (Mironenco, Creația componistică în Republica Moldova la confluența secolelor XX-XXI
(Genurile instrumentale, teatrul muzical), 2016, p. 31). Thus, the composer experiments not only with
timbre sources, creating different colors, but also with the sound in the sense of using some incipient
modal entities. It is known that researchers such as R. Lachmann, W. Wiora and others considered the
melodic formula focused on combining the second major and the small third as „the first natural
expression of the verbal musicalized language” (Suliţeanu, 1980, p. 173), a formula specific to folk songs
from the old layer. In the postmodernist sound mass, some archaic pre-modal landmarks are imposed on
different parts of time in the development of the musical discourse. These are clearly outlined in the
vocal part, we refer to the sounds D, E, G, to which periodically adheres A and B. We observe the overlap

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of two modal structures: the first constituted based on the association of the second large and the small
third, the second is the pentatonic, respectively with the scale D, E, G, A, B1. The instrumental sound
mass is focused on these landmarks.
As I mentioned, the female voice integrates itself as a sonorous but also as an ideational
element, (from beyond), having the same importance and functionality as the other musical instruments.
It is subject to a permanent intensification of the emotional tension, which leads to a micro-culmination
in measures 24-28, where the vocal interpretation abandons the poetic text, turning into an expression of
a cry of pain. The recto-tono type intonations, the downward movement on the small third and seconds
in the vocal part are insistent, which remind us of lament/ doina, being as an expression of suffering, of
a certain spiritual state, when the words are superfluous, and the inner living can be externalized only by
onomatopoeic vocalized sound (crying/ lamentation). The style of interpretation here is sprechgesang,
on the vowel „A”, imitating the calls of pain, of crying. This procedure – Sprechgesang, is successfully
applied by the composer, imposing itself as a necessary operative concept.

Ex. No. 2

Thus, the folkloric elements highlighted above, approached at an archetype level, dissolve
naturally, creatively in the musical texture and modern composition techniques, fully contributing to the
rendering of the emotional state, spiritual feelings, of the ideational conception of the whole creation.

SOUND STUDY NO. 5: „SEMNE REFLECTATE PE CER”

...was written in 2006 and naturally completes the representative cycle of the Sound Studies by Ghenadie
Ciobanu. It is composed for instrumental ensemble, like Sound Studies No. 1, 2, 3. In this case, the
instrumental composition includes the violin, viola, cello, flute, clarinet, trombone and percussion
instruments, being „a sounds forest”. At the beginning crystalline, with long, mysterious timbres,
outlining a trembling, multicolored natural world, these sounds are gradually combined into concentrated
motive formulas, with a minimalist, mosaic character” (Ciobanu, 2015, p. 22). In the ideational content
like in the other Studies, a poetic, meditative atmosphere is outlined, expressed by the suggestive title
Signs Reflected in the Sky (belongs to the author), and the compositional technique is channeled towards
its transmission, as the author claims „is used a sound strategy appropriate for emphasizing the values
of musical symbolism” (Ciobanu, 2015, p. 22). The title itself alludes to the presence of the sign, the
symbol. The intermittent sound flow in melodic and rhythmic plane is in a permanent transformation, in
a mixture of sound „flashes”, in a continuous alternation. Thus, in addition to the fact that there are sound
images that reflect a psychological state, they acquire a symbol expression, being repeated, transformed,
like the state of human perception of infinity when „looking up to the sky” (composer's definition).
From the very beginning, there is created the impression of an opening towards a temporary
portal, towards the ascetic. The trombone, which the composer uses for the first time in his Sound
Studies, appears as a symbol of an old Romanian instrument – the „bucium” (shepherd’s horn), which
in the past had an important function of mobilization, calling, enunciation. In this case, it is imposed as
a symbol of a pillar, as a sound pillar around which are produced sound „flashes”. In this sound mass is
integrated a melodic line performed on the flute that reminds us of the intonations and rhythmic
structures of the musical folk lyric: doina and proper song.

1
The pentatonics of mode 1 V specific to the Romanian folk area between the Prut and the Dniester.

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Proceedings of the
Proceedings the „George
„George Enescu“
Enescu” International
InternationalMusicology
MusicologySymposium
Symposium

Ex. No. 3

In fact, these intonations are also a symbol, an allusion to an old, ancestral sound layer. The
melody is accompanied, as mentioned above, by „sound flashes” in different registers, as an expression
of the passage through the darkness of time, through temporary dimensions. These „sound flashes” also
reflect the process of experimenting with the musical sound by combining different sound productions
from various instrumental sources. So, in Sound Study No. 5 we notice an archetypal treatment of popular
organophony and of the elements specific to the lyrical folk productions integrated in the musical texture
and directed towards solving the artistic creation.

CONCLUSION

We find several interesting compositional aspects in Ghenadie Ciobanu's Sound Studies, including the
one related to the folklore matter. The author proposes a new vision on the genre of musical study,
applied in the field of ensemble chamber music, which reflects, in fact, the processes that occur in the
sphere of the phenomenon of „musical genre” in contemporaneity. If a study, known in academic music,
is usually conceived for a single sound source, Ghenadie Ciobanu creates a study for a whole group of
sound sources. From the point of view of treating the study genre, in his works the first part of the title
– Studies – points to the primary function of the genre, and the second – Sound – to the element that is
explored and exploited. At the same time, each Sound Study has a title, an epigraph, which sends us to
an ideational content. Regarding the use of the folk source, the composer, expressing his opinion in
relation to the given problem, mentioned: „in music based on archetypal thinking, the author usually
identifies the sources of musical expression, such as modes and moduses, structures and rhythmic
figures, syntaxes, even the ways of interpretation, which would contribute to highlighting one of the
main musical archetypes: the play (game), meditation/ contemplation, prayer/ request, call/ appeal.
These sources, which I will call archetypal, are present in an opus in its most accentuated, denser, more
evident form, than in the folkloric samples (if we refer only to the folkloric source of the archetypal
method)” (Ciobanu, Moduri de abordare a folclorului în propria creaţie, 2015, p. 187). As a result,
Ghenadie Ciobanu skilfully conveys the acoustic and timbre element of different sound sources, building
a sound structure where contemporary compositional writing techniques and modern musical language
dissolve elements specific to musical folklore, popular organophony, treated at semantic and archetype
level, being rethought, reutilized, revised, and contributing, as a result, to the rendering of a unique
compositional idea.

BIBLIOGRAPHY :
Apostu, A. (2016). De vorbă cu Ghenadie Ciobanu. Muzica, no.4, pp. 3-22.
Ciobanu, G. (2015). Adnotarea de autor ca manifestare a concepției creative a compozitorului. Studiul Artelor și
culturologie: istorie, teorie, practică no. 2 (25) (pp. 17-22). ***: ***.
Ciobanu, G. (2015). Moduri de abordare a folclorului în propria creaţie. Folclor și postfolclor în contemporaneitate
(pp. 183-189). Chișinău: Editura Grafema Libris.
Mironenco, E. (2002). Armonia sferelor. Chișinău: Editura Cartea Moldovei.
Mironenco, E. (2016). Creația componistică în Republica Moldova la confluența secolelor XX-XXI (Genurile
instrumentale, teatrul muzical). Autoreferat al tezei de doctor habilitat. Chișinău. Retrieved from
http://www.cnaa.md/files/theses/2016/23979/elena_mironenco_abstract.pdf
Oprea Gh., Agapie L. (1983). Folclor muzical românesc. Bucureşti: Editura didactică şi pedagogică.
Suliţeanu, G. (1980). Psihologia folclorului muzical. Bucharest: Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste Române.
Teodoreanu, N. (2010). Vârstele sunetului. Locul folclorului între muzicile lumii. Anuarul institutului de etnografie
și folclor „Constantin Brăiloiu”, serie nouă, tomul XXI (pp. 229-240). Bucharest: Editura Academiei române.
Teodorescu, M. (n.d.). Umberto Eco: Pendulul lui Foucault. Retrieved may 21, 2021, from
https://revistaderecenzii.com/umberto-eco-pendulul-lui-foucault-recenzie-de-mirela-teodorescu

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 UNLEASHING THE VOCAL EXPRESSION.
A SURVEILLANCE OF 20TH CENTURY
VOCAL OUTPUTS IN THE U.S.A.
ASSOCIATE PROF. MIHAELA BUHAICIUC, PH.D.

TRANSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY, BRASOV

ABSTRACT: The following work is a discussion on the vocal outputs

of the 20th century American operatic repertoire supported through a
comparative analysis of Gian Carlo Menotti, Leonard Bernstein and
Igor Stravinsky high coloratura embellishments. The vocal analyses
propose an outcome in regard to the unlimited potential of the human
voice expression and two distinct directions in singer's vocality. The
current article is inspired by author's five-year work with mezzosoprano
Elaine Bonazzi, a close professional and friend of the above-mentioned
composers, reason for which this article follows the currere method as
well.

KEYWORDS: STRAVINSKY, BERNSTEIN, MENOTTI, ELAINE BONAZZI

INTRODUCTION

1929, the year of mezzosoprano Elaine Bonazzi's birth, links to the death year of lyric coloratura
soprano Minnie Tracey, an American singer – „a true friend” (Tracey, 1916) of Georges Enesco – invited
by him in 1912 to perform at his Festival in Bucharest before the Queen. Her friendship with Enesco
and a portrait of the composer is described in her Musical America article from March 4th, 1916. It
appears from „her personal recollections of the Romanian violinist and composer” (Tracey, 1916) that
Minnie Tracey, listed as one of the famous sopranos on the roster of American Singers at the
Metropolitan Opera (Krehbiel, 1911, p. 67) in 1908, was very fond of Enesco. Stravinsky lived in Paris
after 1920 (Grout, A History of Western Music, 1960, p. 631) and it is unlikely that the two Eastern
European composers to not hear about each other while there. Stravinsky took his musical tradition, „a
living force that animates and informs the present” (Grout, A History of Western Music, 1960, p. 632)
to the U.S. in 1940 (Grout, A History of Western Music, 1960, p. 633). One finds Menotti already in the
U.S. graduating from Philadelphia Curtis Institute of Music in 1933. The first commercial Radio
broadcast (1920) and the first TV transmission (1927) become a source of inspiration not only for the
„theatre composer of the order of Puccini and verismo school” (Grout, A Short History of Opera, 1988,
p. 720) who „writes his own librettos and directs most of his musical productions” (Grout, A Short
History of Opera, 1988, p. 721), but also for the American-born Leonard Bernstein, who in 1954
developed his own TV music lectures.
Menotti's and Bernstein's path to make opera and music, respectively widely known to a large
audience becomes the foundation of a new authentic and efficient 20th century music school. Meanwhile,
Stravinsky „thickens and opens out the harmonies” and „dislocates the rhythms”, makes „use of silence”
(Grout, A History of Western Music, 1960, p. 634) in search for the neoclassical values: „balance,
coolness, objectivity, and absolute” (Grout, A History of Western Music, 1960, p. 632).
The year of 1951 finds Elaine Bonazzi as a graduate of Eastman School of Music. Her voice
teachers come from strong traditional vocal schools: Elisabeth Schumann, Jennie Tourel and Aldo di
Tullio – keepers of past styles. Just as her colleague and stage partner Beverly Sills, Elaine Bonazzi
choses to remain in the States after her graduation, „heading to New York to sing” (The Art of Elaine
Bonazzi (CD notes by Noel Lester), 2005 digital recording, 1985 original recording).
The features of the new vocal school become evident in its performers: extensive range,
outstanding flexibility of the voice, vocal beauty, excellent legato, vocal light, joy, and naturalness, able
to adapt to „thicken-open harmonies”, precise with „dislocated rhythms”, bodily freed from any
unnecessary tension, and most importantly, vocal longevity. A renewal of the voice is taking place in
the land of freedom based on both knowledge of the vocal mechanism and emotional competence.

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MENOTTI AND THE ARRIVAL OF A

NEW TECHNOLOGICAL ATTACHMENT ON STAGE

As soon as the curtain goes up, Lucy and Ben – the only two characters of Menotti's chamber opera
(Grout, A Short History of Opera, 1988, p. 600) The Telephone (1947) – open the scene with a brief
recitativo secco, in which Ben is trying to ask Lucy to marry him. The phone ring interrupts Ben several
times throughout the 30-minute workshop opera, driving him to go out of Lucy's apartment and finally
phone her addressing the big question. If it were composed today, the phone's call would certainly be a
last generation iPhone ringtone with sound effects. Unfortunately, Menotti died in February of 2007,
five months prior to the first iPhone release. Menotti's choice for the ring stands out musically and
rhythmically, and whether the stage director would opt today for an additional ring effect or not, the
well-articulated musical formula written in the score remains unreplaceable. Lucy must pick-up and
could have excuse herself on a Sprechstimme, but for Menotti perhaps this would not suffice vocally.
He chooses pitch clarity through a major ascending-descending third in the low register of the lyric
soprano. Some performers find it suitable to speak freely: „Excuse me!”. Most highbrow singers1 sing
it, and sometimes keep a slower pace of the aria for optimum vocal clarity and text comprehension:

Ex. No. 1: Menotti's orchestral ringtone and Lucy's answer

Succeeding this brief introduction of Lucy's main aria, the music unfolds, and the chat develops
throughout 105 measures of this scene. The enactment of it could be structured in three main sections
named after their repetitive melodic unit: the „Hello!” theme (S1), the „How are you?” theme (S2), the
„Chat-laughter” theme (S3). „Oh, dear” articulated precisely on two descending minor seconds in zona
di passaggio and imitated by the orchestra, is the transition to the reappearance of S1, S2 and S3 on
different text chosen by the composer himself. Only this time there is a sense of rush for reaching the
vocal climax: S1 maintains the „Hello!” theme and includes a brief moment of „Laughter” from S3 on
new vocal and harmonic material. The S2 „How are you?” section leads to a ten-measure coda, marked
Allegro. The music reaches its end on a c3 for two measures with fermata on it, while Lucy is saying
„goodbye” and hangs up the phone ending her aria, but not for long because the phone will ring again
soon.
Did Menotti already envision today's society in 1947, when this chamber opera was first
presented to its New York audience? If so, the composer already amused himself on how amusing the
phone could be taking over important moments of our lives; or the message could simply say: our today's
woman gets distracted too easily.
The display of vocal embellishments appears in the Allegro con brio „Laughter” on an 18 bar
S3, and 8 bars respectively when S3 repeats. Lucy's vocal expression is purposefully theatrical (i.e.
entertainment), her easy-looking coloratura requiring precision and flexibility. Her vocality approaches
the Broadway style, without a demand for belting in her vocal technique.
„Gianni is so much fun!” – exclaimed once mezzosoprano Elaine Bonazzi during one of our
voice lessons turning her head slowly towards the office's wall as she recalled her memories. Her face
was shiny and held a beautiful smile. Little I knew then how relevant her kind, yet brief exclamation
became to me later on. „Gianni” was still alive at that time. Just like him, Miss Bonazzi's family was of
Italian origins as she mentioned in another lesson. Noel Lester pictures her in a photo (The Art of Elaine
Bonazzi (CD notes by Noel Lester), 2005 digital recording, 1985 original recording) as the Spy in
Labyrinth in Menotti's NBC TV premiere with John Reardon and Judith Raskin. In 2020 Francis Menotti
released on YouTube from Gian Carlo Menotti Archives (Menotti, Labyrinth - opera commissioned by
NBC Opera Theatre for television, 1963), the premiere of this „operatic riddle” as Menotti names it itself
on TV, choosing Miss Bonazzi as „the seductive Spy who represents Science, Religion and Philosophy”.
My first encounter with Miss Bonazzi was through Lucy's Menotti, being one of my auditioning scenes
at Stony Brook University, New York. My appreciation for Menotti's language and vocal expression

1
See: Soraya Mafi, or Marilyn Cotlow – the first Lucy.

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deepened with the radio opera: The Old Maid and the Thief, which I directed at University of Mobile in
2011 and with the musical preparation of Amahl and the Night Visitors, presented fully staged with
orchestra at University of Mobile, Alabama in 2007.

BERNSTEIN'S CUNEGONDE:
A WILDER VOCAL AND THEATRICAL VERSION OF MENOTTI'S LUCY

Gounod's Marguerite would perhaps envy Cunegonde's jewelry aria. „Glitter and Be Gay” is beyond
self-discovery, personal beauty and imagery for becoming a queen; it's about appetite, insatiability and
self-indulgence. Cunegonde is a 20th century woman, whose attachments, although desirable, become
too hazardous to society and human relations. Just as Lucy gets to be loved through her vocal agility
while her conduct is unpleasant, perhaps offensive, yet accepted by Ben, the audience gets to love
Cunegonde for her exquisite vocality in „Glitter and Be Gay”, while her male counterpart Candide is
like Ben, frail and honest.
„Glitter and Be Gay” is a one scene – one aria in Bernstein's comique operetta Candide (1956).
The 160-bar musical design divided in theme sections assures structural symmetry – similar with Lucy's
„Telephone Aria”. A 4-bar orchestral introduction is built from a unit of descending minor second on
middle c, which changes its pace from quarters, to eights, triplets, an accented trill on b and going into
a quintolet, while achieving rubato, accel., ral., sfz, mf, p and cresc.-decresc. – only to suggest
Cunegonde's sigh. The „Glitter” musical theme repeats four times in S1, which includes a first variation
in un poco animato at measure 21 and a first vocal glissando dropping down from c#3 in measure 44.
The S2 is the Allegro molto, the self-talk of Cunegonde:
„Of course, I rather like to revel, ha, ha!
I have no strong objection to champagne, ha, ha!
My wardrobe is expensive as devil, ha, ha!
Perhaps it is ignoble to complain!”.

The „Enough” theme, an ad libitum recitativo accompagnato introduces the first vocal runs and
staccato rhythmical patterns on „ha” and is followed by the „Laughter” theme. S4 recalls vocally
Mozart's the Queen of the Night. It is based on the rhythmic motif, which repeats throughout the 11 bars
on staccato sequences:

Ex. No. 2: Cunegonde's „Laughter” sequence based on rhythmical pattern

Similar to Menotti's chromatic scale, Bernstein imitates a laugh starting the scale on e1 and
ends it on g#2 or a flat2 and repeats it, building tension on a new ascending formula f-g-a repeated in
the secondo passaggio of the soprano, and culminating with a trill in crescendo.
A second glissando dropping from e2 to b brings back the orchestral introduction on the c-b
descending minor second unit. Only twice this time, the orchestra takes the „Glitter” theme of S1,
meanwhile Cunegonde speaks out her mind freely with no pitches. „Can the purest diamond purify my
name?” leads into the repetition of S2, the „Enough” theme (S3) and the „Laughter” theme (S4). A brief
introduction of new material on measures 127-130 is meant to lead to new ornamentation for the
„Laughter” episode in measures 136-138: the singer holds a e3 for two alternating measures of 4/4 and
5/4. The coda starts at bar 144 and leads to Cunegonde's hysterical laughter, a vocal pyrotechnic section
which reaches the precise pitch of e3 in the flageolet register held on a fermata and ends on an unpitched
laughter marked on score with Sprechstimme flair in the secondo passaggio.
Miss Bonazzi was personally chosen by Leonard Bernstein to perform some of his art songs
and chamber works (The Art of Elaine Bonazzi (CD notes by Noel Lester), 2005 digital recording, 1985
original recording). One of the Sony classic releases in 1977 features Elaine Bonazzi with National
Symphony Orchestra recorded at „The Inaugural Album for Jimmy Carter” in Washington D.C., at the
Kennedy Center under the button of Bernstein and having aside her younger compatriot soprano, Benita
Valente.

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Menotti - Bernstein "laughter" rhythmic patterns:

Menotti: unit repeats twice

Bernstein: this 2-bar unit repeats 8 times

Menotti - Bernstein scale runs:

B
Menotti - Bernstein vocal runs based on ascending-descending intervals

Menotti - Bernstein approach to vocal climax in the "Laughter" section

M
Menotti through glissandi
Bernstein: vocal pyrotechnic with optional ornaments for the repeat.

B
Ex. No. 3: Menotti-Bernstein „Laughter” embellishments comparison

Menotti – Bernstein „laughter” rhythmic patterns:

Menotti: unit repeats twice
Bernstein: this 2-bar unit repeats 8 times

Menotti – Bernstein scale runs:

M
B

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Menotti – Bernstein vocal runs based on ascending-descending

intervals
MB

Menotti – Bernstein approach to vocal climax in the „Laughter”

section
M
Menotti through glissandi
Bernstein: vocal pyrotechnic with optional ornaments for the
repeat.
B
B

STRAVINSKY'S ANNE TRULOVE,

THE SAVIOR OF THE 20TH CENTURY NAÏVE MAN

Unlike Lucy and Cunegonde, Anne Trulove accepts sacrifice in the name of love. One finds in her music
few melodic tunes to hang on to, less phrase symmetry, and sporadic harmonical repeats. Although a
fine coloratura soprano, Anne does not enjoy any staccato rhythmic formulas, vocal runs or trills. Each
of her phrase carried out in the tessitura of the vocal register includes a legato marked by Stravinsky in
the score. Her vocal virtuosity lies upon keeping the legato while varying registers and moods. This one
scene is structured in two distinct arias proceeded by two recitativo accompagnato, but they are
performed together as one unit, respecting the cantabile-cabaletta Italian formula. The orchestral
introductions based on rhythmical patterns and the use of cantabile – cabaletta seem to bring back Italian
19th century musical language, but it sounds nothing like it. Inspired in 1947 by A Rake's Progress of
William Hogarth's paintings from 18th century (Grout, A History of Western Music, 1960, p. 633),
Stravinsky's Tom Rakewell, a loved man loses his mind, while his Anne Trulove tries to save him. The
vocal madness and pyrotechnic is transferred to the opposite female character of the opera: Baba the
Turk, a mezzosoprano or a contralto. Baba the Turk carries further the dispersive quality of Lucy's and
Cunegonde's characters. They diffuse high notes and human relations in a musically pleasurable manner.
Stravinsky's coloratura soprano gathers pitches, intervals and phrases. Her voice quality, high by nature,
links to her high virtue and her value as savior.
Out of the 180 measures of the scene, the first 24 constitute an orchestral introduction, followed
by 17 measures of recitative in „No word from Tom” (S1). The first aria (S2) carries a unit of ascending
M2nd-m2nd-m2nd-M2nd-m2nd from f# and a descending m3rd from d2 followed by a P4th, also descending.
This musical unit appears twice in this aria and leads to vocal sequencies in secondo passaggio based on
descending minor thirds (m. 69-71). The singer must display agility and endurance in order to end this
section with a b2 on a fermata, followed by an expressive voiced text „a colder moon upon a colder
heart” sung tranquillo in molto meno messo. The rhythmical figures are extremely challenging for both
orchestra and the soloist. S4, the second recitativo accompagnato includes a short memory-description
of Anne's father and a five-measure prayer: „O, God, protect dear Tom, support my father”. The vocal
climax in the Cabaletta (S5) is built on either ascending minor seconds (m. 158-159; 160-161), ascending
octaves, or ascending thirds and fourths (m.168-169) and ends with a c3 held for two measures and a
half of 4/4.
„Stravinsky adopts the eighteen-century division into recitatives, arias and ensembles,
organizes the entire opera based on key relationships, and achieves in the final scene a climax of pathos
without sentimentality” (Grout, A History of Western Music, 1960, p. 633). In „Conversations with Igor
Stravinsky” the composer answers to conductor Robert Craft: „The stylistic performance problem in my
music is one of articulation and rhythmic diction” and „my style requires interpretation [...] but, that isn't
the kind of 'interpretation' my critics mean” (Craft, 1959).
The soprano coloratura Fach calls for a specific compositional approach rich in ornaments:
staccate formulae, short phrases, vocal runs, yet Stravinsky writes endless phrases, specific to a lower
Fach (anyway, a favorite to Russians) transposed about a third higher in the passaggio and the second
register of the voice. The power of vocal innocence is unleashed and cares enough density and
determination to succeed saving at least her lover's soul, if not his mind.

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Proceedings the „George
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Enescu” International
InternationalMusicology
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Stravinsky: unit of ascending seconds/repeats twice - phrasing in S2, first aria

Stravinsky: tessitura in zona di passaggio, secondo passaggio

Stravinsky: approach to vocal climax in S2 and ending of first aria on b2

Stravinsky: wide intervals in phrases of S4 (second aria)

Stravinsky: first vocal climax in S4 based on scale structure

Stravinsky: second vocal climax in S4 based on descending intervals

Stravinsky: end of phrase and vocal climax, c 3 is held almost 3 bars

Ex. No. 4: Stravinsky's phrasing, embellishments and approach to vocal climax

Stravinsky: unit of ascending seconds/repeats twice – phrasing in

S2, first aria
Stravinsky: tessitura in zona di passaggio, secondo passaggio
Stravinsky: approach to vocal climax in S2 and ending of first aria
on b2
Stravinsky: wide intervals in phrases of S4 (second aria)
Stravinsky: first vocal climax in S4 based on scale structure
Stravinsky: second vocal climax in S4 based on descending intervals
Stravinsky: end of phrase and vocal climax, c3 is held almost 3 bars

Miss Bonazzi's advice „you should do Anne Trulove!” keeps following me. Her confidence in
my vocal potential was greater than mine – a distinct master, who knew when and how to challenge
vocally so the singer overcomes his own doubts. It took more than a decade to grasp. It was the
„liberation of rhythm from the tyranny of the bar line” (Grout, A History of Western Music, 1960, p.
634), she knew I needed, knowing herself that Stravinsky's freedom „looks very irregularly” (Grout, A

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History of Western Music, 1960, p. 634) and scary but „sounds orderly”. Then she handed me two of
her recordings only to find out that: „It was at Santa Fe that she began a long association with Igor
Stravinsky, when she played „Baba the Turk” in The Rake's Progress in a production supervised by the
composer. She was subsequently chosen by Stravinsky for a number of premieres and first American
performances, including the Requiem Canticles, which she recorded, and Le Rossignol at The
Washington Opera, which she also recorded” (The Art of Elaine Bonazzi (CD notes by Noel Lester),
2005 digital recording, 1985 original recording). The latest can be listened on the „Stravinsky conducts
Stravinsky” collection of digitally mastered recording from 1962, available widely for purchase.

CONCLUSION

The unleashed vocal expression is a consequence of an unleashed human psychic. The 20th century was
the right time, and the U.S.A. provided the right space for new directions in the vocal expression. Italy
was all over Europe during the 18th and 19th century for composers and singers what the U.S.A. became
in the 20th century and continues to be today: a hub of renewal of human feelings and minds; a generator
of musical trust and hope, with a sense of direction based on the cohesion of the tradition with the new,
and of the national with the international.
From the surveillance of the above vocal outputs, I sense two vocal directions open:
(1) towards a theatrical genuine singing character, as Menotti opts for Lucy (1947) and
Bernstein for Cunegonde (1956) – a coloratura soprano character, who returns to Italy in 2007 through
Lucia Ronchetti's Albertine. A theatrical work for solo female voice and whispering public, Ronchetti's
Albertine conveys a strong bond between mental imagery and emotional reality, the final surprise being
a unique vocal outcome of an excellent actor.
(2) against vocal massiveness, which all three composers comply to, through their own choice
for structural design and for vocal Fach distribution. This „against massiveness trend” prepares the singer
mentally and vocally for Ligeti's Mysteries of the Macabre (1974-1996) and it leads vocally to the 21st
century coloratura singer-conductor Barbara Hannigan.
The vocality of the 20th century returns to a true-to-life use of the voice, where the human mind
and feeling are reflected accordingly. Elaine Bonazzi, „fantastically gifted actress and singer” of the 20th
century „is, to date, credited with having participated in more operatic premieres than any other living
American singer” (The Art of Elaine Bonazzi (CD notes by Noel Lester), 2005 digital recording, 1985
original recording). After her passing in 2019 our five-year lessons and memories intensified in my
existence to the point that became Bonazzi-mania, which my students keep alive in me through
Menotti's, Bernstein's and Stravinsky's music.

Addendum:

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BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Bernstein, L. (1957). Candide. Leonard Bernstein Music Publishing Company LLC. Published under License from
Hal Leonard Music Publishing, by Amberson Holdings LLC. Boosey & Hawkes Inc.
Craft, R. (1959). Conversations with Igor Stravinsky. New York: Doubleday.
Grout, D. J. (1960). A History of Western Music. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. Inc.
Grout, D. J. (1988). A Short History of Opera. New York: Columbia University Press.
Krehbiel, H. E. (1911). Chapters of Opera – historical and critical observations and records concerning the lyric
drama in New York from its earliest days down to the present time. New York: Ed. Henry Holt & Company.
Menotti, G.-C. (1963). Labyrinth - opera commissioned by NBC Opera Theatre for television. Retrieved July 2021,
from https://youtu.be/OwnnKGtBYvA
Menotti, G.-C. (1993). The Telephone. G. Schirmer Inc., distributed by Hal Leonard Corporation.
Sedgwick Clark. (fără an). Life with Stravinsky. Musical America.
Stravinsky, I. (1976). The Rake's Progress. Moscow: Vocal score by Leopold Spinner.
The Art of Elaine Bonazzi (CD notes by Noel Lester). (2005 digital recording, 1985 original recording). Bridge
Records Inc. digital recording mastered by Peabody Institute of The John Hopkins University .
Tracey, M. (1916, March 4). Georges Enesco: The Musician and the Man. Musical America.

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 GEORGE ENESCU AND AUREL STROE,
OEDIPUS AND OREST:
TWO MUSICAL AND DRAMATURGICAL
ARCHETYPES OF MODERN ROMANIAN MUSIC
PROF.DR.HABIL. COROIU (MĂNIUȚ) PETRUȚA-MARIA

TRANSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY, BRAȘOV

ABSTRACT: OEDIPUS and OREST are two reference musical and

dramaturgical archetypes of modern Romanian sound art, being the
expression of the creation of two great local composers: George Enescu
and Aurel Stroe. If Enescu's work was highlighted through multiple
analyzes dedicated to musical, philosophical and semantic aspects,
Orestia has not yet benefited from exhaustive, contextualized analyzes.
The three masterpieces of the cycle signed by Aurel Stroe after the
tragedies of Aeschylus are: Orestia I (Agamemnon: 1979-1981), Orestia
II (Coephores: 1973-1977) and Orestia III (Eumenides: 1988), and the
musical configuration of the main character can be related to the profile
of Oedipus – designed by G. Enescu almost 50 years before. In fact,
Aurel Stroe himself is the author of the music for Oedipus at Colonos in
1963 – after Sophocles; this fact is completing the comparative picture
of the two dramatic characters of ancient Greek tragedy from a musical,
dramaturgical, philosophical and stylistic perspective of compositional
writing.

KEYWORDS: OREST, OEDIPUS, STROE, GREEK TRAGEDY

INTRODUCTION

ROMANIAN music gives us the possibility to focus on two of the most important heroes of the Greek
tragedies from the perspective of the musical creations of two great Romanian composers of the 20 th
century: George Enescu and Aurel Stroe. Their representations of the two legendary heroes are
significant for the Romanian music of the first and the second half of the last century, and their very
valuable musical visions are deeply connected to the original dramatic experiences.
Oedipus and Orest are two reference musical and dramaturgical archetypes of modern
Romanian sound art, being the expression of the creation of two great local composers: George Enescu
and Aurel Stroe. If Enescu's work was highlighted through multiple analyses dedicated to musical,
philosophical and semantic aspects, Orestia has not yet benefited from exhaustive, contextualized
analyzes. The three masterpieces of the cycle signed by Aurel Stroe after the tragedies of Aeschylus are:
Orestia I (Agamemnon: 1979-1981), Orestia II (Coephores: 1973-1977) and Orestia III (Eumenides:
1988), and the musical configuration of the main character can be related to the profile of Oedipus –
designed by G. Enescu almost 50 years before. In fact, Aurel Stroe himself is the author of the music for
Oedipus at Colonos in 1963 – after Sophocles; this fact is completing the comparative picture of the two
dramatic characters of ancient Greek tragedy – from a musical, dramaturgical, philosophical and stylistic
perspective of compositional writing.
The musical visions on the Orestia trilogy or on parts of it are multiple, as expected: in 1895 S.
Taneev was the author of a trilogy with the same name, in 1965-66 Iannis Xenakis signed a work on the
same subject for choir and 12 instruments. The subject of the hero Agamemnon was approached by
several composers in the second half of the 20th century; it is interesting that different dramaturgical
approaches (signed not only by Aeschylus) are preferred.

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AUREL STROE – TRILOGY OF THE CLOSED FORTRESS

In the 20th century there are several approaches to the topic of Orestia, including that of Aurel Stroe,
which is part of the complete trilogy. Aurel Stroe (1932-2008) was one of the most important Romanian
composers of the post-Enescu generation, in the second half of the 20 th century. He was guided by the
teachers of the Music Conservatory in Bucharest, but also by György Ligeti or Karlheinz Stockhausen
(as part of his training in Darmstadt). Member of the teaching staff of the most prestigious musical
institution in Bucharest from 1962, he also taught at the University of Illinois (USA) from 1985, and
after 1986 he was also in charge of the composition department at the Hochschule für Musik in
Mannheim (Germany).
His ample and valuable creation encompasses operas and music for theatre (including Oedipus
at Colonus (based on Sophocles, 1963), vocal-symphonic and symphonic compositions, concerts and
concert symphonies, chamber, and choral music, but also electronic music (for which he is a world
pioneer, although he is not recognized as such). His operas include titles such as: Ça n’aura pas le prix
Nobel (3 acts, 1969, based on Paul Sterian), The Peace (3 acts, 1973, based on Aristophanes), the World
Synod (2 acts, 1987, based on V. Soloviov), L’enfant et le diable (5 scenes, 1989, based on Maria
Tvetaeva). However, the Trilogy of the Closed Fortress (1973-1988) is his most ample and best-known
creation, the only one which is performed, based on Aeschylus, including Agamemnon/ Orestia I (1973),
Choephores/ Orestia II (1983) and Eumenides/ Orestia III (1988).
Orest is the hero of a play entitled Orestia by Aeschylus (Ancient Greek: Ὀρέστεια), a trilogy
from the 5th century B.C.1. The plot starts with Agamemnon’s assassination by Clytemnestra, and then
her murder by Orestia, who is then charged, and the curse that falls on the house of Atreus. In the end,
the Erinyes are pacified, they agree to a reconciliation (which was so hard to achieve) between the world
of the gods and that of humans (Porter, 2005). The trilogy (which is the amplest in the Greek antique
world) has the following sections: Agamemnon (Ἀγαμέμνων), The Libation Bearers (Χοηφóρoι) and
Eumenides (Εὐμενίδες). Orestia is the only trilogy in the antique Greek dramaturgy which survived until
modern times, one of the texts belonging to Aeschylus. The meaning of the trilogy is mythological, it
refers to the hereditary line of Atreus, cursed to kill each other generation after generation.
The topic of the trilogy treats the contrasting relationship between justice and revenge
(psychological elements which attract internal forces, difficult to control), the revenge is seen from a
personal perspective but also as a well thought plot. The artists often accessed such mythological topics
with a major psychological load, which raise important moral problems, out of the desire to facilitate the
creation of a sonorous and semantic conflict of equal magnitude.

The Assassination of Agamemnon (1879, Alfred Church)

AGAMEMNON is represented in Aurel Stroe’s creation because the maestro has a musical
vision on the entire trilogy: the characters also include the collective aspect (very present in Greek
tragedy, here embodied by the choir of the old/wise men of Argos), then the individual characters
(Clytemnestra, Agamemnon, Cassandra 2, Aegisthus), but also mute characters. The action takes place

1
The composition was awarded upon its first presentation, at the Dionysian Festival of 458 B.C.
2
Trojan princess that Agamemnon took as war spoils after the Trojan siege.

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in front of the royal palace in Argos3. Agamemnon is the king of Mycenae4 of the Trojan War who, after
ten years of fighting, conquers Troy. Clytemnestra is a Spartan princess, the sister of Helen of Troy;
becoming Agamemnon’s wife in Greek mythology – in the plays Aeschylus, Orestia – she kills
Agamemnon to avenge the death of her daughter, Iphigenia, and to be free to pursue an open relationship
with the man she loved, Aegisthus5.
COEPHORES (The Libation Bearers) is the second play of the trilogy in which the characters
are collective (the choir of the slave women), but also individual (Orests, Electra, Clytemnestra,
Aegisthus). The action takes place at Agamemnon’s tomb and in front of the royal palace of Argos.
Agamemnon’s son, Orestia, returns to Argos to take his revenge on Clytemnestra. The decision is a
divine revelation from Apollo, thus, an act of justice approved of by the gods. Meeting his sister, Electra,
at his father’s tomb, allows the two siblings to plan the assassination of Clytemnestra and Aegisthus.
In EUMENIDES, the collective character is that of Erinyes, and the individual ones are Apollo,
Orests, Clytemnestra’s spirit, the action takes place in front of Apollo’s temple in Delphi and in Athens.
The play discusses justice in the Athenian social system, which intervenes to regulate the shattering
murder of the mother by the son. Orestia is brought to justice by the three gods of justice and revenge,
the Furies (Eumenides). For a short period, he is saved by Apollo himself, and Athena intervenes at his
trial in Areopagus, expressing decisively her will for him not to be sentenced to death for his deed,
turning the hate of the Furies into mercy by granting him the possibility to recover (this is the reason
why the Furies change their name into Eumenides, which means the „merciful ones”). Thus, a new
system for administering justice is created, governed by the goddess Athena.
There are multiple musical visions of the trilogy or of some parts of the trilogy, as expected, in
1895 Sergey Taneyev was the author of a trilogy of operas with the same names, in 1965-66 Iannis
Xenakis signed a creation on the same topic for choir and 12 instruments. The hero Agamemnon was
approached by many composers in the second half of the 20th century, it is interesting that they preferred
different dramaturgical representations (not only the plays by Aeschylus).
The score published in 1984 of Orestia II (Les Choephores) represents a significant moment in
the history of Romanian music, because it emphasizes the divine perspective on the human deeds, their
eternal consequences – where they acquire an everlasting connotation. There is a lot of tension in the
creation, because it depicts the moment Orest takes his revenge on the woman who had given birth to
him, but also the act of divine justice. The time allotted to this idea allows us to concentrate only on the
second section of the trilogy.
The composer prefers a baritone’s voice (noting in the score that he prefers the voice of a
baritone specialized in baroque music, and not a „voice for the opera of the 19th century”), his sister
Electra is a mezzosoprano voice, the mother Clytemnestra – a low mezzosoprano, „amplified with the
help of a mobile microphone” (Stroe, p. 2), which underlines the character’s maturity and the tension of
the music. The character Aegisthus is a bass („preferably his natural voice, very little trained in the
manner of old Russian cantors or certain gospel singers” – the author specifies). The Choephores contain
five voices (two sopranos and three mezzo-sopranos, the composer insisting on the fact that they need
medium and low voices to support the deeply dramatic performance).
From the point of view of the characters, it cannot be made any valid comparison between the
two visions, because Oedipus represents the hero who had the imprudence and the courage to oppose
destiny, and Orest was the one who, because of causing death, he had to pay by his death – according to
the Greek mythological understanding. The comparison can be made moreover from the manner of
dealing with the ancient tragedy and of the musical elements that help depict it. Each has chosen from
the tragedy specific scenes, this fact being significant, but however not the object of this present analysis.
The score, published in 1984, or Orestia II (Les Choéphores) marks a landmark in the
Romanian music history, by highlighting the divine reflection of the human acts, their consequences in
eternity – there where they get an endless meaning. The tension of the score is wide, in the moment when
the revenge of Orest takes place against the one who gave birth to him, but also in the moment when the
heavenly judgement comes. The time allocated to this tension gives us the possibility to concentrate on
the third section of this trilogy.

3
Argos is a Greek antique town (Argolis) in the south of Greece, Peloponnesus, one of the oldest towns, which has been inhabited
for over 7000 years in the same geographical location, with the strategic advantages of the famous fertile plain of Argolis. The
town was well-known in Antiquity also because it was sieged by the conquerors of Troy. The city is considered the place of origin
of the old Macedonian royal house, including Filip II of Macedonia and his son, Alexander the Great. His fame in history was also
consolidated by the status of enemy of Sparta in the fight to dominate Peloponnesus.
4
Mycenae is an archeological site near the town of Mykines in Argolis (in the NE of the Peloponnesus Peninsula), relatively close
to Athens and Corinth. In the middle of the second millennium B.C., it was an important center of Greek civilization and defense,
which ensured military stability in the entire region. The Mycenaean period takes place in the 600-1100 B.C. period.
5
Aegisthus is a mythological figure in Homer’s Odyssey (sec. 8 B.C.), as the first written approach to the character.

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OEDIPUS – OREST: COMPARATIVE ASPECTS

From the characters’ perspective, we cannot make any valid comparison between the two visions,
because Oedipus represents the hero who had the imprudence and the courage to oppose destiny, and
Orest was the one who, because of causing death, had to pay with his life – according to the Greek
mythological understanding. The comparison can be made moreover from the manner of dealing with
the ancient tragedy and of the musical elements that help depict it. Each has chosen from the tragedy
specific scenes, this fact being significant, but however not the object of this present analysis.
The characters (Orest and Oedipus) are very different, and, by consequence, it is not significant
a comparison between the two from this point of view, but from the perspective of how the theatre play
is dealt with and the mythological conception which states the penalty of receiving death the one who
caused death. Killing his mother, Orest has shaken the equilibrium of the universe and he will have to
bear all the consequences, and Oedipus opposed destiny: so, they have committed different sins, which
they will pay differently. In Orestia I (Agamemnon) the libretto clearly specifies, by the grave male
voices, at the end of act I: „the blow comes from Zeus, because the one who tramps on the respect of the
sacred things (...) must pay the debt of the curses thrown by an entire nation. I sense a dark blow, cause
the eye of the gods is fixed upon the ones that shed blood”. „The sublime aspect in Oedipus King is not
the punishment itself (the pulling of his eyes), but the inexorable will of the author to find out the truth”
(Bentoiu, 1999).
Aurel Stroe prefers a baritone voice (marking in his score that it is preferable to have a baritone
voice specialised in baroque music instead of a 19th century opera-like voice), Electra, the sister of the
main character, having a mezzosoprano voice. The mother, Clytemnestra – a grave mezzosoprano voice,
„amplified by means of a portable microphone”), which amplifies the maturity of the character and the
tension level in the musical development. Aegisthus, as a character, is marked as a pedalist bass
(„preferable a natural one, a little bit worked out in the manner of the old Russian church singers or of
certain Negro-Spiritual singers” – specifies the author). The choéphores are displayed by five voices
(two sopranos and three mezzo-sopranos, the composer insisting on the fact that he would prefer vocal
webs on a medium and grave tone, for sustaining the profound dramatic message).

ORESTIA II – STYLISTIC CONSIDERATIONS

The time and space allocated to this support only allows us to focus on the second section of the trilogy.
The score, published in 1984, or Orestia II (Les Choéphores) marks a landmark in the Romanian music
history, by highlighting the divine reflection of the human acts, their consequences in eternity – there
where they get an endless meaning. The tension of the score is wide, in the moment when the revenge
of Orest takes place against the one who gave birth to him, but also in the moment when the heavenly
judgement comes. The time allocated to this tension gives us the possibility to concentrate on the third
section of this trilogy.
The author requires explicitly for „jazz voices, rock voices, almost without vibrato” (apart from
the voices for the characters Orest and Aegisthus), exactly for underlining the primitivism, the brutality
and the invincibility of some immutable laws which govern the human passions. Among the characters
there is also marked a trombone, which will play the role of the coryphée, and in the second act will play
the role of the guardian, using six types of mutes for marking the different semantic areas. The music
has a chamber-like sound which, however, does not hinder the composer to create impressively majestic
scenes, without using oversized sound means. This is one of the qualities that characterize Aurel Stroe
in general, who can articulate a music of a great magnitude through scarce and simple creative elements.
The orchestra is also restrained at the size of chamber music instruments, through which the
author can create the ancient atmosphere of the tragedy: oboe (being the only blowing instrument!), 3
chord instruments (violin, viola and cello), cembalo (ossia glockenspiel), organ, an ample group of 20
percussion instruments manipulated by two interprets (silofono, campane, conga, gran cassa, temple-
block, maraca, triangolo, campanacci, piatto sospeso, tam-tam, lastra, vibrafono, due bonghi, tamburo-
3 tipuri, due legni, frusta grande, incudine, due piatti, 3 gonghi giavanese, sonagli); to all this, more
objects made by the composer himself are to be added (according to the interpreters who participated at
the recordings), as well as due spazzole, bacchete di legno (dure, soffici, morbide). The organ has such
surreal interventions during the musical development, in the sense of its suspending in atemporal zones
when the tension reaches a certain well-defined climax (the opera Agamemnon contains such a moment
in Act I, by association with the timber of the accordion), not to mention here but the example from his
Last concerto, the one for accordion and orchestra (in which there are choirs and variations in which
intervene – with the same significance – the harpsichord.
Aurel Stroe does not have any prejudices in what the using of the less used musical timbers are
concerned, or of the timbers belonging to other epochs, to folk of Lautar music, to cultural areas
extremely far away, which he was often searching in the countryside markets or made even by himself,

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having the intension to create a sonorous surreal world (this being one of the stylistic constants in his
art), being surely very original. Through this gathering of the broken fragments of far away and different
worlds, Aurel Stroe tries to recompose a sonorous world, in which all these would have been finding
each other in an unique primary expression.
The class of instruments is closed by nastro magnetico, which signifies the tape recorder. In the
legend of the score, it is specified the active role (very close to the instrumental theatre) of the performers
who, sitting on the scene, „will take part at the dramatic action, even mingling in the choir of the
choéphores there where the score permits them” (Stroe, p. 3). Not only once Aurel Stroe uses uccelli
(water flutes), numbering 11 this time and dealt with by the choéphores and by most of the instrumental
performers. This way, it is wiped out the border between the instrumental performers and the singers.
The author uses multi-temporality in his scores, in general, being a good director in
manipulating the temporal levels in which are unfolded the different sonorous aspects. Even from the
legend of the score we can see that desynchronizations of certain areas are used, (marked as such within
the score), by comparing with the rest of the score, this generating aspects of new complexities to which
maestro Aurel Stroe subscribes, using the modal aspect, the metro-rhythmical one, the timbers, the forms
and the semantics.
In the score of the Choéphores it is specified that there are used short scores, extracted from
extra-European or east-European music collections, marked from beforehand as such in the introductory
legend of the score. These are accompanied by means of incorporating them into the score, and they are
dedicated:
a) to section 8 from Act I (Il Sogno della Regina – Mongolian and Javanese songs6), where
is required the heterophonic transcription of a melody, in the spirit of the score, but also
the synchronising of a contrasting music from the stylistic and rhythmic point of view, and
also of the scale used.
b) to section 9 (Canzona II – from the „Romanian Folk Songs”) (Ilarion Cocișiu, 1963, p. 34),
where it is applied „the translation from one scale, belonging to another system of
organising the high pitches, the changing of the key used, thus resulting changes in the
expressivity of the musical intervals of which the score is made up, equalling with that
which A. Danielou considers to be changes of the message” (Stroe, 1984, p. 4). The score
from Bartok’s collection is entrusted to the trombone, at the beginning of Act II.
c) to the opening section of the 2nd act (the guardian of the palace, for which are used extracts
from the melodies of the Romanian carols (Bartók, 1935)), where the author uses the
circular permutation of the musical notes of which the score is made up, keeping their
durations.
d) to the „Aria of Aegisthus” from the second act („Abyssinian Songs”) (Bartók, 1935, p. 14),
using „random deformations due to the serious difficulties in interpretation, which are
generated by the use of an inadequate set of instruments (e.g. the trombone, which is
required to go rapidly from whistling sounds to the ones from the grave register at the
beginning of Act II, in what the excerpt from the Bartok’s collection is concerned)” (Stroe,
1984, p. 4).
e) to the final replies of Electra, from the seventh section of the first act (Indian melodies
(Stumpf, 1886)), where are used changes in the melodics and in the rhythm, or
performances that modify the profile of the score.
Aurel Stroe – maestro of complexities and of superposing of different musical materials
belonging to different universes, most of the times, reaches almost in all his works to these impossible
meetings, apparently, between musics from different corners of the world, sketching his sonorous world
from incommensurable touches, difficult to draw in the same musical opera without putting to danger
its unity.
In the next paragraphs we will present a perspective over the moments that define the role and
the character of Orest in the second part of the trilogy, keeping in mind, however, the continuity of the
musical unfolding. The opera in two acts has been performed and recorded during the Avignon Festival
in 1979, using the French translation made by Antoine Golea. Now we will focus our attention on the
first act of Orestia II, from the perspective of the prayer of Orest – a major character’s gesture.
The first act of Orestia II opens with two invocations (1. „Arioso”) intoned by Orest,
invocations to the god of death, Hermes, realised on 4 musical sounds, over a multiple pedal (Grave e
patetico); these are frequently interrupted by characteristic segments for Aurel Stroe (Giubiloso, quasi
cadenza, where it intervenes Cembalo with repetitive formulas, neutralizing, in C major).
2. „Processione” brings forward the trombone (having the role of an opera character in the
works of Aurel Stroe, articulating ornamental formulas on short duration sounds, associated with long

6
Excerpts from the collections of Carl Stumpf, Mongolsiche Gesange, Vierteljahrschrift fur Musikwissenschaft III, 1886 and of
Curt Sachs, Javanischer Pelog, Dioe Musik der Alten Welt, Berlin, 1968, p. 116.

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„George Enescu“
Enescu” International
InternationalMusicology
MusicologySymposium
Symposium

stops on long duration sounds), and the Choir (which intones multimobile, molto lontano, on harsh,
primitive voices), giving back fear „to the dead who terribly boil with hatred over murderers); it is
announced, thus, the imminent consequence over those who disturb the equilibrium of the universe.
The first intervention of Electra (3. „Cavatina e coro-Allegro giusto, scherzando ma
nostalgico”) is structured on background of a solo violin, which enters at a certain moment in evolution
separe and consecrates the closeness to the Romanian melodics. The stylistic superpositions are a means
of making the musical discourse complex up to saturation, in such a way that the listener would extract
the hard meanings of the ultimate significations. Again, the author creates a tripartite form, in which the
central element B is represented by a prayer of the choir.
4. „Lamento, recitativo e arioso” belongs to Electra (parossistico) who is in dialogue with the
choir, discourse in which intervenes a first rupture (braking) of the continuity through the presence of a
rhythmical canon in ff (unfolded in one measure’s time), supported by the two gran cassa, which seem
to render in Tempo giusto – Allegro energico the unavoidable intervention of the destiny (which will
become recurrent throughout the score).
To this arioso follows 5. „Duetto Elektra-Orest” – actually, a dramatic interrogation (made up
by distant intervals which are mingled with appoggiaturas) over the mode of the revenge, planned even
at the father’s grave; the discourse becomes much more melodic and balanced at the metro-rhythmical
level once that the two brothers recognise each other and match their plans.
The moments which best defines the character is 6. „Aria”, articulated again on background of
a multiple pedal (as it often happens, this way taking shape the atmosphere of the scene), a dialogue
between the voice found in the dramatic space of the ample intervals, mixed with metro-rhythmical
inequal values (in which the repetition climaxes the initial symptoms, on the scale a 1-b1-g2-d3-e3)) and
the weeping Erynies (in an untampered musical universe, wailing). The aria is actually a prayer of
invocation („O, God”), on a theme added to the initial one from the first act, in a recurrent tendency),
for protecting „the little ones, which don’t have an eagle”) (Stroe, 1984, p. 56). The answer of Orest –
„I am ready!” – triggers the revenge process, which would be materialised by the two brothers, this
segment presenting again surreal connotations, through the intervention of the harpsichord in the musical
space, with Baroque-like formulas.

Ex. No. 1: Aurel Stroe – Orestia II, act I, Orest’s Aria (no. 6), Lento, measure 5

Moreover, in the choir’s interventions we can notice the mingling of several artistic dominants,
belonging to very diverse cultural spaces of folk origin. Aurel Stroe often uses the ancient sonorous
inheritance of different parts of the world, in trying (successfully) to build up the musical discourse, until
the maximal complexity is reached. A long recitative recto tono offers to Orest the chance of unveiling
his plan. The stabilizing and majestic intervention of the trombone is the one that concludes the whole
moment.

Ex. No. 2: Aurel Stroe – Orestia II, act I, section 6, Andantino poco rubato (E2)

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9. „Canzona-Coro” presents an innocent discourse, flat, Catholic cantus planus-like

(accompanied by organ), which is interrupted by the acid interventions of the trombone. The choir of the
choéphores certifies, by means of symmetrical phrases, articulate in giusto-syllabic, the imminent
revenge against Clytemnestra, the one who „blows away the peace and the harmony”, and in whose soul
reigns the passion.
„Intermezzo” brings forwards the mutiphonics of the oboe, often used by Aurel Stroe exactly
for creating a tense atmosphere, surreal, triggered by the heavy emotional load of the momentum.

CONCLUSIONS

Both composers deal with a tragedy – which is significant from the semantic perspective, the tragedy
generating great internal tensions, based on the presence of some general human themes (love, death,
sacrifice, the rewards according to one’s deeds). The thing that is rather different is the way of presenting
a tragedy, from the musical point of view, the connected meanings by which it is treated in a musical
manner the theme of a classical theatre; music has a symphonic dimension clearly more deepened in the
Oedipe by Enescu, Aurel Stroe adopting a register more closed to chamber music and having multiple
meanings. If Enesco respects the unity of a sonorous and dramatic universe which perfectly matches the
tragedy which it musically embodies, Aurel Stroe has – at more than half a century distance – a more
cosmopolite vision over music, as he accustomed us throughout almost all his works.
The ensemble scenes, the opening and the closing ones have at Enesco, a majesty of a European
Romantic age, and at Aurel Stroe they have a more introverted profile, articulated in a more restrained
scale – however, not less intense. Aurel Stroe requires (on purpose!) simple voices, rough, not so
worked-out, coming from other types of performances, insisting on the introspection of the characters,
and Enesco prefers academic-like voices.
If Enesco keeps the classic timber and, in the European conception, the standard one, Aurel
Stroe remains a niche composer through his originality – which caused him so many difficulties during
his lifetime, but which puts him directly on the foreground of the music history. The discourse in Enesco
is marked by the typical symphonic continuity from the beginning of the 20th century, and the one of
Aurel Stroe places itself between the elastic formulas, mobile, with multiple changes in its rhythm and
atmosphere, with several windings towards modal micro-zones, unbelievable expressive.
Because the music of Enesco is so widely analysed, performed and listened to, so much more
known than the one of Aurel Stroe, we will insist in our conclusion on the most characteristic aspects of
the latter, among which we mention, as characteristics of his style:
• the use of the pedals (more often made up of multiple sounds, often articulated with unusual
timbers, including recorded tape – for creating a surreal atmosphere)
• the discourse interrupted by multiple compositional means, but more characteristic the
abrupt insert of some rhythmical formulas which break the continuity of the development,
introducing shock waves in the opera,
• timbral innovations, widely sought after (the use of uccelli or of other objects, made up by
the composer, together with the harpsichord, the organ and the accordion – instruments
emerging from non-symphonic spaces, unconventional ones).
• the use of such instruments in the foreground used for characters, so as is the trombone in
Aurel Stroe’s Orestia. This tendency is not absent also from Enesco’s masterpiece, e.g.
during Act I, when the Great Priest asks to the parents Laios and Iocasta for the name of
the newly-born baby, and Tiresias – a Theban foreteller who announced the cruel faith of
Oedipus. In this segment – and not only here – the vocal trajectory is accompanied by
sequential interventions from some instruments (moreover the blowing instruments),
interventions which play the role of an active replica during the musical development.
• the immutable dimension, mythological, which is rendered through chamber music means
(through repetition and minimalism, through the reiteration of some restrained formulas
which, through permutation, create an atemporal, oriental framework).
As far as Enescu’s opera is concerned, Pascal Bentoiu notices that even the libretto has „a
tendency to make the characters to develop on a large scale, comparable to the arias and to the Romantic
arioso (including in the case of Oedipe” (Bentoiu, 1999, p. 245), moreover in its first two acts. We notice
here a similarity in what the musical development of the subjects is concerned (even if different subjects,
as we already have mentioned!), in the first two acts from the Enescu’s Oedipe and Aurel Stroe’s Orestia
II, where we can notice the same intention to develop situations or characters on large-scale musical
spaces, of a Romantic-type origin (although Stroe’s discourse is very mobile and diverse at the
microstructural level, despite the fact that it is stable at the macrostructural level).
Maestro of large spaces, validated at the stylistic level by the European experience of his epoch,
George Enescu has a great descendant in Aurel Stroe through the approach of major subjects belonging

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Enescu” International
InternationalMusicology
MusicologySymposium
Symposium

to the world’s cultural thesaurus, converted in the musical space, from different perspective but having
the same equal value for the Romanian musical inheritance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Bartók, B. (1935). Score no. 21. In B. e. Bartók, Melodien der Rumanischen Colinde (p. 14). Wien: Universal
Edition.
Bentoiu, P. (1999). Capodopere enesciene. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.
Herscher-Clement, J. (1934). Chants d’Abyssinia, zeitschrift fur Vergleischende Musikwissenschaft II. ***: ***.
Ilarion Cocișiu, e. (1963). Cântece populare românești. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.
Porter, D. (2005). „Aeschylus' "Eumenides": Some Contrapuntal Lines”. The American Journal of Philology. 126,
301–331.
Sachs, C. (1968). Japanischer Pelog, Die Musik der Alten Welt. Berlin.
Stroe, A. (1984). Orestia II. Partitură. Bucharest: Ed. Muzicală.
Stumpf, C. (1886). Mongolsiche Gesange, Vierteljahrschrift fur Musikwissenschaft III. ***: ***.

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 ENESCU UND DIE SYNERGIE DER MUSIK
IM ABENDLAND – DER KRITISCHE ROMANTIKER
PROF. DR. HABIL. DAN DEDIU

ABSTRAKT: In diesem Beitrag wird ein Paradigmenwechsel

hinsichtlich des Verständnisses von Enescus Musik und seiner
kompositorischen Haltung vorgeschlagen. Das alte Modell, Enescu als
französischen Wagner-Komponisten und spätromantische Figur zu
interpretieren, sollte durch ein neues Modell ersetzt werden, das seine
Musik als kritische Romantik definiert, eine Haltung der
Neuinterpretation und Rettung der Tradition der großen Formen und
der logischen Entwicklung in einem Kontext der Fragmentierung und
der assoziativen Kombinationen, die durch die neue Musik entstanden
sind. Die Komplexität seiner Instrumental- und Opernkompositionen
entspringt einer reflektierten und kritischen Haltung gegenüber
Schönheit und Spannung. In dieser Hinsicht könnte Enescus kritische
Romantik als eine Brücke zur Musik von Dutilleux und dem späten
Lutosławski gesehen werden.

SCHLÜSSELWÖRTER: KRITISCHE ROMANTIK, FRANZÖSISCHEN

WAGNER-KOMPONISTEN, COMPLEXITÄT

VIELE KULTURPHÄNOMENE erscheinen im Rückblick anders. Je mehr wir Abstand nehmen,

desto besser sehen wir, können die historische Bedeutung eines Kulturphänomens richtiger einschätzen
und somit auch das Wesentliche seiner Einflüsse auf die Zeitgenossen korrekter definieren. Dieses
Gesetz gilt auch für das Werk einiger Komponisten. Ein fluktuierendes Image ist keineswegs von der
Vergangenheit abhängig, – denn die Tatsachen sind vollendet und die Musik ist geschrieben – sondern
der Gegenwart zuzuschreiben. Die Gegenwart schneidet nach ihrem Maß und ihren Interessen zurecht
und (be)wertet neu oder ignoriert, sei es eine Epoche, ein Werk, eine Gruppierung oder eine Person.
Um mit den Begriffen Thomas Kuhns zu sprechen, gehen wir davon aus, dass das dominierende
Paradigma, unter dem die Musik des beginnenden 20. Jh. rezipiert wurde, im Fortschrittsglauben
wurzelte. Der Schematismus Tradition versus Novum wurde auf das Binom Romantik versus Moderne
übertragen. So entstand auch das Konzept Spätromantik und die pejorativen Ableitungen verspätete
Romantik oder – auf eine Person bezogen – verspäteter Romantiker. Was ist jedoch ein verspäteter
Romantiker? In Bezug auf was ist er verspätet? Im Verhältnis zur Novität der Moderne. Was ist das
Neue an der Moderne? Der antiromantische Ausdruck, der mehrere Erscheinungsformen hat:
Expressionismus (Schönberg), Neobarock und Objektivität (Hindemith), Neoklassik (Strawinsky,
Prokofjew), ausdrucksstarke Ausdruckslosigkeit1 (Satie), folkloristischer Vitalismus (Granados, de
Falla, Bartók). Es wird also deutlich, dass die Moderne nicht als Befürwortung einer bestimmten (und
einzelnen) Ausdrucksweise definiert werden kann, sondern als Verneinung der romantischen. Dadurch
wird auch die Vielfalt der Ausdrucksmöglichkeiten erklärbar. Folglich ist der verspätete Romantiker ein
(Musik)schaffender, der sich der Mode und dem antiromantischen Konformismus seiner Zeit nicht
beugt; stattdessen bleibt er der romantischen Ausdrucksweise verschrieben und riskiert somit leicht, als
Epigone beurteilt zu werden.
Enescu wurde fälschlicherweise als verspäteter Romantiker eingestuft, und zwar ausfolgenden
Gründen: a) der romantische Lyrismus seiner Musik, b) die Entourage und c) der Wagner-Komplex.
Die Musik Enescus hat in ihrem Kern einen romantischen Lyrismus – und das gerade in einer
Zeit, als die Moderne im Begriff war, sich zur dominanten Ideologie zu etablieren und damit den
romantischen Lyrismus bekämpfte. In der Auffassung der modernen Künstler galt jede Spur von
romantischer Expressivität als „Überbleibsel“ der entthronten ästhetischen Macht Romantik und damit
bestenfalls als traditionalistisch (und als reaktionär ohnehin). Der Komponist wird von Grund aus nach
dem Vorbild des revolutionären Künstlers wahrgenommen, einem Vorbild, das eindeutig im
Wagnerismus wurzelt. Im Grunde genommen, sind sowohl Debussy, als auch Schönberg geistige Kinder
Wagners, beide verstehen sich als Frondeure, sicherlich jeder in seiner jeweiligen kulturellen Umgebung
(Frankreich bzw. Österreich). Debussy bricht mit Wagner hinsichtlich des musikalischen Materials und

1
Diese Bezeichnung stammt von Vladimir Jankélévitch.

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entscheidet sich für einen klanglichen Hedonismus, der zum Markenzeichen der französischen Musik
werden sollte. Schönberg vertieft andererseits die chromatische Vision Wagners (auch unter dem
Einfluss von R. Strauss’ „Salome” und „Elektra”) und entscheidet sich für die unbequemen Klänge.
Der Freundeskreis Enescus galt in der Epoche als der «harte Kern» der französischen Tradition
im Sinne der Romantik. Es handelt sich um genau jene Komponisten, die die Nachkriegskritik als
«verspätete Romantiker» bezeichnete: Chausson (der 1899 im Alter von 44 Jahren in einem
Fahrradunfall verunglückt, wird als ein Komponist mit einem intimen, sehr persönlichen Stil erachtet),
Ysaye, d’Indy (mit der Bezeichnung „ein Konservativer unter dem klaren Einfluss Wagners” bedacht)
und Florent Schmitt (der letzte war der „Anführer“ der Anti-Strawinsky-Buhrufer während des Skandals
um die Aufführung von Le Sacre du Printemps 1913).
Der Wagner-Komplex könnte folgendermaßen definiert werden: er ist die Faszination und der
Einfluss der Wagnerschen Musik zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts. Die knappe und treffende
Formulierung „Wagner French Composers” für die oben erwähnten Komponisten (einschließlich
Enescu) stammt von Noel Malcolm und gilt für Chausson, Schmitt und einige Werke Enescus.
Gleichwohl ist diese Bezeichnung unzulänglich, weil sie die Originalität und Authentizität Enescus
verkennt. Enescu ausschließlich am Wagnerschen Paradigma zu messen, tut insbesondere seinen
Spätwerken Unrecht.

Betrachten wir kurz, was Pierre Boulez über seine Attacke von 1948 auf die Musik Alban Bergs
nachträglich sagte:
„[...] tout le romantisme m’agaçait là profondément, et notamment pour une
raison tout à fait extérieure, l’environnement social. Dans cette période
difficile où on niait la valeur de Schönberg et beaucoup plus encore celle de
Webern, le seul compositeur de l’école de Vienne retenu comme justifiable
était Berg parce que, disait-on, il était «humain», parce que c’était le «seul-
qui-écrivait-de-la-musique», parce qu’il s’occupait de l’ «expression» etc.”

Die kriegerische Auseinandersetzung Boulez’ mit dem Romanti(zi)smus, den er für heutige
Verhältnisse als unzulässig erachtet, erweicht zusehends, als er das Kammerkonzert Alban Bergs
entdeckt:
„[...] j’ai vu qu’il y avait bien autre chose en Berg que cette espèce de
romantisme facile à saisir au premier abord. Et, de découverte en découverte,
ce qui m’a passionné au fur et à mesure, c’est la complexité de cet esprit: le
nombre de références à soi-même, l’intrication de sa construction musicale,
l’ésotérisme même de beaucoup de références, densité de la texture, tout cet
univers qui est en perpétuel mouvement et qui ne cesse de tourner sur lui-
même, cela est absolument fascinant. C’est un univers qui n’est jamais fini,
un univers toujours en expansion, un univers si profond, si dense et si riche,
et qui implique une telle connaissance de l’œuvre pour l’analyser, qu’on peut
y revenir quatre ou cinq fois; il s’y trouve des références extrêmement
fugitives qui ne s’aperçoivent qu’à la troisième ou à la quatrième lecture.”
(Boulez, 1975, pg. 24-25)

Dieselben Worte passen ebensogut zu Enescus Dritter Symphonie, Vox Maris oder dem
Streichquartett in G. Daher stellt sich die Frage: Wie kann man das Gedankenschema überwinden, das
besagt, Romantik sei im 20. Jahrhundert gleich Anachronismus? Durch Entdeckung der Komplexität.
Wenn ein Musikwerk eine gewisse Komplexität erreicht, dann bewahrt es seine Gültigkeit, selbst wenn
es den romantischen Lyrismus aufweist. Woraus setzt sich jedoch diese Komplexität nach Boulez
zusammen? Selbstbezogenheit, Dichte, ständige Beweglichkeit, labyrinthische Gestaltung (Boulez,
1975, pg. 27-28)2, was insgesamt heißt, dass das betreffende Musikwerk aus gleichermaßen kritischer,
wie kryptischer Arbeit entsteht. Die aus der Reflexion über die musikalischen Mittel und aus der
Verschlüsselung der Inhalte resultierende Komplexität kann auch als polyvalenter Vorgang mit
unterschiedlichen Deutungsansätzen verstanden werden.
Die Komplexität eines Musikwerkes kommt stets aus der kritischen Haltung gegenüber
Konzepten wie „Schönheit“ und Spannung. Es ist dies der Fall in der Musik Enescus, der auf Exzess
und lyrische Hochspannung setzt.
Im heutigen Zeitgeschehen, wenn Pathos zusehends durch Hightech sein kraftvolles Comeback
feiert, brauchen wir ein neues Paradigma, um die Musik Enescus besser verstehen zu können. Dieses

2
„...l’œuvre doit être comme un labyrinthe, on doit pouvoir s’y perdre. Une œuvre dont on découvre les parcours d’une façon
définitive en une fois est une œuvre plate, manquant de mystère. Le mystère de l’œuvre est, justement, cette polyvalence des niveaux
de lecture.”, ebd., S.27-28

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neue Verständnismodell dürfen wir einen kritischen Romantismus nennen und als eine moderne,
reflektierte und gefilterte Form der romantischen Sensibilität definieren.
Bei Enescu sieht man die bewusste Filterung des Materials schon in der Ausarbeitung der
Partituren. Das 2. Streichquartett und seine vielen Zwischenstadien bis zur Endfassung oder Vox Maris
sind schlüssige Beispiele für die Arbeitsweise des Komponisten im Sinne einer Vertiefung der
Klangsubstanz und ihrer Semantik. Die Schichten in Enescus Musik grenzen gelegentlich an Saturation,
aufgrund der polyphonischen Dichte des Diskurses. Folglich kann man sagen, dass seine Musik
klangliche „Dickichte” – und nicht „Lichtungen” – verkörpert. Es ist eine Musik im ständig fragenden
Tonfall, die keine Eindeutigkeit verträgt, Naivität verachtet und überdies immun gegenüber
musikalischem Humor oder tänzerischem Charakter ist.
In seinen Spätwerken zeugt Enescu von ungebändigter Kraft, der Atem des romantischen
Gefühls wird ständig von Zweifel begleitet. Seine Musik erhält dadurch neue lyrische Qualitäten. Es geht
nicht – wie bei Rachmaninow – um Lyrismus um den Lyrismus willen. Rachmaninows Melodie entsteht
wie ein Tsunami, eine riesige Meereswelle, im Inneren, und überflutet alles in nicht enden wollenden
Strömen. Die Romantik Rachmaninows hat etwas aus dem Wesen des Orgasmus inne, sie ist ein ständig
wachsendes Schönheitsdelirium, ein Ohrenschmaus für die Hörer schlechthin. Vielleicht liegt hier die
Erklärung der Tatsache, dass ein „verspäteter Romantiker“ wie Rachmaninow nach wie vor in aller Welt
gespielt und geliebt wird.
Enescus Lyrismus ist im Gegenteil von Zweifel befallen, über die eigene Stellung unglücklich,
ein Lyrismus gegen den Lyrismus. Seine vorzügliche Methode ist die reductio ad absurdum. Durch seine
exzessive Ausbreitung zweifelt er gleichwohl den romantischen Lyrismus an, als ob er seine
Konsequenzen ins Absurde Treiben würde. Bei Enescu haben wir es mit einer Romantismus-
Überschwemmung zu tun, in einer Maßlosigkeit, die die Romantik kritisch unterwandert und aufhebt;
dies jedoch nicht durch den Explosionskult – wie bei Richard Strauss – sondern gegenteilig, durch
Implosion.
Die brennenden Gefühle der Romantik nicht abschweifen könnend, gleicht Enescu durch die
permanente Raffinierung derselben aus; er vermittelt durch die Überlagerungen und Gegensätze der
vielfachen Klangschichten die Semantik von Zweifel und lyrischer Implosion. Obwohl Enescus
Formkonstruktionen sehr solide sind – Oedipe, 2 und 3. Symphonie, Vox Maris, Ouvertüre im
rumänischen Volkscharakter, Quintett in d-Moll, 3. Sonate für Violine und Klavier – basieren sie nicht
auf Wiederholung, sondern eher auf kontinuierlicher Variation, einer Kompositionstechnik, die von
Brahms stammt. Enescu führt hinsichtlich der inneren Bewegung der Musik Brahms weiter, nicht etwa
Wagner. Er findet stets etwas Neues, denn er ist ein Gegner des Mechanismus. Er ist ein
antimechanistischer Komponist par excellence und dadurch vielleicht auch so schwer zu rezipieren.
Unser Gehör ist an Perzeptionssreflexe gewöhnt, die die leichte Wahrnehmung von einfachen
Mechanismen ermöglichen. Enescu macht es uns eben nicht leicht: in seiner Musik begegnen wir auf
Schritt und Tritt neuen Einfällen, ständig ändert die Musik chamäleonartig ihre Farbe. Keine identischen
Sequenzen, keine gleiche Harmonik, keine sich wiederholende Melodie: alles ändert sich unentwegt,
befindet sich im Fließen. Die Strukturen der Musik sind immer in komplizierten kaleidoskopischen
Netzwerken verhüllt. Hier wiederum passen Boulez’ Worte perfekt, in denen er einem musikalischen
Kunstwerk abverlangt, „wie ein Labyrinth, in dem man sich verirrt” und „geheimnisvoll” zu sein.
Enescus Kunst ist geheimnisvoll, weil sie die Diskussion um die verwendete Musiksprache
transzendiert. Tonale, modale oder atonale Vokabeln, heterophonische oder hyperpolyphonische Syntax
sind nur die Bausteine, die der Musik die Fokussierung auf die höhere Ebene der Spannung und des
Widerstands des Klangmaterials in zeitlich breiteren Abschnitten des Musikflusses ermöglichen. Gerade
diese Aspekte sind fast unerforscht. Wie realisiert Enescu seine Kulminationen? Wie verlässt er diese
Höhepunkte? Wie rhythmisiert er die Spannungshöhen und – tiefen? Wie viele Klangschichten
verwendet er und wie setzen sich diese zusammen? Welche sind die Parameter der Zeitgewichtungen
und wie kann man sie in seinen unterschiedlichen Werken messen?
Eines wird deutlich: Wenn wir versuchen, Enescus Musik aus der hier vorgeschlagenen
Perspektive des kritischen Romantismus zu verstehen, stellen wir fest, dass unser Bild über die Stellung
und Funktion seiner Musik viel sinnvoller wird. Somit kann man auch die Existenz einer romantischen
Ader postulieren, die mit der Moderne nicht verschwindet, sondern als Attitüde für die Rettung der groß
angelegten Formen aus der Tradition (Wagner, Strauss, Bruckner und Mahler) erhalten bleibt und sich
der Brahmsschen Durchführungslogik verschreibt – im Gegensatz zur Fragmentierung eines Strawinsky,
der Miniaturisierung der Zweiten Wiener Schule (Schönberg, Webern) und dem Glauben, aleatorischen
Gebilden Sinn einflößen zu können (Varèse, Ives).
Wenn, wie Witold Lutosławski behauptete, Albert Roussel es schaffte, die symphonischen
Formen der deutschen Romantik mit dem harmonischen Vokabular des französischen Impressionismus
zu verschmelzen, kann man von Enescu auch sagen, dass er dieser doppelten Synergie eine exotische
Melodik hinzufügt, die der traditionellen rumänischen Musik entnommen ist. Dies lässt die Strukturen
seiner Musik noch komplexer aussehen und macht das Unverwechselbare daran aus. Übrigens können

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einige Elemente aus Enescus Musik als Brücke zu den Spätwerken Lutoslawskis betrachtet werden, der
in seiner 3. Symphonie auf ein Stilem aus den ersten Takten von Enescus Prelude à l’unison zurückgreift.
Etwas aus der Sensibilität Enescus vermag auch im Klangfluss der Musik Henri Dutilleux’ merkbar zu
sein.
Sicherlich handelt es sich hier nicht um eine direkte Beeinflussung, sondern um die
gemeinsame Ader des kritischen Romantismus, der sich zu Zeiten der Moderne verstecken musste und
sich während des gesamten 20. Jahrhunderts in unterschiedlichen Formen verkappen wusste, um die
eigenen Werte des Ausdrucks und des Formenbaus zu retten. Groß angelegte Orchesterwerke (large-
scale form) haben heute erneut Erfolg, spektakulär inszenierte Epen und Erzählungen feiern heute –
sowohl als Literatur, als auch als Kino – ein grandioses Comeback. Die Werke eines Wolfgang Rihm
(Vers une Symphonie fleuve), Krzystof Penderecki, Toru Takemitsu, Tristan Murail, James Macmillan,
Magnus Lindberg, Christopher Rouse, Jörg Widmann u.a. sind durch den gemeinsamen Nenner der
geräumigen Form und der Durchführungslogik bemerkenswert, beide grundlegende Wesenszüge des –
hier provisorisch so genannten – kritischen Romantismus.

BIBLIOGRAPHIE:
Boulez, P. (1975). Par volonté et par hasard. Entretiens avec Célestin Deliège. Tel Quel.

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 SOUND IMAGES OF THE STORM
IN GEORGE ENESCU’S WORKS
ANDREEA KISELEFF

ROMANIAN BROADCASTING SOCIETY

ABSTRACT: If we would rank the most widely used sources of

inspiration for artists in all fields, nature would probably be on top.
Nature, in its most diverse forms: calm, serene, Apollonian or restless,
agitated, Dionysian, even demonic (the idea of the storm often being in
tandem with the artist's feelings and emotions, an ideal intermediary to
suggest or externalize them). From Baroque musical legacy, where the
storm scene frequently appears in operatic and other works, through
Classicism, Sturm und Drang movement, Romanticism, the 20th century
and up to the present day, this sound image finds countless
representations. This study aims to explore the musical imagery of the
storm in Enescu's work, starting chronologically from the first
numbered opus, Romanian Poem (1897), to the opera Oedipe, op.23
(1921-1931) and the suite Childhood impressions, op.28 (completed in
1940), to the symphonic poem Vox Maris, op.31 (1929-1951).

KEYWORDS: VOX MARIS, IMAGINARY, BAUDELAIRE, POE, BRETON

THE IMAGINARY. MUSICAL IMAGINARY.1

EVERY ARTISTIC product involves the imaginary, and many writers, poets and artists have
described, since the Romantic era, their vision of the imaginary outside their own works. I mention here,
for example, Charles Baudelaire, Edgar Allan Poe or André Breton. The creative faculty of the imaginary
is the imagination, through which associations are constructed. Imagination can be linked to past
experiences and culture. These are the realities through which the imagination constructs the imaginary.
So, imagination, past experiences, memory, sensory perceptions, creativity, inventiveness, innovation
are components of the imaginary.
But how can the link between the artwork and the imaginary be established? Jean-Paul Sartre
suggests in his book The Imaginary (1940) that the work of art is only an approximate transcription of
the artist's individual imagination and will remain an abstract universe of thoughts. And yet, the artist,
through his work, has for centuries been arousing the imagination of those who take contact with the
artistic product.
The meaning of music has always been mainly based on the imagination of the composer and
the listener. The meaning of music, when not „translated” by the composer through a title or programme,
is related to the filter of the listener. In fact, music can be considered not only an art of sound, but also
an art of the imaginary.
In order to try to classify the musical imaginary, we could relate to Carl Dahlhaus' two
paradigms: absolute music and musical expression (Dahlhaus, 2004, p. 12). The former is music as itself
and for itself, not related to the imaginary or not generated by an imaginary, and the latter is understood
as a possible interpretation of something. This is also the starting point of the research entitled Aesthetics
of the musical imaginary by Dan Dediu (Dediu, 2004, pp. 11-58).
The title is a symbol of the musical image it evokes, and in addition to the title, agogic terms
can also be used as indicators of the sound image (when an agogic term is not also a title), because „any
agogic term is an attempt by the composer to communicate through words to the performer a state, a
force or a process of the imagination” (Dediu, 2004, p. 16). We can say that there is music that suggests
images that we can recognize even without extra-musical indications and music that does not convey a
certain imagery, which can be interpreted in different ways.

1
I dedicated to the imaginary and music imaginary the first chapter of my doctoral thesis, On Sleep and the Dream in Music,
coord. prof. univ. dr., dr. h.c. Valentina Sandu-Dediu, National University of Music Bucharest, 2020.

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SOUND IMAGES OF THE STORM IN UNIVERSAL MUSIC

In universal music, the storm scene was frequently found in French court operas in the early 18th century,
with an important role given to divine intervention. Storm and shipwreck were thus associated with
supernatural forces, with the wrath of a deity. This is not surprising, of course, given that one of the
important sources of inspiration for the librettos was mythology (we will note the connection between
the gods and the storm in Oedipe by Enescu). What may be surprising, however, is the staging.
Impressive effects were used at the time, such as the wind machine and the thunder sheet. Therefore, the
sound images of the storm were strikingly suggestive. Common compositional strategies are changes in
pitch, rhythm, dynamics and timbre that can easily be perceived by listeners and generate the sense of
unease intended by the composer. The Italian term, tempesta, is widely used in titles or parts of
instrumental works, and the description aria di tempesta is frequently used in opera. This foreshadows
Romantic-like expressiveness, in which the storm will frequently appear to express tumult, literally and
figuratively. Composers' interest in sound images of the storm and its associated moods continued into
the 20th century, with strategies and techniques specific to different currents and styles, and into the
present day.
For example, we find the storm image at the end of the 17th century in Henry Purcell's Dido and
Aeneas and Jean-Baptiste Lully's Alceste, at the beginning of the 18th century in Marin Marais's Alcyone
and Georg Friedrich Händel's Israel in Egypt. In the first half of the 18th century, the storm appears in
numerous instrumental and vocal-instrumental works by Antonio Vivaldi (the concerto cycle The Four
Seasons, the Violin Concerto RV253 or the Flute Concerto RV433, both subtitled La Tempesta di mare,
the motet In turbato mare irato RV627). By the early 19th century, when Beethoven was composing the
Piano Sonata Op.31 No.2 „Tempest” (1802) or the Sixth Symphony „Pastoral” (1808), which includes
a storm, there was already a tradition of this sound image, and compositional strategies had been
enriched: the use of flat minor keys, rapid and disjunct motion, dissonances, chromaticism, pauses,
irregular meters and rhythms, dynamic effects. Nineteenth-century music abounds in examples of the
storm: Felix Mendelssohn (Hebrides Overture), Gioachino Rossini (operas Wilhelm Tell and The Barber
of Seville, Sonata „La Tempesta”), Hector Berlioz (The Trojans, Symphonie fantastique), Franz Liszt
(„Storm” from Years of Pilgrimage, Transcendental Study No. 12 „Snowstorm”), Pyotr Ilyich
Tchaikovsky (Overture to „The Tempest”, Symphonic Fantasy „Francesca da Rimini”), Edvard Grieg
(Peer Gynt), Giuseppe Verdi (operas Rigoletto, Otello), Richard Wagner (Walkyrie). In the 20th century,
the tempest appears in works by Claude Debussy (Estampes, La Mer), Frank Bridge (Orchestral Suite
„The Sea”), Jean Sibelius (Oceanides, The Tempest), Arthur Honegger (The Tempest), Richard Strauss
(An Alpine Symphony), Ferde Grofé (Grand Canyon Suite), Leoš Janáček (opera Kátia Kabanová) or
Benjamin Britten („Four Sea Interludes” from the opera Peter Grimes), and in contemporary music, for
example, in the opera Filumena by Canadian composer John Estacio.

SOUND IMAGES OF THE STORM IN GEORGE ENESCU'S WORK

By Enescu, sound images of the tempest appear in different periods, and I will reflect some
particularities, similarities and differences, even if the works are framed in different genres. These are
the Romanian Poem, the opera Oedipe, the suite Childhood Impressions and the symphonic poem Vox
Maris.
The Romanian Poem is a work that defines the youth style of the composer and marks an
important moment in the recognition of the Romanian school of composition in the famous musical city
of Paris2. Situated on the borderline between the symphonic poem and the symphonic suite, the
Romanian Poem is characterized by a pastoral atmosphere and a predominantly expository character,
with a simple programme, which was to recur in the composer's work (Village Suite, op.27, Childhood
impressions, op.28): the cosmic cycle day-night-day. The first of the two parts includes the sound images
of dawn and night on a summer's eve, stylistically situated in the European musical tradition, while the
second opens with the episode of the storm in the night and includes quotations from traditional
Romanian music. Here is the programme of the beginning of the second part, as it appeared in România
muzicală (1898) (Cosma, Hronicul muzicii românești, vol. VIII, 1988): „The moon is covered with
clouds; thunder booms and the storm breaks out. But the storm is calmed by dawn, and the crowing of
the roosters heralds the dawn's awakening”.

2
The premiere on February 6, 1898, at the Colonne Concerts, which was a notable success.

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The second part, in the basic key of C major, begins with the theme from the beginning of the
work (theme I in tempo moderato, E major, flutes and clarinets, taken up by violins), used as a contrasting
element for the sudden change that occurs after just four bars: the tempo becomes Allegro molto, and an
incisive, ominous motif on the violins symbolizes the threat of the approaching storm, supported by a
harmonic pedal and tremolo on violins and double basses.

Ex. No. 1: George Enescu, Romanian Poem, part 2, m.5-9, violas

A short chorus intervention (bouches fermées) with an ascending minor second motif amplifies
the sense of dread. The same episode is resumed in ascending sequence (theme in F major), and the
motif announcing the storm intensifies to a climax that overlays the ascending chromatic motion of the
woodwinds and the descending chromatic motion of the string instruments. The storm is now in full
swing, and the compositional strategies of these descriptive pages, in a late Romantic style, are:
consecutive occurrences of what we might call the storm motif with contrapuntal procedures (imitation,
canon) and rhetorical figures such as repetitio or gradatio, ascending and descending chromatic
passages, glissando, tremolo on string instruments, wide dynamic arches, the adding of brass instruments
(with ominous signals) and additional percussion instruments (their tremolos representing the sound
image of thunder), and the shout-like interventions of the choir which enhance the drama (bouches
ouvertes: Ah! ). As musicologist Octavian Lazăr Cosma wrote, „the imitative modulations of the storm
theme can be compared to Wagner's techniques. (...) On the whole, the diagram of the storm renders an
arch form movement, in a kind of mirror, constituting a somewhat autonomous section within the
Romanian Poem” (Cosma, Hronicul muzicii românești, vol. VIII, 1988, p. 18). After a climax in fff
(tutti), the storm begins to recede, its echoes are heard through the same responsorial motif taken up by
various instruments (soli), on a tremolo of the timpani. Finally, the motif is diminished in its first cell
(the ascending minor second interval, which had also appeared in the chorus interventions) and turns
into a tremolo that persists at the beginning of the next section (unison string instruments in the lower
register, forming an overlap). According to Octavian Lazăr Cosma, this ascending second motif
represents nature's quiver after the storm (Cosma, Hronicul muzicii românești, vol. VIII, 1988, p. 18).
Next, the image of the storm remains behind, and the programme announces: „The storm is calming
down; dawn is breaking, the rooster's crow, the bells announce the feast.”
The next storm episode that appears in Enescu's catalogue is from Oedipe, during the parricide
scene in Act 2. Here, the tempest also has a symbolic meaning and is associated, as in the French operas
of the early 18th century, with the intervention of a supernatural force, a deity. This is the second scene
of Act II, where the action takes place at a triple crossroad. Oedipus confronts destiny and kills the king
and his two companions. The darkness, thunder and storm are therefore meant to reflect the character's
state of mind at this pivotal moment in the drama.
The most frequently occurring leitmotif is that of patricide (Laios), and the form of the picture
is complex tripartite (Cosma, Hronicul muzicii românești, vol. VIII, 1988, p. 294).

Ex. No. 2: George Enescu, Oedipe, patricide leitmotif3

In the first part of the scene we observe an orchestral introduction with the leitmotifs of the
patricide (on bassoon, with a sombre bass pedal) and the shepherd (with an ornamented melody, played
each time by flute, in a nostalgic atmosphere), the recitative and arioso of the shepherd and another
instrumental fragment, in which the sinister whistling of the wind is heard (A). As the libretto notes:
„(...) The shepherd plays a despairing song from his flute. Heavy, stormy atmosphere, yellow clouds,
mist. Thunder booming very muffled in the distance (Fleg, 2001). The first thunder appears during the
intervention of the shepherd, who says, „with superstitious horror”: Zeus thunders!
Oedipus' monologue (B) consists of three subsections and ends with the curse of the gods. A
large symphonic development dominated by the patricide motif is placed during Laios' murder (A), here
the storm intensifies to a climax in a highly dramatic tableau, demanding the entire orchestra. Oedipus'
leitmotif is combined in ingenious ways with that of the patricide or the fate. In the climax, Enescu uses

3
In his study „Din nou despre leitmotivele tragediei lirice Oedipe”, Muzica nr.1/ 2014, p.10-22, Octavian Lazăr-Cosma writes
about an unpublished Enescu autograph, a score sheet with leitmotifs from the opera Oedipe seen in an exhibition at the Bucharest
National Opera in 2013, during the George Enescu International Festival.

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the wind machine and violent sonorities for the sound image of the storm associated with the patricide,
then with the horror and indignation at Oedipus' deed. At the end of the scene we find a simplified
orchestral conclusion, in which Oedipus' leitmotif appears alone, then Laios', in ninth chords, will fade
out (molto tranquillo, calando).
The cosmic cycle encountered in the Romanian Poem reappears in the Suite for Violin and
Piano „Childhood impressions”, a mirror to the self from the perspective of the mature composer (in
contrast to the Romanian Poem, where the memories were those of the young composer). As Pascal
Bentoiu observes (Bentoiu, Capodopere enesciene, 1999, p. 448), the first three movements of the suite
have exterior themes (The Country Fiddler, The Old Beggar, Little Creek), the next three take us inside
the child's home (The Bird in the Cage, Lullaby, The Cricket), parts VII-IX portray the world outside as
it is perceived from inside the house, as if in a dream, from the warm bed (The moon, The wind, The
night storm outside), and the last movement returns outside and ends the cosmic cycle with the return of
light (Sunrise). The storm is prefaced by the sound of the wind in the chimney (movement VIII), in
which the composer masterfully finds a pairing between the sound of the violin and the wind. The
indications given at the beginning of these few suggestive, onomatopoeic measures are: quasi sul
ponticello, scivolando, un poco flautato, scivolando, non-vibrato. The ascending and descending
chromatic scales recall the technique used by Enescu to suggest the same phenomenon in the Sonata „in
Romanian Folk Character” (Cophignon, 2009, pp. 368-369).
The link with the next movement is made without pause, and the storm is constructed, as in the
Romanian Poem, in an arch form: it begins in pp, then the composer's indications describe it with
indications of increasing intensity: angoscioso, patetico, sostenuto, agitato, violento, furioso. Here, the
storm is perceived through the eyes of a child in the safety of home, as if in a dream (not by a character
in the midst of it, fearing or facing possible danger). I think this is why it doesn't have as much dramatic
intensity as Pascal Bentoiu expected. He considers this picture somewhat conventional and would have
liked the moment to be intensely chromatic, „to have a sonorous cascade with waves of sound” (Bentoiu,
Masterworks of George Enescu, 2010, p. 412). Although he thinks the music is excellently written, the
gradation is judiciously done, and those moments of psychological arrest subsequent to the spectacular
lightnings are extraordinary, Pascal Bentoiu expected the storm to resemble perhaps the one from Vox
Maris (Bentoiu, Masterworks of George Enescu, 2010, p. 412). The image of the storm is, however,
intensely chromatized, with a melodic line of the violin in which one can notice the strategy of chromatic
inversion. The fear caused to the child by the storm is reflected in restless chromatic movements, in
triplet undulations on intervals of minor third (m.8) and perfect octave (m.9), then tremolo and some
incisive leaps, culminating in a broader chromatic progression leading to spectacular lightning flashes
obtained through flageolet clusters.

Ex. No. 3: George Enescu, Childhood impressions, movement IX, bars14-15

The symbiosis between the two instruments is perfect, and the peak of the storm is built up
gradually through a series of sequences, up to ff. At the end of the movement, the storm calms down
(calmato, rallentando) and the sun rises.
The last work in which we encounter a storm is the symphonic poem Vox Maris, op.31. The
storm is here a central event, a large episode that forms a unitary musical block (Bentoiu, Capodopere
enesciene, 1999, p. 351). As in Oedipe, the tempest comes during daytime and is associated with tragedy
(in the Romanian Poem and Childhood Impressions we encounter harmless storms in the night).
In the first section of the work, the seascape is shaped by heterophonic writing. An ascending
chromatic motif brings the first hints of wind; it will reappear in the storm episode. It begins with a
theme which, together with the agitated melodic movement of the cellos, produces unease. Here the
storm motif is exposed for the first time, and Pascal Bentoiu observes the echoes of Oedipe (the sailor's
song) (Bentoiu, Capodopere enesciene, 1999, p. 360).

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Ex. No. 4: George Enescu, Vox Maris, p. 24, altos and celli

The composer builds tension through large gestures, with peaks in high register and falls sliding
into the low one, continuous movement (first in the low strings, then also in other instruments), long
pedals in soft dynamics that will then rise chromatically, ascending and descending chromatic waves
with different rhythmic formulas. Percussion instruments appear progressively, and the sound image of
the increasingly violent wind is obtained using the wind machine, tremolo on cymbals, tam-tam. The
climax of the storm, in fff, is also underlined by a dramatic shout from the choir, then a solo soprano
sings a lament: „Miserere, Domine, miserere”. Then, a broad, rising chromatic wave emerges, which, as
Pascal Bentoiu writes, is reminiscent of the moment when Wozzeck from Alban Berg's opera drowns
(Bentoiu, Capodopere enesciene, 1999, p. 362).

Ex. No. 5: George Enescu, Vox Maris, p. 68, strings

The overall impression when listening to this work is one of dense fluidity, whose proportions
progressively increase. Here, the opinion of composer and musicologist Pascal Bentoiu about the
impressive storm in Vox Maris:
I believe we are confronted with one of the most amazing pages of descriptive
music ever written, in the series of great „storms” in music (...). It is
fascinating to pursue in Enescu’s storm its imperceptibly gradual
development, the insinuation of anxiety and agitation in its musical conduct,
the progressive transformation of the waves into greater and more
frightening swells. The music of this episode acquires on the way an almost
abstract quality, since what is important here is not the thematic working-
out, but the „bustle” of the sonorous matter, its continuous torment (Bentoiu,
Masterworks of George Enescu, 2010, p. 318).

The storm also has an epilogue, with gusts of wind and fragments of motifs, and then the
seascape becomes calm again, but the echoes of the catastrophe will be heard again towards the end.
Summing up the above, we can certainly say that Enescu's storms fall into the category of
images that can be recognized even without extra-musical hints. They are differentiated in terms of their
length (in the three instrumental creations discussed above, in proportion to the size of the whole work),
amplitude (given by the instrumentation used: chamber/orchestral music) but also, in terms of musical
language, by their chronology in the composer's creation. In all four hypostases, the storm is prepared,
then intensifies (in varying proportions), reaches the peak (in two of the cases bringing death) and dying
down. In the two orchestral works which also include voices, these appear in the 'stormy' moments and

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act as commentators on the action, personifying the effects of the vagaries of weather on man in general,
but also on us, the audience.
Regarding compositional strategies, Enescu starts from a late Romantic representation of the
storm in the Romanian Poem, with already known techniques (such as ascending and descending
chromatic passages, glissando, tremolo, wide dynamic arches, progressive dynamic variations, the use
of brass signals, the use percussion for the sound image of the thunder, as well as the wind machine), to
the heterophonic subtleties of Oedipe and Vox Maris, with violent sonorities in very dissonant masses in
the move. Through the eyes of a child or an adult, with childlike fear or horror in the face of danger, the
four sound images of the storm in Enescu's creation are fascinating pages, fully inspired masterworks
with a powerful impact on the listener.

BILIOGRAPHY:
Bentoiu, P. (1999). Capodopere enesciene. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.
Bentoiu, P. (2005). Breviar enescian. Bucharest: Editura Universităţii Naţionale de Muzică din Bucureşti.
Bentoiu, P. (2010). Masterworks of George Enescu. (L. Wallfish, Trans.) Lanham: Scarecrow Press.
Chiselev, A. c.-D. (2020). Somnul şi visul în muzică, PhD. thesis. Bucharest: Universitatea Naţională de Muzică.
Cophignon, A. (2009). George Enescu. (A. D. Ilea, Trans.) Bucharest: Editura Institutului Cultural Român.
Cosma, O. L. (1988). Hronicul muzicii românești, vol. VIII. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.
Cosma, O. L. (2014). Din nou despre leitmotivele tragediei lirice Oedipe. Muzica nr.1.
Dahlhaus, C. (2004). Die Idee der absoluten Musik. In D. Dediu, Radicalizare și guerilla (p. 12). Bucharest: Editura
Muzicală.
Dediu, D. (2004). Radicalizare și guerilla. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.
Fleg, E. (2001). Oedipe, libret. (M. Cosma, Ed., & E. Ciomac, Trans.) Bucharest: Editura Universității Naționale de
Muzică.
McClelland, C. (2017). Tempesta - Stormy Music in the Eighteenth Century. Lanham: Lexington Books.
Sandu-Dediu, V. (2020). De la vechi manuscrise până la perioada modernă a muzicii româneşti. In N. Gheorghiță,
& V. Sandu-Dediu (coord.), Noi istorii ale muzicii româneşti, vol.I. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.
Sartre, J.P. (1940). L'Imaginaire. Paris: Gallimard.

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 THE THANATIC THEME
IN THE MUSIC OF DAN DEDIU
PROF.DR. OLGUȚA LUPU, PH.D.

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MUSIC, BUCHAREST

ABSTRACT: Finding the meaning of existence was an important

concern both for Enescu and for many of the successful composers. The
work explores how the theme of the great passage is reflected in three
of Dan Dediu's creations: Hörner-Stimmen aus einem unbekannten
Requiem, Agony of the Unicorn, Parerga agonica. The analysis reveals
several features that are present in his entire creation, between the
preference for using certain elements, to the integration of different
contradictory cultural elements for the plurality of meanings.

KEYWORDS: DEDIU, VIERU, NICULESCU, ROMANIAN MUSIC SCHOOL

ARTISTIC creation has always dealt with and has always been inspired by the search for the meaning
of life. Finding the sense of direction of our trajectory en temps and hors temps1 on the one hand
integrates the perspective on life and the passage to the afterlife as the two complementary parts of the
same whole and on the other hand generates more problematizations and questionings than answers.
For George Enescu, whom this conference honours, the meaning of life was a constant concern,
reflected in works that address such themes as destiny, man’s attitude faced with vicissitudes 2 or the
reintegration into the universal.3
The subject continued to be a point of interest for many Romanian composers after Enescu.
Works like Anatol Vieru’s Symphony no. 5 on poems by Mihai Eminescu, Ștefan Niculescu’s Pomenire.
Un recviem românesc [Panikhida. A Romanian Requiem], Myriam Marbe’s, Recviem. Fra Angelico -
Chagall – Voroneț, Aurel Stroe’s Trilogia cetății închise [The Trilogy of the Closed Citadel], operas
Oresteia I, II and II4 or Octavian Nemescu’s Quindecimortuorum are relevant examples.
One Romanian contemporary composer in whose oeuvre the thanatic theme (the theme of the
“great passage”)5 and implicitly the concern with the meaning of life is something of a constant is Dan
Dediu. While working on another study6 I identified a by no means exhaustive list of twenty-three works
in which the composer approaches these subjects. As part of them were analysed7 in that study, I will
now introduce you to three pieces composed between 1990 and 1994.
In Hörner-Stimmen aus einem unbekannten Requiem op. 19 (1990) [Horn Parts from an
Unknown Requiem], Dediu turns to an established genre, the requiem, but introduces as early the title
the suggestion of mystery, of something secret, because it only reveals a segment (the horns’ parts) from
this “unknown requiem”, a possible metaphor for the knowledge to which we only have partial access.
The seven movements (Requiem, Dies irae, Tuba mirum, Rex tremendae, Recordare, Confutatis,
Lacrimosa) are as suggestive as they are pocket-sized, with contrast as the ruling principle: various

1
Concepts employed by Iannis Xenakis to organise sound structures (Iannis Xenakis, “La Voie de la recherche et de la question”,
in Preuves, no. 177, pp. 33-36, 1965; “Vers une métamusique”, La Nef, no. 29, 1967).
2
In such works as Symphony no. 3, Oedipe, Vox maris. See Olguța Lupu, „About the “Inner Beauty” in the life and creation of
George Enescu”, in Musicology Today no. 9-12/2012, p.65-88, Ed. UNMB, București, 2013.
3
Enescu based his Fifth symphony one of the versions of Mihai Eminescu’s poem Mai am un singur dor [One Wish Alone Have
I]. The score was completed by Cornel Țăranu (1970-72, 1990) and Pascal Bentoiu (1995). See O. Lupu, Symbolism of Water in
the Work of George Enescu, in “Proceedings of the George Enescu International Musicology Symposium, Bucharest, 2011),
Editura Muzicală, Bucureşti, 2011, vol. I, p. 71-78.
4
See also the works addressing the morphogenetic view in the music of Aurel Stroe.
5
În marea trecere (1924) [The Great Passage], poem by Lucian Blaga which also gives the title of the 1924 volume.
6
O. Lupu, “From Thanatos to the Elysian Fields in Dan Dediu's Music”, paper presented at the International Musicology
Conference “Thanatos in Contemporary Music: from the Tragic to the Grotesque”, October 31, 2020, hosted by the “Tribute to
György Ligeti in His Native Transylvania” International Festival, Cluj-Napoca.
7
Dan Dediu – Symphony no. 1 „Lumini tainice” [“Mysterious Lights”] op. 24 (1991), Stabat mater op. 52 for a cappella choir
(1995), Funeral Music for Ernst A. Ekker op. 83 for mezzosoprano, flute, violin, cello, percussion and piano (1999), Paesaggio
con cacciatori op. 119 for cello and piano (2005).

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syntaxes, polystratification and unison, legato and staccato, different scalar arrangements – shorter,
longer, diatonic and chromatic scales.
Incorporating the Multiple in One seems to be the main idea, as it returns in various forms
throughout the work. In the opening “Requiem” it appears as a circle, the symbol of perfection. Starting
in unison (D4), the range gradually expands in both directions to reach a double octave unison (D3 –
D5) and ends, essentialized, on D5. This route suggests the birth, ramification and melting of the
Multiple into One, a spiritual evolution (the ascent from D4 to D5) and the reunion of beginning and end
(alpha and omega), offering a sublimated image of man’s passage through time.

Incipit - D3 Ramification by range End (D3-D4-D5) Essentialization – D5

expansion

Dan Dediu, Hörner-Stimmen, mvt. 1, Requiem – scheme

As well, the iamb, anapest or paeon 4 rhythms in this first movement remind us of the lament
song (ex. 1), expressing raw, overwhelming pain in traditional Romanian funeral music (ex. 2), or of its
transgression in art music works such as the “Elegia” in Béla Bartók’s Concerto for Orchestra (ex. 3).

Ex. No. 1: Dan Dediu, Hörner-Stimmen, mvt. 1, Requiem, mm. 8-12, 16 (Horn 1 in F)

Ex. No. 2: Lament from Bihor (Mîrza, 1974) (mm.1-4)

Ex. No. 3: Béla Bartók, Concerto for Orchestra, mvt. 3, Elegia, mm. 44-47 (trumpet in C)

A suggestion of lament again appears in the last movement, “Lacrimosa”, whose isorhythmic
attacks in the lower register are like introverted sighs (ex. 4). A circle shape is thus created at the level
of the entire work.

Ex. No. 4: Dan Dediu, Hörner-Stimmen, mvt. 7, Lacrimosa, mm. 4-7 (horns 1-4 in F)

In “Dies irae”, the second movement, multiple and rugged dissonant leaps are contained by the
pattern of a strict canon for four voices, as a metaphor of the divine wrath which can only be just and
fully controlled. A short quotation from the corresponding section of Mozart’s Requiem, with the four
horns in unison (ex. 5), makes the transition to the third movement, “Tuba mirum”.

Ex. No. 5: Dan Dediu, Hörner-Stimmen, conclusion of mvt. 2 (Dies irae, horn 3 in F)
and beginning of mvt. 3 (Tuba mirum, mm.1-2, horns 1-2 in F)

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The contrast is huge, as the sonic avalanche of “Dies irae” is followed by this hyper-consonant,
soothing “Tuba mirum”, based on an ancestral pre-pentatonic principle, the minor third (in this case F-
D), in which timbral, registral and microtonal plays become essential. It is in fact a suspension of time,
as the entire movement turns into a reverberation of the ending of the Mozartian quotation (the second
and third last tones), in which the last tone, namely the tonic, and certitude associated therewith
disappear.
After the mainly rhythmic force downpour of the fourth movement, “Rex tremendae”, where
repeated notes are predominant, the fifth one, “Recordare”, presents a chorale which reprises the circle
shape, the identity between beginning and end: it starts and finishes on the same minor second C-D-flat,
and the route between them configurates, by range expansion and contraction, an arch. The miniature is
grounded in a technique used by Bach in the Little Harmonic Labyrinth BWV 591, which Dediu details
in his study “O formă muzicală gotică pierdută: labirintul armonic” [A Lost Gothic Musical Form: The
Harmonic Labyrinth]. (Dediu, O formă muzicală gotică pierdută: labirintul armonic, 2000, pp. 48-59).
The process consists of the gradual modification of one of the voices in the chord 8 (ex. 6), which gives,
with Dediu, the impression of a slow journey down the labyrinthine memory lane.

Ex. No. 6: Dan Dediu, Hörner-Stimmen, mvt. 5, Recordare (mm.1-4, horns 1-4 in F)

There’s more than just one musical allusion here, as this technique is reminiscent not only of
Bach’s work, but of other pieces using it, such as Chopin’s Prelude op. 28 no. 4 (ex. 7).

Ex. No. 7: Frédéric Chopin, Prelude op. 28 no. 4, mm.1-4

(harmonic synthesis of the accompaniment)

Movement 7, “Confutatis”, is based on a Byzantine-like melody (augmented seconds and

melismas) in a chromatic Locrian. Isons and subtle, sometimes heterophonic counterpoints accompany
the melody. When it appears in unison, at the end, it is meant to depict again the Multiple melting into
the One, in a powerful ascensio (ex. 8).

Ex. No. 8: Dan Dediu, Hörner-Stimmen, mvt. 6, Confutatis (conclusion, horns 1-4 in F)

***

The title Agonia inorogului [The Unicorn’s Agony] that this 1994 work op. 42 for violin and piano
bears is in itself a metaphor, because the painful passing of this mythological animal, symbol of wisdom
in Chinese culture, of power and purity in the Middle Ages, or of the superior man that a mediocre
society doesn’t understand in Dimitrie Cantemir’s 1705 allegory Istoria Ieroglifică [Hieroglyphic
History], is a possible mirror of contemporary times or of the tragedy of the artist. But the phrase reveals
only one of the work’s meanings, for Dediu also speaks here about the complementarity of the body and
the elevation of the spirit. The selected shape to aurally sculpt this idea is that of chiasmus (Saint
Andrew’s cross, X-shaped),9 obtained through the divergent evolution of the two instruments: “the piano
moves downwards, decomposes like the body, the violin moves upwards, like the freedom-searching

8
Dan Dediu would use this technique in other works too (in for instance Un bestiar mitologic [A Mythological Bestiary]).
9
Originally Greek for X-shaped.

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spirit”.10 The road of the piano to the abyss is governed by the same harmonic labyrinth technique used
in the fifth movement, “Recordare”, from Hörner-Stimmen aus einem unbekannten Requiem (ex. 9).

Ex. No. 9: Dan Dediu, The Unicorn's Agony, mm.1-7

Registral disjunction, symbolising the separation of soul from body, unfolds steadily until bar
57, when the piano, now in the great octave, stops, while the violin’s ascent continues (mm. 58-62),
suddenly becoming contaminating, engaging the other character in an abrupt incursion in the higher
register (mm. 63-67). Although the piano quickly resumes its descending course (mm. 64-67), the
memory of its celestial experience remains. This eventually determines a ramification of its route (the
piano is associated with the matter), Dediu thus appearing to question any clear distinction between
matter and spirit. Namely, part of the piano writing returns to the harmonic labyrinth logic but is
transferred in the higher register, accompanying the violin. In the meantime, the katabasis continues to
the sub-contra octave, stopping on B and B-flat (ex. 10), tones to which Dediu assigns a particular
meaning – they are, for him, thanatic sounds.11

Ex. No. 10: Dan Dediu, The Unicorn's Agony, mm. 72-84 (Dediu, Unicorn's Agony, 1999)

Dediu thus illustrates with purely musical means one of the oldest philosophical themes, the
Cartesian duel between matter and spirit, and, similar to the most recent research in the field of
neurology, chooses to highlight the very relativity of these concepts and of the borders separating them.12

***

Many literary references enhance the symbolistic of Parerga agonica for mezzosoprano and soprano or
alto saxophone op. 44 (1994). The first such, underlying the entire score, sends us to Schopenhauer’s
Parerga and Paralipomena, especially to the fifth essay of the first volume, Parerga,13 which deals with
the unity of opposites, of the connection between the Spirit and all that exists (Schopenhauer, 1851).
The first of the three movements, “Allegro agonico”, is based on literary fragments from
Goethe’s Faust, more precisely from the scene of the pact with the devil. Dediu selects the Chorus of

10
Dan Dediu, presentation of the work Agonia inorogului (manuscript).
On the occasion of a doctoral pre-defence (21.05.2020) Dan Dediu pointed out that he endows the tone B (or B-flat) with thanatic
11

meaning, seeing it as an untuning of C, in its turn expressing vitality.

12
See Antonio Damasio, Eroarea lui Descartes [Descartes’ Error], 1994, Bucharest. Humanitas, 2004.
13
Greek for appendix, annex, supplement.

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the Spirits’ lines and the first eight lines of Mephistopheles’ ulterior intervention. But he intensifies the
tension by alternating them, creating a dialogue with elements of musical theatre where the
mezzosoprano turns now to the saxophone player, now to the public:

Chorus of the Spirits (Geisterchor)14 Mephistopheles15

Weh! weh!/Du hast sie zerstört,/Die schöne Welt,/
Mit mächtiger Faust,/Sie stürzt, sie zerfällt!
Dies sind die kleinen/Von den Meinen./
Höre, wie zu Lust und Thaten/Altklug sie rathen!
Ein Halbgott hat sie zerschlagen!/Wir tragen/
Die Trümmern ins Nichts hinüber,/Und klagen/
Über die verlorne Schöne.
Dies sind die kleinen/Von den Meinen.
Mächtiger/Der Erdensöhne,/Prächtiger/
Baue sie wieder,/In deinem Busen baue sie auf!
Höre, wie zu Lust und Thaten/Altklug sie rathen!/
In die Welt weit,/Aus der Einsamkeit,/
Wo Sinnen und Säfte stocken,/Wollen sie dich locken.
Neuen Lebenslauf/Beginne,/Mit hellem Sinne,/
Und neue Lieder/Tönen darauf!

The music only highlights antagonisms even more, for the spirits’ words are converted into
long sound in the higher register while Mephistopheles’ short tones are placed in the lower register, more
often than not at the border between word and sound (Sprechgesang) (ex. 11).

Ex. No. 11: Dan Dediu, Parerga agonica, mvt. I (Allegro agonico), mm.16-20, 23-24 (mezzosoprano)

For the second movement, “Presto ardente”, Dediu utilizes the first eight lines of Hölderlin’s
poem Diotima.16 The history of the person going by this name is shrouded in mystery. Hölderlin did use
the appellation as a pseudonym for a real individual, Susette Gontard, the wife of a banker, with whom
he had a close relationship, the two writing each other frequently (their correspondence was published
posthumously). If Diotima is, with Hölderlin, a symbol of nature, youth and love, a poetic representation
of an ideal, Plato’s Symposium sees Diotima – and it’s again possible that she was a real woman17 – as
the embodiment of spiritual, platonic love. Intertextuality is not limited to literary references, for another
of Hölderlin’s poems, An Diotima, was Schumann’s first choice as the title of his cycle Gesang der
Frühe, (Daverio) and the title of Luigi Nono’s string quartet Fragmente-Stille an Diotima includes it.18

14
“Woe! woe!/Thou hast it destroyed,/The beautiful world,/With powerful fist:/In ruin 't is hurled,/By the blow of a demigod
shattered!/The scattered/Deploring/The beauty perished beyond restoring./Mightier/For the children of men,/Brightlier/Build it
again,/In thine own bosom build it anew!/Bid the new career/Commence,/With clearer sense,/And the new songs of cheer/Be sung
thereto!” (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Faust, English translation by Bayard Taylor, Dover Thrift Editions, Ed. Janet B. Kopito;
Dover Publications, 2018, Part I, lines 1697-1626, p. 46-47).
15
“These are the small dependants/Who give me attendance./Hear them, to deeds and passion/Counsel in shrewd old-fashion!/Into
the world of strife,/Out of this lonely life/That of senses and sap has betrayed thee,/They would persuade thee.” (J. W. von Goethe,
Faust, English transl. by B. Taylor, Part I, lines 1627-1634 (Mephistopheles), p. 47).
16
„Komm und besänftige mir, die du einst Elemente versöhntest,/Wonne der himmlischen Muse, das Chaos der Zeit,/Ordne den
tobenden Kampf mit Friedenstönen des Himmels,/Bis in der sterblichen Brust sich das Entzweite vereint,/Bis der Menschen alte
Natur, die ruhige, große,/Aus der gärenden Zeit mächtig und heiter sich hebt./Kehr in die dürftigen Herzen des Volks, lebendige
Schönheit!/Kehr an den gastlichen Tisch, kehr in den Tempel zurück!” (Hölderlin, Diotima). English translation: „Come and
soothe me, bliss of heavenly muse,/Reconcile the elements, the chaos of the times,/Arrange the raging war with tones of
otherworldly peace,/‘Til in your mortal breast the broken is joined,/‘Til the natural man of old, placid and immense,/Rises mighty
and serene from time's fermenting./Care for the destitute hearts, living beauty!/Return to the hospitable table, sweep the temple!”
(in Too Long Invisible, The Poems of Hölderlin, Translations by William A. Sigler, p.7,
https://www.academia.edu/42891267/Too_Long_Invisible_-_The_Poems_of_H%C3%B6lderlin)
17
Some legends place Diotima of Mantinea in Ancient Greece, around 440 B. C.
Diotima was the basis for Lars-Henrik Nysten second lied of Vier Fantasiestücke für Klavier und Sopranstimme nach Friedrich
18

Hoelderlin.

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The movement however doesn’t commence with Hölderlin’s verse. Instead, it opens, after a
short introduction, with repeated invocations of God’s name in various languages (“Domine, Kyrie,
Gott”), on short, staccato durations in the middle register, in ternary rhythm and meter (a possible
allusion to the Holy Trinity) (ex. 12).

Ex. No. 12: Dan Dediu, Parerga agonica, mvt. 2 (Presto ardente), mm. 40-48 (mezzosoprano)

The gradual insertion of Hölderlin’s verse in the original German on long sounds in the higher
register is carried out in alternation with the invocation of the Divinity, revealing another of the poem’s
addressee: „Komm”, Domine, Domine, „Komm und besänftige mir, die du einst Elemente versöhntest”,
Kyrie, Kyrie, Kyrie etc. A substitution in fact takes place, a shift of emphasis, from Diotima to God’s
omnipresence. This explains why Dediu only borrows the first eight lines, just before the word “Diotima”
is uttered. What has at first been presented in succession now becomes simultaneous, for the middle
lines, again sung on long, high notes, are counterpointed by the saxophone’s ternary rhythms, like a
continuum of God’s presence.
The juxtaposition of ternary and binary forms of this Divine Name (Domine Dio, Kyrie Dio,
Domine Deus Dio, mm. 150-164) constitutes a new stage, which recalls the coincidentia oppositorum
principle,19 a correlation supported by the very poem (“Bis in der sterblichen Brust sich das Entzweite
vereint”, “’Til in your mortal breast the broken is joined”). A moment of sublimation follows when roles
are reversed, the soprano saxophone in B-flat drawing a suave melody in the higher register while the
mezzosoprano counterpoints with “Domine Deus Dio” (ex. 13, mm. 169-176).

Ex. No. 13: Dan Dediu, Parerga agonica, mvt. 2 (Presto ardente), mm.169-176
(mezzo, saxophone soprano in B-flat)

Both protagonists then meet under the sign of melody (mm. 196-210) before a nostalgic cadenza
on the saxophone. Towards the end, the binary and ternary are interwoven both simultaneously (6/8 and
2/4) and diachronically (five equal durations in the saxophone), while the superposition of the vertical
and the horizontal configurates a new reunion of opposites (which can be synthesized in the shape of a
cross) on the words “Domine, Kyrie” (ex. 14).

19
Which, says Cusanus, represents God’s most adequate name. See Hillary S. Webb, “Coincidentia oppositorum”, in Encyclopedia
of Psychology and Religion, ed. David Leeming, Kathryn Madden, Stanton Marlan; New York, USA, Springer Science & Business
Media, 2010: 157-159. “For Cusanus, coincidentia oppositorum constitutes the «least imperfect» name for God.” See O. Lupu,
„Aspects of heterophonic syntax in the works of Ștefan Niculescu. Case study: Heterophonies for Montreux”, in Musicology
Today, no.26 (nr.2/2016), Ed. UNMB, 2016: 117-138, p. 124.

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Ternary
Binary Ternary

+
Binary
Ex. No. 14: Dan Dediu, Parerga agonica, mvt. 2 (Presto ardente),
mm.275-79 (mezzo, saxophone soprano in B-flat)

The third movement, “Elegiaco”, musically related to the second one by the presence of the
chromatic passage (here mainly ascendant), is in itself a symbol of the connections between different
elements, with its blend of three texts in three languages (Latin, German, and French) from three distinct
periods.
The first text is a short prophecy attributed to the Eritrean Sybil, who is said to have lived in
the 13th century. The phrase “Vivit non vivit”, palindromic and paradoxical, even antinomic, was
associated to the death of emperor Frederick II (1194-1250).20 Dediu’s musical correspondent of choice
is the minor second, which he sees as the “interval of psychologic conflict”. (Dediu, Melodia, curs,
Universitatea Națională de Muzică din București, 2006, p.70., 2006). The motif appears obsessive,
mysterious, always on the same tones (D and E-flat in the one-line octave) but in different versions (“non
vivit vivit”, “vivit non, vivit”), which, along with the binary-ternary play, accentuates ambiguity and
places everything under the sign of perpetual interrogation (ex. 15).

Ex. No. 15: Dan Dediu, Parerga agonica, mvt. 3 (Elegiaco), mm. 24, 44, 48, 59-60

The second text is again a poem by Hölderlin. Written in 1799, Der gute Glaube [The Good
Faith]21 speaks about love and death as irreconcilable principles, ending with the statement “Doch, doch
kann ich nicht glauben,/Daß du sterbest, solang du liebst” (“Still, still I cannot believe/That you perish,
as long as you love”). Of greater intensity, the melodic contour is given in legato, mainly in the higher
register, and at times mirroring the tones of the first motif (ex. 16).

Ex. No. 16: Dan Dediu, Parerga agonica, mvt. 3 (Elegiaco), mm. 44-49

20
King of Sicily and of Jerusalem, King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor. Quite controversial, he was called by some stupor
mundi (“a wonder of the world”) and by the Pope “a beast”. Following the model of the Byzantine Empire, Frederick II, who
spoke several languages, founded in the South of Italy the most advanced state of that time as well the University of Naples. The
death of this king, whom Nietzsche sees as “the first European, according to my taste”, gave rise to much speculation, according
to which he allegedly didn’t actually die, which in its turn led to a number of imposters. See Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good
and Evil, ed. by Rolf-Peter Horstmann and Judith Norman, Cambridge University Press, 2002, Part V, p.87.
21
This poem inspired over time several composers: Elise Breiderhoff (op. 1 no. 2, 1895), George Washington Magnus (op. 9 no.
5, 1897), Josef Matthias Hauer (op. 6 no. 1, 1914), Dmitri Nikolaevich Smirnov (op. 31 no. 2, 1980), Philippe Hersant (the opening
piece of Lebenslauf, 1992), Friedrich Cerha (the first two lines are quoted in Acht Sätze nach Hölderlin-Fragmenten, no. 1, 1995)
etc.

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The third text is Boris Vian’s 1951 poem Un jour. It has a circular construction, as the paradox
in the first lines (“Un jour/Il y aura autre chose que le jour” [One day/ There will be something other
than the day]) is reprised identically at the end (“Une certitude subsiste : un jour /Il y aura autre chose
que le jour” [One certitude subsists: One day/ There will be something other than the day.22]). The
composer selects the first two lines, associating them with only one interval, the augmented fourth (ex.
17).

Ex. No. 17: Dan Dediu, Parerga agonica, mvt. 3 (Elegiaco), mm. 66-68

The three aural characters are intertwined. While the one associated with Hölderlin’s poem is
characterized by an unpredictable evolution, the first one – the “vivit non vivit” motif – signals an
unpredictable appearance, interrupting the other expositions in the most unexpected moments. Despite
the frequent infiltrations of one character in the others’ discourse, the perception of the way they are
interwoven remains quite clear, facilitated by the distinct motivic prints mentioned earlier (the
augmented fourth and the diminished second).

CONCLUSIONS

Several traits, that I consider characteristic of Dan Dediu’s entire oeuvre, distinguish the analysed works.
First, there is a preference for contradictory elements, musical (binary – ternary, higher – lower register,
legato – staccato, song – Sprechgesang etc.) or extramusical (alpha and omega, the Chorus of the Spirits
and Mephistopheles) which become part of one single unity and therefore embody the principles of
coincidentia oppositorum or One – Multiple. Dediu frequently employs various cultural references, once
more musical or extramusical, by which he finds his way to his listeners’ affective memory. In the three
analysed works we find iconic phrases, such as Tuba mirum from Mozart’s Requiem, suggestions of and
allusions to lament and to Byzantine chant, geometrical figures – the circle or the cross (sometimes in
the form of chiasmus), concepts from a territory musical as it is transdisciplinary – the labyrinth (in the
form of Bach’s harmonic labyrinth), the canon (in the sense of a strict rule, but also as a polyphonic
technique), or the blending of different texts (those in three different languages in the third movement
of Parerga agonica). With this intertextuality (the text as “space of intersection of pre-existing texts”
23
), which touches not only a work’s text as such but a work’s concept too, Dediu deliberately cultivates
a certain ambiguity, a plurality of meanings increasing the level of complexity and lyricism of his
discourse. With these strategies and techniques Dediu in fact speaks about the human condition, about
the ephemeral and the eternal, about immanence and transcendence.

English version by Maria Monica Bojin

Eminescu poem title: © Corneliu M. Popescu
Hölderlin quotations: © William A. Siegler
Boris Vian quotation: © Maria Freij and Peter Hodges

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Barthes, R. (1977). The Death of the Autor. In R. Barthes, & S. Heath (Ed.), Image - Music - Text (S. Heath, Trans.,
pp. 142-148). New York: Hill and Wang.
Damasio, V. A. (2004). Eroarea lui Descartes (Descartes’ Error, 1994). București: Ed. Humanitas.
Daverio, J. (n.d.). Madness or prophecy? Schumann's Gesange der Fruhe, op. 133. (M. S. David Witten, Ed.)
Nineteenth-century Piano Music: Essays in Performance and Analysis, 197-199.
Dediu, D. (1991). Simfonia I „Lumini tainice” op. 24. București.
Dediu, D. (1995). Stabat mater op. 52 pentru cor a cappella.

22
If I say if. The Poems and Short Stories of Boris Viani. Ed. By Alistair Rolls, john West-Sooby and Jean Fornasiero; transl. by
Maria Freij and Peter Hodges; University of Adelaide Press, 2014, p.43).
23
“Tout texte est absorption et transformation d’un autre texte” (J. Kristeva, “Le mot, le dialogue et le roman”, in Séméiotiké:
recherches pour une sémanalyse, 85). „The text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centres of culture” (Roland
Barthes: “The Death of the Author” (1968), in Image - Music - Text. Edited and translated by Stephen Heath. New York: Hill and
Wang, 1977, 142-148; 146). See also O. Lupu, „The Quotation in Tiberiu Olah’s Sinfonia Giocosa (!?)”, în Studia Universitatis
Babeș Bolyai Musica, nr.1/2016, 265-282.

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Dediu, D. (1999). Funeral Music for Ernst A. Ekker op. 83 pentru mezzosoprană, flaut, vioară, violoncel, percuție
și pian.
Dediu, D. (1999). Unicorn's Agony. Canada: Lucian Badian Editions.
Dediu, D. (2000). O formă muzicală gotică pierdută: labirintul armonic. In D. Dediu, Radicalizare și Guerrilla (pp.
48-59). București: Editura Universității Naționale de Muzică București.
Dediu, D. (2005). Paesaggio con cacciatori op. 119 pentru violoncel și pian.
Dediu, D. (2006). Melodia, curs, Universitatea Națională de Muzică din București, 2006, p.70. București:
Universitatea Națională de Muzică București.
Goethe, J. W. (2018). Faust (Dover Thrift Editions ed.). (J. B. Kopito, Ed., & B. Taylor, Trans.) Johann Wolfgang
von Goethe, Faust, English translation by Bayard Taylor, Dover Thrift Editions, Ed. Janet B. Kopito; Dover
Publications, 2018, Part I, lines 1697-1626, p. 46-47: Dover Publications.
Kristeva, J. (n.d.). Le mot, le dialogue et le roman. Séméiotiké: recherches pour une sémanalyse, 85.
Lupu, O. (2011). Symbolism of Water in the Work of George Enescu. Proceedings of the George Enescu
International Musicology Symposium. I, pp. 71-78. București: Editura Muzicală.
Lupu, O. (2013). About the “Inner Beauty” in the life and creation of George Enescu. Musicology Today(9-12), 65-
88.
Lupu, O. (2016). Aspects of heterophonic syntax in the works of Ștefan Niculescu. Case study: Heterophonies for
Montreux. Musicology Today, VII(25-28).
Lupu, O. (2016). The Quotation in Tiberiu Olah’s Sinfonia Giocosa (!?). Studia Universitatis Babeș Bolyai
Musica(1), pp. 265-282.
Lupu, O. (2020). From Thanatos to Elysian Fields in Dan Dediu's Music. Thanatos in Contemporary Music: from
the Tragic to the Grotesque. Cluj-Napoca.
Mîrza, T. (1974). Folclor muzical din Bihor, Vaiet la soră. București: Editura Muzicală.
Nietzsche, F. (2002). Beyond Good and Evil. (R.-P. H. Norman, Ed.) 87.
Schopenhauer, A. (1851). Essay on Spirit Seeing and everything connected therewith. In A. Schopenhauer, Parerga
and Paralipomena (Vol. I).
V. Hillary, S. W. (2010). Coincidentia oppositorum. (K. M. David Leeming, Ed.) Encyclopedia of Psychology and
Religion, 157-159.
Xenakis, I. (1965). La Voie de la recherche et de la question. Preuves(177), pp. 33-36.
Xenakis, I. (1967). Vers une métamusique. La Nef(29).

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 DESTINS CROISÉS OU
„COMMENT L’AVENIR PEUT INFLUENCER
LE PASSÉ” DANS L’OPERA ORESTE & OEDIPE
DE CORNEL ȚĂRANU.1
DESPINA PETECEL THEODORU

RESUMÉE: La source des connexions que j’ai essayé

d’établir entre le sujet mythologique de l’opéra Oreste &
Œdipe et certains principes, théories, phénomènes
spécifiques à la mécanique quantique réside dans la vision
tout à fait unique projetée sur les destins des personnages,
notamment des deux héros principaux des tragédies
homonymes d’Eschyl2 (Oreste) et de Sophocle3 (Oedipe),
également par l’auteur du livret, le poète français Olivier
Apert, et le compositeur Cornel Țăranu.

MOTS-CLÉS: MYTHOLOGIE, MÉCANIQUE QUANTIQUE, PSYCHANALYSE

AFFINITÉS ÉLECTIVES

La collaboration avec le poète français Olivier Apert - une formule

d’affinité entre ce qu’il pensait et ce que je pensais pouvoir faire sur
son livret (Cornel Țăranu).

La musique de Cornel Țăranu était comme un coup de foudre

(Olivier Apert).
CEPENDANT, les affinités ne se limitent pas à leur aspect déclaratif, mais agissent comme un liant sine
qua non de l’évolution de l´intrigue mythologique, dans une construction de type palimpseste. La couche

1
Avant la création intégrale absolue en 2001, à Bucarest, lors de la Semaine Internationale de la Musique Nouvelle, l’opéra Oreste
& Oedipe a été présenté en Novembre 2000, en tant qu’opéra de chambre, fragmentaire (Actes I et II), dans le cadre du Festival
„Toamna Muzicală clujeană” („L´Automne Musicale à Cluj”), dans la Salle Studio de l’Académie de Musique „Gheorghe Dima”
de Cluj-Napoca, interprétée par l’Ensemble „Ars Nova”, sous la direction de son fondateur, le compositeur Cornel ȚĂRANU. De
la distribution faisaient partie Lavinia Cherecheș, Angela Tibrea, Gheorghe Roșu, Vasile Dinea et un groupe vocal du Chœur de
la Philharmonie „Transilvania”. En 2002, l’opéra a été représentée, sous forme de concert, sur la scène du Théâtre Français „Jean
Vilar”, à Vitry-sur-Seine, et dans la Grande Salle de la Mairie (Grande Place City Hall) à Bruxelles, en présence de fonctionnaires
du Conseil de l’Europe ainsi que d’une délégation roumaine. Après une autre première de Bucarest, lors de l´édition de 2003 du
Festival International „Georges Enesco”, Oreste & Oedipe a été mise en scène en 2007, en première mondiale, par Rareș Trifan,
dans le cadre du Festival International „Cluj Modern”, sur la scène de l’Opéra National de Cluj-Napoca, sous la direction du
compositeur, avec une scénographie signée par Carmencita Brojboiu, et une chorégraphie imaginée par Jakab Melinda. Solistes:
Marius Vlad Budoiu, Gheorghe Roșu, Iulia Merca, Irina Săndulescu Bălan, Mihaela Maxim, l’acteur Cornel Răileanu (entre
autres), ainsi qu’un certain nombre d’étudiants de la Faculté de Théâtre et de Télévision de l’Université „Babes-Bolyai”. Détails
sur cette version, dans: Ștefan Angi, Cornel Țăranu. Mărturisiri mozaicate, studii și eseuri, Cluj-Napoca, Eikon, 2014, pp. 190-
199. Pour plus d’informations sur les différentes mises en scène de l’opéra, voir op. cit., pp. 155-156. La reconnaissance suprême
de la valeur de la création monumentale de Cornel Țăranu a consisté, au-delà des éloges reçus des spécialistes du pays et de
l’étranger, dans la remise du Prix National des Arts – catégorie Musique – par le Gouvernement Roumain, le 22 mai 2008. En
2014, l’opéra a également bénéficié d’une impression sur CD produite par UCMR en collaboration avec la Société Roumaine de
Radiodiffusion, en fait la reprise de l’enregistrement live réalisé en 2003 à l’occasion du Festival International „Georges Enesco”.
Le CD fait partie du projet UCMR, „Anthology of Romanian Music”, coordonné par le compositeur Ulpiu VLAD. La performance
est due à l’Ensemble „Ars Nova” dirigée par Cornel Țăranu, et au Groupe choral du Chœur de la Philharmonie „Transilvania” de
Cluj-Napoca. Solistes: Gheorghe Roșu, Marius Vlad Budoiu, Lavinia Cherecheș, Ramona Eremia, Iulia Merca.
2
Sur les quelques 90 pièces qui lui ont été attribuées, seules sept ont survécu, dont la trilogie d´Oresteia composée d’Agamemnon,
Choefores et Euménides, les mêmes qui ont servi de base à la composition d´Aurel Stroe, entre 1973 et 1988, de la Trilogie de la
Citadelle fermée (Orestia).
3
Outre les chefs-d’œuvres faisant l’objet de sa trilogie – Oedipe Roi, Oedipe à Colonne et Antigone – Sophocle est également
l’auteur de la tragédie d’Electra dans laquelle il reprend la légende antique, d´origine homérique, traitée par Eschyl dans Oresteia.
Olivier Apert a témoigné que cette variante l’a en fait inspiré à façonner le caractère ferme, incisif, intransigeant et audacieux du
personnage d’Electra de la création de Cornel Țăranu.

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mythologique princeps du palimpseste a également servi à nos auteurs comme support pour accomplir
ce que Paul Ricoeur appelle „la réeffectuassions/ ré figuration du passé dans le présent”, même si la
reconstruction des événements, par l’appel de l’historien à une anamnèse fondée sur „l’imagination
historique”4, mêle la réalité avec la fiction, devenant „plus ou moins approchées de ce qui était un jour
«réel»”5. D’autre part, en vertu du „temps imaginaire” (Hawking, Visul lui Einstein și alte eseuri, 2005,
p. 88) dans le quantum, proposé par Einstein, „l’univers [contiendrait] toutes les histoires possibles”
(Hawking, Visul lui Einstein și alte eseuri, 2005, p. 88), d’où l’éventualité de „l’implication du passé
par l’avenir”6.
La communion d’idées entre le librettiste et le compositeur, fondée à la fois sur la vaste
compréhension et la maîtrise des domaines de l’art, de la culture, de la philosophie et, surtout, sur la
„formule d’affinité” entre les deux, a donné naissance à une architecture sonore „plissée”, comme dirait
Deleuze7, avec des paliers pluristratifiés, sémiotiques et ontologiques différents: crimes et leur
rédemption par un effort de mémoire (souvenir-rappel) et de volonté de dépasser les limites de la
temporalité, pour voyager du futur au passé8, grâce à l’espace-temps „courbe”9, la triplicité temporelle
de type augustinien10, l’introspection, la recherche de la vérité identitaire, d’où la question
obsessionnelle du leitmotiv „qui suis-je”?, „qui êtes-vous”?, que se posent Oreste, Electre, Œdipe dans
les deux premiers actes de l’opéra, et, surtout, des rocades/ transferts caractériels/psychiques de
personnages, comparables, à mon avis, au phénomène des particules enchevêtrées ou emmêlées11 de
deux systèmes quantiques à d´énormes distances, et qui ”n’ont jamais coexisté” 12. En fait, cette dernière
idée semble avoir séduit Olivier Apert, probablement instinctivement, lorsqu’il a élaboré le livret de
l’opéra: „J’ai été intéressé par la rencontre de ces deux figures mythologiques fictives, précisément parce
qu’Oreste et Œdipe ne se sont jamais rencontrés”.
L’arrivée des protagonistes dans un présent intemporel, tous deux venant d’un „futur accompli”
avec... les faits d’un passé condamnable, impliquent non seulement l’analyse introspective de la

4
Cf. R. G. Collingwood, dans: The Idea of History, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1946, p. 236, apud Paul Ricoeur, Temps et
récit, III, Le temps raconté, Paris, Seuil, 1985, p. 259.
5
Cf. Paul Ricoeur, op. cit., p. 183: „...les constructions de l’historien ont l’ambition d´être des reconstructions plus ou moins
approchées de ce qui un jour fut «réel»”.
6
Cf. Paul Ricoeur, op. cit., p. 127. Pour plus de détails, voir note 10, infra.
7
Le philosophe français Gilles Deleuze définit le concept de pli, comme „un perpétuel ré-enchaînement”, qui permet l’accès au le
lien le plus rigoureux entre le singulier et le pluriel, le neutre et la répétition”. Dans: Gilles Deleuze, Faucoult, Paris, Minuit,
1986, p. 23, apud Alain Badiou, Deleuze. „La clameur de l'́Être”, Paris, Hachette, 1997, p. 123 et après.
8
Pour plus de détails voir, entre autres écrits sur ce sujet, le livre signé par Stephen Hawking-Leonard Mlodinow, a Short History
of Time, traduction en roumain par Gheorghe Stratan, Bucarest, Humanitas, 2010, notamment le chap. 10, Trous de ver et voyage
dans le Temps, pp. 124-125 et suiv.
9
Dans la conception d’Einstein, „le champ gravitationnel est désigné par l’espace-temps courbe”, ce qui représenterait „l’histoire
de tout l’univers” rendant „possible le voyage dans le passé”. Idem, ibid., pp. 123-130.
10
Il s’agit de la doctrine de Saint Augustin (sec I, av. J.-C.) relative au „triple présent”, exposé dans des énoncés d’un modernisme
surprenant dans ses Confessions, XI, synthétisés par Ricoeur en op. cit., p. 126: présent de l’avenir, présent du passé et présent du
présent. – Mais, je pense qu´il vaut mieux suivre quelques extraits de la version originale des Confessions augustiniennes: „... une
chose est claire et évidente: ni l’avenir, ni le passé n’existent. C’est pourquoi (...) il serait peut-être préférable de dire qu’il y a
trois temps, à savoir le présent des choses passées, le présent des choses présentes, et le présent des choses futures. Ces trois
modes du temps existent dans l’esprit et je ne vois pas où d’autre; le présent des choses passées est la mémoire, le présent des
choses présentes est la contemplation directe et le présent des choses futures est l’état d’attente”. Encore plus intéressantes pour
notre démonstration, je trouve les affirmations du philosophe médiéval néoplatonicien, sur la mesure du temps: „Mais, quand nous
le mesurons, d’où vient le temps, où il passe et où va-t-il? D’où viendra-t-il, sinon de l’avenir? Où passer, sinon par le présent?
Où aller, sinon vers le passé”? (nous s.-D.P.). Je vous recommande de consulter aussi l’édition bilingue, latino-roumaine, des
Confessions, dans la traduction d’Eugen Munteanu, Bucarest, Humanitas, 2018, chap. XX, Formulation concluante des
dissociations à ce jour, p. 569, et chap. 21, Sur la difficulté de trouver une unité-étalon pour mesurer le temps, p. 571. La doctrine
augustinienne a également influencé KANT (adepte du ”temps objectif”/”temps physique”), Husserl (partisan de la „conscience
du temps”, du „temps psychologique”, intérieur) et Heidegger (théoricien du temps existentiel de l’Être „d’être là” /Dasein) – une
conception intermédiaire entre le temps psychologique de type augustinien et le temps aristotélique, associé/ dépendant du
mouvement, développé dans son célèbre livre Sein und Zeit/ Être et Temps (Bucarest, Humanitas, 2002, traduction en roumain par
Gabriel Liiceanu et Cătălin Cioabă). Paul Ricoeur accorde un espace de près de 200 pages à l’analyse des théories des trois géants
de la philosophie allemande, qui ont au cœur les Confessions D’augustin. La I-ère séction, L ́apporétique de temporalité, leur est
entièrement réservée. Chap. 1: Temps de l’âme et temps du monde. Le débat entre Augustin et Aristote, pp. 21-42; chap: 2. Temps
intuitif ou temps invisible? Husserl face à Kant, pp. 43-109; chap. 3: Temporalité, historialité, intra-temporalité. Heidegger et le
concept «vulgaire» du temps, dans: op. cit., pp. 110-187.
11
L’expression a été lancée en 1935 par le physicien autrichien Erwin Schrödinger avec Albert Einstein, et a été développée par
un autre physicien autrichien, Anton Zeilinger (né en 1945), dans son étude Light for the quantum. Entangled photons applications:
a very personal perspective/ Lumière pour quantum. Photons et leurs applications: une perspective très personnelle, publiée dans
Physica Scripta, vol. 92, No. 7, Académie Royale Suédoise des Sciences/ 2017. „À partir de mes premières expériences avec des
neutrons, je me suis intéressé plus tard à l’enchevêtrement quantique, d’abord avec plusieurs particules. L’expérience a ouvert la
possibilité d’une téléportation quantique qui peut enchevêtrer deux paires de particules qui n’ont pas de passé commun”.
12
Idem.

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reconnaissance13 lucide de ce passé compromis – le matricide (Oreste) et le parricide (Œdipe) – mais

aussi les effets de ce „voyage dans le temps”, concrétisés dans une série de bouleversements de
situations14 spectaculaires, décisifs dans l´évolution des destins humains de la plupart des tragédies
grecques antiques.
Ce qui provoque de tels bouleversements dans l’œuvre de Cornel Țăranu, c’est, pour revenir
aux réflexions de Ricoeur, l’acte de ”revivre le passé en l’évoquant par plusieurs personnes à la fois,
l’une aidant l’autre à se souvenir d’événements ou de connaissances partagés, le souvenir de l’un servant
de rappel des souvenirs de l’autre” (Ricoeur, Memoria, istoria uitarea, 2001, p. 56).
La manière dont le librettiste et le compositeur ont compris de transcender les limites littérales
de „l’intrigue”, des histoires mythologiques favorise et oriente sans équivoque le sens herméneutique de
l’analyse sur la piste de la transdisciplinarité qui, selon la définition de Basarab Nicolescu, est „ce qui se
situe en même temps et entre les disciplines, et dans les différentes disciplines, et au-delà de toute
discipline” (Nicolescu, 2007). Or, ce qui a particulièrement attiré mon attention, dans ma démarche
analytique, c’est précisément la „dynamique provoquée par l’action simultanée de plusieurs niveaux de
Réalité” (Ricoeur, Memoria, istoria uitarea, 2001, p. 54), découverte dans l’opéra Oreste & Œdipe. Et,
quel d´autre champ plus suggestif pour la possibilité de l’interaction d´existences distantes dans le temps
et l’espace, comme des lignes parallèles, mais qui, par un artifice de calcule convergent à un moment
donné, à un point lointain de l’infini, que les principes de la physique quantique?! (Hawking &
Mlodinow, Scurtă istorie a timpului, 2010, pp. 20-29)

PARADOXES DE LA PHYSIQUE QUANTIQUE

L’une des théories révolutionnaires de la physique moderne, aux côtés de celle de la mécanique
quantique, des cordes, des supercordes et du multivers (universes parallèles/ alternatifs), est celle qui
postule que „tout dans l’Univers se comporte simultanément comme particule et onde”, les deux
hypostases coexistant dans des états différents, dans des univers différents.15 Ou, pour citer l’une des
conclusions du physicien autrichien Anton Zeilinger, l’un des prodigieux scientifiques, reconnu par les
forums internationaux les plus prestigieux de physique quantique, en particulier pour sa contribution au
développement du concept connu sous le nom d’échange d´enchevêtrements (emmêlées) de photons16 –
„une particule se manifeste comme si elle avait plusieurs états indéfinis, en suspension”.

13
Selon Aristote, „la reconnaissance est un passage de l’ignorance à la science [connaissance]” et constitue le „dénouement”
d’une „action [tragique] complexe”. Dans: Aristotel, Poetica, traduction en roumain par D. M. Pippidi, Bucarest, IRI, 1998, X,
1452 a, 15, p. 78. De son côté, Paul Ricoeur partage la théorie de Heidegger sur l’acte de reconnaissance, qu’il rattache au concept
de répétition, qui „rouvre le passé vers l’avenir” (nous s.-D.P.). Détails dans: op. cit., p. 139. Le philosophe français affirme
également que „le phénomène de reconnaissance nous envoie ainsi à l’énigme du souvenir en tant que présence de l’absent
précédemment rencontré, et que «la chose» reconnue est deux fois autre: comme absente (autre que la présence) et comme
antérieure (autre que le présent)”. Dans: Paul Ricoeur, Mémoire, histoire, oubli, traduction en roumain par Ilie et Margareta
Gyurcsik, Timisoara, Armarcord, 2001, p. 57.
14
Se référant aux „parties du sujet [d’une tragédie]”, Aristote e désigne comme „les principaux moyens par lesquels la tragédie
tourne les âmes”, en plus des „scènes de reconnaissance”, les „bouleversements de situations” qui „doivent résulter de la
composition du sujet, de sorte que l’un et l’autre découlent des faits passés avant” (nous s.- D.P.). Idem, ibid., VI, 1450 a, 30, p.
73. Et plus loin: „La péripétie ou le bouleversement est un changement de ceux qui se sont produits à leur contraire” (nous s. D.P.).
Du point de vue du Stagirite, „la reconnaissance la plus accomplie est celle qui s’accompagne d’un revirement, comme c’est le
cas d´Œdipe”, et qui „fait peur à la miséricorde et à la peur de ces passions”. Idem, ibid., XI, 1452 a, 25, 30, p. 79, et VI, 1449 b,
25, p. 71. Autres considérations intéressantes sur le concept de „reconnaissance”, utiles pour le thème de la communication
actuelle, dans: Alain Compagnon, Le démon de la théorie, Paris, Seuil, 1998, chap. 3. Le Monde. La mímésis comme
reconnaissance, pp. 133-140. Le critique littéraire français évoque, „en plus de la reconnaissance par le héros dans l’intrigue (...),
celle du thème par le lecteur dans la réception de l’intrigue”, dans laquelle „le rapport début-fin devient manifeste, plus
précisément, lorsque le mythe devient diànoia [c’est-à-dire la connaissance rationnelle et discursive – nous s.-D.P.], forme
unificatrice, vérité générale” (op. cit., p. 135).
15
À la suite d’expériences avec des photons, le scientifique américain John Wheeler (1911-2008) - physicien célèbre pour ses
contributions à la physique nucléaire, à l’optique, à la théorie de la relativité générale et gravitationnelle, poursuivant les recherches
menées par Albert Einstein et Nathan Rosen sur les trous noirs et les trous de ver - constate qu’ils (les photons) peuvent être à
deux endroits en même temps à la fois comme ondes et comme particules. Wheeler a placé des photons (particules de lumière)
devant un écran équipé de deux fentes étroites par lesquelles la lumière était projetée, et qui devait déterminer... l’option des
photons de se comporter soit comme une onde, soit comme une particule. Le résultat a été qu’après avoir passé, à tour de rôle, le
premier écran, sous forme d’onde, les photons se sont manifestés comme des particules, en l´absence du deuxième écran, activé
uniquement au hasard. L’essentiel était que ces atomes traversaient les deux fentes en même temps, étant donc à deux endroits à
la fois. Détails de ce qu’on appelle „l’expérience à deux fentes”, de la „dualité onde/particule de la mécanique quantique”, ou de
„l’interférence entre deux ensembles de particules”, dans: Stephen Hawking-Leonard MLODINOW, op. cit., chap. 9, Gravité
quantique, pp. 105-110 et suiv.
16
Voir aussi note 9, supra.

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Une autre expérience17 conduit, par exemple, à la conclusion stupéfiante que „l’état de l’atome
d’hélium en tant qu´onde ou corpuscule” serait déterminé, avec précision, par quelque chose qui ne s’est
pas encore produit, mais qui devrait se produire à l’avenir. D’où la conclusion que l’avenir peut
influencer le passé, en mettant également en œuvre l’hypothèse plutôt controversée de la réversibilité
du temps qui pourrait/ devrait revenir en arrière. Mais, ce qui constitue encore un souhait, même pour
les chercheurs du phénomène, car, pour voyager dans le temps, ils auraient besoin de connaître le secret
pour dépasser la vitesse de la lumière, c’est aussi naturel et réalisable que possible dans le domaine de
la composition, à travers les formules de rétrogradation et de récurrence appliquées à une série de motifs
et de phrases musicaux, technique rencontrée également dans l’œuvre de Cornel Țăranu.

DESTINS CROISÉS OU „ENCHEVÊTRÉS” DANS L’OPÉRA ORESTE &OEDIPE

Je ne sais pas dans quelle mesure le librettiste et le compositeur ont pensé aux lois de la mécanique
quantique lors de la conception de l’opéra, mais, les moyens de composition et de langage 18 utilisés et
appliqués à tous les participants aux tragédies mises en jeu, synthétisent et „paraphent” les
caractéristiques de beaucoup d’entre eux, puisque le produit fini ressemble de façon frappante à un
édifice dédié à au double „voyage dans le temps”: non seulement du présent de l’avenir dans le présent
du passé, mais aussi du présent du présent dans le présent de l’avenir19 – ce qui témoigne d’une intuition
extraordinaire de la part des deux auteurs.
Oreste et Œdipe descendent donc de ce futur compromis – attribut confirmé par la
reconnaissance des crimes commis par chacun dans le passé – avec le désir explicite de les corriger une
fois dans le „présent pur”, celui d’avant le déclenchement de tous les horreurs, sur eux-mêmes, ainsi que
sur les habitants des Citadelles d’origine: Mycene (Oreste) et Theba (Œdipe).
Oreste: „J’ai supporté Egist, le tyran absent”; Je suis coupable, je l’admets”! (Acte IIIème, scène
III, n° 1 et Acte IVème, scène nº 4); Œdipe: ”Je suis coupable. Je l’admets ; Je suis prêt à le jurer! Mais
moi, je ne tuerai jamais mon père” (Acte Ier, scène nº 3); Oreste: „Je ne peux pas te tuer”! (à
Clytemnestre, Acte IIIème, scène nº 1); Œdipe: „Assez! Je reviendrai, je détesterai le règne arbitraire et
j’installerai l’ordre!” (Acte IVème, scène nº 4).
L’ambiguïté plane sur le déroulement de l’action, dès le début de l’opéra, lorsque les couples
Agamemnon-Laïos, Oreste-Œdipe croisent leurs existences, leurs histoires alternatives vécues dans des
dimensions spatio-temporelles différentes, sans le soupçonner jusqu’à ce qu’ils se retrouvent à atteindre
simultanément un présent du passé. Captivant par son degré d’étrangeté est l’acte d’accusation auto-
imposée, dès le débuts de l’opéra (Acte Ier, scène nº 2), par Agamemnon - le roi de la Cité de Mycènes,
et Laïos - roi de Thèbes: „deux voyageurs, certainement des étrangers”, téléportés dans un monde
étranger, dans lequel ils se sentent „étrangers”, et qui s’approchent d’une foule (le Chœur), elle aussi
intemporelle, curieuse de savoir „d’où viennent-ils, de l’Ouest, du Nord ou du Sud?”20, c’est-à-dire de
nulle part, mais qui, en avançant, „s’éloignent”, en fait, en eux eux-mêmes”; tout comme une voix
impersonnelle, peut-être du Destin, ou d’une entité supérieure prononce, avec l’agitation et la tristesse
de quelqu’un qui a eu une tangence avec ce niveau de Réalité terrestre, ou qui voit dans le passé et dans

17
Il s’agit d’une équipe de physiciens de l’Université Nationale Australienne, qui a placé l’atome d’hélium devant deux faisceaux
laser, le second étant activé au hasard. Lorsque les deux faisceaux laser fonctionnaient, les atomes se manifestaient comme des
ondes, et lorsque le deuxième faisceau laser était enlevé, l’atome se manifestait comme une particule, alors même qu’il passait
devant la première grille. Stupéfaits, les auteurs de l’expérience ont admis que c’était „comme si l’atome d’hélium aurait pu voir
dans le futur” l’existence du deuxième gril! Autres détails sur ce phénomène bizarre, dans: Stephen Hawking-Leonard Mlodinow,
op. cit., pp. 97-109.
18
Sur les complexités de la structure compositionnelles et esthétique de l’œuvre de Cornel Țăranu, vous pouvez apprendre des
détails précieux des études professionnelles de haute tenue dues aux musicologues de Cluj-Napoca, Ștefan Angi, dans Opera de
chambre „Oreste & Œdipe” de Cornel Țăranu, publié dans une première version, concentrée, dans la revue Musica No. 2/2002,
pp. 34-62, thème repris ultérieurement dans une analyse approfondie et détaillée à la fois des symbolismes des deux tragédies et
des repères essentiels de la partition, dans le volume Cornel Țăranu. Confessions en mosaïque, études et essais, pp. 146-199, et
Ecaterina Banciu, l´étude intitulée Cornel Țăranu – „Orestes & Œdipes”, publiée dans Musicology Papers, Cluj-Napoca, vol. 30,
No. 2/ 2015, pp. 7-21. Une approche comparative des mythes d’Œdipe et d’Oreste, tels qu´ils ont été traités par Eschyle, Sophocle
et Euripide dans les tragédies homonymes, est due au poète Ruxandra Cesereanu, qui signe l’essai Oreste et Œdipe: différences,
similitudes, contaminations, dans la revue Echinox, vol. 17/2012, pp. 1-12, imprimée sous l’égide du Centre de Recherche
Imaginaire, Phantasma, inauguré en 2002 à l’Université Babeș-Bolyai de Cluj-Napoca. L’essai comprend également un certain
nombre de considérations relatives à la pièce d’Olivier Apert, Oreste & Œdipe.
19
Pour plus de détails sur le „triple présent”, voir note 10, supra.
20
Spécifique au monde antique, la curiosité se retrouve partout et dans l´opéra Œdipe de Georges Enesco, et l’un des exemples
les plus suggestifs lui donne la soi-disant „enquête” du berger, déclenchée par Œdipe lui-même dans l’acte IIIème de l’opéra:
„Reconnais-tu cet homme”? [il s´agit de Phorbas, le berger à qui Oedipe a été confié après sa naissance, pour être tué, mais qui l’a
effectivement sauvé]. „Cet enfant... tu lui as donné? (...). „Tu l’as reçu ? Et qui te l’a remis”? (Dans l’original, l´enquête d’Œdipe
continue: „De quel habitant de cette ville? De quelle maison”? (famille – n.n.-D.P.). Extraits du livret en français d’Edmond Fleg,
joint aux deux CD de l’enregistrement de l’œuvre enescienne par EMI, en 1990, dans la version dirigée par Lawrence Foster, avec
José van Dam (Oedipe), Brigitte Fassbaender (Jocaste) et Marjana Lipovsek (La Sphinge).

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le futur: „ici, en bas [sur terre], l’homme reste toujours étranger à lui-même.” – Agamemnon à Laïos,
ou/et à la foule: „Moi, Agamemnon, je dis que c’est une génération très triste qu´on avait naître là-bas”.21
- Laïos à Agamemnon: „Moi, Laïos, j´affirme que je reconnais mon erreur. Et la honte m´envahit de ne
pas avoir su l’empêcher”.22 Mais, le moment de l’entrée en scène des deux fils (acte Ier, scène nº 3)
produit encore un autre ”bouleversement de situation” important, qui entraîne la perception ”emmêlée”
des catégories de Temps, comme effet possible de ”l’intervention du Dieu dans le destin des mortels,
qui modifie leur temporalité”23.
Leur dialogue a une connotation évasive, il est frappant, mais il est aussi naturel, si on le regarde
du point de vue de la théorie quantique! Agamemnon et Laïos s’adressent à la foule, mais aussi à leurs
fils, qu’ils donnent l’impression de voir à l’horizon, qu’ils connaissent et ne reconnaissent pas, bien qu’il
ressorte clairement de leurs répliques qu’ils seraient au courant de leurs actes répréhensibles, mais aussi
de ce qu’ils ne devraient pas faire du point de vue du futur présent. En d’autres termes, les pères
perçoivent soudainement la phase innocente, d’avant l’heure fatale, comme l’exclame Œdipe dans
l’opéra d’Enesco24, et la phase „coupable”, de l´acte commis dans le passé; ils vivent donc dans le passé,
le présent et dans l’avenir – les trois temps définis par saint Augustin dans ses „Confessions XI”25: „Moi,
Agamemnon, je ne le connais pas! Fils”!/ ”Moi, Laïos, je le reconnais! Fils”! L’attente d’Agamemnon,
qu’Oreste n’agisse pas conformément aux lois de la Cité de la Grèce antique26 („J´attends tout de toi!
Fils”!; „et si je savais où tu allais! Fils”!), croise, également, dans l’acte Ier, avec la „peur” de Laïos
qu’Œdipe, son fils, accomplisse la prophétie d’Apollon („J´ai peur pour toi! Fils!; Surtout ne te retourne
pas! Fils”!27.
Au milieu de formules superposées de sextolets roulés dans des avalanches, au hautbois, au
basson, à l’orchestre, dans une course répétitive en contrepoint, Œdipe demande à Oreste, avec un cri
déchirant rendu à travers une sixte mineure ascendante-descendante, ré-si bémol/ si bémol-ré, anticipé
par la seconde majeure la bémol-si bémol, répété sur le même intervalle, à l’unisson avec les cris du
trombone et du cor, comme l’exigeraient les „rituels” de la trilogie d’Eschyle28: „Pourquoi me regardes-
tu comme ça?” (...). „Qui est-tu”? Et, un peu plus loin, dans quelques passages emphatiques, un plus
énigmatique, en quarts de ton: „La ville de Thèbes déjà m’appartient”, et, dans deux autres, qui
démontrent qu’il a apporté l’avenir au présent du passé, ou du passé au présent de l’avenir: „N’avez-
vous pas entendu parler de moi?” (avec arrêt sur un ré bémol aigu, de décime diminuée). „Je suis la voix
du peuple, qui n’attend que moi!” (composé de tierces mineures, en triolets de croches répétés et conclus
sur un ré bémol aigu, mais d’octave diminuée). Aussi agressive, rugueux, ironique que soit l’intervention
d’Œdipe, aussi métaphoriquement sinueuse (dans des sauts d’octaves ascendants et descendants), est la
réponse d’Oreste: „Si je te regarde, est-ce bien toi que je regarde. Sais-tu jusqu´où le regard porte?”.

21
Ce „là-bas” alimente le dilemme, qui se maintiendra tout au long du parcours de l’opéra, car il inclut Laïos, quand il dit ”nos
erreurs”, comme s’il le connaissait, bien que, comme Oreste et Œdipe, Agamemnon et Laïos ne se soient jamais rencontrés. Leur
retour, en même temps, du présent de l’avenir au présent du passé explique l´existence simultanée, dans des univers parallèles, de
deux êtres complètement différents, dont l’un pourrait être la projection de l’autre, dans une hypostase différente.
22
L’erreur à laquelle Laïos fait référence est liée au mépris, par Labdacus – héritier du trône de Thèbes, père de Laïos et grand-
père d’Œdipe – de la „malédiction héréditaire” prophétisée par Apollon, selon laquelle Labdacus „devait mourir sans enfant”. En
conséquence, tous ses descendants – Œdipe, Polynice, Etéocle et Antigone, les trois derniers, enfants „incestueux” d’Œdipe -
seront poursuivis par la malédiction et paieront de leur vie les péchés de leurs ancêtres, les Labdaciens. Dans la mentalité de la
société athénienne du Ve siècle av. J.-C., „la vengeance était un devoir et une exigence religieuse”, remplie „par le meurtre”, une
sorte de „dent pour dent”; sinon, „la dette restera infinie”, et celui qui lui échappera pourra même être soumis à la „peine capitale”
(i.e. le „châtiment suprême”). Détails dans: Maurice Croiset, Oedipe-Roi de Sophocle, Paris, Mellotté, 1939, chap. II, La tragédie
sophocléenne. Vers 440, pp.72-73 et suiv.
23
Cf. Pindare, Néméenne VIIe, apud Gilbert Romeyer Dherbey, La parole archaïque, Paris, PUF (Presse Universitaire de France),
1999, p. 9.
24
Dans l’acte IIème de l’opéra, Oedipe partage à Merope – sa mère adoptive, dont le statut lui était totalement inconnu – qu’il
partira: „Je partirai, avant l’heure fatale” (allusion à l’avis reçu, dans le rêve, d’Apollon au sujet de son avenir sombre, de devenir
„l’assassin de son père, et le mari de sa mère... ”.
25
Revoir la note 10, supra.
26
Voir la note 22, supra.
27
Laïos veut lui dire de ne pas retourner de Corinthe à Thèbes, c’est-à-dire de sa patrie d’adoption dans son véritable pays natal,
dont il ignorait l’identité, comme sa propre identité. Dans le Monologue de l’opéra enescienne, Œdipe a un moment d’hésitation
avant de poursuivre son chemin vers les portes de Thèbes: „Retourner sur mes pas?... Oui, retourner ! Je puis retourner...”. Mais,
l’idée que la prophétie n’est qu’un „piège du Dieu”, le pousse à poursuivre son chemin, croyant qu’en s´éloignant de son supposé
pays d’origine, il pourra éviter le Destin prédit, car, comme l’affirme Pindar, „le pouvoir des dieux conduit, en se jouer, à son
terme, ce que l'homme n ó se ni promettre, ni espérer” (cf. Pindare, Olympique XIII, 82-83, apud Gilbert Romeyer Dherbey, op.
cit., p. 6).
28
„... des rites spéciaux mentionnés par Eschyle, tel que celui qui concerne les vents, et qui consiste en un cri saluant, entre autres,
la délivrence de la maison d’Agamemnon ... purifiée par la vengeance d’Oreste ... ”. Cf. E. MOUTSOPOULOS, La philosophie
de la musique dans la dramaturgie antique, Paris, Librairie Philosophique Jean Vrin, 1999, Une philosophie de la musique chez
Eschyle. I. La présence du passé, p. 12 et suiv.

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Toutes ces reconnaissances et décisions post-factum, analogues à un véritable processus…

d´ingénierie génétique (!), marquent ”le moment crucial de la tragédie, d’où le chemin vers ce qui aurait
pu être, et le chemin vers ce qui sera, sera considéré simultanément”29.

LA QUALITÉ DES MOTIFS MUSICAUX D’ÊTRE SIMULTANÉMENT ICI ET LÀ,

TOUT COMME
LA PARTICULE ET L’ONDE DE LA THÉORIE DE LA MÉCANIQUE QUANTIQUE

Tout comme Georges Enesco, dont la pensée musicale réflexive, synthétique, essentielle, et dont le
langage compositionnel élégant, simple et expressif semblent se tenir, du moins dans „l’œuvre de sa
vie”, Œdipe, sous l’influence du „lyrisme dorien” (Croiset, 1939, p. 267), correspondant à la pensée et
au langage poétique de Sophocle30, Cornel Țăranu, dont Enesco fait partie depuis très longtemps du
”système vasculaire”31, Enesco fait partie depuis très longtemps32 a construit son opéra de chambre selon
un plan tout aussi simple, économique, avec des motifs multifonctionnels (je ne les appellerais pas
leitmotivs, et j’expliquerai aussi pourquoi) couvrant, avec un minimum de moyens de composition33, une
multitude d’aspects idéatiques, poétiques, psychologiques, technico-expressifs, rythmiques-mélodiques,
modaux34, même ceux liés aux instruments à vent, flûte, clarinette, hautbois, cor, basson, trombone ayant
la même fonction expressive - pathétique ou exultant, „avec une éthos équivoque quand joyeux ou
funèbre, quand suave ou effrayant”35 – mais aussi morale36, comme dans les tragédies grecques antiques.
D’innombrables études et articles ont été rédigés par des spécialistes prestigieux, sur les couples
de leitmotivs détectables dans l’opéra Oreste & Œdipe. Parmi eux, l’esthéticien et philosophe Ștefan
Angi37, et la musicologue Ecaterina Banciu38, tous les deux représentants du milieu universitaire musical
de Cluj-Napoca. Dans la symbiose des motifs caractéristiques des personnages Oreste et Œdipe, de
l’œuvre de Cornel Țăranu, choisis comme exemples par les deux musicologues, il se passe cependant
quelque chose d’aussi étrange qu’intéressant. La formule rythmique affirmative (sol dièse-la-ré dièse),

29
„...la tragédie parvienne jusqu´à un Augenblick ou moment crucial, à partir duquel le chemin vers ce qui aurait pu être, et le
chemin vers ce qui sera, seront vus simultanément” (Cf. Northrop Frye, Anatomy of Criticism, Princeton University Press, 1957/
Anatomie de la Critique, pp. 259-260. Apud Antoine Compagnon, op. cit., p. 135).
30
„Sa langue charme par un mélange de souplesse et de force, de hardiesse et de mesure, de douceur et gravité, de puissance
pathétique et de belle sonorité/ Sa langue charme à travers un mélange de souplesse et de force, d’audace et de mesure, de douceur
et de gravité, de force pathétique et de sonorité charmante”. Cf. Maurice Croiset, op. cit., p. 268.
31
Déclaration d´Enesco pour exprimer l´effet de la musique de Wagner sur lui.
32
La première approche de Cornel Țăranu sur le style et le langage de composition de Georges Enesco, remonte aux années 1970-
1980, quand il a réalisé la version pour piano et voix du poème-oratoire Les Revenants, sur les paroles d’Eminescu, d’après le
manuscrit d´Enesco conservé en photocopie au Musée „Georges Enesco” de Bucarest (en 2018, Cornel Țăranu a crédité le
compositeur Sabin Pautza d´orchestrer cette première variante vocale-instrumentale. La partition a été imprimée en 2018 à la
Maison d´Édition Salabert de Paris, et à la Maison d’Édition Musicale de Bucarest, sous la forme de l’Oratoire pour récitateur,
baryton, soprano, ténor et orchestre). En 1991, Cornel Țăranu orchestre les parties Ière et IVe de la Cinquième Symphonie pour
ténor, chœur de femmes et orchestre, sur des paroles d’Eminescu, et en 1996, il orchestre le Caprice roumain pour violon et
orchestre, en collaboration avec le violoniste Sherban Lupu.
33
Aux moyens précisés dans le texte ci-dessus, j’ajouterais que, comme dans l’opéra Œdipe d’Enesco, dans Oreste & Œdipe de
Cornel Țăranu prédominent les triolets des huitièmes ou des seizièmes, quintettes et sextolets/septolets, intervalles de tierces
majeures et mineures, quarts et quintes parfaites ou diminuées, septièmes majeures et mineures, octaves, ainsi que des sons altérés
soit avec des bémols ou dièses, sauts d´intervalles à l’intérieur et à l’extérieur de l’octave, tout ça gravitant, de préférence, autour
des sons ré, la, si, do, mi, fa, dans différents registres et combinaisons d´intervalles et de timbres, circulaire, en spirale, ou en
lignes brisées, obliques, esquissant des géométries plus incisives ou plus douces, plus intérieurisées, avec des inflexions modales
associées, parfois, aux effets de sprächgesang, et pas dans la dernière rangée, les quarts de ton, par exemple dans l’acte Ier, quand
Œdipe se vante devant Oreste: „La ville de Thèbes/ déjà m´appartient”; et là aussi: „c’est toi qui me prône cela”! (Œdipe fait
référence à l’exhortation d’Oreste à ne pas hésiter de tuer son père, ”pour que la malédiction s’achève en fin”! En ce qui concerne
l´origine de la malédiction, voir note 22, supra.
34
„Le modalisme est mon langage ordinaire”, et il est confirmé non seulement par sa présence dans la plupart des œuvres de
Cornel Țăranu, mais aussi par les affirmations du compositeur, comme celle-ci, enregistrée par Radu Constantinescu, pour le
Journal Financier (de Dimanche) du 3 novembre 2006.
35
„...son éthos, tour à tour gai ou funèbre, suave ou terrible”. Détails dans: E. Moutsoupoulos, op. cit., p. 75 et suiv.
36
Parlant de la philosophie de la musique dans l’œuvre de Sophocle, Moutsoupoulos ajoute à la considération relative à la fonction
de l’éthos d'exprimer „la douleur du héros”, le caractère moral des instruments à vent: „...le caractère moral des instruments en
question” [„instruments à vent”]. Détails dans: op. cit., chap. Sophocle et la philosophie de la musique, 4. L ́univers musical, p. 74
et suiv.
37
Ștefan Angi (1933-2020) les appelle des „ponctuations leitmotiviques”, qui contribuent au „développement musical des
caractères des héros”, et commence par l’annonce d’Oreste dans l’acte IIe, „Me voici”, sur le motif inversé duquel apparaît Oedipe:
„Je suis là”. Détails dans: Actualitatea muzicală/ Actualité musicale, section Rhétorique des leitmotifs, pp. 48-49.
38
Conformément aux idées de Stefan Angi, Ecaterina Banciu associe, à son tour, les deux motifs, soulignant que le motif d’Oedipe,
„dérivé de celui d’Oreste, par un saut vers le bas, relie les deux personnages principaux”. Détails dans: op. cit., pp. 16-17.

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par laquelle Oreste annonce, dans l’acte IIe, son arrivée devant Electre, „ma sœur, ma louve”: „Me voici”
(ex. no. 1)

Ex. No.1: Voir aussi, l´exemple 23, infra.

...sert aussi à Oreste, et toujours dans l’acte IIe, mais dans une formule interrogative: „Où
aller?”/ „Où dois-je aller”? (ex. no. 2), qui n´est ni renversée, ni récurrente, mais plutôt entrelacée ou
emmêlée (sol dièse-ré dièse-la), car, aussi étrange qu´il puisse paraître, dans ces trois notes mobiles,
interchangeables, les Mêmes et pourtant Autres, s´entrelacent trois destins parallèles: celui d´Electre,
d´Oreste et d´Œdipe, que le paradoxe quantique et l´imagination créatrice, ont réussi à réunir dans un
seul interstice de temps.

Ex. No. 2: Voir aussi, l´exemple 22, infra.

La formule de l´exemple nº 1 est également reprise par Oedipe, dans le même acte, mais à
l´octave supérieure, pour dire „Je suis là”, encadrée par une configuration d´intervalles presque similaire,
étant donné qu´elle est composée d´une quinte diminuée suivie d´un saut de sixte diminuée, dans les
passages de flûte et de violons de l’orchestre. Donc, le saut ascendant du quinte parfaite ré-la, de
l´intervention d’Œdipe, se transforme en saut de sixte diminuée ré dièse-si bémol dans les séquences des
instruments (ex. 3, infra).

Ex. No. 3: Œdipe. Acte IIe, scène nº 1, p. 6. Extrait de la partition manuscrite

Dès lors, le motif initial, qui appartenait à Oreste, perd son caractère stricte de leitmotiv. Je
l’appellerais plus simple, formule ou configuration motivique, contrairement à Ștefan Angi qui
étiquette ces sceaux identitaires des personnages „punctiformités leitmotiviques” (voir note 40, supra),
comme s’il partageait les conclusions des physiciens sur les cordes comme des „éléments constitutifs de
l’Univers”, celles-ci étant composées d’entités ressemblant à de „particules minuscules, ponctuelles”
(Hawking & Mlodinow, Scurtă istorie a timpului, 2010, pp. 141-141).
Mais, l’exemple le plus énigmatique générateur de simultanéités temporelles est la formule
attachée au personnage d’Electre, sur laquelle j’insisterai, car, comme le montre la partition, elle se
révélera être une sorte de centre de gravité irradiant tant dans la morphologie que dans la syntaxe de ce
véritable monolithe poétique-musical. Alors qu’Electre raconte à Oreste ses sacrifices dans le but de le
sauver de la punition du meurtre d’Egist, l’amant de leur mère, Clytemnestre, l’avertissant que
„maintenant tu me dois la vie” (ex. no 4.), Oreste lui confie, sur les mêmes sons, dans la même
configuration motivique ascendante, qu’il ne savait rien de toutes ces choses: „Je ne le savais pas”! (ex.
no. 5).

Ex. No. 4 : Acte IIIe, Scène 4, nº 1, p. 2. Extrait de la partition manuscrite

Ex. No. 5 : Oreste, Idem, p. 4

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L’exhortation incitante adressé par Electre à son frère Oreste, de tuer leur mère Clitemnestre: ”il
faut la tuer”! (ex. 6), se déroule sur la formule initiale du motif, mais inversée, avec des valeurs de notes
brisées, émiettées (ex. 4), à quel point Electre lui rappelle non seulement qu’il lui doit la vie, mais aussi
que ”tu dois me venger”!, de nouveau sur la formule ascendante précédente (ex. no. 7).

Ex. No. 6: Acte IIIe, Scène 4, nº 1, p. 7. Idem source.

Ex. No. 7: Idem, p. 7

Comme on peut le constater, bien que l’état direct du motif soit respecté, la structure de la
configuration change, les sons ascendants de la formule initiale sont précédés par le demi-ton descendant
ré-do dièse qui, avec la pause d’huitième, forme un triolet de croches, le do dièse devenant une note de
passage pour compléter le motif avec les trois derniers sons, en valeurs de doubles-croches. Si on regarde
attentivement, en arrière, dans l’acte IIe, scène nº 1, on va remarquer encore quelque chose de plus
choquant: le premier groupage de sons et d’intervalles qui composent ce que nous pourrions définir
comme le leitmotiv d’Electre (voir ex. 4, supra), est anticipé par Œdipe, dans la séquence où il dit, avec
aplomb, à Oreste: „Mon règne arrivera”.

Ex. No. 8 : Œdipe. Acte IIe, Scène nº 1, p. 8. Idem source

La seule modification est le saut de ré à si bémol aigu, au lieu de si bécarre de la variante

originale, comme il apparaît dans les passages d’Electre, dans la scène suivante, où il demande à Oreste,
d’une voix angoissée: „Qui es-tu”? (ex. no. 9).

Ex. No. 9 : Electre, Acte IIe, Scène nº 2, p. 9. Idem source

Comme une réminiscence de la recherche féroce et désespérée de l’identité de soi, „qui es-tu”?,
la deuxième moitié de la formule motivique d’Electre, si-do dièse-mi bémol, n’apparaît qu’une seule fois
de plus, dans les passages d’Œdipe de l’acte IVe39, mais dans la formule si bemol-do-la, avec arrêt sur
si bémol aigu. Sur ces sons, Œdipe s’exclame, comme pour lui-même, en passant devant la foule
d’aveugles, qui multiplient son image en la reflétant comme dans des miroirs innombrables, anticipant
son statut individuel, d’aveugle emblématique, dirais-je, foule qui prie pour qu’Œdipe, „notre roi, soit
sauvé, protégé, pour nous protéger”40: „Contemple-les, mon âme! Ils sont vraiment affreux”! Son âme

39
L’acte IV de l’opéra Oreste & Œdipe ramène sur scène, de l’acte Ier: le chœur, tout aussi curieux de découvrir l’identité des
deux „voyageurs étrangers”; Agamemnon et Laïos, qui considèrent qu’ils „ne sont pas de ce monde”, c’est-à-dire du présent du
passé, Agamemnon, exemple de courage: „mon courage a servi d’exemple”, Laïos, désolé que „son abnégation ne lui a servi à
rien”, et maintenant, les deux „se tiennent aux pieds du Dieu” et se demandent si ceux du lointain sont leurs fils?: „est-ce là mon
fils”?; Oreste et Œdipe, le premier découragé, accablé par „la douleur qui n’émet plus de cris”, et à la recherche, au-delà des
„soleils éphémères sur son front”, „la nuit couchée dans la nuit” – transfert de la sensation de „soleil éteint” ressentie par Œdipe,
l’aveugle, dans l’œuvre d’Enesco?!, l’autre tout aussi déterminé et énergique, préparé et déterminé à revenir: „Je reviendrai”!
40
Dans le désir des aveugles qu´Œdipe, le coupable, qui s’est aveuglé de son plein gré, soit celui d’où ils attendent le salut, se
chiffre une doctrine pythagoricienne, en vertu de laquelle „les âmes de ceux qui se sont payés une vieille tache donnent naissance,
pour leur dernière incarnation soit à des rois, soit à des vainqueurs, soit à des sages — trois types d’hommes divins, ce qu’ils seront
honnêtes après la mort comme des héros”. Détails dans: Jean-Pierre Vernant, Mythe et pensée dans la Grèce antique, traduction
en roumain par Zoe Petre et Andrei Niculescu, Bucarest, Meridiane, 1995, chap. Aspects mythiques de la mémoire et du temps, p.
148. Et aussi Vernant, à propos de la mission des aveugles: „Aveugles au monde, ils voient l’invisible” (...). „Cette double vision
se concentre surtout sur les parties du temps inaccessibles aux mortels; ce qui s’est passé un jour, ce qui va se passer à l’avenir”.

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se confond donc avec les attributs d’un miroir magique, qui reflète/révèle sa propre laideur, à travers la
laideur de la foule d’aveugles.

Ex. No. 10: Œdipe. Acte IVe, scène IIIe, nº 1, p. 5. Idem source

A noter que le motif ascendant précipité, comme un cri étranglé d’Electre (ex. no. 9, supra),
apparaît également dans la partition de la Sphinge, dans son dialogue avec Œdipe, dans le deuxième
acte, entièrement basé sur les variations rythmiques et intervalliques séquencées, un peu chaotiques, du
premier groupe/mode de notes dont est constituée le motif d’Electre. Au début, la formule est récurrente
– tierce mineure-septième majeure descendantes: „Pauvre fou!” – puis apparaît en état direct – petite
seconde-sexte augmentée, au lieu de sixte majeure, mais à partir du son ré: „D’un seul coup de queue je
t’étrangle”! (ex. no. 11).

Ex. No. 11 : La Sphinge. Acte IIe, Scène IIIe, nº 1, p. 13. Idem source.

Si dans le texte original de Sophocle, c’est Œdipe qui „connaît le secret” de la Sphinge, dans la
partition de Țăranu, la Sphinge, cette fille du Destin et de la Nuit, gardienne des secrets de la Vie et de
la Mort, de la Vérité et de l’Immortalité, connaît aussi la question et la réponse, étant prête à aider le
héros à passer le test, pour rester en vie: „Je t’aiderai, malgré le pouvoir qui commande” (...). „Écoute la
question” (...). „Le monstre te donne la réponse” (Acte IIe, Scène IIIe, nº 1) – s’il répond à la question
cryptée dans le symbole „d´écharpe et de la fibule”41.
Ce n’est que maintenant qu’il devient clair que la formule d’Electre est composée de deux
modules, le premier, multifonctionnel, par rapport à la diversité des caractères qui se l’approprie
alternativement, ainsi qu´aux différents états d’esprit qu’il exprime, et qui est anticipé par le cri
emphatique d’Œdipe (ex. no. 8, supra), le second ayant une certaine stabilité, bien que, comme en
témoignent les exemples ci-dessus, sa configuration initiale supporte certains changements dans la
qualité des intervalles et des sons altérés.
Avec la fin de l’acte IIe, le motif do dièse-ré-si-do-mi bémol, n´est plus seulement une marque
individuelle, un leitmotiv attaché à un personnage particulier; il contient tout l’univers existentiel,
mythologique et musical, et commence à migrer obsessionnellement, agitée et frénétique, ramifiant ses
composants sur une vaste surface de l’opéra, dispersées dans presque tous les autres actes, en particulier
les trois dernières notes, si-do dièse-mi bémol, ou do dièse-mi bémol-mi bécarre. Leurs apparitions, dans
l´acte IIIe, avec des sons et d´intervalles tronqués et inversés, transposés sur d’autres notes, dans des
apparitions fulgurantes aux vents et aux cordes, ou dans les passages d’Oreste à partir du moment où il
répond, à contrecœur, à l’avertissement d’Electre qu’il lui doit la vie (ex. no. 4, supra): „comment pours-
je te la rendre? [la vie], ma louve”? (ex. no. 12, infra).

Idem, ibid., p. 139. Œdipe, ne s´est-il pas exclamé après avoir arraché ses yeux: „Ah! Maintenant je vois, maintenant je vois”? En
effet, nous savons de Sophocle, à travers l’opéra enescienne que, Œdipe le coupable, „noir comme l’Erèbe”, devient de „vaincu,
vainqueur”, est sanctifié et meurt „en pleine lumière”. Pour plus de détails sur le sens de la „vision intérieure”, génératrice du
„Soleil spirituel” (Guénon), de la réalisation de l´état „d’être dans la Vérité” (Platon), ou de l’acquisition de la „connaissance
transcendante” (Durand), voir aussi: Despina Petecel Theodoru, George Enescu – rêverie et mythe, Bucarest, Muzicală, 2014,
Contraires coïncidents dans le destin solaire d’Œdipe, pp. 232-248, mais aussi l’ensemble de la section II, Œdipe ou „le mythe
de l´éternel retour”, pp. 43-248.
41
Le symbolisme, ainsi que les métamorphoses de l’écharpe et de la fibule, mériteraient un chapitre distinct. Après avoir stimulé
la mémoire affective d’Electre, en les mentionnant pour la première fois par Oreste, dans l’acte IIe: „Regardez cette écharpe dont
tu m’enveloppais, et cette fibule qui l’attachais”!, et qu’Electre appelle „écharpe amoureuse” – les deux symboles énigmatiques
se confondent d’abord avec la question vitale, de vie ou de mort, que la Sphinge allait poser à Œdipe: „Prends cette écharpe et
cette fibule, elles sont la question [elles sont à Jocaste], écoute la question. Répondre ou mourir”! (...). „Gagner Jocaste ou
mourir”! (Acte IIe). De „l’écharpe amoureuse”, elle se transforme en instrument tueur: ” ... il faut la tuer [Clytemnestre] avec cette
écharpe”/ „Tu dois la tuer avec cette écharpe”! (Electre, fin de l’acte IIe). Dans l’acte IIIe, l’écharpe passe de l’instrument du
crime commis à une dimension temporelle, d’un univers particulier, dans l’exposant de la vitalité et de l’euphorie apparentes
d’une autre dimension, d’un autre univers: „Par cette écharpe que je porte au cou, je te présente [au peuple] mon fils et ton Roi”
(Jocaste, Acte IIIe, scène IIe). J’ai dit vitalité apparente parce que, après avoir terminé sa plaidoirie pathétique, Jocaste s’enlève
la vie, avec l´écharpe même qui atteint, enfin, son vrai but.

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Ex. No. 12: Orestes. Acte IIIe, Scène 4, nº 1, p. 3. Idem source

Les trois notes arrivent aussi à Œdipe et à la Sphinge, comme nous l’avons déjà vu, elles sont
enchaînées dans une écriture savante, minutieusement pensée, rappelant l’ingéniosité et la rigueur
presque mathématiques de la technique utilisée par J. S. Bach dans L´Art de la Fugue.42 Cornel Țăranu
nous conduit ainsi de la zone des destins entrelacés, bien que distanciés dans le temps et l’espace, à celle
des particules enchevêtrées qui existent dans les mêmes dimensions spatio-temporelles, sans jamais
s’être rencontrées.43
L’acte IIIe apporte avec lui une ample surprise: presque tout le Monologue de Jocaste –
impressionnant par la sincérité et le pathos digne de l’esprit des tragédies antiques, avec lesquels Jocaste
plaide devant Tirésias, complètement désinhibé, en faveur du sentiment indestructible de la maternité,
au-delà des normes, des jugements et des préjugés: „N’écoute personne, personne ne juge pas”!
conseillait-t-elle à son peuple, après quoi elle se suicide avec la même écharpe qui avait servie à Electre
pour protéger Oreste! – est construit sur le motif d’Electre! Seul l´altération des sons et leur organisation
dans d’autres registres et structures diffèrent! Dans l’ouverture de la scène nº 3, de l’acte IIIe, Jocaste
demande Tirésias, assez provocateur, après la découverte de son l’inceste: „N’ai-je pas le droit d’aimer
mon fils”?

Ex. No. 13: Jocaste. Acte IIIe, Scène nº 3, p. 43, Idem source

La question reprend le motif initial d’Electre, le rétrograde et le segmente en groupes de triolets,

avec des oscillations entre mi bécarre-mi bémol, fa dièse-fa bécarre, exprimant précisément l’ambiguïté
de la situation, qui déchire Jocaste entre la conscience/reconnaissance du malheureux événement auquel
elle était tombée victime, et l’abdication des principes moraux, et l’euphorie du moment où il a retrouvé
son fils, qu’il avait encore désiré „depuis cette nuit sanglante”44, et qui, maintenant, „lui appartient”45,
indépendamment de la réaction de ceux qui l’entourent, indépendamment de l’ordre sentencieux de
Tirésias d’être chassé: „Disparais! Faits-la disparaître”! L’exubérance impardonnable de Jocaste de
l’opéra Oreste & Œdipe contraste manifestement avec le tragisme de Jocaste de l’opéra Œdipe de
Georges Enesco. Si, chez Cornel Țăranu, elle le présente avec une certaine magnificence à ”son peuple”,
comme „mon fils et ton Roi”46, dans l’opéra enescienne Jocaste, l´appelle „infortuné”!, pleine de
remords et d’exaspération, le fils qu’elle apprend avec stupeur d´être son mari, le Roi de Thèbes 47. Et le
fait que chez Enesco aussi comme chez Țăranu Jocaste se suicide, nous fait penser qu’elle reste
prisonnière du passé et qu’elle n’a pas la même force morale que celle d’Oedipe, de remonter dans le
temps pour le corriger. Tout comme Electre, dont la relation incestueuse avec Oreste reste confuse et
douteuse. Mais, si on regarde le voyage dans le temps d´un point de vue quantique, il paraît que „le passé
et le futur soient prédéterminés”, et, c´est pourquoi, disent les scientifiques, „notre libre arbitre ne serait
rien d´autre qu´une... illusion”! (Hawking & Mlodinow, Scurtă istorie a timpului, 2010, pp. 128-129).

42
Détails sur les „péripéties” du motif thématique de l’Art de la fugue, comme sur le mélogramme B.A.C.H, du nom BACH, dans:
Despina Petecel Theodoru, De la mimésis à la l´archétype, Bucarest, Muzicală, 2003, Prmière partie. Mímésis. II, Lectures
parallèles: Art de la fugue – le dialogue platonique Parmenide, pp. 19-56.
43
Vous revenez sur les notes 11, supra.
44
„C’est tout ce que j’attends depuis cette nuit de sang”. Jocaste fait allusion à la nuit où elle a dû abandonner son „nouveau-né”
(Œdipe), le confiant à un berger qui, à la demande de Laïos, devait le jeter dans les gorges de Kithéron (chaîne de montagnes au
centre de la Grèce), pour anticiper l’accomplissement de la prophétie terrible de Tirésias sur le destin infâme de „l’enfant divine,
enfant royal”: „Il sera l’assassin de son père, le mari de sa mère, le frère de ses filles, le père de ses frères”.
45
„...c é st à toi que j’ai pensé tout le temps (...). Il m’appartient”!
46
„Toi, mon peuple aimé! Je te présent mon fils et ton Roi! Tu devrais le vénérer, comme tu m’as obéi”! (Acte IIIe, Scène IIe, n°
2).
47
„Ah! Puisses-tu ne jamais connaître ce que tu es!” „Hélas! Infortuné! Seul nom dont Jocaste puisse encore te nommer”! (Acte
IIIe de l’opéra, surnommé „de la peste” mais aussi „de l’enquête”). Ce n’est qu’à la suite de la découverte de la vérité d’Œdipe
que Sophocle énonce l’une de ses phrases aphoristiques, à travers la voix de Tirésias: „Hélas! qu ́il est dur de savoir, quand savoir
est inutile”! (Acte IIIe de l’opéra Œdipe d’Enesco)

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La dernière référence que je voudrais faire concernant le reflet du motif d’Electre tout au long
du parcours de l’opéra Oreste & Œdipe concerne Passacaglia de la fin de l’acte IIIe, quatrième scène,
conçue sur la base de deux repères inspirants. D’une part, selon le témoignage de l’auteur, quelques
chansons grecques du IIIe ou du Ve siècle (?), découvertes sur une vase dans le comté de Bihor, d’autre
part, à mon avis, les trois dernières notes de la formule motivique d’Electre: do dièse-mi bémol-mi
bécarre, avec résolution sur re-do.

Ex. No. 14: Passacaglia. Acte IIIe, Scène IVe, p. 3. Idem source

L’austérité, la solennité (Solenne est aussi l’indication du compositeur dans la partition) de ce

choral, avec un air plutôt funèbre, de threni ou de Dies irae, écrit en valeurs des blanches, dans un tissu
de contrepoint imitatif, correspond à la solennité et à la prestance que doit avoir la ”loi du monde”, mais
aussi „la loi de Thèbes” glorifiée dans la passacaille. Le chœur, Œdipe et Electre prononcent les mots
dans une consonance entièrement scellée, à l’unisson, par un grand accord final, en fff, sur un ré
généralisé, issu des derniers sons du motif d’Electre.

Ex. No. 15: Passacaglia. Dernières mesures, p. 5. Idem source

La marche de ces configurations motiviques d’un personnage à l’autre, utile pour exprimer
différentes humeurs, définir des rôles différents de différents personnages, ressemble aux plis48 de
l’espace-temps universel que si nous déplions, nous obtenons une sorte de temps linéaire et unitaire en
découvrant, avec étonnement, que les héros d’Eschyle et de Sophocle coexistaient dans le même plan.
Lus en clé quantique, ils montrent, indiquent la probabilité que certains personnages vivent
simultanément, sous des aspects variés et avec des préoccupations diverses, dans un multivers.

HYPOSTASES EXISTENTIELLES DANS DES UNIVERS PARALLÈLES

Les héros des deux tragédies coexistent non seulement sur la même chronologie, venant d’univers
différents, comme deux cordes qui, selon la théorie des cordes49, ”si elles unissent leurs bouts
(extrémités) forment une seule corde” (Hawking & Mlodinow, Scurtă istorie a timpului, 2010, p. 140),
mais, dans le monde des paradoxes quantiques, d’où nous avons commencé ces dissociations, une
particule, une entité ou un système observable et mesurable, peuvent fournir ”un certain nombre de
résultats possibles, différents les uns des autres” (Hawking & Mlodinow, Scurtă istorie a timpului, 2010,
p. 102), de sorte que ”le résultat de la mesure sera A en certains cas, et B dans un autre nombre de cas
etc” (Hawking & Mlodinow, Scurtă istorie a timpului, 2010, p. 103). En d’autres termes, A & B, comme
Oreste & Oedipe dans notre cas, peuvent coexister simultanément dans des états différents, dans des
univers différents. Or, de manière tout à fait inattendue, l’œuvre de Țăranu-Apert contient également les

48
Voir aussi note 7, supra.
49
Détails séduisants sur les théories des cordes et des supercordes, ces dernières „minuscules cordes en forme de boucle”, dont les
„particules subnucléaires représentent divers modes de vibration — diverses harmoniques de ces cordes”, dans: Martin Rees, Just
Six Numbers/ Seulement six nombres, traduction en roumain par Irinel Caprini, Bucarest, Humanitas, 2008, pp. 187-189.

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prémisses que certains personnages se trouvent dans la situation d’avoir au moins une „réplique”, une
„projection” dans des univers parallèles, exister donc soit dans la situation A, soit dans la situation B de
la démonstration des deux physiciens cités ci-dessus. Par conséquence, Le Même, pourra toujours être
un Autre, ou Analogue aux deux autres, selon les caractéristiques de l’univers parallèle dans lequel il
existe, et la distance à laquelle ils se trouvent les uns des autres. „L’énigme de la distance temporelle,
selon l’affirmation de Paul Ricoeur, l’emporte sur la survie du passé dans le présent” 50. D’où le
phénomène de „l’asymétrie du temps”, entre „passé et avenir”, et qui peut dépendre de „l’expansion de
l’univers” (Rees, 2008, pp. 180-181). Personnellement, en parcourant le texte du livret, en alternance ou
en même temps que la lecture de la partition, quelques-unes de ces rocades identitaires, que j’ai choisi
de mettre en balance, ou miroir, avec leurs „répliques” de l’opéra Œdipe de Georges Enesco.

1. Le Veilleur-Clitemnestra

Dans la partition enescienne, c’est Le Veilleur de La Sphinge qui côtoie son rôle, dans une mélopée
intérieurisée et désolée parsemée de quarts de ton et de sauts de quarte: ”De l´aurore à l’aurore, je veille,
je veille... ”.

Ex. No. 16: Georges Enesco, Oedipe. Acte IIe, rep. 139, mes. 1-4, p. 162.
Extrait de la partition manuscrite

Dans l’œuvre de Cornel Țăranu, Le Veilleur se substitue à Clytemnestre, par des cris
sentenciels, sur des sauts de camarades parfaits et ascendants, rappelant les cris belliqueux des Valkyries:
„Veillez, veillez”, auxquels s’ajoute „surveillé” !

Ex. No. 17: Cornel Țăranu, Oreste & Oedipe. Acte IIIe, Scène I, nº 1, p. 8. Idem source

Une deuxième „réplique”, appelons-la ainsi, du Veilleur est Œdipe lui-même de l’œuvre de
Țăranu. Avant de partir dans le présent du passé, pour modifier son destin et „installer l’ordre” dans la
Cité de Thèbes, il est sous-entendu que le héros mythique avertit les Thébains d’être vigilants, afin
d’éviter la réapparition d´événements similaires qui perturbent la loi et implicitement le calme et
l’honneur de la Cité: „Je reviendrai. Veillez, surveillez”.

Ex. No. 18: Cornel Țăranu, Oreste & Œdipe, Acte IVe, Scène IIIe, nº 1, p. 6. Idem source

En comparant les trois exemples, nous verrons que chaque version de l’original – Le Veilleur
de la création d’Enescu – ne conserve que certains éléments communs, à l’exception des mots, c’est-à-

50
„L’énigme de la distance temporelle... l é mporte sur la survivance du passé dans le présent”. Cf. Paul Ricoeur, op. cit., p. 268.
Mais pour plus de détails sur les similitudes et les différences entre l’individualisation et la conceptualisation voir l’ensemble du
chapitre La réalité du passé historique. Sous le signe du Même: la réeffectuassions du passé dans le présent, Sous le signe de
l’Autre: une ontologie négative du passé ? et Sous le signe de l A ́ nalogue: une approche tropologique?, pp. 252-283.

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dire d’un modèle génétique. Nous sommes confrontés à ”un passé «réel» aboli et préservé dans ses traits
essentiels”51.
Clytemnestre maintient l’intervalle de quarte parfaite, même si sur d’autres sons – sol-re/re-
sol, au lieu de la bémol-re bémol ascendant, et la bémol-mi bémol descendant de l’exemple enescian.
Œdipe d’Oreste & Œdipe est le plus proche de la variante originale, puisque les sons encerclés de l’ex.
18, re-si-la, coïncident avec ceux de la formule encerclée du Veilleur de l’opéra Œdipe (ex. 16, supra),
bien que tous les trois soient bémolisés: ré bémol-si bémol-la bémol, et en valeurs exclusivement de
croches.

2. La Sphinge-Jocaste

Dans l’opéra enescienne, c’est La Sphinge qui attendait Œdipe, „aux demeures sans voix, de
mon rêve éternel”, curieuse mais aussi craintive concernant le sens de la réponse qu’Œdipe, „sa plus
belle victime”, lui donnera à la question „qui est plus fort que le Destin”?, sachant que, selon lui, c’était
elle qui mourra ou survivra.

Ex. No. 19: George Enescu, Oedipe. La Sphinge, Acte II, rep. 158, mes.1-4, p. 186. Idem source

Ex. No. 20: Idem, représentant 158, mes. 6-7, p. 187

Ex. No. 21: Idem. La Sphinge, rep. 159, mes. 3-4, pp. 188-189

Un... échantillon génétique (!) du rôle de la Sphinge dans l’œuvre d’Enescu, est transféré à
Jocaste dans la musique de Cornel Țăranu. Pour La Sphinge enescienne, Œdipe était une victime. En
échange, pour Jocaste dans l´œuvre de Țăranu, Œdipe est le cadeau le plus précieux car il coïncide avec
la rencontre, quoique tardive et dramatique, de la mère avec son enfant qu’elle croyait perdu à jamais,
et qu’elle avait „attendu toute sa vie, avec tout son être”, dans le même silence étouffant. Et l’une et
l’autre attendaient en fait Le Même, mais un Autre ou Analogue à lui.

Ex. No. 22: Cornel Țăranu, Oreste et Oedipe, Acte IIIe, Scène IIIe, nº 2.
Monologue d´Jocaste, p. 52. Idem sourse.

Ex. No. 23. Cornel Țăranu, op. cit., Acte IIIe, Scène IIIe, nº 2, Monologue de Jocaste, p. 53.

Si nous regardons bien, entre leurs exemples, il y a des similitudes, comme la tierce mineure
ascendante la-do bécarre (ex. 21, mesure 2, supra) reflétée dans la tierce mineure descendante mi-do
dièse (ex. 22, première mesure et ex. 23, mesure 2), l´ascension des sons sol-la-do bécarre, en valeurs

51
„...un passé à la fois aboli et préservé dans ses traces”. Cf. P. Ricoeur, op. cit., p. 183, et l´ensemble du chapitre 2, La fiction et
les variations imaginatives du temps.

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de doubles croches (ex. 21, supra, mesure 2), anticipées et contrepointées par l´ascension des doubles
croches do dièse-mi-fa de l’exemple 23, supra (première mesure), ou le saut descendant de l’octave ré
bécarre-ré (ex. 20, mesure 2), avec réverbération dans la septième ascendante ré-do dièse (ex. 23, supra,
fin de la deuxième mesure). Ailleurs, des réminiscences de sons et d’intervalles dispersés des séquences
du Monologue de Jocaste, et vice versa. Curieusement, l’attente de Jocaste est contaminée par l’ombre
d’Electre, dans les motifs ascendants de l’ex. 22, mesure 2, et l´ex. 23, première et deuxième mesures 52.
Par conséquent, nous avons affaire à ce que le cosmologiste et astrophysicien britannique Martin Rees
appelle „l’asymétrie du temps”, entre „le passé et l’avenir”, „liée à l’expansion de l’univers”, en raison
de laquelle, „l´avenir semble être sur un pied d´égalité avec le passé” (Rees, 2008, pp. 180-181).

3. Oreste-Œdipe

Toujours dans l’acte IIe, Œdipe de l’œuvre d’Enescu arrive au „carrefour de trois routes”, „le carrefour
de ma vie”, et il se demande dans le célèbre Monologue: „Où suis-je ? Trois chemins.../ Par lequel
échapperais-je à mon destin”?

Ex. No. 24: George Enescu, Oedipe, acte II, rep. 121, mes. 2-5, p. 136

Aux interrogations douteux d’Œdipe semblent correspondre les interrogations tout aussi
douteuses et désolées, d’Oreste dans l’œuvre de Țăranu. Une fois sur la tombe de son père, Agamemnon,
Oreste, „loup blessé, aveugle et sourd”, se demande avec déprimer: „où aller? que dois-je faire et ne pas
faire”? En tant que tel, Oreste pourrait être, ne serait-ce que virtuellement, l’une des „projections”
d’Œdipe, d’un univers parallèle”.

Ex. No. 25: Cornel Țăranu, Oreste & Œdipe, Acte IIe, Scène nº 1, p. 3

La similitude des deux configurations intervalliques est également notable, signe que les gènes
archétypaux, pour ainsi les appeler, étaient plus forts dans ces exemples. La première question
commence, dans les deux cas, sur un intervalle de quarte descendante – parfait chez Enesco, diminuée
chez Țăranu. La deuxième partie de l’interrogation, „Trois routes...” (Œdipe), „que dois-je faire...?”
(Oreste) est construite sur une succession quasi analogique: mi bécarre-fa bécarre-si bécarre (demi-ton
suivi d’une quarte augmentée, à Enesco, mesure 3), ré-mi bémol-si (demi-ton suivi d’une quinte
augmentée à Cornel Țăranu). À cette occasion, nous notons également que la raison du doute d’Oreste
est quelque peu divergente de celle par laquelle il annonça à Electre son arrivée, „Me voici”, et vient
juste après lui (voir aussi ex. 1).

Ex. No. 26. Oreste, Acte IIe, Scène nº 1, p. 3

Seule la structure par intervalles est assez hésitante, car elle n’est pas non plus inversée, ni
récurrente, mais elle a des intervalles entrecoupés, une sorte de rétrogradation de l’inversion, ce qui
renforce la valeur dans laquelle se trouve le héros: la quinte descendante la-ré dièse de l´ex. 26, devient
le quarte descendante sol dièse-ré dièse (ex. 25, supra), où le son la, de la composition du quinte est
comme externalisé, pour refaire sa structure ascendante initiale.

4. Œdipe-Œdipe

Le moment le plus spectaculaire du „voyage dans le temps” des personnages de cette analyse, c’est celui
de la fin de l’opéra Oreste & Œdipe dans laquelle Œdipe, celui du présent de l’avenir, rencontre Œdipe,
de son propre passé, c’est-à-dire qu’il se rencontre avec lui-même – „preuve de grand courage” dans

52
À titre de comparaison, voir ex. 4 et 9, supra.

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l’acceptation de Jung53 - dans une double pose, superposée ou juxtaposée, dans le même miroir. Dans
l’acte IIe, Oedipe de l’œuvre d’Enesco décida de partir, croyant que de cette façon il s´échapperait au
Destin prophétisé par Apollon, dans le rêve, mais aussi par l’intermède de Tirésias54: „Je partirai! Avant
l’heure fatale55/ et j’irai pur sous les étoiles” (Dherbey, 1999).

Ex. No. 24: Georges Enesco, Oedipe. Acte IIe, rep. 105, mes. 1-3, p. 119

Les projections miroirs vont jusqu’à la fin. Aux formules de triolets descendants do-la bécarre-
fa bécarre, de la partition d’Enesco, répond le triolet des croches ascendantes do dièse-fa dièse-la de la
partition de Cornel Țăranu! Signe que les extrêmes se touchent, comme dans la mentionnée théorie des
cordes, en facilitant la rencontre des différentes existences, de différentes dimensions temporelles, dans
un présent du présent, c´est-à-dire, dans un présent continu.

Ex. No. 25: Cornel Țăranu, Oreste & Œdipe, Acte IVe, Scène 1, p. 7

De la dimension de son futur, l’Œdipe de l’œuvre de Cornel Țăranu décide, de revenir – „Je
reviendrai” – pour rétablir l’équilibre et l’harmonie dans la Cité qu’il avait profanée, „installer l’ordre”,
conformément aux „lois de Thèbes et du monde”, en d´autres termes, imposer la transcendance. Dans
la pensée syllogistique et aphoristique d´Olivier Apert, seule „la loi est transcendante”, parce que „la
transcendance signifie clarté”, et, là où il y a clarté, „la transgression de la loi” associée par le poète
aux „ténèbres”, perd son „droit de Cité”, ou, dans le cas contraire, la Cité peut être fissurée et même
détruite.
Je fini ici le „voyage dans le temps” dans lequel j´ai essayé de vous impliquer activement,
séduite à mon tour par l’extraordinaire construction musical-idéationnel de l’opéra Oreste & Œdipe de
Țăranu-Apert. Il s’agit en fait d’une fermeture ouverte, tout comme l’Univers, dont les prétendus bords
sont toujours en expansion offrant, à l’infini, des surprises infinies sur les phénomènes qui se produisent
dans les profondeurs de la matière noire, comme à l’intérieur des soi-disant „trous de ver” par lesquels,
seule la science du dépassement de la vitesse de la lumière pourrait nous ouvrir le couloir vers les vrais
„voyages dans le temps”. Tout aussi inépuisable dans les sens et significations cachées dans presque
toutes les mesures, c´est avéré être l´œuvre de Cornel Țăranu. La multitude d’éléments symboliques,
sémantiques, linguistiques, philosophiques, restés en suspension mérite une analyse beaucoup plus large,
que j’ai l’intention de poursuivre dans un avenir proche. Car, n´est-ce pas ? „La réalité est un pli de
l’imaginaire, et l’imaginaire est un pli du réel. Et, la réalité étant multiple et complexe, les niveaux de
compréhension [et d´interprétation] sont également multiples et complexes” (Nicolescu, 2007).

RÉFÉRENCES:
Angi, Ș. (2014). Cornel Țăranu. Mărturisiri mozaicate, studii și eseuri. Cluj-Napoca: Eikon.
Collingwood, R. G. (1946). The Idea of History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Croiset, M. (1939). Oedipe-Roi de Sophocle. Paris: Mellotté.
Deleuze, G. (1986). Faucoult. Paris: Minuit.
Dherbey, G. R. (1999). La parole archaïque. Paris: Presse Universitaire de France.
Hawking, S. (2005). Visul lui Einstein și alte eseuri. (G. Stratan, Trad.) Bucarest: Humanitas.

53
C. G. Jung estime que ce genre de rencontre, „exigée par le chemin vers l’intérieur, est une preuve qui effraie la plupart des
gens, car rencontrer soi-même fait partie de ces choses désagréables [ombra/ombre] que nous évitons, tant que nous pouvons
projeter à l’extérieur tout ce qui est négatif”. Mais, dit Jung, „nous devons nous apprendre à nous connaître pour savoir qui nous
sommes”. Dans: C. G. Jung, Dans le monde des Archétypes, pp. 58-59.
54
Voir note 44, supra.
55
Œdipe se réfère au moment où, selon les prédictions d’Apollon et du prophète Tirésias, auraient suivi toutes les horreurs qui ont
conduit à des „bouleversements” imprévisibles – seulement pour le héros mythique, non pas pour l´Empire des dieux pour qui la
vie des hommes n’était qu’un jeu. Voir aussi note 27, supra.

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Hawking, S., & Mlodinow, L. (2010). Scurtă istorie a timpului. (G. Stratan, Trad.) Bucarest: Humanitas.
Jung, C. G. (1994). Dans le monde des Archétypes. (V. D. Zamfirescu, Trad.) Bucarest: Journal littéraire.
Nicolescu, B. (2007). Transdisciplinarité. Manifeste. (H. M. Vasilescu, Éd.) Junimea, p. 53.
Rees, M. (2008). Doar șase numere. (I. Caprini, Trad.) Bucarest: Humanitas.
Ricoeur, P. (1985). Temps et récit (Vol. III, Le temps raconté). Paris: Seuil.
Ricoeur, P. (1985). Temps et récit, III. Dans P. Ricoeur, Le temps raconté. Paris: Seuil.
Ricoeur, P. (2001). Memoria, istoria uitarea. (I.-M. Gyurcsik, Trad.) Timișoara: Armarcord.

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 MAZURK MÉLANCOLIQUE,
A RELATIONSHIP-DRIVEN WORK
OANA KARIOTOGLOU POPESCU

UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS, UNITED KINGDOM

ABSTRACT: Mazurk mélancolique (1915), the third miniature from

Pièces impromptus, Op. 18, has so far never inspired a critical
analysis, but only very few written sentences. Although Mazurk’s is
extended in a way that seems unnecessary from a Caplinian
Formenlehre schematic point of view, there is a rationale behind
Mazurk’s proportions, that is, the form expresses how one material
erodes the other in a conflictual relationship. In order to interpret this
rationale, I discuss the formation of the piece by addressing the
material (two distinct melodies characterised by repetitiveness and
numerous elaborate time-related indications), the developing
relationship within the material (ending in a tonal acclimatization as
in a sonata form) and the structure (a model which is indifferent to the
ternary form Mazurka inheritance).

KEYWORDS: MAZURK MÈLANCOLIQUE, PIÈCES IMPROMPTUS

ONE of the very few sentences that the third miniature from Pièces impromptus, Op. 18, Mazurk
mélancolique (1915), has inspired since its birth is Alfred Hoffmann’s 1971 statement according to
which Mazurk „unfortunately, is not lacking in some lengthier sections”) (Hoffman, 1971, p. 443).1
Because the form of Mazurk engages only partially with established structural schemata, this study
proposes a reevaluation of the rationale behind Mazurk’s proportions and questions the criticism as
originating in a Formenlehre, convention-based perspective. Feelings that, according to Pascal
Bentoiu, are difficult to grasp, are here paired with the Mazurka genre's repetitiveness (Bentoiu feels
that the title mélancolique is „too precise for the indefinable feeling of the piece”).2 The dance, a
folkloric source for Polish composers of piano miniatures like Szymanowska and Chopin, is an
Enescian metaphor for the increasing proximity of the two melodic ideas (personas?) while the ending
changes Mazurk’s poetic potential to that of a more complex plot in which the relationship has
different outcomes for each. With no available critical analysis to refer to, I start my discussion on the
formation of the piece with a melodic, harmonic and rhythmic walk-through, by addressing those
musical ideas (material) that keep repeating throughout the work. As a next step, I underline when
musical ideas interact and whether there is a developing relationship within the material. Finally, I
address the possible structures in Mazurk, among which, the inherited ternary form.
Independently of the piece’s developmental course, one can notice that the two musical ideas
(a, b) which form Mazurk’s material give a strong sense of poetic grouping while engaging with the
Mazurka-inherited four-bar layout, and, at the same time, enjoy a certain temporal freedom, albeit
through different approaches. Attributes concerning melodic and gestural features, poetic meter, and
engagement with temporal liberties as well as some communalities and differences between the
characters of a and b relevant for the relationships which form Mazurk, can already be grasped. Most
of the piece is covered by the generative cell which forms a first idea a (as of bar 1), a cell which
enchains the fifth, lowered sixth and seventh of a harmonic A major in a chromatic, yet aerate,
leggiero gesture. The rhythm, melodic direction and uplifting caesura in a may indicate that Enescu
consciously reworked building blocks from Chopin, perhaps from the elevated Kujawiak-Mazurka in A
minor, Op. 68 No. 2. The same can be speculated regarding the left-hand fifths in the other melodic
idea - perhaps a link to Chopin’s Op. 17, No. 4. The melodic idea b (onset in bar 61) is rooted in two
cells, one resembling the onset of Beethoven’s Sonata Op. 31, No. 3 and the other displaying a tonic-
to-dominant scale.

1
Translation by author. Original in Romanian language: „din păcate, piesa nu e lipsită de unele lungimi”.
2
Translation Kariotoglou. Original Romanian Language: „Cuvântul “melancolic” îmi pare, încă, prea precis pentru sentimentul
indefinisabil al bucății [...]”. Bentoiu also points out that there are zones (without giving exact delimitations) of „unexpected
luminescences, nearing happiness”. Bentoiu, Pascal, Breviar Enescian ed. by Matei Banică (București: Grafoart, 2014/ first
edition 2005), p. 65. Translation Kariotoglou. Original Romanian text: „Luminări neașteptate, vecine cu fericirea”.

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The characters of a and b appear to contrast one another in that a is „predictable” and
„conciliatory” and b is „unstable” and counteracts the Taktordnung. For a, Enescu uses a traditional
antecedent-consequent grouping marked only by the inversion of the tonic end chord. Tonic closures
every four bars are then reinforced and personalized through elongations by tenuto signs preceded by
„senza rigore”. It might appear strange that Enescu does not follow the promoter of the Mazurka genre,
Chopin, who masks or works against the inherited classical symmetry and punctuation of the
Taktordnung, but this writing has a string of interesting implications for the character of a.3 First, tonic
closures acquire a certain uncanniness due to the discrepancy between the normality of the chord and
the amount of attention it is given (end-function reinforced by rubato). Second, they become active
building blocks for higher unity levels (section) by drawing attention to a level of metrical organisation
above that of the bar. Third, by establishing a rather consistent hypermetrical span, these suspensions
of the musical flow (bars 4, 8, 12, 16, 34, 38, 56, 60 etc.) give a stronger sense of grouping, with inner
notes losing something of their temporal and micro-dynamic emphasis. Moreover, since Mazurk’s
melody does not really „emphasiz[es] one of the weak beats”, the „two parts” of the Mazurka bar,
previously defined by Nicholas Cook as „a short first beat and a long second beat”, are reconciled,
brought closer in importance (Cook, 2013, p. 169). The a-cell’s uplifting caesura corresponding to the
augmented second prepares an unusually long first beat, on which Enescu places in fact no ear-
catching events. At the same time, the rich melodic part of a receives a paradoxical role as a bar’s
„proper upbeat” and as a Mazurka „heavy-beat”. In contrast, for b, Enescu counteracts the symmetry
given by the interaction between harmonic plot and repetitive tenuto markers. One device is the
transient tonicization, acting in the context of D minor to deceive the D’s domination (mostly of F
major, between 61-62, 67-69, 81–84, 87, and 91, but also of A major between 73-74, or E major in bar
86). Another device is the even larger scale of tempo changing markers which appears highlighted
against a newly introduced discrepant ben ritmato. A third device is the breathing mark borrowed from
the vocal practice or from another instrumental practice which is displayed as caesura within the
syntactic group.
When the material is read as „associative sets”, as a system of relationships between the
appearances of a and b cells over time more information on the material is revealed: a tonal and
rhythmic-melodically adaptability of b seems to provide it with an advantage over a and this advantage
becomes a source of tension or conflict when the identity of a is endangered by b. According to the
framework of Dora Hanninen, „an associative set is not just a collection of segments but a system of
relationships among segments that itself functions as a unit at a higher level of organization”
(Hanninen, 2012, p. 236). In Mazurk, at a higher level of organisation, a and b appear bound to one
another intrinsically and form cohesive streams. The developmental course of a is strongly influenced
by b (figure 1 below shows the distribution of a and b). The initial a oscillates between two emotional
states, a grazioso and malinconico harmonic A major, defined by predictability (expected, regular
„contemplative” stops) and steadiness (the well-balanced attitude inside the four-bar groups) and a
grave sostenuto lyrical escape with a montage effect in C sharp Phrygian. Mostly written on an absent-
minded long base C# in the middle register, the two fragmentations of a (bars 17-31 and 39-52)
abandon the dotted rhythm, the ascending melodic direction, and the explicit symmetry of a,
nevertheless preserving the grazioso character through a layering of delicatamente over grave
sostenuto (bars 21 and 43) and emphasizing a continuation function.4 In this case, bars 17 and 39 may
function as narrative signposts that mark the change to an even more lyrical treatment of time within
the same pitch collection. These „distortions” of a are never to return after the introduction of b (fig.
1). At the same time, the loop-like, rotational display of a (bars 1, 31, 52 and, following a gradual, four
bar transformation of material b into a, 101) confirms the tendency of a to remain stable over time by
asserting its presence intermittently. Only the increasing proximity of b changes the situation of a. The
attempt of a to accompany b (122-127) in its initial form will cost the identity of a, leading to its
disappearing as an entity in bar 127.

3
More melodic continuity achieved, for example, by shaping the consequent in a manner that allows transformation to a new
musical idea, or by a particular notation of the legato slurs.
4
The term „fragmentation” is borrowed from the methodology of Jason Yust. While in Yust it describes „a method of formal
differentiation”, „an acceleration in the pacing” indicating that the music is „moving towards the conclusion of a larger
timespan”, in this study, Yust’s fragmentation only helps define the structure by offering a point of articulation at the moment of
shift of pacing. In the MOP (metrical outerplanar graph) representation of MazurK’s form below, the edges of a fragmentation
would encompass the model unit („basic idea”) and all its continuation. Yust, Jason, Organized time: rhythm, tonality, and form
(New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2018), p. 62. In a Caplinian sense and for the repertoire of Haydn, Mozart and
Beethoven, „continuation” defines „a medial intrathematic function that destabilizes the prevailing formal context by means of
fragmentation, harmonic acceleration, faster surface rhythm, and harmonic sequence.” Caplin, William E., Analysing Classical
Form: An Approach for the Classroom (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2013)
<https://www.fulcrum.org/concern/monographs/bg257f46q> [accessed July 2021], p. 254 (Glossary). However, in Enescu, the
destabilisation happens only by means of motivic fragmentation and, contrary to Caplin’s definition, of deceleration of the
harmonic forward drive.

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Fig. 1: The distribution of original a, fragmentation a, and b

Through its adaptability, b develops relationships which cannot be attributed to one single
established structural model. Similarly, rotational in the beginning, b seems trapped in a loop, as the
onset of each repetition (61-73, 74-87, 88-100, and 117-132) brings back the D minor chord. The
continuous tonal oscillation and the more promising development of tension between the tonicizations
of A major in bar 74 and F major, 87, finally leads to b’s transformation into another material a and to
an expressively ambiguous onset of the recapitulation: a superimposing of an a and an a „displaced”
conquering the soundscape while remaining perceivable as different lines of continuity. In bar 117, the
initial b is not related to the flat tonal zone anymore. By oscillating easily (F sharp minor to the tonic
minor and to the home tonality A major) b takes over the main tonality of material a and continues
alone until the last bar, suggesting that it erodes a while the tension of the work continues to grow until
the end of the form.
One model which partially suits Mazurk’s design and, at the same time, raises the question of
why does b need to resolve to the tonic, is the large ternary form. Given the work’s title and tonal plan,
Hoffmann must have automatically thought of Mazurk as of a large ternary form, (to use a newer
definition, that of Lawrence Kramer’s definition from the analysis of Chopin’s Mazurka in B minor,
Op. 33, No. 4) a „top heavy ternary form consisting of an extended first section, a substantial trio
followed by a cadenza of sorts, and an abbreviated reprise of the first section leading to a brief codetta”
(Kramer, 2011, p. 265). According to this model, Mazurk’s fragmentations are the outcome of an
inherited small ternary with written out repeats, perfectly fitted to the more formal character of persona
a. The contrasting inner part between bars 61–100, which displays a different theme placed at the
minor subdominant and a different type of piano writing, functions as an „interior theme” (a term by
Caplin) or a „subordinate theme” (a term proposed by Edwin Ratz) (Caplin, 2013, pg. 211-212). The
missing end to the b-based section (neither a cadence delimitation, nor, in Julian Horton’s terms, a
„liquidation” to „convey the termination” of b) is replaced by the sliding of b into the recapitulation
and its transformation into a. The recapitulation is indeed abbreviated, as the relatively large
fragmentation units of the first exposure (17-31, 39-52) are missing but the brief codetta has been
replaced by a longer reworking of material from the middle section between bars 117-132 (Horton,
2017, p. 183). Following a caesura in the flow of a, b overlaps a and, according to this large ternary
reading, creates a „coda” (117-132) that falls outside of the form proper. In its depreciation of the
coda, the Formenlehre large ternary model could have been responsible for Hoffmann’s critique. The
model also overlooks that retrospectively, it has become impossible to argue that a encircles b (that b
is an „interior” theme) or that b, despite us spending considerably more time becoming familiar with a
than with b, is in any way subordinated to a.
Another established Formenlehre model which must have partially influenced Mazurk’s
design (as a and b, initially one fifth apart, end their relationship in a tonal acclimatization) is the
sonata. Mazurk displays a „localized sonaticization” (term by Steven Vande Moortele), assuming the
minimum of a sonata framework: a recapitulation confirming the change in relationship between a and
b (towards tonal agreement) (Moortele, 2017, pg. 73, 104). Moving from F sharp minor toward the
tonic-minor in bars 122-125 and accomplishing an ascending fifth relationship (D minor-A minor)
between the first exposure and the recapitulation, the recapitulation b suggests that b’s tonal trajectory
is willfully shaped as that of a „second theme”. Although neither the sonata model controls the entire
work (figure 2 shows Mazurk mélancolique as a large ternary and „sonaticised” form), it advances the
idea that Mazurk does not have a redundant coda, but a unitary recapitulation ending in an overlapping
of the two thematic zones, and it invites the question of why a and b need to be superimposed.

Bars 1 9 17 3 39 5 61 74 88 101 112/117–132

1 2

Material a a Fragmentatio a Frag a b b b a a and b

n m.

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Tonal plot A D A A major (F sharp

major minor majo minor and A minor
r towards A major)

1. Exposition A (according to Caplin, itself a small Interior theme B Recap. Coda with
Elements ternary form or rounded binary and encompassing insertion of
of a large here: a as a tight knit theme and immediately A’ (just material from
ternary repeated, tonally contrasting and looser designed aa) the middle
form fragmentation; the fragm. and the recap. a are section
repeated)

2. Elements Theme I Attempts to transit (fragm.) Theme II in an I II in minor

of a sonata unstable minor relative/ minor
form Exposition subdominant Reca tonic/ tonic
p.

Fig. 2: Mazurk mélancolique as large ternary and sonaticised form

As the goal of Mazurk’s structure appears to be beyond that of a ternary model (the
recapitulation of a) and that of the sonata (a reprise of the second theme and a reminder of the essential
sonata closure in Mazurk’s ending), a third top-down reading suggests that the superimposing of a and
b is not only related to the perceived shortening of sections, but to an acceleration of the structure’s
spacetime between bars 101 and 132. A large-scale form representation type MOP (figure 3, the
„metrical outerplanar graph” introduced in music analysis by Yust), depends on establishing a
hierarchy of importance of the structural determinants. As MOP „[associates] the horizontal dimension
with musical time [...and] the vertical dimension with hierarchical depth”, „nodes represent time points
and edges represent time spans. In this analysis, MOP allows the placing of only one primary point as
a structural determinant – the recapitulation’s onset in bar 101, the beginning of the only rotation in the
large-scale form” (Yust, 2018, p. 14). According to the MOP, identifying a coda in Mazurk would not
do justice to the material because half of the Mazurk information has been compressed between bars
101 and 132. Bars 101-132 are one unit. Consequently, the caesuras in bar 61 and 117 (which separate
the time span of a from that of b), both placed on the same, lower, hierarchical level, indicate that the
destabilizations of the tonic in 17-31 and 39-52 do not play a role in defining the macro structure but
rather contribute to the description of a larger and more diffuse associative set a, locally structured as a
small ternary model in which the traditional repeats are varied.

Fig. 3: MOP (bars, caesura or II, repetition)

Overlapping the information collected from the MOP (structure undergoes an acceleration of
its spacetime) with that collected from the conventional form designations (Mazurk alternates and then
superimposes material set on a tonal course similar to that of the two themes of a sonata structure), I
would surmise that Mazurk’s form describes a centripetal acceleration towards the superposition of
material on the tonic-minor in bar 117 and the erosion of a due to b. In figure 4, the ensuing melodic
focus is represented as the dotted line and an estimated performing time up to the main delimitation
points are displayed on the right 5. By way of comparison, Debussy’s F sharp minor Mazurka L. 67
(1890) is similarly built, but more basic, in that each section of the ABA structure is shorter than the
one before. Enescu takes this a step further and combines the idea of diminution with the increasing
proximity of two melodies.

5
Figure inspired by the analysis of formal trajectory in Mendelssohn’s work by Benedict Taylor in Mendelssohn, Time, and
Memory: The Romantic Conception of Cyclic Form (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 130 and 134.

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Fig. 4: Relationship-driven form

It can be concluded that the form of Mazurk mélancolique, extended in a way that seems
unnecessary from a Formenlehre perspective using a tonal processing associated with the sonata
model, is motivated by the ongoing relationships (perhaps of narrative origins) within the material.
While any expectation of ending a large ternary schema as defined by Caplin is thwarted as of bar 117,
the events after bar 101 encourage the listener to re-evaluate the initial simplicity of bars 1-101. A
focus on schematic form would underplay the phases of development: the presentation of a and b
(approximately the first 95 bars, encompassing the poco forte and tenuto sudden first interaction
between the materials on the laissez vibrer pivot note A, in bar 60), the fusion of b and a (b becomes a
between 96-100, respectively, a and a are overlapped), the absorption of a (superimposing of a as
accompaniment and b between 112-126), and the ascendancy of b (126-132). This unevenness in bars
may not match a structural schema mentioned by the available methodology, but comes as a natural
feature for scholars focussing on narrativities („[meaning] is distributed uneven”, Kramer would argue)
(Kramer, 2011, p. 182).6 The centripetal formation and narrative trajectory are only reinforced by
structural schematic applications such as the small ternary model in the exposition of a or by attributes
of the material itself such as the four-bar poetic grouping.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Caplin, W. E. (2013). Analysing Classical Form: An Approach for the Classroom. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Cook, N. (2013). Beyond the score: music as performance. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hanninen, D. A. (2012). A theory of music analysis: on segmentation and associative organization. New York:
University of Rochester Press.
Hoffman, A. (1971). „Partea a II-a. Afirmarea. Anii primului război mondial (1914–1918)”. In M. Voicana (Ed.),
George Enescu – Monografie (p. 443). Bucharest: Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste România.
Horton, J. (2017). Criteria for a Theory of Nineteenth-Century Sonata Form. Music Theory and Analysis(4/2),
183.
Kramer, L. (2011). Interpreting Music. California: University of California Press.
Moortele, S. V. (2017). The Romantic Overture and Musical Form from Rossini to Wagner. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Taylor, B. (2011). Mendelssohn, Time, and Memory: The Romantic Conception of Cyclic Form. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Yust, J. (2018). Organized time: rhythm, tonality, and form. New York: Oxford University Press.

6
In the analysis of Chopin’s Fantasie Impromptu in C sharp minor.

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DES THÈMES BIBLIQUES: INTERSECTIONS
PROF.DR. CARMEN STOIANOV

L’UNION DE COMPOSITEURS ET MUSICOLOGUES ROUMAINS

RESUMÉE: L'article explore l'attrait de ce type de sujet sur

l'adolescent George Enescu, qui étudiait dans la capitale française. Au-
delà de l'influence ou des conseils possibles de ses professeurs et,
malgré leur diversité, ses projets de cette période (inachevés ou à peine
entamés), sont capable de nous renseigner sur l'idée qui les unit et qui
a probablement déterminé son abord. Tout est analysé dans le contexte
de la représentation du thème respectif dans la création
compositionnelle roumaine vers les frontières des XIX-XX siècles.

MOTS-CLÉS: ALECSANDRI, FLECHTENMACHER, MASSENET, FAURÉ

A L'ÉPOQUE où George Enescu abordait les thèmes bibliques, ceux-ci n'étaient presque pas
représentés dans la vie/la composition musicale roumaine, même si certains titres ont prévalu plus
tard. Nous n'aurons pas de succès retentissants dans ce sens même plus tard, même si quelques titres ont
prévalu. Ce qui est important c'est le processus qui a conduit à la constitution d'un intéressant mélange:
soit à reflets orientaux – le style sépharade du sud-ouest de l'Europe, soit sobres – les ashkénazes au
centre et à l'est du continent, soit la cantique psaltique d'extraction gréco-orthodoxe.
Dans le périmètre temporel du milieu du XIXe siècle, à l'unisson, les créateurs roumains
(certains roumanisés depuis une ou plusieurs générations) et les représentants des ethnies juives avaient
assumé comme devoir d'honneur les principes d'émancipation culturelle; le goût du thème romantique
et les données infusées par le courant Haskala ont ainsi été combinés (Stanciu, 2001), conjugaison
évidente à toute la dimension culturelle-littéraire-musicale européenne.
Les idéaux de l'esthétique romantique et un type particulier de dialogue culturel (des thèmes
juifs spécifiques présents sans forcer la note) étaient entrelacés sous divers aspects, genres et niveaux de
s'adresser à un public (de sa part) hétérogène.
C'est à noter l'animation du public autour des délicieuses chansons satiriques de Vasile
Alecsandri (1821-1890), du cycle Ion Păpuşarul, mises en musique par Alexandru
Flechtenmacher (1823-1898); la figure juive présente ici est celle de Herşcu
Boccegiul (chanson comique, 1843) – donc une représentation musicale profane.
Seule à la fin du XIXe siècle, une proposition est venue de la part de George
Stephanescu (1843-1924) qui, alors qu’il étudiait au Conservatoire National de Musique, à Paris, s'est
intéressé aux les sujets bibliques, sans finaliser le projet qu'il avait commencé: la
cantate Dalila. Signalons que les trois dernières décennies du XIXe siècle et encore les premières
décennies du XX-eme siècle ont mis en lumière les tentatives des compositeurs
précurseurs: les Psaumes d' inspiration biblique dans des liturgies ou des Concerts religieux (avec la
même fonction).

Le Poème Roumain (1897) représente la première partition qui impose (en février 1898) le nom du
jeune George Enescu (1881-1955) à l'attention du public et du monde musical parisien, à travers
le double concert de Colonne, un succès qui eut un écho retentissant un mois plus tard, à Bucarest, à
l'Athénée Roumain, avec ce double début: compositeur et chef d'orchestre. J'éprouve le besoin de
préciser la date de sa naissance: 7/ 19 août 1881, renforçant ainsi l'idée que ses débuts sur les podiums
parisien et bucarestois et – en même temps – ce premier succès qu'il a remporté à moins de 17 ans.
Le jeune artiste n'avait pas atteint l'âge de la majorité, mais sa signature apparaissait déjà sur
des partitions à peine commencées: symphonies, œuvres concertantes, musique de chambre, œuvres
pour piano et – ce qui nous intéresse – sur plusieurs projets d'envergure mais, malheureusement,
inachevés. N'oublions pas: à cet âge là il était, tout d'abord, violoniste et le violon était impitoyable, en
demandant ses droits. Parmi d'autres, il s'agit de trois œuvres destinées à la scene/au théâtre musical

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(1895 et 1897) et plusieurs œuvres concertantes ou vocal-symphoniques (1895, 1896 et 1897)1; bien
trop prétentieuses par rapport non seulement à l'âge mais aussi à l'expérience créatoire acquise jusqu'à
cette date, ces trois œuvres ne marquaient que des propositions/intentions louables, sans doute
à «l' unisson» avec certaines orientations de la classe de composition de ses maîtres. «Séduit»
en permanence par de nouveaux projets, les défis et les perspectives ouvertes successivement devant lui
et à qui il a répondu avec l'enthousiasme d'un adolescent et la responsabilité d'un adulte, Enescu n'a pas
vécu le béni moment de bonheur de marquer la barre finale.
Les titres de ces œuvres sont éloquents, en parlant de ce qui concerne le nouvel étudiant (en
double: violon et composition) du „Conservatoire National de Musique” dans la capitale française, à
la classe de composition de Jules Massenet (1842-1912) et (on parle aussi de) Gabriel Fauré ( 1845-
1924 )2.
Nous observons trois grands axes thématiques: la littérature à fondement biblique, l' orientation
vers l' extraction sacrée catholique romaine et les sujets de l'univers de la mythologie ou de
la littérature grecque3. C'est la ligne générale, mais elle est fanée dans le temps, les témoins ne sont pas
seulement des créations de Massenet et Fauré, mais aussi ceux d'autres compositeurs qui ont été
les mentors non seulement spirituels de ce jeune disciple.
Des questions légitimes se posent : il est possible qu'elles répondent à un plan d'étude, traduisent
le désir exprès de son maître de guider son disciple pour mesurer ses forces avec le libre proposé pour
le Prix de Rome/ Rossini ou tout simplement l'admiration du disciple pour les maîtres qui s'occupaient
aussi de tels sujets ?
Ne négligeons pas le fait que les titres des opéras de Massenet inspirés par la littérature
française, ayant le substrat mythologique grecque/oriental ou biblique, étaient déjà sur le
point d'être mis-en-scène à l' Opéra-Comique4, Opéra Garnier5 et Théâtre des Nations (connu
comme Théâtre Italien / Lyrique, de la Ville, plus tard Sarah-Bernhard)6 de Paris ou Bruxelles7; quant
à Fauré, nous envisageons le projet d'une tragédie lyrique 8 et son célèbre Requiem en re minor op. 489.

De notre point de vue, les œuvres littéraires-mythologiques ne représentaient que le début de la

recherche: les étapes qui consolideront l'idée de la future tragédie lirique énéscienne Oedipe, éclairée
par la rencontre des deux consciences artistiques et civiques: George Enescu et Edmond Fleg (1874-
1963): Antigone (1895 – texte: Fernand Beissier) – Cantate pour ténor, soprano, chœur mixte et
orchestre et Daphné (1896? – texte: Charles Raffalli) – Cantate pour baryton, ténor, soprano et
orchestre.
D'autres projets viennent régler l'idée d'aborder les écrits bibliques. Situées dans l'histoire
d'Israël, deux d'entre elles traversent les Livres de la Bible: la période des Juges (1897) et celle d'un
premier royaume des israélites: le roi Shaul (juin 1895). Le troisième10 a pour personnage central une
figure légendaire de la tangente biblique (septembre 1895). Jamais terminées, conservées à divers stades
de conception et d'esquisse, ces trois partitions ne restent que pour refléter l'approche fulgurante du
thème biblique, abandonné par George Enescu immédiatement après 1897 et jamais repris.
Une nouvelle question: au-delà de l'inspiration/influence biblique, entre ces trois œuvres,
quel dénominateur commun y a-t-il? Et, surtout, quelle aurait été la/les raison(s) pour laquelle(s)
l'attention du jeune Enescu s'est arrêtée sur ce sujet (nous soulignons: immédiatement définitivement
abandonné par le compositeur): l'envie de répondre à un défi, de « mesurer les forces » avec d'autres

1
Au-delà des 33 numéros d'opus parcimonieux choisis par le compositeur pour le représenter et des partitions terminées (qui n'ont
pas de numéro d'opus), parmi les manuscrits d'Enescu se trouvent une série de projets commencés, seulement esquissés ou en
divers autres stades d'élaboration. Cet article se concentre uniquement sur trois projets choisis par leur thème (avant la première
audition du Poema Română – p.a.a. le 6 février 1898, Paris).
2
Compositeur honoré par George Enescu (en pleine gloire, 1922), ainsi que six autres collègues: Hommage musical à Gabriel
Fauré, sept pièces de piano sur le nom de Fauré ...par Louis Albert (1877-1968), Georges Enesco (1881-1955), Charles Koechlin
(1867-1950), Paul Ladmirault (1877-1944), Maurice Ravel (1875-1937), Jean Roger-Ducasse (1873-1954) et Florent Schmitt
(1870-1958).
3
Après 1898, le thème s'élargira considérablement, en abordant des thèmes orientaux (Les Djins, Bord du Gange...) et ceux
proposés par la poésie française (Victor Hugo), allemande (Gottfried August Burger ou roumaine (Mihai Eminescu). la
prédilection pour le raffinement poétique de la souveraine Roumaine écrivaine Carmen Sylva étant incontestable.
4
Sapho (1897 – 5 actes).
5
Le Cid (1885 – 4 actes), Le Mage (1991 – 5 actes).
6
Hérodiade (1881 – 3 actes, rév. 1884 – 4 actes, comme Erodiade).
7
Idem.
8
Prométhée (achevée en 1900 – 3 actes).
9
Composé entre 1887-1890 et revu une dizaine d'années plus tard (baryton, chœur mixte, orgue et orchestre).
10
Chronologiquement entre les deux premiers (septembre 1895).

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disciples de la classe de Massenet dont les œuvres avaient déjà été couronnées de lauriers ou
d' expression possédaient-elles des options et?

Ayant la conviction qu'à l'arrière-plan de ces partitions nous trouverons la réponse à cette
question, prenons-les une à une. Pour commencer – les bibliques eux-mêmes, puis la tangente biblique.
L'année 189511 est documentée par La Vision de Saül – le texte signé par Eugène Félix Adenis (1854-
1923)12, à double sous-titre: Cantate13 et Scène lyrique et Ahasvérus – le texte signé en 1892 par Lucien
Augé de Lassus (1841-1914) – ayant pour sous-titré Légende Biblique.
Cantate ou Scène lyrique, La Vision de Saül a été inspirée par un épisode biblique bien connu:
la tension continuellement montante entre le premier roi israélite, Saül14 et celui qui allait devenir son
gendre et successeur, David, poète-roi, musicien-roi...
Le texte biblique à partir duquel l'idée peut être retracée est 1 Samuel 16:1 – lorsque le
prophète Samuel/ Shemuel15 reçoit du Seigneur la mission d'accomplir sa volonté 16; puis, dans 1
Samuel 16:12-13 – „l'Onction”, 1 Samuel 16:14-15 – l'apparition du mauvais esprit qui tourmentera le
roi et dans 1 Samuel 16:16-18; 21-22 – la rencontre entre le roi Shaul et David, ce dernier étant accepté
comme écuyer, chef d'armée et musicien du roi. Les visions qui tentent et tourmentent Shaul, lui faisant
faire de brusques sautes d'humeur, doublées de jalousie vers le jeune chef d'armée adoré par la foule (1
Samuel 18:6-7) vont conduire à une série d'attaques. Shaul essaye de tuer David avec la lance, car il
identifie en David un adversaire redouté qu'il soupçonne de vouloir prendre sa place (1 Samuel 18:10-
12 et 19:9-10).
Dans l'histoire de la culture il existe de nombreuses toiles qui immortalisent ces attaques –
un Shaul abattu, en colère ou guerrier, une lance à la main et un David serein, empathique, confiant dans
la puissance de son art, essayant de calmer tous les démons du roi avec sa lyre (parfois sa harpe) 17 et,
avec eux, la jeune fille de Shaul18 et la première femme de David, Michal19.
La conception de l'œuvre d'Enescu – un George Enescu qui n'avait pas encore 14 ans, donc pas
même à l'âge d'un nouveau lycéen aujourd'hui! – impose un début orchestral – Prélude – suivi par cinq
scènes avec la participation de ces trois personnages mentionnés ci-dessus: deux voix masculines (David
– ténor et Saül – baritone) et une voix de femme (Michol – soprano); l'orchestre et une groupe
instrumental intervenant en coulisses sont prévus, la partition contenant également l'intervention du
piano. L'œuvre – appréciée par le maître en composition musicale d’Enescu – le compositeur Jules
Massenet, comme authentique, prouvant le sens dramatique et l'instinct symphonique20 – a une durée
d'environ 30 minutes, d'après le témoignage de sa première audition à Cluj en avril 2019 21.

11
Le manuscrit conserve la date exacte, notée par le compositeur: le 19 juin 1895, cf. Țăranu, Cornel, New Restorations of Enescu’s
Works, in: The International „George Enescu” Symposium Proceedings, 2019, București, Edit. Muzicală, 2019 (voir aussi Arta,
2017, 2019).
12
De l’étude New Restorations of Enescu 's Works de l’academicien Cornel Țăranu, nous constatons que le livret auquel Enescu
faisait appel avait été proposé comme base d’oeuvres musicales au prestigieux Prix de Rome de 1896 (Prix décerné à des jeunes
artistes - d’abord plasticiens, puis architectes et musicians – plus de tris siècles:1663-1968. La même étude avanse également
l’idée que le livret s’inspire du drame de Voltaire.
13
Entre parenthèses – dans le manuscrit original – cf. Cosma, Octavian Lazăr, Hronicul Muzicii Românești, vol. VII, București,
Edit. Muzicală, 1986, p. 515-516.
14
Dans le texte biblique original. Nous mentionnons qu' à propos de l'œuvre d'Enescu nous utiliserons le nom proposé par le titre,
en orthographe française: Saül.
15
Dans le texte biblique original.
16
En choisissant le nouveau Roi de l'ancien Israël: le plus jeune des fils d' Isaïe le Benjamite de Beit-Lehem (leur nombre est
variable: sept – le Livre de Samuel ou huit – le Livre des Chroniques).
17
Lucas van Leyden (c. 1494-1533, gravure), Andreas Cellarius (1596-1665), Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606-1669),
Jan van den Hoecke (1611-1651), Mattia Preti (1613-1699), Bernardo Cavallino (1616-1656), Charles-André Van Loo (1705-
1765), Antoine-Jean Gros (1771-1835), Moritz Daniel Oppenheim (1800-1882) Giuseppina Brignoli (1829-1911) Ivan Ivanovici
Tvorozhnikov (1848-1919), Nikolai Mihailovici Plyusnin (1848-1920), Jacob Julius Kronberg (1850-1921), William Hathrell
(1855-1928)...
18
En orthographe française: Saül.
19
Dans le livret – Michol.
20
De l'étude citée de l'académicien Cornel Țăranu: "symphonic instinct, unity and great authenticity from a dramatic point of
view"/« instinct symphonique, unité et grande authenticité d'un point de vue dramatique » (voir Țăranu, Cornel, New Restorations
of Enescu 's Works, op. cit.).
21
Idem. Flaviu Mogoșan et l' équipe de l' Opéra Roumaine de Cluj ont apporté une précieuse contribution au succès de l'exécution
de l'œuvre (en concert) – la mise en page sonore: le chef d'orchestre: Gh. Victor Dumănescu, solistes: le baryton Cristian
Hodrea (Saül), le ténor Cristian Mogoșan (David et la soprano Irina Săndulescu Bălan (Michol), les pages orchestrales prévues
pour l'orchestre des coulisses étant préenregistrées.

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La construction musicale est dramatique en elle-même, les personnages étant conçus pour
exprimer la diversité de relations entre elles, «colorée» notamment sur le plan vocal-orchestral dans une
multitude de plans reflétant les valences du texte: un Saül jaloux, hanté par des fantômes, ne sachant pas
comment agir dans le contexte donné (conscient de l'ascension de David, de la perte de sa propre
popularité et la perte du respect de son propre peuple, prévoyant la fin imminente de son règne),
un David amoureux de sa nouvelle épouse – la jeune princesse Michal, à la fois redevable à son beau-
père et roi qu'il respecte mais dont il a peur et à qui il essaie, pourtant, de chasser ses hallucinations et
une Michal aimant à la fois son père et son mari, en essayant de protéger son mariage et de sauver son
mari des accès de rage débridée de son père, le roi Saül. La musique se distingue par son dramatisme,
son oscillation mélodique cursive entre lyrique-dramatique-héroïque, l’arioso étant „un moyen
d'exposition, de justification de certaines actions” (Cosma, 1967, p. 23).

Dans le même horizon d'inspiration biblique22, l'année 1897 met en lumière le projet d'un opéra en 3
actes: La file de Jephté; jusqu’à ce jour, le nom de l'auteur du livret n'est pas connu (Cosma, 1967, p.
25).
Conçue comme une série de tableaux musicaux d'amplitude – comprenant à la fois les moments
qui précèdent une impressionnante bataille et les conséquences mettant le problème de la prise en charge
de la responsabilité par une jeune adolescente – l'opéra en 3 actes La fille de Jephté est centré sur la
figure de la fille de Jephthah, le dernier des Juges tribaux – dirigeants de l'ancien Israël. Il est intéressant
de noter qu'Enescu a opté non seulement pour un visage féminin et en plus, une incarnation du sérieux,
de l'obéissance et de la responsabilité dans le respect de la dette de son père, mais en même temps pour
un personnage qui ne porte pas de nom. Ce personnage fait partie de la vaste galerie de personnages
anonymes, comme tels dans le texte biblique, indifférent au Livre auquel ils appartiennent.
Voici quelques considérations qui se réfèrent exclusivement au texte de référence biblique en
vue. Selon lui, Jephthah (Juges 11-12) a été le Juge-en-chef des tribus et des israélites, veillant au règne
de la loi, pendant 6 ans. Avant la guerre avec les Ammonites, il jure devant le Seigneur que victorieux
il apportera comme « brûlé offre » le premier être de sa propre maison qui viendra à sa rencontre
(Juges 11: 30-31). Lorsqu'il rentrera chez lui, en apprenant et souhaitant d’honorer la victoire de l'armée
de son père, sa fille unique (vierge), accompagnée d'un cortège de amies vierges, elle le saluera
en chantant et en dansant23 (Juges 11:34), causant ainsi la douleur de la vie de son père.
Après le dialogue des deux personnages, qui montre son caractère et la foi solide, inébranlable,
dans la force avec laquelle la Loi doit être défendue (Juges 11:35-38) et après un délai de deux
mois requis par sa fille, Jephté accomplira son vœu (Juges 11:39)24; par résultat de cette action, la vierge
sacrifiée sera honorée par ses amies, quatre jours par an (Juges 11:40)25.
D'un point de vue exclusivement musical, on peut remarquer la force émotionnelle de la
déclamation - le monologue, la prière de Jephté, l'équilibre lyrique dramatique dans le duo avec sa fille26,
l'utilisation magistrale de la couleur orchestrale et même les intentions de matérialiser un discours
musical continu, dans lequel on peut déceler l'influence wagnérienne.

Nous quittons le paysage des livres bibliques pour entrer dans celui de la légende d'extraction biblique ;
en même temps, nous y revenons deux ans plus tôt, en ce même 1895 qui avait proposé La Vision de
Saül. Malgré l'ambiguïté du titre, qui semble à première vue faire référence au roi de Perse dans le Livre

Voir Cosma, Octavian Lazăr, Oedipul enescian, op. cit., p. 25 et Cosma, Viorel, Lexicon, Muzicieni din România, vol. 2 (C-E),
22

București, Edit. Muzicală, 1999, p. 294.

23
Voir aussi le tableau inspiré de ce moment appartenant à James (Jacques Joseph) Tissot (1836-1902), le peintre doué qui saisit
toute l'expérience de la joie de célébrer la victoire de son père par la danse; l'énorme tambourin que le personnage central du
tableau porte dans sa main droite acquiert une valeur symbolique. D'autres toiles: Erasmus Quellinus II (1607-1678), Giovanni
Antonio Pellegrini (1675-1741), Alexandre Cabanel (1823-1899), George Elgar Hicks (1824-1914), Edgar Degas (1834-1917),
Edouard Bernard Debat-Ponsan (1847-1913)...
24
Le sacrifice humain, religieusement exclu à l'époque dans la société israélienne selon la Torah. Il existe de nombreux rabbins
qui, depuis le Moyen Âge (David Kimhi, 1160-1235) et d'autres chercheurs chrétiens du XIXe siècle (Carl Friedrich Keil, 1807-
1888, Franz Delitzsch, 1813-1890) ou XX (James B. Jordan, né en 1949) ont avancé l'idée d'une réclusion, étant remis en cause le
sacrifice d'une vierge. Leur conviction était fondée par l'impossibilitée de trahir le commandement biblique adressé au premiers
vivants dans Genèse 1:28: „Soyez féconds, multipliez-vous, remplissez la terre, rendez-vous en maîtres, et dominez les poissons
des mers, les oiseaux du ciel et tous les reptiles et les insectes.” (La Bible du Semeur – en ligne).
25
Il semble qu'honorer cette figure biblique ait donné naissance à la coutume de la tekufah pratiquée par certaines communautés
depuis le Moyen Âge (quatre fois par an pendant plusieurs heures, s'abstenir de boire l'eau des puits ou des rivières).
26
Nommé Maala dans pe projet d'Enescu – cf. Cosma, Octavian Lazăr, Oedipul enescian, op. cit., p. 26.

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 Vol.. XX,
Vol XX, 2021

d'Esther/Megilat Esther, Ahasvérus se concentre sur une figure connue et largement diffusée tant dans
la littérature française que dans la création musicale: Le Juif errant.
Les magnifiques échos de l’opéra Le Juif errant (1852) de Fromental Halévy (1799-1862)27
d’après le livret d'Eugène Scribe et Jules-Henri Vernoy de Saint-Georges (d'après Eugène Sue)28, dont
la création parisienne (absolue) avait duré plus de quatre décennies (1852) n'étaient pas encore terminés;
ils ne pouvaient pas non plus être éteints ou oubliés, car une multitude de salons de piano ou divers autres
instruments maintenaient vivante la mémoire collective. Ils étaient encore chantés, dans des
arrangements divers, soit des numéros détachés, soit des arrangements sous forme de suites d'aires, soit
des pièces créées ou inspirées de thèmes de l’opéra d'Halévy.
En tenant compte ce qu’on vient de noter, on peut dire que la légende du "Juif errant" était déjà
entrée dans la conscience musicale collective depuis plusieurs décennies, il aurait donc été impossible
pour un jeune adolescent en quête d'inspiration de ne pas en être impressionné. C'est d'autant plus vrai
qu'Enescu avait quitté une terre moldave, où la légende était très connue, étant dans l'esprit collectif
(Oişteanu, 2001) depuis des siècles et la "saturation" des salons et salles de concert parisiens (toujours
de nouvelles „réminiscences”, caprices) offraient un terrain favorable à la fois aux thèmes musicaux et
à l'idée dont ils se réclamaient.
Dans le cas d'Ahasvérus, le projet vocal-symphonique énéscien ayant pour texte le livret de
Lucien Augé de Lassus29, sur la première page de la partition notée légende biblique (possiblement un
oratorio?!), avec la notation du schéma de l'œuvre future, il y a une devise et une note 30. La devise est
pleinement explicative, marquant d'emblée la distance avec le Livre d'Esther, dans lequel il aurait été
possible de rencontrer le personnage Ahasvérus/Ahashverosh : „Tu marcheras toi-même. Encore plus de
mille ans” (Stoianov, 2001, pg. 99-104); On peut remarquer aussi clairement que possible, la référence
à la légende médiévale aux racines bibliques du „Juif errant” (Oişteanu, 2001).
En plus du Motto, il y a une note avec la référence suivante: „Institut de France, Académie des
Beaux Arts. Concours Rossini. Paris” (Cosma, 1967, p. 24), ce qui semble indiquer une participation
projetée au Prix Rossini du jeune musicien.
C'est qu'aujourd'hui, à près d'un siècle et un quart de sa conception, la première partie de ce
premier opus énéscien, datée par le compositeur six mois après La vision de Saül mais retenant de
nombreuses (et explicables) tangentes devenues caractéristiques communes (Țăranu, New Restorations
of Enescu 's Works, 2019), a pris vie grâce à la restitution de la fin de cette partition d'après les esquisses
du Musée national „George Enescu” – par les soins du chef d'orchestre Gabriel Bebeșelea, présenté au
public de Cluj avec La Vision de Saül31.
Conçu en trois scènes qui gardent des indications de lieu (théâtral-scénique), le partage des six
numéros musicaux et l'intercalation des sections dansantes (Cosma, 1967, p. 24) précédées d'un
Prologue32, Ahasvérus démontre la parfaite logique d'accumulations progressives de technique,
d'écriture, de dramaturgie musicale, toutes surprenantes par rapport à son adolescence. Le fameux
compositeur et maître d'harmonie Charles Koechlin (1867-1950)33 n’est pas le seul qui le dit; les
académiciens Octavian Lazăr Cosma (Cosma, 1967, pg. 24-25) et Cornel Țăranu (Enescu în conștiința
prezentului, 1981) renforcent l'opinion de la maîtrise déjà prouvée en maximisant les effets sonores:
l'économie de moyens, l'efficacité des solos, l'élégance des contours mélodiques qui définiront sa patine
stylistique, la participation chorale (Cosma, 1967, p. 25) – le tout au service de la sobriété de l'atmosphère

Disciple de Luigi Cherubini (1760-1842), dont le premier succès à l'opéra (maintenant plus tard aux mêmes niveaux élevés) fut
27

marqué par la création de La Juive (1835) sur un livret d' Eugène Scribe (1791-1861).
28
Avec Ashvérus.
29
Dans Oedipul enescian (op. cit., p. 24), l'académicien Octavian Lazăr Cosma ajoute des information selon laquelles il y eut de
nombreux écrivains romantiques préoccupés par ce sujet, de Goethe, Schlegel ou Lenau à Joukovski - avec des réflexions sur la
destin de divers héros errant dans la vie, romantiques eux-aussi: Le Hollandais volant, Faust, Manfred...
30
J'ai l'information grâce à la bienveillance généreuse du regretté maître Pascal Bentoiu (1927-2016) qui,
connaissant mes préoccupations concernant le néoclassicisme musical roumain et le thème juif, l'a partagée avec moi.
31
Conçue pour les solistes, la partition pour chœur mixte et orchestre a bénéficié de la contribution des solistes Diana
Ţugui, Tiberius Simu, Michael Mrozek, Ruben Ciungan, Sándor Kopeczi et Philharmonic Choir of Cluj conduire au chef
d'orchestre Cornel Groza (cf. Taranu, Cornel, New Restaurations des uvres d'Enescu, op. cit.).
32
Entièrement orchestré (cf. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_compositions_by_George_Enescu).
33
En tant que disciple et assistant de Fauré (compositeur, arrangeur, ethnomusicologue) et auteur des trois traités qui porte son
nom: Harmonie - 3 tomes (1923-1926); Théorie musicale (1932-1934); Orchestration, 4 tomes (1935-1943), Koechlin était aussi
connu comme passionné de photographie, d'astronomie, d'idéalisme mystique, voire d'idéaux socialistes – à l'époque très à la
mode. A propos des appréciations de Charles Koechlin sur les progrès réalisés d'année en année par le jeune George Enescu, voir
Koechlin, Charles, Souvenirs de la classe de Massenet, Dans: Le Menestrel, 22 mars 1935, apud Țăranu, Cornel, New Restorations
of Enescu 's Works, op. cit.

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InternationalMusicology
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et tension dramatique. On comprend qu'avec La Vision de Saül et la future partition Strigoii34, Ahasvérus
se constitue comme l'une des marches qui montent vers le futur Oedipe énéscien.
Il est temps d'avancer une réponse possible à la question de l'existence d'un dénominateur
commun à ces trois projets d’Enescu dans lesquels le thème biblique est de plein droit. De notre point
de vue, cela est clairement requis.
Au-delà de la complexité psychologique des personnages et des relations entre eux, l' analyse
des moments dramatiques déterminants des livrets choisis par George Enescu met en évidence
l'existence – dans deux d'entre eux – d'amples moments où la musique est présente en tant que
„personnage”, ayant même une identité de timbre: la lyre et le chant de David (La Vision de Saül) , le
tambourin et la danse (La fille de Jephté), la joie de la récolte d'automne exprimée par la foule:
participation chorale et dansante (Ahasvérus). Est-ce l’une des raisons pour laquelle le compositeur a
voulu à donner la „couleur locale” en écrivant en chiffre intervalique la couleur orientale spécifique sans
épaississement, sans forcer l’évidence, la discrétion.
Le fait que chacune des trois partitions considérées d'école utilisent des éléments qui impliquent
la pratique de la musique: instrumentale, vocale-instrumentale, chorale, la danse, nous oblige à nous
concentrer sur une certaine réponse. A ce titre, nous considérons que dans ces trois contraires inspirés
du thème biblique qui, sous cette perspective s’identifient comme des étapes du futur Œdipe, George
Enescu entendait ouvrir un horizon intéressant: celui de pratiquer son propre „l'art poétique”, soit
„incrustation musicale”, de prouver la force émotionnelle en insérant „la musique dans la musique” selon
l’exemple très bien connu du théâtre en théâtre.
Si Shakespeare disait que le monde entier est une scène et les gens sont des acteurs, on pourrait
dire qu’Enesco considérait l’existence humaine une ample partition, où les voix et les instruments sont
censés mettre en musique un ample discours vocale-symphonique, qui donne naissance et puis garde la
tension dramatique.

RÉFERENCES:
***. (1938). Biblia. (G. G. Pr. Vasile Radu, Trad.) București: Fundația pentru Literatură și Artă Regele Carol II.
Cosma, O. L. (1967). Oedipul enescian. București: Editura Muzicală.
Cosma, O. L. (1986). Hronicul Muzicii Românești (Vol. VII). București: Editura Muzicală.
Cosma, V. (1999). Muzicieni din România. Lexicon (Vol. II (C-E)). București: Editura Muzicală.
Oişteanu, A. (2001). The Legend of the Wandering Jew in Europe and in Romania. The „Goldstein Goren” Center
for Hebrew Studies (pg. 63-73). Bucharest: Universitatea din București.
Stanciu, M. (2001). A promoter of the Haskala in Romania: Moses Gaster. Studia HEBRAICA(1), 53-62.
Stoianov, C. (2001). Dynamics of the Jewish themes approach in Romanian musical creations. Studia
HEBRAICA(1), 99-104.
Stoianov, C. (2019). Cărţile Psalmilor – Reflexii în sonor (Vol. I-II). București: Editura Muzicală.
Țăranu, C. (1981). Enescu în conștiința prezentului. București: Ed. Științifică și Enciclopedică.
Țăranu, C. (2019). New Restorations of Enescu 's Works. The International „George Enescu” Symposium
Proceedings. București: Editura Muzicală.

34
Inspiré du poème d'Eminescu; la partition (datée de 1916) était terminée et orchestrée (d' après les esquisses d'Enescu),
étant restituée par Cornel Țăranu et Sabin Pautza en 1970 (cf. Țăranu, Cornel, New Restorations of Enescu 's Works, op. cit. et
https:/ /www.prestomusic.com/classical/products/8470940--enescu-strigoii-ghosts ).

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 SECTION 2:
HISTORIOGRAPHY
 GEORGE ENESCU ET ALFREDO CASELLA:
CONVERGENCES MUSICOLOGIQUES ET
CULTURELLES
IOANA CARAUSU

MINISTERE DE L'EDUCATION, ITALIE

RÉSUMÉ: Cette étude dévoile les parcours communs de deux

musiciens sophistiqués et éclectiques appartenant à la "génération des
années ‘80, ALFREDO CASELLA et GEORGE ENESCU. Partant de
leur milieu culturel, pendant leurs années à Paris, où ils ont tous deux
eu l'occasion de développer leur originalité en tant que compositeurs et
d'être célébrés comme de grands virtuoses, guidés par une forte estime
mutuelle, ils ont développé une amitié profonde et durable. L'objectif de
cette recherche est de trouver des points communs dans de nombreux
aspects de leur vie: leur carrière incontestée, leur engagement social en
tant que promoteurs de la musique nationale, leur influence sur les
avancées importantes dans les domaines culturels et musicaux
européens au 20e siècle.

MOTS-CLÉS: AUTOBIOGRAPHIE, COMMENTAIRES CONTEMPORAINS,

ESTHÉTIQUE MUSICALE, AMITIÉ

Fig.1: Georges Enescu

„Enescu est délicat et sensible, communicatif aussi, comme tous les

Latins. Malgré son inventivité spontanée et d'une richesse
étonnante, sa création illustre un processus de volonté, qu'aucun
artiste ne peut négliger. J'ai vu un accord si parfait entre l'intention
et l'expressioncomme chez très peu de musiciens contemporains. Il
y a longtemps, à Paris, avant la guerre, nous avons parlé pendant
plusieurs soirs d'affilée, dans un café près de la salle où se
déroulaient les concerts de Colonne, d'art et de souvenirs de chez
nous...
La guerre nous a séparés pendant de nombreuses années, mais je
n'ai jamais cessé de penser à l'art de mon collègue roumain.1

1
Roman Vlad se souvient ainsi de son examen d'entrée à l'Accademia Chigiana: „Je n'ai pas pu passer d'examens car les places
étaient déjà attribuées! La fin d'un rêve. Désemparé et découragé, je me suis effondré sur un banc dans le couloir: je ne savais pas

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„George Enescu“
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InternationalMusicology
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Symposium

En tant que violoniste, je le considère comme l'un des rares artistes

de génie dont l'interprétation était fondée sur les ressources de leur
intelligence et de leur sentiment. J'ai rarement entendu Bach ou
Beethoven interprétés avec autant de perspicacité et de lucidité.
Il ne néglige rien de ce qui peut aider à comprendre les grands
maîtres, et devant la profondeur poétique de ses interprétations, on
ne peut s'empêcher d'exprimer bruyamment son enthousiasme... Il
m'a promis de m'envoyer une sonate pour violoncelle et piano sur
laquelle il travaillait à l'époque, que j'ai l'intention de présenter au
public italien lors des festivals de musique moderne de Venise.”
(Famous People about Enescu, n.d.)

Fig. 2: Alfredo Casella

Je propose ici un bref parcours de recherche qui suit un chemin artistique et culturel partagé par
deux personnalités musicales de premier plan, Alfredo Casella (Lanfranchi, 1978) et George Enescu, à
partir de quelques témoignages directs; les principaux textes de référence sont l'autobiographie d'Alfredo
Casella „I Segreti della Giara”, les „Souvenirs de George Enescu” de Bernard Gavoty et la vaste
collection d'actes des Studi di Musica Veneta – Alfredo Casella Archive – de la Fondation Giorgio Cini
(volumes 20 et 25).
La période historique de référence est avant tout le Paris du début du vingtième siècle, qui a
connu une très forte concentration de personnalités intellectuelles et un bouillonnement d'événements
culturels aussi nombreux qu'importants. Plutôt que la tentation d'analyser systématiquement chacune des
expériences de formation profonde des deux hommes, l'approche qui prévaut ici n'est pas excessivement
articulée: parmi les nombreuses et intéressantes pistes possibles qui attendent une étude approfondie,
seront mis en évidence ici, surtout à travers leurs souvenirs directs, certains des points à partir desquels
les vies artistiques d'Enescu et de Casella se sont sans doute développées avec des connotations
parallèles.
Au cours de la recherche, il est apparu de manière surprenante à quel point leur parcours de
croissance culturelle et artistique était similaire; leurs choix professionnels, dans une multiplicité
d'intentions, en plus des qualités indiscutables d'excellents interprètes et compositeurs, ont été orientés
pour développer de manière exemplaire un rôle „social”. En tant que professeurs, ils ont transmis des
valeurs artistiques encore reconnues aujourd'hui, ils ont promu de jeunes talents et mis en place des cours
de formation musicale avancée.
Offrant leurs contributions convaincues au développement de leurs écoles nationales, avec une
vocation européenne marquée, ils souhaitaient vivement diffuser la culture musicale de leurs pays à un
niveau international „pour déprovincialiser notre art”, comme le disait Casella lui-même.

quoi faire, je ne parlais pas italien, je ne m'étais pas informé correctement, je n'avais pas de lettre d'introduction sur moi, bref, un
désastre. J'avais déjà perdu tout espoir et j'étais sur le point de partir lorsque Casella, qui ne me connaissait manifestement pas, est
apparu à travers une porte. Il est passé devant moi, il a vu que j'avais de la musique sous le bras, est revenu et m'a demandé:
«Qu'est-ce que tu fais ici, qu'est-ce que tu as à la main ? Ah ! Busoni !» «Oui», ai-je répondu. «Et pouvez-vous en jouer ? Et qu'est-
ce que vous avez d'autre? » J'avais la Sonate de Berg, la Sonate de Stravinsky et l'Opus 19 de Schoenberg. Casella, incrédule mais
très curieux, m'a demandé à nouveau: «Mais est-ce que vous jouez à ces choses-là ? Et d'où venez-vous ?" «Je viens de Roumanie",
ai-je répondu, «et je voudrais passer l'examen d'admission à votre masterclass de piano». «De Roumanie donc, la patrie de mon
grand ami et bienfaiteur George Enescu! Mais viens à l'intérieur, viens à l'intérieur», article paru dans: Sistema Musica, Année
XIV numéro 2/ 2012 – Février 2012 – Saison 2011-2012 numéro 6

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Dans leur témoignage direct, chaque rencontre, chaque personne, chaque travail de
composition, les événements et les conséquences sur leur vie professionnelle, sont rapportés avec une
intensité passionnante, on se sent presque présent, participant, on perçoit leurs sentiments, impressions,
pensées authentiques. Leur aptitude à la recherche et à la confrontation s'est développée avec une grande
liberté au cours de leurs années de formation, et leur amour de la musique instrumentale allié à une
intelligence lucide en ont fait les protagonistes d'un renouvellement du langage musical par une réflexion
esthétique approfondie.

INITIATION A LA MUSIQUE ET PREMIERS SUCCES

L'environnement culturel turinois dans lequel Alfredo Casella est né et a grandi lui a permis de recevoir
une éducation „familiale” largement articulée, parce que ses parents étaient tous deux musiciens et en
raison des personnalités éminentes qui fréquentaient sa famille. George Enescu, dans la pittoresque
campagne roumaine, a également reçu les bases de son éducation loin de ses pairs, mais il a
immédiatement été encouragé et soutenu par ses parents dans la culture de ses talents musicaux. C'est
pourquoi, même s'ils se souviennent avec un certain regret de l'entourage de leur enfance, composé
uniquement d’adultes, ils attribuent tous deux à cette situation l'une des raisons de leur sensibilité
particulière, facteur déterminant de leur caractère sentimental et avide de connaissances, qui a
conditionné nombre de leurs choix artistiques.
„Jusqu'à ce jour, j'avais vécu sans amis de mon âge, uniquement
dans le milieu sévère et triste mais aussi extraordinairement noble
et élevé de notre maison. (...) Je n'avais pas de compagnons, et les
heures qui me restaient libres pour étudier, je les passais auprès de
mon père... Mes lectures différaient quelque peu de celles des
enfants de mon âge. J'ai également appris le français et l'allemand
à un très jeune âge. Ces dernières années de la vie de mon père ont
été des années très tristes pour un enfant dont la sensibilité était
déjà bien supérieure à son âge. Ces années se sont donc écoulées
dans une atmosphère de vie spirituelle intense.” (Lanfranchi)

Fig. 3: Turin, ville natale de Casella

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„Mon enfance a été si particulière ! Imaginez que, par crainte d'une

contagion possible, morale ou physique, on ne m'a donné, durant
mes premières années, ni compagnons d'étude ni camarades de
jeux...J'étais un enfant très appliqué...à quatre ans je savais lire,
écrire, faire des additions et des soustractions... Si je suis,
aujourd'hui, un homme hypersensible, une manière d'écorché vif,
c'est à mon enfance qu'il faut en demander, je crois, l'explication....
Ne pouvant me confier à personne, je gardais pour moi tous mes
sentiments. Ils mûrissaient et fermentaient, enfouis au plus profond
de ma sensibilité, précocement exacerbée.” (Gavoty, 2006, pp. 29-
31)

Fig. 4: Liveni, ville natale d’Enescu

Tous deux se souviennent de leur forte passion pour l'étude de l'harmonie, qui leur ouvrirait la
voie pour devenir compositeurs:
„Puisque, cependant, j'ai immédiatement manifesté une vive
passion pour cette étude, je pouvais dire que je connaissais très bien
l'harmonie et que j'étais assez mûr pour continuer victorieusement
vers la soi-disant 'haute composition'... Depuis lors, cependant, il
est devenu clair qu'une passion beaucoup plus grande m'inspirait
dans l'étude de la composition.” (Lanfranchi, 1978)

„L'étude de l'harmonie me plaisait fort. A' onze ans, je travaillais

déjà les grandes formes: le rondo, la sonate, la variation - mais je
n'avais pas attendu de connaître les formes pour composer.
J'écrivais surtout des ouvertures inspirées de Wagner; après plus
de soixante ans passés, je les sais encore par cœur.” (Gavoty, 2006,
p. 51)

LES ANNÉES D'ÉTUDES

Les talents musicaux manifestement exceptionnels des deux hommes convainquent leurs
familles de chercher les meilleurs moyens de cultiver leurs dons; quittant leurs villes natales, tous deux
accompagnés de leurs mères, ils arrivent, encore jeunes garçons, dans le centre de la culture européenne
de l'époque – Paris.
Enescu est arrivé de Vienne „où tant d'hommes de génie en avaient composé” où, alors qu'il
n'avait que sept ans, il a été admis au Conservatoire. Après six ans, il termine ses études et obtient la
médaille d'argent de la Gesellschaftmedaille et, sur les conseils de ses professeurs, s'installe à Paris.
Casella2 a grandi dans une famille de musiciens importants (sa mère l'a soutenu dans ses études de piano
avec une ténacité exemplaire) et il a été en contact quotidien avec les membres éminents du milieu
culturel turinois qui fréquentaient sa maison.

Voir: https://bibliolmc.ntv31.com/node/299

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Fig. 5: Conservatoire de Vienne, 1800

À l'âge de treize ans, ils se rencontrent donc au Conservatoire: un „grand et horrible bâtiment”
(Casella), „sombre et poussiéreux” (Enescu): „La France musicale vivait alors une belle époque à
laquelle on avait donné un joli nom: la seconde Renaissance... en ce printemps de 1894, que la France
était riche! Bien qu'elle fut en république, j'eus l'impression d'aborder un royaume.” (Gavoty, 2006, p.
53).
„Dès mon arrivée au Conservatoire de Paris, j'avais fait la
connaissance d'un jeune musicien roumain dont on parlait déjà très
favorablement: Georges Enescu. Violoniste déjà connu pour sa
grande classe, il avait également attiré l'attention du public des
Concerts-Colonne en 1896, alors qu'il n'avait que quinze ans, avec
son Poème roumain pour orchestre, qui avait connu un grand
succès. Je me souviens encore très bien de ma première rencontre
avec lui. C'était un jeune homme grand, mince et beau, de style
plutôt balkanique mais extrêmement vigoureux, qui parlait cinq
langues à la perfection. Il m'a tout de suite très bien accueilli et, à
partir de ce jour, une amitié a commencé entre nous qui devait durer
pour toujours. (...). La grande intimité qui m'a uni à Enescu pendant
de nombreuses années a dû être très bénéfique pour mon
épanouissement musical. Il était généreux dans ses conseils
d'interprétation et savait aussi me guider utilement dans la
composition…” (Lanfranchi, 1978)

Les premières années passées au Conservatoire n'étaient pas une période de „formation” (les
deux hommes étaient déjà arrivés là, bien que très jeunes, avec un bagage culturel et musical solide,
complet et exceptionnel, puisqu'ils avaient tous deux étés formés très tôt), on peut donc déjà parler d'un
éclectisme stylistique marqué qu'ils développaient déjà pendant leurs sessions d'études. Au cours de leur
carrière, grâce à une extraordinaire ouverture à la recherche et à la comparaison, ils ont fait plusieurs
choix professionnels communs. Un réseau dense de relations les a amenés à développer des projets
musicaux basés sur des idéaux et des intentions artistiques de grande importance. Les deux, par leurs
personnalités musicales, réussiront donc à créer un style personnel, en catalysant, à partir des grands
artistes leurs contemporains, les éléments utiles pour ouvrir des visions innovantes, d'avant-garde, en les
combinant avec le nouvel et unique élément „national” jamais expérimenté dans l'histoire.

Fig. 6: Paris, Conservatoire, 1900

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„Tout comme chez le sculpteur Constantin Brancusi, contemporain

et compatriote d' Enescu, la mythologie roumaine fusionne dans ses
œuvres avec l'expérience parisienne du dernier Rodin, de même le
compositeur roumain assimile la tradition occidentale pour la mêler
à l'atmosphère de la musique populaire.” (Davico, n.d.)

Nous pouvons mieux comprendre la forte admiration de Casella pour le jeune Enescu à la
lumière de ses souvenirs de ses camarades de classe à Paris:
„Je ne savais pas ce qu'étaient l'envie et la bassesse de mes
camarades d'école, sentiments que malheureusement le garçon qui
surpasse les autres par son ingéniosité doit apprendre à connaître
dès l'enfance. Je me suis donc immédiatement heurté à l'hostilité
ouverte de mes camarades d'école, hostilité qui était aussi insolente
et moqueuse.” (Lanfranchi, 1978)
De même, peut-être à cause de son très jeune âge par rapport à ses compagnons, Enescu avait
déjà expérimenté à Vienne, le premier endroit où il était en contact étroit avec d'autres étudiants, ce
sentiment de manque d'amitié, de partage réduit d'intérêts communs face à une „faim” d'écouter et
d'apprendre tant de musique et un désir constant et impérieux de composer, „Je n'ai pas grand mérite à
me rappeler certains de mes condisciples”. L'enfant, à l'âge de huit ans, reste fortement influencé par les
„ombres” des titans qui viennent de passer par les mêmes lieux;
„Charmant, tendre Schubert – il n'y a pas à Vienne un carrefour,
une ruelle, un jardin, où son souvenir ne flotte, mêlé aux noms
pieusement murmurés, de Haydn, de Mozart, de Beethoven... songez
aussi qu'à l'Orchestre du Conservatoire, je jouais, tout enfant,
certaines symphonies du titan de Bonn sur ses partitions
manuscrites... J'ouvrais les yeux, les oreilles, tout mon esprit à la
culture, à la beauté, à la musique.” (Gavoty, 2006, pp. 46-47)
Littéralement, les yeux et les oreilles de ces jeunes musiciens en herbe étaient tournés vers ce
monde artistique enviable dans lequel ils allaient intelligemment puiser toute la nourriture nécessaire
pour devenir, à leur tour, de grandes figures culturelles internationales. „Au printemps 1895, la première
représentation italienne du Crépuscule des dieux de Wagner, dirigée par Arturo Toscanini, a eu lieu au
Teatro Regio de Turin. Ce fut un événement mémorable... On m'a offert la partition de l'opéra et je l'ai
immédiatement dévorée avec une tension fébrile, si bien qu'en quelques jours, j'avais mémorisé tout le
prologue et le troisième acte. Mes amis étaient très amusés de voir ce petit garçon qui, entre deux jeux,
se tenait au piano et jouait la scène des «Norns» ou l'histoire de Siegfried et la Marche funèbre, illustrant
même l'action avec le plus grand sérieux. Je dois dire aussi que la merveilleuse interprétation de
Toscanini n'avait pas peu contribué à l'intensité de mon impression. Ce soir-là, j'ai connu pour la
première fois l'art incomparable de Toscanini, commençant ainsi une admiration qui devait s'approfondir
de plus en plus au fil des années.” (Lanfranchi, 1978)
„A' cette même époque, Brahms n'était pas une ombre, mais une
réalité de chair et d'os. Je l'ai vu bien souvent.... j'aimais
passionnément la musique de Brahms, non seulement parce que je
la trouvais admirable, mais parce qu'elle évoquait mon pays natal.”
(Gavoty, 2006, pp. 48-49)

Ces deux seuls épisodes, fortement imprimés dans leurs mémoires, suffisent à nous faire
imaginer, dès lors, le type d'impact qu'aurait sur eux la fréquentation heureuse d'un monde culturel sans
équivalent dans l'histoire; la densité des événements, l'hétérogénéité des personnalités présentes dans
leur vie ont sans doute déterminé chez eux une conscience artistique et un fort élan pour contribuer à
une émancipation toujours plus grande de la musique dans toutes ses déclinaisons sociales. „ A' Paris, je
respirais un air unique, je prenais un bain de culture et de tradition, je m'enrichissais vraiment” (Gavoty,
2006, p. 58).
„Il y avait un raffinement de goût, une confiance dans le choix des
couleurs, un sens des proportions et de la sobriété (...) qui faisaient
de Paris non seulement le maître de toutes les modes, mais aussi la
véritable capitale de l'Europe intellectuelle, tant artistique que
scientifique. On sentait déjà en France un bouillonnement de vie
nouvelle, les symptômes d'une révolution artistique à venir, qui
commençaient déjà à attirer le regard de l'Europe”. (Lanfranchi,
1978)

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Parmi les nombreuses personnalités musicales parisiennes que les deux hommes ont aimées, il
convient de mentionner ici la figure d'Alfred Cortot, „mon cher ami” (Enescu), avec qui ils ont partagé
des succès incomparables sur la scène des concerts, mais pas seulement; lorsque, en 1919, Cortot a fondé
l'École normale de musique de Paris, conçue comme un centre de formation complète, qui devait
fusionner plusieurs disciplines artistiques (histoire de l'art, musique, littérature), il a appelé Enescu
comme professeur de composition.
„Avec Cortot, nous jouions les Six Sonates pour violon et piano de
Bach. J'étais heureux, parce que, en présence d'une telle beauté et
avec un partenaire comme celui-là, je me sentais chez moi...ces
jours-là, j'éprouve la joie de parler un langage humain et
fraternel.” (Gavoty, 2006, p. 89)

Fig. 7: George Enescu, Alfred Cortot

Cortot était un partisan convaincu et récurrent du répertoire, ancien et moderne, qu'ils

présentaient ensemble sur la scène parisienne, mais il joua également un rôle important dans le
développement pédagogique de Casella, qui, en 1936, lui dédia „avec une profonde gratitude” son traité
„Il Pianoforte”. Dans la classe de Diémer, Cortot, en tant que tuteur, a immédiatement eu l'occasion de
connaître artistiquement en profondeur son jeune compagnon; Casella, dans l'émouvante dédicace de
son manuel, le définit comme „l'un des rares souvenirs lumineux et réconfortants dans ces années si
grises, si tristes”.
En raison de l'estime dans laquelle il était tenu, dès qu'il en eut l'occasion, Cortot demanda à
Casella de le remplacer comme professeur de piano: „J'étais entré comme professeur, disons «irrégulier»,
au cours de cette même année scolaire 1911-12, appelé par Cortot à le remplacer lors de ses voyages de
concerts. C'était une grande responsabilité, car le professeur Cortot n'est pas facile à remplacer. J'ai donc
fait de mon mieux et je crois que (...) ils étaient satisfaits parce que j'ai eu ce poste pendant trois années
successives. Ce fut un apprentissage précieux pour moi... ” (Lanfranchi, 1978). „Les deux Alfred”,
comme on les appelait à Paris, liaient les mêmes amitiés et avaient des intentions musicales communes
; ils étaient, par exemple, de fervents partisans de Wagner (dont Enescu écrit également: „On me
demande parfois, avec un sourire amusé, si j'aime encore Wagner: je réponds que je l'aime toujours...
Aimer c'est une chose grave et définitive. Dès ma dixième année, certains chromatismes wagnériens
faisaient partie de mon système vasculaire: les renier vaudrait à me couper une jambe ou un bras”).

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QUALITÉS ET IDEAUX COMMUNS

Une excellente mémoire musicale est l'un des nombreux aspects qui caractérisent les deux jeunes
musiciens et qu'ils ont tous deux reconnu comme un moyen privilégié d'apprécier pleinement les
compositions des grands prédécesseurs restées intactes dans leur cœur et de pouvoir cultiver pleinement
leur principale passion de compositeurs.

„En 1894 (alors que je n'avais que onze ans), j'avais déjà mémorisé
les 48 préludes et fugues du Clavecin de Bach (notez encore une fois
la rare sagacité didactique de ma mère qui m'avait déjà enseigné
tout le deuxième volume de l'œuvre de Bach, que la grande majorité
des étudiants italiens ne connaissent pas encore aujourd'hui dans
son intégralité et qui était alors lettre morte pour les études de piano
en Italie), beaucoup d'autres musiques de Bach, une douzaine de
sonates de Beethoven, le Concerto n. XX en ré mineur de Mozart,
six études de Chopin, diverses sonates de Scarlatti, d'autres
compositions de Martucci et de Sgambati, et enfin beaucoup de
musique de chambre (que j'ai également apprise par cœur), dont les
trois premiers trios de Beethoven, le Quatuor de Schumann et le
Premier Trio de Saint-Saëns.” (Lanfranchi, 1978)

Quant à Enescu, Casella a encore décrit: „Sa mémoire est incroyable et je ne peux que la
comparer – parmi toutes celles que j'ai eu l'occasion de connaître – à celles de Saint-Saëns et de
Toscanini.” „M'a-t-on assez taquiné au sujet de ma mémoire!”, note Enescu, et à propos de la phrase
attribuée à Mozart: „Il me passe par la tête une quantité de musique, mais je n'en oublie jamais une note”,
il affirme modestement qu'il reconnaît un point commun avec le compositeur.
„Je jouais par cœur des scènes entières du Crépuscule des Dieux que j'avais entendu à Turin,
suscitant l'étonnement général, car à cette époque Wagner était très peu connu à Paris et le drame n'y
avait jamais été représenté. De longues et souvent intéressantes discussions s'engageaient après ces
représentations, discussions auxquelles mettait fin l'apparition soudaine et bruyante du maestro agité,
qui me regardait avec une grande sympathie et me tapait affectueusement la main sur l'épaule”
(Lanfranchi, 1978).
Une des qualités qui frappe vivement Dièmer c'est la mémoire étonnante de Casella et il y est
fait allusion dans chacun des comptes rendus (Robin, 1994). Cela ne passe pas inaperçu, même lors des
concerts, et on lit dans les critiques musicaux de l'époque: „M. Baldelli est le type par excellence du
beau chanteur italien... Mais aussi combien il fut délicieusement accompagné par cœur par le jeune
Casella” (Alfredo Casella. Les années parisiennes. Des documents., 1997, p. 22).
L' épisode rapporté par Yehudi Menuhin est assez connu: en 1927, pendant une leçon, Ravel
entre soudainement dans la pièce et demande à Enescu de répéter une Sonate pour piano et violon qu'il
vient de composer; après une première exécution entrecoupée de commentaires des deux, Enescu veut
répéter encore la Sonate, il range la partition et joue le morceau de fond en comble, sans lire la partition.
Cependant, ce talent particulier n'est pas considéré comme quelque chose à exhiber:
„...«il n'y a là bien rien d'étonnant», dit Enescu; Dans une
merveilleuse nouvelle ...j'ai lu ceci, qui m'a semblé remarquable:...
«Il ne disposait de rien d'autre que de la magie incomparable du
souvenir.» Cependant, je possède la première des facultés
auxquelles il fait allusion.” (Gavoty, 2006, p. 125)

Lorsqu'ils se consacreront plus tard à l'enseignement, cette méthode sera néanmoins considérée
indispensable, nécessaire à l'étude approfondie et complète d'un auteur. Dans son manuel „Il Pianoforte”,
Casella souligne: „une composition qui n'est pas mémorisée n'est pas vraiment assimilée. L'expression
singulière française du XVIIIe siècle jouer par cœur provient en fait du désir de signifier par-là que le
morceau exécuté sans musique était «entré dans le cœur» du joueur” (Casella, Il Pianoforte, 1954).

LA COMPOSITION

Leurs qualités exceptionnelles d'interprètes ne détermineront pas seulement le cadre des concerts de leur
carrière. Ils resteront les deux plus étroitement liés, par ordre d'importance, à la musique de chambre, à
la direction d'orchestre et, surtout, à la composition.

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Enescu avoue: „J'eus, tout enfant, l'idée fixe d'être compositeur. D'être uniquement
compositeur... Je ne songeais qu'à composer, composer et encore composer ” (Gavoty, 2006, p. 62). A’
son arrivée à Paris, il suit simultanément les cours de contrepoint et de composition.
Fortement impressionné, Casella rappelle les excellents talents d'Enescu: „Il a la même facilité
pour la direction d'orchestre où il a toujours démontré une maîtrise souveraine de la partition et de
l'orchestre. En tant que compositeur, il semblait alors destiné à atteindre les plus hauts sommets...”.
Sur le plan personnel, cependant, Casella se décrit comme suit:
„Chaque discipline de contrepoint ou de fugue était abordée et
dépassée par moi avec beaucoup d'enthousiasme, alors que l'étude
technique de l'instrument était pour moi extrêmement lourde. Entre-
temps, en juin 1900, j'avais obtenu le deuxième prix d'harmonie. Je
dois cependant ajouter que Leroux m'avait fait étudier – et très
habilement – le contrepoint depuis un certain temps, car j'étais alors
(avec mes doubles études!) vraiment saturé d'harmonie. Je m'étais
d'ailleurs préparé depuis longtemps à ces sévères disciplines
polyphoniques par une longue étude de l'œuvre de Bach, que je
connaissais mieux que tous mes amis du Conservatoire... En été
1902, je quittai le Conservatoire. J'avais alors terminé six années
d'harmonie, de contrepoint et de fugue (ce qui, en ajoutant les deux
années de Turin, en faisait huit). A partir de ce jour, je devins
pratiquement autodidacte, et j'appris la composition et
l'instrumentation par moi-même (avec les conseils de compagnons
tels que Ravel et Enesco)” (Lanfranchi, 1978).

Il est bien connu, à cet égard, que le lien de leur amitié a, en un sens, été rendu public également
par les dédicaces respectives de leurs premières symphonies. En 1905, Enescu a dédié à Casella sa
première symphonie (op. 13), achevée en 1905 et dirigée à Paris l'année suivante aux Concerts-Colonne.
Casella se souvient: „en 1906, je revins donc plus intensément à la composition et le 24 juillet, je terminai
cette Première Symphonie en si mineur, une œuvre très jeune, qui oscillait entre une forte influence russe
et celles de Brahms et d'Enesco”. Mais ensuite, il dédiera à Enescu sa deuxième symphonie, opus 12,
composée entre 1908 et 1910.
Les critiques musicaux de l'époque ont signalé et apprécié le génie de la composition d'Enescu:
„Le génie de la composition était en lui. Il était capable, en vue d'une épreuve à subir, d'édifier une
symphonie, ou une sonate dans un temps où tel autre, considéré comme doué, écrivait à peine une
mélodie” (Calabretto, 1997, p. 62).
En assistant au cours de composition de Gabriel Fauré3, ils ont tous deux étés fascinés par la
vie. Voici un souvenir court mais intense d'Enescu:
„Il émanait de lui comme une aura: il était inspirant, contagieux. Et
nous l'adorions!... Plus tard, j'ai revu Fauré très souvent. Il me
demandait de siéger dans des jurys d'examen, à ses côtés. J'ai joué
fréquemment avec lui...” (Gavoty, 2006, pp. 59-60)

L'impact sur Casella a été très similaire, et il raconte combien l'estimé maestro a influencé sa
vie professionnelle avant tout:
„Fauré était une personne extraordinairement sympathique. Il
parlait avec une voix enchanteresse, un Français très raffiné,
comme la personne très cultivée qu'il était. Les cours étaient très
agréables et se déroulaient le plus souvent sous forme de
conversation sur des problèmes artistiques. Mais lorsque Fauré
était vraiment un maître de la composition, ses observations étaient
alors celles du grand professeur, celui qui, par une brève
démonstration synthétique, montre à son élève son erreur de telle
sorte que celui-ci n'y retombe jamais. C'était un artiste d'une
suprême distinction qui avait une notion très sérieuse de l'art. Sa
mentalité était fondamentalement classique et exquisément
française en raison d'un merveilleux sens de l'ordre artistique, du

3
„la classe de Fauré fut aux musiciens ce que le salon de Mallarmé avait été aux poètes...;les meilleurs musiciens de l'époque,
...ont passé par ce grand séminaire de l'élégance et du goût”. J.M. Nectoux, Fauré, Ed. du Seuil, 1972

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goût et de la mesure... Avoir étudié avec lui, même si ce n'était que

pour une courte période, a été pour moi une véritable bénédiction
et je considère que son influence a été très bénéfique pour ma
formation finale.”

Fauré a déterminé des choix didactiques importants chez Casella. Il prend pour modèle
l'approche de Fauré à la personnalité musicale de ses élèves, sur la base de laquelle il doit adapter sa
propre méthode pédagogique:
„Les vrais grands maîtres n'ont pas, et n'ont jamais eu, de système,
mais seulement un certain nombre de principes généraux qu'ils
adaptent à chaque cas particulier. (...) La première tâche du maître
est d'apprendre à connaître l'élève sous tous ses aspects (...).
Lorsque nous sommes arrivés à une connaissance sûre de la
personnalité de l'élève, nous devons immédiatement ajouter que la
tâche la plus difficile pour le professeur, et celle qui distingue le
grand professeur des petits, réside dans le choix approprié et
progressif des morceaux. En ce sens, chaque élève a besoin d'un
guide différent, et ce choix éclairé et judicieux exige chez le maître
de grandes qualités d'érudition et de mémoire, mais plus encore
d'intuition” (Casella, Il Pianoforte, 1954).
On retrouve également cette conception de l'enseignant dans les propos d'Enescu: „Ne parlons
plus de «professeur» mais de «camarades plus âgés»; ne disons pas «élèves», mais «jeunes collègues».
Dans ce cas-là, je veux bien...” (Gavoty, 2006, p. 138).

LA VIRTUOSITÉ

Les deux jeunes étudiants parisiens se sont immédiatement fait connaître et ce n'est qu'en raison du
règlement du Conservatoire (les étudiants étrangers n'étaient pas autorisés à concourir en première
année) que les prix qu'ils ont remportés sont arrivés avec un an de retard;
„Le 21 juillet 1898, j'ai participé pour la première fois au concours final (les étrangers n'étaient
pas autorisés à participer à la première année d'études) et j'ai obtenu le deuxième prix... Le 20 juillet
1899, n'ayant pas encore atteint l'âge de seize ans (j'étais le plus jeune de tous les concurrents), j'ai obtenu
à l'unanimité le premier prix du concours du Conservatoire” (Lanfranchi, 1978).
Enescu, comme on le sait, avait déjà reçu la médaille d'argent pour ses études au Conservatoire
de Vienne et, en 1899, il obtiendra le Grand Prix du Violon du Conservatoire de Paris. Alors que ces
victoires pouvaient constituer la base d'une carrière de concertiste assurée, Enescu explique en détail
dans ses Souvenirs pourquoi il n'a jamais été pleinement enthousiasmé ou satisfait par sa carrière de
violoniste solo. Bien qu'il ait été très acclamé dans sa carrière de violoniste, il n'en a jamais tiré la même
satisfaction qu'il connaissait en partageant ses propres compositions. Il se souvient presque
douloureusement de la difficulté qu'il a eue à se consacrer à l'étude du violon:
„Je ne suis pas habile et je n'ai jamais eu de facilités instrumentales
particulières. Aussi ai-je beaucoup travaillé pour donner l'illusion
que j'en avais... Depuis le soir de mon premier concert, je crois
entendre dans son crécellement monotone quelque chose comme:
«Tu seras virtuose, et tu le resteras, que tu le veuilles ou non. Tu
seras virtuose, virtuose, virtuose... J'aime aussi le violon, à
condition de ne pas l'envisager comme un seul prétexte à la
virtuosité... J'ai fait avec le violon un mariage de raison.» C'est la
musique de chambre qui l'exalte le plus («Faire de la musique de
chambre, quel bonheur!»)”.
„Comment peut-on se passionner pour un simple violon, quand on
aime toute la musique ? Or, je n'aime qu'une seule chose au monde:
la musique, l'immense musique.”
Les mêmes sentiments se dégagent des souvenirs de Casella: „Après
la musique de chambre - qui fut la première forme de musique que
j'ai connue (et aussi celle qui m'a laissé les traces les plus
indélébiles pour le reste de ma vie)... j'avais abandonné le piano en
tant que virtuose. Mais je m'étais consacré à la musique de chambre
et à l'accompagnement de chanteurs exceptionnels. J'ai eu
l'occasion de connaître et d'apprendre en profondeur le vaste
répertoire de lieder de Schubert, Schumann, Brahms, Wolf, Grieg et

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R. Strauss, des connaissances qui ont largement contribué à élargir

mon expérience générale de la musique. Au cours de ces mêmes
années, j'ai également joué beaucoup de musique de chambre avec
des virtuoses comme Ysaÿe, Thibaud, Casals, Enesco et d'autres
grands artistes. Cette expérience a également été précieuse et
extrêmement utile” (Lanfranchi, 1978)

On ne peut manquer de mentionner ici, comme le rapporte4 Casella, qu'Enescu était aussi un
excellent pianiste, ce dont il parle rarement. Ce n'est que marginalement que nous pouvons le déduire
d'un épisode qui s'est déroulé à son arrivée au Conservatoire; lorsque son compagnon aîné Cortot
l'interroge sur ses choix d'études futures, Enescu répond qu'il pourrait décider de s'inscrire
indifféremment soit dans la classe de violon, soit dans celle de piano, et donne un bref récital impromptu
au piano qui laisse ceux qui sont présents stupéfaits.
La musique d'ensemble mettra en valeur Casella et Enescu bien plus que la musique solo.
Guidés par un authentique esprit de partage, ils ne cherchent pas une place dans l'Olympe du solo
instrumental, car leurs prestations sont animées par une vocation culturelle de diffusion et de divulgation
de toutes sortes de répertoires, anciens et nouveaux. Enescu a ressenti une contrainte dans son étude du
violon et dans ses performances en solo : „J'étais obéissant, studieux, pas toujours convaincu «tandis que
l'enthousiasme était toujours présent si la musique était partagée: »le beau rêve que de jouer des sonates,
des trios ou des quatuors!«”.
Casella, en revanche, alors qu'il était encore étudiant, a bénéficié d'un encadrement
professionnel clairvoyant de la part de Louis Diémer, qui a eu la vertu de reconnaître les aspirations
multiformes du jeune homme. En plus de lui enseigner le piano, il lui ouvre de nombreuses autres voies,
par exemple en lui présentant le baryton Baldelli, grâce auquel Casella a eu l'occasion de travailler et
d'explorer un vaste répertoire vocal.5

DIRECTION DE L'ORCHESTRE

„J'aime beaucoup diriger. C'est un jeu agréable, et même grisant à

certaines heures: quelle merveille de faire de la musique sans être
obligé d'accomplir auparavant des gammes fastidieuses qui gâtent
le plaisir ! Je n'avais pas quinze ans quand un excellent petit
orchestre parisien à jouer sous ma direction, quelques pièces de
mon cru. Oh ! La merveilleuse impression, un peu comparable,
j'imagine, à celle de l'organiste si petit qui domine un instrument si
puissant... On est là, minuscule, et l'on déchaîne des tempêtes...”
(Gavoty, 2006, p. 87).

„Comme je brûlais du désir de diriger, il (Pierre Monteux) me

confia plusieurs fois la baguette et j'eus la grande satisfaction de
faire mon premier stage d'orchestre sur un répertoire de valses,
polkas, quadrilles, mazurkas et cake-walks (les danses américaines
venaient de faire leur apparition dans les dancings européens), et je
me fis ainsi une idée obscure de mes possibilités de chef
d'orchestre.” (Lanfranchi, 1978).

Leurs propres créations ou celles d'autres compositeurs. Dès leurs années parisiennes déjà, les
critiques de l'époque sont encourageantes:

4
„Enesco est l'une des personnes les plus douées musicalement que j'aie jamais rencontrées. À son énorme talent de violoniste, il
associe une extraordinaire facilité de pianiste, sans jamais avoir étudié l'instrument”. (A. C.. I Segreti, cit.).
5
„Nous avons étudié avec Baldelli tous les jours. Il avait un répertoire très large, qui comprenait, outre le théâtre, un grand nombre
d'airs anciens et de lieder de Schumann et Schubert. Il fut tout de suite si satisfait de moi qu'il me fixa un salaire mensuel, ce qui
me permit- à quinze ans seulement - de dire que je gagnais ma vie et que j'étais indépendant. Et comme il avait un grand succès
social, en deux ans nous faisions tous les salons parisiens, qui apprenaient ainsi à connaître mon nom sous un jour particulier et
très favorable”. (A.C.. I Segreti, Op.cit).

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Fig. 8: Salle Gaveau

1911 – Salle Gaveau – Concerts Hasselmans: en tant que chef d'orchestre, Casella „musicien
de la plus haute valeur, sut apporter les soins nécessaires à l'exécution d'un programme choisi. La
Symphonie en Mi bémol de M. George Enesco y figurait en place d'honneur” (Calabretto, 1997, pp. 122,
note de la bas de page).
1914 – Concerts Monteux – d'après le compte rendu du concert, nous apprenons qu'Enescu
„musicien prestigieux” a magistralement remplacé Pierre Monteux comme chef d'orchestre:
„Enesco dirigea supérieurement la jolie Symphonie inachevée de
Borodine, la spirituelle Suite Française de Roger-Ducasse, et enfin
ses deux célèbres Rapsodies roumaines, si étonnantes par la mise
en œuvre des matériaux et par l'instrumentation. La dernière,
notamment, (en la) atteint, par instants, à une puissance rythmique
véritablement héroïque et enthousiasmante.” (Calabretto, 1997, p.
364).

ACTIVITÉ DE CONCERT

Après le Conservatoire, Paris est resté longtemps à la portée des deux, dans une succession frénétique et
cohérente d'événements culturels auxquels ils ont participé avec enthousiasme, souvent côte à côte, et
dans leurs répertoires aucune période de l'histoire de la musique n'a été ignorée.
En suivant les indications de leurs maîtres, ils se tournent avec le plus grand respect vers les
compositeurs du passé – et je regrette de ne pas avoir l'espace nécessaire pour une étude approfondie de
leur approche de
J.S. Bach. Quelques exemples représentatifs suffiront:
Avec „ma conscience d'artiste, et surtout d'humble disciple de Bach”, Casella entreprend de
„transcrire la Chaconne pour violon à grand orchestre de Bach” ou „deux ricercares sur le nom B.A.C.H.
(le premier est daté du 10 octobre de cette année-là, premier anniversaire de la mort de ma mère, et est
en fait une petite élégie funèbre intimement dédiée à sa mémoire)”.
Enescu, dans ses Souvenirs, nous émeut avec ses mots:
„mes auteurs de prédilection – Brahms, Bach et Beethoven... mes
dieux... Je considère Bach comme un chrétien envisage la Sainte
Communion. Depuis un demi-siècle, il est mon pain quotidien et sa
musique est celle de mon âme...
Rien ne me manque, je possède des trésors. Comment n'aurais-je
pas l'illusion réconfortante de la richesse , quand j'ai là – dans un
coin de ma pièce unique, salon-salle-à-manger-atelier-chambre-à-
coucher – la collection presque complète des œuvres de Bach”.

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MUSIQUE ANCIENNE

Le public parisien appréciait au plus haut point les répertoires traditionnels; il était même devenu
„moderne” de récupérer la musique ancienne. Les sociétés anciennes ou nouvelles de diffusion de la
musique ancienne ont connu le succès et ont fasciné le public par les sonorités qu'elles proposaient.
Durant son enfance, Casella avait étudié en profondeur les œuvres de Bach, qu'il eut ensuite
l'occasion d'interpréter, avec la Société Bach, aux côtés des plus grands virtuoses parisiens (Cortot,
Landowska, Enescu, Thibaud, Gaubert, Widor, Guilmant et bien d'autres) grâce à Louis Diémer qui lui
avait transmis son goût pour le clavecin, en l'encourageant à se lancer dans l'étude de cet instrument et
en l'incluant comme membre de l'orchestre d'instruments anciens qu'il avait lui-même fondé.
Une fois devenu mûr, en tant que professeur, Casella recommanderait à son tour avec
conviction, dans son conseil aux jeunes élèves: „consacrez-vous le plus tôt possible à BACH, qui doit
constituer la base de toute la première moitié de vos études (à moins qu'il ne reste, pour le reste de votre
vie, comme l'a dit Schumann, le pain quotidien du pianiste)” (Casella, Il Pianoforte, 1954).
Voici une autre prise de conscience commune; Enescu, dans ses „Souvenirs”, réfléchit à la
manière dont Bach était abordé au Conservatoire: „On le révérait sans beaucoup de conviction et, sans
oser l'avouer, comme un auteur ennuyeux et savant ...On n'approfondissait rien” (Gavoty, 2006, p. 93).
Et immédiatement après, pour éviter qu’on procède "à tâtons, dans les ténèbres", en autodidacte, comme
cela lui était arrivé, il énonce une série de précieux conseils sur l'interprétation de Bach. (Gavoty, 2006,
pp. 94-95).

Fig. 9: Soirée avec des compositeurs russes

Casella et Enescu travailleront donc également ensemble au sein de la nouvelle Société des
Instruments Anciens fondée par H. Casadesus, en proposant de longues tournées dans les associations
européennes les plus prestigieuses, avec l'intention de relier le passé et le présent, en apportant une
nouvelle nourriture à la pensée musicale.
En 1907, le Courrier Musical publie un compte-rendu d'un événement inhabituel à la Salle
Pleyel: la participation des „plus hautes personnalités de l'art musical" invitées par C. Saint-Saëns à
assister à un «Concert charmant ...l'Audition de musique ancienne par la Société de concerts
d'Instruments Anciens en l'honneur des Compositeurs et artistes russes», suivi d'un «buffet luxueusement
garni» et d'une soirée riche en échanges et conversations sur la musique russe contemporaine”
(Calabretto, 1997, p. 102).
L'événement a également été immortalisé par une photographie parue dans les journaux de
l'époque.
Avec la Société des Instruments Anciens en 1908, les musiciens se sont produits avec succès à
Bucarest, où „la reine Elisabeth a conféré à chacun des artistes la croix de la couronne de Roumanie”
(Le Gaulois, 1908). La presse rapporte des paroles de grande admiration et les critiques sur le choix du
répertoire et l'interprétation sont superlatives: „M. Alfred Casella, le partenaire habituel de notre Enesco,
à Paris, et qui est un pianiste réputé, a obtenu comme claveciniste le plus grand succès” (Chronique
Musicale , „La Roumanie”).

MODERNISME

Vers 1910, les deux amis se retrouvent également à „militer” musicalement avec les „petits anarchistes”,
comme les appelait Saint- Saëns, au sein de la Société Musicale Indépendante que venait de fonder

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Ravel, fortement soutenue par des personnalités du monde culturel international et dont Casella fut un
temps le secrétaire6.
Ils ont ressenti le besoin de chercher de nouveaux canaux pour diffuser les œuvres musicales
contemporaines et promouvoir les nouvelles générations, quels que soient les genres, les styles ou les
nationalités. Le président, Gabriel Fauré, répond aux nombreuses critiques de l'époque en déclarant que
les membres „avaient du talent” et que „la plupart d'entre eux étaient ses élèves préférés”.
Des compositions d'avant-garde significatives sont représentées de manière magistrale:
1911 – Salle Gaveau: Quintette-Florent Schmitt: „Les éléments hétérogènes: MM: Casella,
Enesco, Tourret; Monteux ; Hekking, se fondirent en une interprétation d'une merveilleuse homogénéité”
(Orban, 1911, p. 277).
Cette critique, ainsi que d'autres, se concentre sur les qualités d'interprétation, les sons
exceptionnels, excitants et vibrants des cinq.
On peut également mentionner ici l'initiative singulière de Casella de proposer le „concert sans
noms d'auteurs”, dans lequel, comme l'expliquent les programmes des concerts:
„Pour soustraire le public à l'influence des idées préconçues, les
noms des auteurs des œuvres dans ce programme seront tenus
secrets. D'autre part les auditeurs seront invités à inscrire sur des
bulletins spéciaux les noms des personnalités musicales qu'ils
croient avoir reconnues.”
Dans la prétention exagérée d'élever le niveau de connaissances musicales du public, la
provocation a malheureusement figuré comme un snobisme élitiste ostentatoire et dans les critiques on
a supposé que les organisateurs voulaient scandaliser. Aujourd'hui, cependant, nous pouvons observer
cet épisode avec le même regard amusé et plein d'humour que Casella 7 (le public a indiqué une pièce
originale de F. Couperin comme ayant été composée par Enescu) (Calabretto, 1997, pp. 79, note de la
bas de page).
Dans les salles parisiennes, Casella, promoteur et souvent protagoniste des premières
représentations, propose de longs concerts dans lesquels il alterne des moments de récital de piano avec
des lieder ou des sections de chambre, choisissant le répertoire dans une tonalité „pédagogique” et
présentant personnellement les pièces.
Son aspiration était de „transformer un concert dominical en une leçon d'histoire”. Le volume
„A. Casella – Gli anni di Parigi. Dai documenti” contient une intéressante et importante collection de
programmes et de critiques des concerts. Il convient de noter ici que chaque fois que le nom d'Enescu
apparaît, soit comme interprète soit comme compositeur, les critiques sont superlatives.
1905 – Salle Pleyel ; musique de Bach, Casella, Beethoven, Chevillard, Enescu: „La meilleure
exécution d'Alfred Casella a été celle de la Sarabande de George Enescu. Voilà une page admirable, où
la plus mâle beauté se joint à des délicatesses souriantes et attendries... Est-il besoin d'ajouter que
l'écriture et la forme sont d'une pureté merveilleuse?” (1905)
1907 – Salle des Agriculteurs – „Je pense que deux talents ne peuvent s'unir plus étroitement,
que ceux de MM. Casella et Enescu: dans la Sonate de Beethoven en Sol majeur, ils se révélèrent une
fois de plus virtuoses irréprochables et surtout musiciens profonds, chacun sachant s'effacer quand il le
faut, tous deux soucieux de la pensée du maître et non de leur succès personnel, lequel fut d'ailleurs
enthousiaste”.
Au cours de l'un des nombreux événements musicaux, nous apprenons un épisode inhabituel
qui est rapporté comme suit:
1901 – Salle Pleyel: à l'issue d'un concert où, comme à son habitude, Casella propose des
auteurs classiques aux côtés de nouvelles compositions, après avoir joué au piano le Prélude des Maîtres
chanteurs de Wagner: „avec autant de bonne grâce que de simplicité, M. George Enesco voulut bien
remplacer M. Baldelli, malade, et en fut récompensé par un véritable triomphe après l'exécution de la
Romance en F de Beethoven et du Finale du Concerto de Mendelssohn”. Enescu, qui était présent dans

6
„une nouvelle société dissidente, qui s'est appelée Société Musicale Indépendante Le premier président était Gabriel Fauré et les
fondateurs étaient Florent Schmitt, Roger-Ducasse, Jean Huré, Louis Aubert, Émile Vuillermoz, Manuel de Falla, Joaquín Turina
et Alfredo Casella. L'un des premiers et des plus fréquents membres de la SMI fut Gabriele d'Annunzio, qui, venu en France
comme «exilé volontaire» en 1910, voulut immédiatement adhérer à cette association, pour laquelle il eut souvent des paroles de
grande sympathie. Chaque année, de façon régulière, le secrétaire général de la SMI (de 1911 à 1914, c'était mon travail) recevait
le chèque du Poète avec une lettre d'accompagnement écrite sur du papier portant déjà avec en-tête la fameuse devise me ne frego
(qui à l'époque a fait scandale)”. (A.C. Secrets)
7
„Au printemps de cette année-là, la Société Musicale Indépendante (qui poursuivait avec bonheur et vitalité sa vie de combat)
organisa un concert unique, qui ne fut malheureusement jamais répété. Il s'agissait d'un concert au cours duquel les noms des
compositeurs n'étaient pas publiés, mais où le public devait les désigner par un référendum final. Le résultat était délicieux. Une
composition d'un amateur fortuné était attribuée à Brahms, Schumann et même Beethoven. En revanche, les Valses nobles et
sentimentales de Ravel - qui ont été interprétées pour la première fois lors de ce concert - n'ont trouvé leur véritable auteur que
dans quatre ou cinq bulletins de vote”. (A.C., Secrets)

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le public, s'est donc prêté au jeu pour remplacer le baryton au dernier moment, et avec une discrétion et
un professionnalisme exemplaire, a joué sur place des pièces du répertoire pour violon.
Casella s'est battu, en tant que pianiste et critique, pour diffuser les œuvres de Debussy, Mahler,
Ravel, Stravinsky, Schoenberg et des néoclassiques. Dans le cours de composition de Xavier Leroux, il
présente les œuvres de Wagner, qu'il connaît par cœur depuis son enfance (à Turin, il a fait une
„rencontre inoubliable avec Toscanini, qui avait dirigé Il crepuscolo degli Dei, un opéra qui n'avait
jamais été joué à Paris à l'époque”).
C'est toutefois Enescu qui a fait découvrir à Casella les compositions de J. Brahms et F.
Schubert, et avec Louis Fournier, ils ont diffusé les compositions de ces compositeurs dans les salles
parisiennes.
„C'est auprès de lui que j'ai appris à connaître et à approfondir ma
connaissance – et donc mon amour – de Schubert et de Brahms, et
dans ce dernier cas, ce fut une grande chance, car le maître de
Hambourg était alors totalement incompris et sous-estimé en
France (où il est loin d'être compris aujourd'hui encore)”
(Lanfranchi, 1978).

LE TRIO CASELLA-ENESCU-FOURNIER

Roberto Calabretto consacre un chapitre entier au Trio Enescu dans le volume déjà mentionné „Alfredo
Casella, Gli anni di Parigi. Dai documenti” publié par Olschki, Florence.
Nous apprenons comment Brahms reste, grâce à Enescu, l'auteur principal et constant présenté
par les trois non seulement au public mais aussi dans le milieu des musiciens contemporains, qui avaient
encore du mal à apprécier le langage de Brahms.
On peut voir l'admiration qui se dégage des critiques de l'époque dans Le Monde musical: „Les
trois excellents artistes, ...longuement applaudis” ; „ces trois jeunes artistes s'entendant on ne peut mieux
au profit de l'art et des œuvres qu'ils interprètent”.
L'activité très appréciée de cet ensemble fut cependant de courte durée, mais uniquement en
raison, comme nous l'avons déjà mentionné, de la vocation pour la composition qui dévorait aussi bien
Casella qu'Enescu. Par conséquent, alors que le lien d'amitié entre les deux hommes se renforce 8, leurs
concerts diminuent, même si Casella continue à être, selon Calabretto, „un interprète de la pensée
d'Enescu”.

Fig. 10: Trio Casella, Enescu, Fournier

C'est Casella, organisateur de concerts éclectiques, qui continuera à offrir au public parisien de
nombreuses premières représentations des compositions de son ami admiré Enescu:
1907 – Salle des Agriculteurs: „Deux pièces de Enesco, Toccata et Pavane, que j'entendais
pour la première fois, m'ont paru très belles et classiques, parfaitement mises en valeur par M. Casella
... les deux pièces d'Enescu bénéficièrent d'une parfaite exécution”.

8
„Enesco est immédiatement devenu l'un des amis les plus importants de l'entourage de Casella. Dans les nombreuses lettres
envoyées à sa mère au cours des premières années de son séjour dans la capitale française, le violoniste roumain parle des visites
fréquentes du jeune Italien, des petits déjeuners pris ensemble et, évidemment, de nombreux moments passés au nom de la
musique.” R. Calabretto, op.cit., p. 61.

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1908 – Salle Pleyel: „Ce n'est certainement pas sans intention que M. Alfred Casella avait
rapproché, sur son programme, les noms de Fauré et d'Enescu de ceux de Bach et de Beethoven. On sait
son culte pour les deux grands classiques et son admiration pour les deux maîtres modernes”.
Concernant l'exécution du deuxième quatuor de Fauré, „...la présence de Enescu au premier
violon donne à l'exécution du chef-d'œuvre une intensité inusitée, ses brillants partenaires Casella,
Denayer et Salmon ne pouvaient résister à la fogue du jeune maître”. Le même concert se termine
„superbement” par la Suite d'Enescu, „faite de grâce imprévue, de volupté raffinée et de distinction
naturelle...”.
1909 – Salle de l'Université des Arts: „MM. Alfred Casella et George Enescu se complètent
très heureusement l'un l'autre, et c'est toujours un plaisir artistique sans mélange que de les voir figurer
ensemble dans un programme, surtout quand ce programme contient une œuvre comme la Deuxième
Sonate pour piano et violon de M. Enescu lui- même.”
Toujours en 1909, à la salle Monceau, Casella a interprété la Suite dans le style ancien de
Enescu qui était présent au concert.
Calabretto affirme que de nombreux concerts organisés par Casella, animés par un sincère esprit
de partage, ont marqué l'histoire de la musique française et européenne. Sans la collaboration complète
et énergique d'amis tels qu'Enescu, qui était toujours présent aux événements musicaux organisés par
Casella, de nombreux compositeurs allemands, tels que Wagner ou Mahler, n'auraient pas conquis la
scène parisienne.
Promouvoir la musique des autres avec une généreuse tension humaniste et éthique a conduit
Casella à une autre entreprise exceptionnelle: fonder et diriger la Société de Concerts Symphoniques du
Trocadéro, une initiative décrite par Calabretto comme „Un projet accueilli chaleureusement par tout le
monde musical et qui a reçu les encouragements chaleureux et sincères de Romain Rolland9, qui avait
saisi la précieuse valeur sociale et éducative de ce projet» sur le modèle du Concertgebouw
d'Amsterdam; sans bénéfices financiers, mais avec l'intention de rapprocher l'art et le peuple et avec le
soutien convaincu des meilleurs musiciens.

Fig. 11: Paris, Salle du Trocadèro

„Quant à moi, au printemps de cette année-là, j'ai inauguré une

initiative qui avait trouvé un grand soutien parmi mes amis et aussi
un certain soutien financier. Il s'agissait d'une série de dix concerts
symphoniques que je devais diriger au Trocadéro, de nature
populaire et à des prix très bas. Dans ces programmes, tous les
grands chefs-d'œuvre de l'art symphonique auraient été passés en
revue. Des solistes de renom m'avaient promis leur concours :
Pugno, Cortot, Casals, Enesco, Thibaud, etc. Lors du premier
concert, j'ai dirigé la neuvième symphonie de Beethoven avec un
chœur de 400 voix” (Lanfranchi, 1978).
Encore une fois, d'après les critiques de l'époque, le nom d' Enescu apparaît comme un excellent
soliste:
1912 – Salle du Trocadéro: concert d'ouverture, devant une „foule immense”, avec un orchestre
de cent musiciens, „Dans le Concerto pour violon de Bach, M. George Enesco fut égal au virtuose des
meilleurs jours. En vérité il interprète le sublime Adagio d'une adorable façon. Le public lui prouva sa
joie profonde par l'élan chaleureux et unanime de ses acclamations et par ses nombreux rappels On ne
peut que célébrer la maîtrise violonistique, l'ardeur musicale à laquelle le Concert en Mi de Bach vaut
cinq ou six rappels successifs”.

9
„La direction artistique de l'œuvre a été confiée à M.Casella. Par sa personnalité énergique et volontaire, par sa grande sympathie
artistique qui l'élève au-dessus des partis musicaux...” R. Rolland dans la Revue musicale SIM, mars 1915.

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Enescu et Casella, après leurs années au Conservatoire, étaient devenus des Parisiens
d'adoption, absorbant toute la lymphe culturelle possible et faisant aussi de leur carrière artistique une
mission pour créer un style national établi. Casella avait „la volonté de donner à l'Italie, en la tirant
presque du néant, un éventail de genres, un répertoire pour les interprètes, comme E. Bloch l'a fait pour
le futur Israël ou comme Enescu voulait le faire pour la Roumanie” (Principe, 1994).
Enescu, pour sa part, „essaie de passer beaucoup de temps dans sa patrie, mettant sa notoriété
au service de la société roumaine. Tout au long de sa carrière, il aura toujours un regard particulier, en
tant qu'interprète, sur les musiciens roumains. Parmi les compositeurs qu'il a interprétés: Stan Golestan,
Mihail Jora, Eduard Caudella, Alexis Catargi. Et si la Roumanie a offert au monde musical de nombreux
musiciens et de grands interprètes, c'est aussi grâce à la tradition fortement accrue au XXe siècle par
Enescu. Il suffit de penser qu'en 1914, il a dirigé à Bucarest la première représentation de la Neuvième
de Beethoven, jamais jouée auparavant en Roumanie” (Pulcini, n.d.).
Après „les années parisiennes” („Arrivé à Paris à l'âge de treize ans et à peine instruit dans la
musique de Wagner, j'en suis reparti au bout de dix-neuf ans, riche de toutes les expériences européennes,
ayant connu et pénétré tous les aspects divers du phénomène musical, depuis la musique française, que
je possédais maintenant à fond dans toutes ses tendances, jusqu'à l'art de Strauss, le schoenbergisme, le
mahlerisme, la musique hongroise, la nouvelle musique ibérique, etc...: en bref, on peut dire qu'il n'y
avait aucun secteur de la musique du monde qui m'était inconnu” (Lanfranchi, 1978) diverses voies de
recherche articulées peuvent être développées aussi, et si l'on souhaite explorer la riche activité des deux
musiciens dans d'autres domaines, il est possible de suivre une parabole artistique et culturelle sans
pareil.
„Je dois aussi ajouter que ce long séjour en France m'a été très
utile, non seulement dans le sens où il m'a donné cette formation
musicale que je ne pouvais malheureusement pas trouver dans ma
patrie, mais aussi parce que – tout en gardant ma mentalité
italienne pure et résistant victorieusement à toutes les tentatives
faites sur moi pour me détacher de ma patrie – j'ai trouvé dans ce
milieu musical gaulois un haut exemple d'émancipation de
l'étranger et de formation d'une forte conscience nationale qui allait
ensuite, de retour en Italie, guider mon renouvellement et ma
construction. ...il serait ingrat de ma part de ne pas reconnaître
combien la France m'a appris dans ces années de jeunesse et
combien je dois aux musiciens français de l'époque qui ont été si
généreux de leurs précieux conseils et de leur aide spirituelle et
humaine”. (Lanfranchi, 1978).

Les deux hommes ont pris de nombreuses initiatives au cours de leur vie artistique:
l'engagement social et culturel exprimé pendant les guerres mondiales; l'enseignement, pour lequel ils
ont toujours trouvé des espaces importants (la célèbre „Accademia Chigiana” a trouvé en Casella un
point de référence indispensable, tandis que l'université de Harvard a invité Enescu à enseigner la
composition).
Ils seront toujours déterminés à créer de nouvelles institutions musicales dans leurs pays
d'origine. Encore une fois, à titre d'exemple, en voici quelques-unes.

Fig. 12: Siena, Accademia Chigiana

Casella a fondé la „Corporazione delle nuove musiche” (qui est devenue plus tard la section
italienne de la Société internationale pour la musique contemporaine) dans les mêmes années où Enescu
a été nommé président de la Société des compositeurs roumains nouvellement fondée.

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Fig. 13: Venise, affiche du Festival international de musique contemporaine, années 1930

Alors qu' Enescu, grâce à sa générosité proverbiale en termes de temps, de talent et d'argent,
détermine l'ouverture de l'Opéra de Bucarest en 1928, inauguré par Lohengrin sous sa direction, Casella
organise en 1930 le premier Festival international de musique contemporaine à Venise, amenant pour la
première fois la musique de Stravinsky en Italie. C'est ainsi que les mots d'admiration de Casella
décrivent cet aspect:
„Je dois aussi ajouter qu' Enesco était un être d'une bonté et d'une
générosité rares, et que son assistance à son jeune collègue italien
ne s'est pas limitée au côté spirituel, mais qu'il a aussi aidé
matériellement sa mère plus d'une fois dans ces premières années,
le faisant avec le plus grand naturel et la dignité d'un grand
gentleman. Enesco était le fils d'un fermier qui travaillait comme
métayer sur les terres d'un riche propriétaire terrien à Dorohoi
(Bukovina), où il est né. Lorsque le jeune pianiste de concert eut
accumulé une somme d'argent suffisante, son premier geste fut de
l'utiliser pour acheter la terre, de sorte que son père eut la grande
joie de mourir maître de ces champs que l'ingéniosité et l'assiduité
de son fils avaient fait siens”.

Protagonistes fascinants et étonnamment modernes de leur destin, on peut sentir dans leur
conception de la vie cette „beauté intérieure” (Lupu, 2012) qui les a destinés à un chemin continu de
créativité généreuse.

Si Enescu déclare que l'expression artistique doit être ancrée dans les valeurs humaines, nous
pouvons conclure que sa mission a été profondément reconnue et appréciée par son ami Casella.
„J'ai la ferme conviction que la race roumaine a devant elle un
magnifique avenir musical. La haute intelligence de ce peuple, ses
multiples affinités latines, slaves et orientales, la richesse de son
folklore, toutes ces choses et bien d'autre encore permettent de
fonder les plus grands espoirs sur la future école roumaine, qui
pourrait être d'une exceptionnelle originalité... Que ses jeunes
compatriotes marchent sur ses traces10 (sans oublier que la
Roumanie a déjà donné le jour à un admirable pionnier: Georges
Enesco)”.

Traduction française: Isabella Bollanaz

10
Les mots de Casella font référence au compositeur roumain Stan Golestan, actif à Paris en tantque critique musical du Figaro,
fondateur de la revue l'Album Musical (1905).

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REFERENCES:
***. (1905). ***. Le Monde Musical.
***. (2012, Février). Sistema Musica. Sistema Musica (XIV numéro 2/2012 - Saison 2011-2012, no. 6).
(1908, février 26). Le Gaulois.
bibliolmc.ntv31.com. (s.d.). Consulté le julliet 2021, sur https://bibliolmc.ntv31.com/node/299
Calabretto, R. (1997). Alfredo Casella. Les années parisiennes. Des documents. Florence: Olschki.
Casella, A. (1941). I segreti della giara. Il Saggiatore (Ediție italiană ed.).
Casella, A. (1954). Il Pianoforte. G.Ricordi.
Davico, N. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.comune.torino.it/settembremusica/archivio/sala2005pdf_2005/12_9_2005_11_17.pdf.
Famous People about Enescu. (n.d.). Retrieved julliet 2021, from https://www.icr.ro/pagini/famous-people-about-
enescu.
Gavoty, B. (2006). Les Souvenirs de George Enesco. Paris: Kryos.
Lanfranchi, A. (1978). Alfredo Casella Dizionario Biografico. Retrieved julliet 2021, from
https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/alfredo-casella_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/
Lupu, O. (2012). About the inner beauty in the life and creation of George Enescu. Musicology Today 10. Bucarest.
Récupéré sur http://www.musicologytoday.ro/BackIssues/Nr.10/studies2.php
Morelli, G. (1994). Alfredo Casella negli anni di apprendistato a Parigi, Atti del convegno internazionale di studi
(Venezia 13-15 maggio 1992). Firenze: Ed. Olschki.
Nectoux, J. (1972). Fauré. Paris: Ed. du Seuil.
Orban, M. (1911, avril 15). La S.M.I. Le Courrier Musical, p. 277.
Principe, Q. (1994). Alfredo Casella negli anni di apprendistato a Parigi. In G. Morelli (Ed.), Atti del convegno
internazionale di studi (Venezia 13-15 maggio 1992) (p. 135). Firenze: Ed. Olschki.
Pulcini, F. (n.d.). http://villasperanza.blogspot.com/2012/05/ledipo-enescu.html. Retrieved julliet 2021
Revue musicale SIM. (1915, mars).
Robin, C. (1994). Les années d'apprentissage d'Alfedo Casella au Conservatoire National de Musique de Paris.
Paris: Olschki.

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 GEORGE ENESCU, THE PIANIST
IN THE LIGHT OF HIS CONTEMPORARIES’
REVIEWS AND RECOLLECTIONS
PROF.DR. LAVINIA COMAN, PH.D.

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MUSIC BUCHAREST

ABSTRACT: The exhaustive research of George Enescu's life and

work highlights his incomparable piano mastery in the context of his
exceptional performances as a violinist, conductor, teacher, guide of the
young generations of musicians. The present study evokes the first
contacts of the gifted child with the keyboard, his growing satisfaction
in using this instrument to play any kind of music, as well as his
legendary appearances as pianist in chamber ensembles or instrumental
duo with other great performers of the time. Also, the Enescian creation
dedicated to the piano is presented, underlining its original
contributions to the formation of a Romanian pianistic thinking.

KEYWORDS: ENESCU PIANIST, CAUDELLA, CARMEN SYLVA

AS THE BIOGRAPHICAL sources and memoirs of the age attested, Enescu’s genius manifested
itself early and spectacularly in its following hypostases: violinist, composer, pianist, and conductor. In
time, that of teacher would be added to them in some of its most varied means of expression. The mastery
of the pianist favoured this polymorphic genius’s ability to compose fluid sound structures in a discourse
that raised eyebrows from his very first attempts through its complexity and prolificacy. Examined at
the Iași Conservatoire by composer Eduard Caudella and later in Paris, the highly gifted child insists on
displaying his ability to play the piano after having proved his violin prowess. His desire to make music
is described with psychological acuity by George Bălan in his first monograph dedicated to the great
master: “With the same determination with which he had persevered in his stubbornness of playing by
ear, little Enescu was now starting to learn the notes. What stimulated him above all was his surprising
discovery that he was able to fix on paper the melodies he had been improvising and to reproduce them
exactly as they had first come to mind. It was fun! But the child felt even more stimulated from the
moment when one day, a cart stopped in front of his house, and people pulled down a huge crate from
it. It was an upright piano that his father, enthusiastic about his son’s ardour, had ordered as a gift for
him. The child’s interest in the professional study of music turned into passion. How poor the violin
seemed, with its four strings, compared to this wonderful instrument with dozens of keys, which allowed
you to play several sounds at the same time, to add a harmonic jewel to the melodies.” (Bălan G. ,
Enescu, 1963, p. 17) In his memoirs, the artist evokes the moment as follows: “My piano was neither a
Steinway, nor a Gaveau; it was a very old and modest instrument, dry, completely hostile to any nuances
one may have expected; but I had a piano at last! I gladly exchanged the monodic instrument that I had
been playing so far for a polyphonic instrument; when the only thing you could do was play melodies,
with no accompaniment whatsoever, how good it felt to chain chords! A glass of fresh water can bring
nothing but pleasure to the thirsty...” (Bălan G. , Enescu, 1963, p. 18)
Once registered with the Vienna Conservatoire as one of Helmesberger Jr.’s students, he
admired Brahms, who was in the final years of his life, and who would sometimes appear in chamber
concerts as conductor or as improvising pianist. From his childhood, Enescu remembered such moments:
“Sometimes, he (Brahms) would sit at the piano: he played admirably, like a great virtuoso; I must
confess, however, that he would sometimes hit the keyboard too hard... As early as that I loved his music
passionately. I listened to it with deep emotion, not only because I found it wonderful, but also because
it evoked my home country.” (Bălan G. , Enescu, 1963, p. 36)
The years of training in the two capitals of musical Europe, Vienna and Paris, brought to
Enescu, among other benefits, the extraordinary opportunity of seeing and hearing Brahms, and later
Fauré, Saint-Saëns, Massenet, Vincent d’Indy, Debussy play, and of having fellow conservatoire
students such as Ravel, Florent Schmidt, Roger Ducasse. Becoming a professional within the musical
family of the two schools – German-Austrian and French – allowed him to turn into a true European
artist and remove the music of his country from its provincial isolation, propelling it into universality.

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Overwhelmed by the demands of a brilliant career as a virtuoso violinist, Enescu always fought
for the right to compose music, yielding to the irrepressible desire that possessed him. “To Enescu,
working on a composition meant continuously moving from the table to the piano and from the piano to
the table. From his memoirs we learn that he worked at the table in order to see clearly and tidy up the
form. When he looked for colour, he sat at the piano: this is how he orchestrated – playing. He imagined
that the fourth finger of his left hand activated a bassoon, or that the pinkie of his right hand triggered a
flute; for the rest, he hissed, whistled, turned into a ‘one-man-orchestra’, as he himself would say.
Answering the question ‘Do you compose with or without the help of a piano?’ Enescu said ‘I, for one,
work partly on the piano. Twice in my life I did not use a piano. Not having access to the instrument, I
composed my second symphony almost entirely at the table; I made a terrible effort back then and swore
never to do it again, as this piece has never satisfied me. In the same circumstances I also wrote the
Orchestral Suite No. 2, which has fortunately left me with a better impression (Bălan G. , Enescu, 1963,
p. 139).”
There are numerous testimonials and records of the fact that the artist was happy when he could
sit at the piano and improvise freely. Such moments were real shows of inspiration and high spontaneous
mastery. To this effect we have several dozen notes made by Queen Mary in the three volumes of her
War Journal. The sovereign writes about the musician who was the most faithful friend of the royal
family, who was taking refuge in Moldavia in the middle of the disaster, of the tragedy brought about
by the war: “Pinx played wonderfully, it was a very pleasant musical evening”, “Pinx performed
magnificently, he concluded by playing fragments from Parsifal on the piano”, she talks about “the
sounds of Pinx’s grandest music”, being strongly moved by “an unparalleled interpretation, which could
almost rip you soul and heart out (Jurnal de război, 2014-2015, p. 425).”
The extant photographs, the accounts of the witnesses, various diaries and reviews depict an
entirely mature artist with a mild and robust appearance, seated in a natural posture behind the keyboard.
His body language conveys his focus, balance, sobriety, modesty, a profound inner experience that he
shared with his audience with generosity, but also with the slightly embarrassed delicacy of revealing
his inner life. Whether he improvised freely on a (self-) imposed theme, he accompanied a violinist or a
cellist on the piano, or performed in a chamber ensemble on the piano, the artist would fuse with the
ensemble, becoming an inseparable part of the phonic complex. When accompanying a singer, he would
always achieve the miracle of complete fusion between the two partners in a single expressive flow. We
cannot help but mention his fabulous capacity as sight reader of the most complicated piano scores, but
also his legendary musical memory. His close admirers would say that Enescu had the entire history of
music stored in his mind, which he could always demonstrate on the piano.
In an attempt to define Enescu’s piano style, we shall formulate certain specific features, such
as:
- his entirely original way of treating the piano as an instrument with “vocal” virtues. The
specificity of Enescu’s melodies, which unfold in a continuous discourse, finds its most suitable pianistic
embodiment in the “cantabile” representation. In his supple melodic progressions and his polyphonic
warps that remain entirely specific to the keyboard instrument, the main dimension is always the
horizontal line, and the required form of expression is predominantly vocal.
- the distinct individuality of the toccata style, at the opposite pole of the cantabile style. The
phonic apparatus and its means are simplified to the extreme. The ensuing result is the transparency and
clarity specific to the neoclassical ideal, which is achieved, for instance, in the first movement of the
Sonata in D Major, where noisy rhetoric and any intention of massiveness are sacrificed to the benefit
of the crystalline simplicity of the discourse in which “all the notes can be heard”.
- a judicious distribution of “fills and gaps” within a phonic architecture in which dense surfaces
tend to be reduced and framed within large aerated, rarefied surfaces. The use of the medium and high
registers is preferred, the low one being usually employed as support, and almost never thematically.
The transparency of Enescu’s writing is also due to the nature of his harmonies: the massive chords are
reserved to climaxes, while “balanced” writing and perfect intervals (fourths, fifths, octaves) are used
commonly.
- Enescu’s pianistic style is impregnated with the plasticity of his details. The melismatic
character of his sonatas allows the melismata to be integrated organically into his long-winded melodies
and often become part of the theme. Thus very few ornaments preserve a merely decorative function.
- dynamics and types of attack contribute to the originality of Enescu’s discourse. His dynamics
are extremely rich, especially in the area of low nuances. There are at least eight registered dynamics,
from mezzo piano to the fading into the void (niente). Separated by infinitesimal differences, starting
from niente and up to FFF, the scales of dynamics are amplified in successive waves. More often than
not, these are withdrawals and recurrences wrapped in a general tendency towards diminuendo, apart
from the rare moments of climax placed at key points throughout the discourse. The types of attack are
multiple and highly differentiated. From legato-cantabile to staccatissimo and martellato, the richness
of the ways of attack requires the pianist’s great hearing sharpness and his great promptness in adapting

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his gestures appropriately. The indications of expression – made not only for large surfaces, but also for
a single sound – lend the scores a dense, crowded aspect, even where the music is aerated. The pedal
notation is also marked with great scrupulosity and reflects the author’s exceptional craftsmanship in
using it.
- the creator’s endeavour to enrich the expressive vocabulary of the orchestral piano, which
does not mean to turn the piano into an orchestra, but to extol its fundamental virtues. Thus the vocal,
cantabile effect is conceived by the composer as an effect of purely pianistic essence through the intimate
adherence to the keyboard, through the symbiosis between performer and creator that he himself
experienced intensely. The multiple aspects of his vision can only be understood through the in-depth
parallel study of his creation and interpretation as pianist.
His compositions dedicated to the piano brilliantly illustrate these features of style and
expression. The less than ten main opuses for piano signed by the artist established the art of the
contemporary pianist, and profiled trends, ideas, and aspirations that were to materialize later on, in
today’s piano playing. There are not many of them, only three suites, two sonatas, a theme with variations
for two pianos, and a number of small-scale compositions, but of emblematic value, which are essential
to the further development of Romanian piano playing.
Based on the musical ideas and realities we have expounded, we can conclude that George
Enescu’s piano oeuvre is the work of a pianist, just as the performer’s art was marked by the creator’s
seal. Therefore, this oeuvre consecrates him as a continuator of the great romantic poets of the piano, as
well as one of the most original pianists of the twentieth century.

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Bălan, T. (1966). Principii de pianistică. București: Ed. Muzicală.
Binder, R. (2002). La pândă. Dialoguri salvate. Iași: Ed. Polirom.
Boerescu, S. (2018). Iubirile știute și mai puțin știute ale Regilor, Principilor și Principeselor României. București:
Ed. Integral.
Boerescu, S. (2018). Nunțile regale. București: Ed. Integral.
Brelet, G. (1951). L´Interprétation créatrice, Essai sur l´execution musicale. Paris.
Buzilă, S. (1999). Enciclopedia interpreților din Moldova. Chișinău: Ed. Arc.
Cantacuzino-Enescu. (2005). Lumini și umbre. Amintirile unei prințese moldave. Onești: Ed. Maria Aristarc.
Caravia, N. (1965). Amintiri despre George Enescu. Secolul XX, 3.
Cămărășescu, Z. (2019). Amintiri. București: Ed. Baroque Books@Arts.
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Constantinescu, G. (București). George Enescu. 2009: Ed. Didactică și Pedagogică, R.A.
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 EIN MUSIKALISCHES MEISTERWERK
FÜR TEMESWAR
WILHELM FRANZ SPEER WIDMETE 1881 DEM TEMESWARER
PHILHARMONISCHEN VEREIN DAS ORATORIUM DIE KÖNIGE IN ISRAEL

DR. FRANZ METZ

GESELLSCHAFT FÜR DEUTSCHE MUSIKKULTUR IM SÜDÖSTLICHEN EUROPA E.V., MÜNCHEN

ABSTRAKT: Viele große Meisterwerke der Musikgeschichte haben

eine spannende Entstehungsgeschichte und wurden durch besondere
Umstände ihrer Uraufführung erst berühmt. Andere verschwanden –
trotz ihrer Bedeutung – für viele Jahre von den Konzertprogrammen, bis
sie wieder durch einen Zufall entdeckt wurden. Doch die Neuzeit,
besonders das 20. Jahrhundert, brachte eine noch traurigere Erfahrung
mit sich: manche Musikwerke durften nicht aufgeführt werden, weil sie
zum Kulturgut einer bestimmten ethnischen oder religiösen Gruppe
gehörten. Dieses Schicksal hatte auch das Oratorium Die Könige in
Israel vom Temeswarer Komponisten Wilhelm Franz Speer (1823-
1898): es entstand 1881, wurde dem Temeswarer Philharmonischen
Verein gewidmet, am 15. April 1882 fand seine Uraufführung statt,
danach verschwand es in einem vergessenen und verstaubten Archiv.
Nach knapp 140 Jahren soll nun dieses Werk wieder dem Temeswarer
Publikum präsentieret werden.

SCHLAGWÖRTER: TIMIȘOARA, KÁRRÁSZ, FRÜHLING

DAS TEMESWARER MUSIKLEBEN 1882

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DAS JAHR 1882 wurde mit einem kirchenmusikalischen Feuerwerk eingeleitet. Wie die Temesvarer
Zeitung vom 4. Januar 1882 berichtete, führte man in der römisch-katholischen Pfarrkirche der
Fabrikstadt (heute griechisch-katholische Kirche) am Neujahrstage eine große Messe für Chor, Solisten
und Orchester von Wenzel Emanuel Horak (1800-1871) auf. Der hier seit 46 Jahren wirkende
Kirchenmusiker Joseph Mathieu leitete diese Aufführung, die zugleich zu seinen letzten musikalischen
Leistungen zählte, bevor er seinen Ruhestand antritt.
Nur wenige Tage später (am 7. Januar 1882) gab Karl Rudolf Kárrász im großen Redoutensaal
mit seinem Fabriker Musik-und Gesangverein ein Benefizkonzert, bei welchem u.a. sein Klavierkonzert,
op. 75, aufgeführt wurde. Und die nächste Überraschung ließ nicht lange auf sich warten: in einem
Konzert im Fabrikshof führte die k. k. Regiments-Militärkapelle Nr. 39, Großfürst Alexis, ein Potpourri
aus der neuesten Operette von Johann Strauss Der lustige Krieg auf. Nur wenige Wochen davor fand
erst deren Premiere im Theater an der Wien statt. Kapellmeister J. N. Hock hatte die Leitung. Er trat mit
seinen Musikern in vielen Konzerten gemeinsam mit dem Temeswarer Philharmonischen Verein auf.
Selbst bei der Uraufführung von Speers Oratorium Die Könige in Israel wirkte er mit seinen Musikern
mit. Kapellmeister Hock wurde 1882 von Papst Leo XIII. das Ritterkreuz des St. Sylvesterordens für
seine Verdienste als Musiker und Komponist verliehen.
Die Faschingszeit wurde mit zahlreichen Tanzunterhaltungen und Bällen eingeleitet. In dieser
Zeit machten viele Temeswarer Gasthäuser in der Zeitung Werbung für „Krautsuppe mit Konzert“.
Dabei traten meist Nationalkapellen auf, also Zigeunerkapellen aus der Fabrikstadt, unter der Leitung
von Martin Hübner.
Ebenfalls im Fabrikshof trat Anfang März 1882 die Erste Wiener Damen-Konzert-Kapelle
unter der Leitung von Anna Frankl auf. Der Philharmonische Verein verabschiedete im Rahmen eines
Festabends den Sänger Franz Nußberger, der als Bahnbeamter nach Wien versetzt wurde. Interessant ist
der Zeitungsbericht, in welchem es heißt, dass bei dieser Gelegenheit ein „Festsalamander“ gerieben
wurde, bei dessen Gelegenheit zum ersten Mal die von „Herrn Bing“ aus Nürnberg gespendeten
Birkenheimer und das Trinkhorn verwendet wurden. Am selben Abend hat man dem stellvertretenden
Vorsitzenden des Philharmonischen Vereins, Johann Riedl, der sich zur Zeit in Wien aufhielt, ein
Glückwunschtelegramm gesendet. Er war neben August Pummer einer der beiden Widmungsträger, dem
Speer sein Oratorium gewidmet hat.

Aus Budapest kam noch im März 1882 das Streichquartett Krancsevics zusammen mit dem
Pianisten Willy Deutsch nach Temeswar, die in mehreren Banater Städten aufgetreten sind. Mitte März
1882 stellte sich der Nachfolger des Fabriker Kirchenmusikers Joseph Mathieu, Karl Frühling, dem
Temeswarer Publikum als neuer Chorregent, Klavier- und Gesangslehrer vor. In der Temeswarer

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Domkirche führte man im Ostergottesdienst die dritte Messe von Domkapellmeister Wilhelm Franz
Speer, für Chor, Soli, Orgel und Orchester, auf. Der Konzertmeister des Domorchesters, Michael
Jaborszky, spielte ein großes Violinsolo von Johann Georg Lickl, die Sängerin Horstmann sang das
Sopransolo. Jaborszky feierte 1882 sein 50jähriges Dienstjubiläum und Horstmann wird auch bei der
Uraufführung von Speers Oratorium mitwirken.
In der Fabrikstädter Pfarrkirche dirigierte der neue Kirchenmusiker Karl Frühling am
Ostersonntag die Sechste Messe für Chor, Soli und Orgel von Horak und sang das von ihm selbst
komponierte Ave Maria. Interessant ist die Bemerkung des Chronisten zu dieser kirchenmusikalischen
Aufführung: „Der Herr Dirigent verstand es, der mitwirkenden Zigeunerkapelle durch zeitgemäße gute
Nuancierung beizubringen, ihren gewöhnlich scharfen Strich nicht zur Geltung zu bringen…“.
Am 16. April 1882, nur einen Tag nach der Uraufführung des Oratoriums Die Könige in Israel,
fand im Festsaal des Hotels Zu den sieben Churfürsten eine Gesangs-Soirée statt, dargeboten von der
Wiener Sängerin Marie Taubner, dem Zither-Virtuosen Franz Mutzbauer, dem Pianisten Lucas Tomanik
und anderen Sängern statt.
Im Monat August 1882 wendete sich die Wiener Konzertagentur Ignaz Kugel in einem
Schreiben an die Leitung des Philharmonischen Vereins und bietet diesem ein Konzert der
Klaviervirtuosin Ilona Eibenschütz an. Die junge Klaviervirtuosin, 1872 in Pest geboren, galt als ein
Wunderkind und wurde auch von Liszt gelobt.

Am 8. September 1882 unternahm der Temeswarer Philharmonische Verein eine Sängerfahrt

mit einem „Vergnügungszug“ nach Herkulesbad, verbunden mit einem Konzert. Man trat im Kursalon
auf, sang Männerchöre von Conrad Paul Wusching und Fischer, Karl Gassner spielte Ungarische Tänze
von Johannes Brahms und eine Nocturne von Chopin, Karl Novacek eine Sonate für Cello und Klavier
von Mendelssohn, Werke von Goltermann, David Popper und Davidoff und der Bariton August
Pummer, gleichzeitig Vorsitzender des Philharmonischen Vereins, sang Lieder von Schubert.
Am 3. Oktober 1882 trat Martin J. Novacek gemeinsam mit seinen Söhnen Carl, Ottokar und
Victor unter der Mitwirkung von Eugenie Fischl im städtischen Redoutensaal auf. Sie unternahmen von
Temeswar aus unter dem Namen Kammermusik-Vereinigung Novacek große Konzertreisen durch ganz
Europa.

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Im November 1882 wendete sich der Temeswarer Chorleiter, Komponist und Pädagoge Karl
Rudolf Kárrász als Herausgeber der Banater Musik und Sängerzeitung an das Präsidium des
Philharmonischen Vereins, mit der Bitte, dieses Blatt zu unterstützen, das nun seit einem Jahr regelmäßig
erschienen ist. Wegen fehlender Unterstützung wird es aber in kurzer Zeit eingestellt werden.

Der Höhepunkt der Temeswarer Veranstaltungsreihe für 1882 war das große Sängerfest, anlässlich des
100jährigen Jubiläums seit der Erhebung zur königlichen Freistadt im Jahre 1782 durch Kaiser Josef II.
Am 17. September 1882 trafen in Temeswar zahlreiche Chöre aus vielen Städten Ungarns ein, darunter
deutsche, ungarische, serbische und rumänische Gesangvereine. Der Chronist berichtet darüber: „In der
Reihe der Festlichkeiten, mit welchen die königliche Freistadt Temesvar das hundertjährige Jahresfest
ihres Bestehens feiert, war das Samstag Abends stattgehabte Parkfest unstreitig einer der
hervorragendsten Glanzpunkte, welcher, was Pracht und großstädtischen Charakter anbelangt, nicht so
bald wieder erreicht werden dürfte.“ Die Temesvarer Zeitung hat zu diesem Anlass sogar eine
Sondernummer herausgebracht und die zahlreichen Sänger mit einem langen Gedicht begrüßt.

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Eigentlich sollte anlässlich dieses großen Sängerfestes auch das neurenovierte städtische Franz-Josef-
Theater eröffnet werden, doch noch war es nicht so weit. Erst am Abend des 10. Dezember 1882 fand
die feierliche Eröffnung statt. Abwechselnd wird eine deutsche und eine ungarische Gesellschaft diese
Bühne benützen. Temeswar hatte damit wieder einen neuen Mittelpunkt für Theater und Musik.
Desiderius Braun beschreibt in seinem Buch Bánsági Rapszódia das neue Theater wie folgt:

„Unser Publikum konnte sich überzeugen, dass die beiden Wiener

Architekten Helmer und Fellner der Welt ein Beispiel neuer
Architektur geschenkt haben. Die Eröffnung von gestern war ein
festlicher Abend. Die Damen und Herren erschienen in eleganter
Kleidung, mit weißen Krawatten. Alle Karten, bis zum letzten Platz,
waren ausverkauft. Zum Beginn erklang eine festliche Ouvertüre,
vorgetragen vom Orchester des 61. Infanterieregiments unter der
Leitung von Kapellmeister Josef Sykora. (…) Der erste Eindruck,
den das neue Theatergebäude auf den Besucher macht, ist, trotz
schwächerer Beleuchtung, großartig. Der erste Blick geht, wie
üblich, in Richtung des Vorhangs. Dieser leuchtet nicht durch
Farben, sondern besteht aus reinem Eisen. Rund herum befinden
sich die einzelnen gut aussehenden Logen und von allen kann man
sehr gut die Bühne sehen. An der Decke befinden sich vier Gemälde,
umzingelt von kleinen Figuren aus Gips. Der große schwere Luster
ist mit dicken Ringen an der Decke befestigt. Der angezündete
Luster glänzt wie ein Kegel der brennt und von unten angesehen,
kann man drei Reihen von Flammen erblicken. Dieser Luster wurde
so hergestellt, dass man auch eine elektrische Beleuchtung einbauen
kann. (…) Die Türen der Notausgänge sind aus massivem Eisen
gefertigt und gehen nur von innen nach außen auf. Unten gibt es viel
mehrere Stehplätze als im alten Theater. Die Stühle sind sehr schön
tapitziert. Das Theater kann 1.223 Personen fassen…”

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Außer den deutschen und ungarischen Theater, Oper- und Operettenaufführungen, den
zahlreichen Konzerten fremder und einheimischer Künstler, musikalischen Veranstaltungen lokaler
Gesangvereine und kirchenmusikalischen Aufführungen in den katholischen, orthodoxen, evangelischen
und reformierten Kirchen wie in Synagogen gab es 1882 auch Vorstellungen der rumänischen
Theatergruppe in der Arena. Braun schreibt darüber: „Die Gruppe ist gut. Aus der Umgebung kommen
viele Rumänen zu den Vorstellungen. Das lokale Publikum ist aber uninteressiert.”

AUS BÖHMEN NACH LUGOSCH UND TEMESWAR

Wilhelm Franz Speer kam am 24. Januar 1823 in Friedland (Böhmen, heute Tschechische
Republik) zur Welt, seine Eltern waren Karl Speer und Apollonia Hartmann. Über seinen musikalischen
Werdegang sind uns nur wenige Daten erhalten geblieben. So wissen wir, dass er die berühmte
Organistenschule in Prag absolviert hat und 1855 als Klavierlehrer nach Lugosch berufen wurde. Im
Jahre 1857 ernannte ihn das Csanáder (Temeswarer) Domkapitel zum Domorganisten und der Magistrat
der Freistadt Temeswar zum Stadtorganisten, welches Amt er im April 1857 antrat und bis 1871 inne
hatte. 1871 wurde er als Nachfolger Moritz Pfeiffers (+13. Juli 1871) zum Domkapellmeister ernannt
und wirkte in dieser Funktion bis 1893.
Als am Abend des 21. Oktober 1871 der Temeswarer Philharmonische Verein ins Leben
gerufen wurde, war Speer als Gründungsmitglied dabei und wurde gemeinsam mit Heinrich Weidt zum
Vereinschorleiter ernannt. Bis zum Jahre 1889 leitete er in mehreren Etappen gemeinsam mit anderen
Musikerkollegen diesen Chor, so mit Martin Novacek oder Karl Rudolf Kárrász. In dieser nur kurzen
Zeitspanne hat Wilhelm Franz Speer die hohe Qualität des Temeswarer Musiklebens maßgebend
mitgeprägt, so, dass man bereits einige der größten Oratorien aufführen konnte: 1880 die Schöpfung von
Joseph Haydn, 1884 Elias und 1891 Paulus von Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. Dazwischen, 1882,
erklang zum ersten Mal sein eigenes Werk, das O ratorium Die Könige in Israel.

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Im Dezember 1898 erreichte den Temeswarer Philharmonischen Verein die Nachricht vom
Tode ihres langjährigen Chorleiters, der am 16. Dezember 1898 in Zara/ Zadar (heute Kroatien)
verschieden ist. Der Grund, weshalb sich Speer um 1893 mit seiner Frau in Zadar niedergelassen hat, ist
nicht bekannt. Sein Tod wurde in den Tageszeitungen nicht bekanntgegeben und in der lokalen Presse
der vorangegangenen Jahre finden wir keinen einzigen Vermerk über die Anwesenheit dieses
Kapellmeisters und Komponisten in der Stadt. Selbst die Musiksammlung der erzbischöflichen
Kathedrale zu Zadar besitzt keine einzige Komposition Speers. Es ist deshalb anzunehmen, dass Speer
bewusst seinen Lebensabend hier in Ruhe und Abgeschiedenheit verbringen wollte. Bis heute bleibt das
Ende dieses in Temeswar so segensreich wirkenden Komponisten und Kapellmeisters hier an der
Adriaküste – weit weg von seiner Heimat Böhmen und seiner Wahlheimat Banat – ungeklärt. Wegen
der Zugehörigkeit zum damaligen italienischen Istrien, sind die Eintragungen im Totenbuch der Pfarrei
St. Anastasia (kroatisch: Sv. Stosi) zu Zadar in italienischer Sprache verfasst. Er wird darin als „Maestro
di capella musicale a Temesvar” bezeichnet, also als Kapellmeister in Temeswar.

Speer beschäftigte sich intensiv auch mit der Banater Musikgeschichte, doch leider sind uns
keine dieser Arbeiten erhalten geblieben. Ab 1862 veröffentlichte er eine Artikelserie in der Temesvarer
Zeitung über Alte und neue Musik. Im Jahre 1870 erschien in der gleichen Zeitung in mehreren Folgen
seine Arbeit Einige Kapitel über die Stellung der Tonkunst im Staate. Auch als Pianist und
Kammermusiker war Wilhelm Franz Speer sehr geschätzt. Als Klavierpädagoge gab er 1863 eine
Klavierschule in sechs Heften heraus: Praktische Anleitung zum Klavierspielen. Den größten Teil in
seinem Schaffen nimmt aber die Kirchenmusik ein: eine Weihnachtsmotette (1873), mehrere
Offertorien, Gradualien, mehrere Messen für Chor, Solisten, Orgel und Orchester, ein Requiem (1877,
gewidmet dem Temeswarer Philharmonischen Verein) und nicht zuletzt das Oratorium Die Könige in
Israel (1881). Er schrieb außer geistlicher Musik auch eine Oper, die aber in seiner Zeit nie aufgeführt
wurde. Die Oper heißt Der Dorfbarbier und ist eine „komische Oper in 2 Acten”. Das Libretto wurde
1820 von k. k. Hofschauspieler Joseph Weidmann in Wien veröffentlicht, der Komponist Johann Baptist
Schenk (1753-1836) verwendete es bereits 1795 für sein gleichnamiges Singspiel. Speer vermerkte unter
dem Titel seines Autographs: „Diese Oper schrieb ich nicht zum Gebrauche der öffentlichen
Aufführung, sondern lediglich, um mich in der Instrumentation und überhaupt in der Composition zu
üben. W. F. Speer”.

ZUR ENTSTEHUNG DES ORATORIUMS

Das Libretto des Oratoriums Die Könige Israel stammt vom Aachener Prediger Wilhelm Smets (1796-
1848), der es 1836 im Auftrag des Aachener Musikfestes und dessen musikalischem Leiter Ferdinand
Ries geschrieben hat. Smets war Sohn des Schauspielers und späteren Richters Johann Nikolaus Smets
von Ehrenstein und der Schauspielerin Sophie Schröder. Als junger Student nahm Wilhelm Smets in
Bonn an der burschenschaftlichen Bewegung und an den Freiheitskriegen teil, danach war er

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Schauspieler in Wien, Gymnasiallehrer in Koblenz, studierte seit 1819 in Münster katholische

Theologie, wurde 1822 zum Priester geweiht. Im Jahre 1844 wurde er zum Domherrn der Stadt Aachen
ernannt, die ihn 1848 als Abgeordneten ins Frankfurter Parlament sandte.
Der Komponist Ferdinand Ries (1784-1838) war seinem Lehrer Ludwig van Beethoven in
Wien bei der Abschrift dessen Oratoriums Christus am Ölberg (1803) behilflich, wodurch er sich dieses
Werk zum Vorbild genommen bei der Vertonung seines Oratoriums Die Könige in Israel. Bereits 1836
führte man im Rahmen des Düsseldorfer Musikfestes Mendelssohns Paulus auf, Grund genug auch in
Aachen ein ähnliches neues Oratorium erklingen zu lassen. Wilhelm Smets wählte dafür ein
geschichtliches Thema aus dem Alten Testament, dem ersten Buch Samuel: der Machtwechsel der
beiden ersten israelitischen Könige Saul und David. Diesen Stoff hat bereits Händel in seinem Oratorium
Saul bearbeitet, doch wird diesmal König David im Zentrum stehen, der gleich zu Beginn als Gesalbter
und neuer König besungen wird („Heil David, Heil dem Herrscher”). Für den Schluss erdachte sich der
Librettist ein Halleluja-Chor, doch Ferdinand Ries schreckte davor zurück. Er schrieb an einen Freund:
„Hinsichtlich des Schlusschores Halleluja!, welcher Componist liest diese Worte nicht mit Schrecken,
wenn er es komponieren soll und an Händel denkt?” Dafür wurde letztendlich, nachdem das Libretto
bereits abgeschlossen war, ein textlicher Ersatz gesucht und gefunden.

Wilhelm Franz Speer kannte sicherlich das Oratorium von Ferdinand Ries und trotzdem machte
er sich 44 Jahre später (1881) an die Vertonung des gleichen Librettos von Wilhelm Smets. Bedingt
durch die Metrik der Verse und durch den vorgegebenen Text, können in den beiden Musikschöpfungen
einige Ähnlichkeiten festgestellt werden. Doch wenn bei Ries längere, fugenartige Chöre und größere
Orchestereinsätze vorkommen, so hat Speer seine Musik bereits dem Zeitgeist der 1880er Jahre
angepasst, seine Choreinsätze noch effektvoller und konzentrierter gestaltet. Wenn auch beide
Komponisten Doppelchöre, Frauen- und Männerchöre erklingen lassen, so hat Speer seine Musik den in
Temeswar bescheideneren musikalischen Verhältnissen angepasst, verglichen mit jenen des Aachener
Musikfestes.
Die Introductione vertonte Wilhelm Franz Speer als kurze instrumentale Ouvertüre, als einen
besinnlichen, ruhigen Auftakt zum prächtigen Anfangschor, in welchem König David begrüßt wird.
Diesem gilt auch die erste Arie, in der er bescheiden seine Siegestaten göttlicher Macht zuschreibt.
Danach verkünden seine Krieger die Ankunft Sauls. David vermeidet aber die direkte
Auseinandersetzung mit Saul, er überlässt dies den gegen die Israeliten kämpfenden Philistern. Und
wieder folgt ein effektvoller Chor der Philister, eingeleitet mit Trompetensignalen und Paukenwirbel:
„…Nun siegen unsre Götter, Dagon und Astaroth!” Aber selbst die Klagen seiner beiden Kinder, der
Tochter Michol und dem Sohne Jonathan – beide David in Freundschaft und Liebe verbunden – können
Saul nicht erweichen. Die Philister siegen gegen das Heer Jonathans, der auf dem Schlachtfeld fällt und
Saul stürzt sich in sein Schwert, um nicht in die Hände der Philister zu fallen. Während Michol den Tod
ihres Vaters Saul beklagt, lässt David die Philister mit seinen Truppen umstellen, die besiegt werden und
abziehen. Wenn der erste Teil des Oratoriums mit einem Doppelchor endet (Chor der Israeliten, Chor
der Philister), so endet der zweite Teil mit einem mächtigen Gesamtchor, der teilweise in Frauen- und
Männerchor unterteilt wird. Speer greift zurück an die musikalischen Motive des Anfangschors („Heil
dir”), die er geschickt mit den Schlussworten verbindet: „...ein Vorbild dessen, der kommen wird, und
der da ist”. Dadurch erhält der alttestamentliche Text zugleich eine neue, messianische und christliche
Dimension.

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Speer verstand es, mit relativ wenigen Mitteln, aber äußerst effektvoll, die beiden Chöre der
Philister (Nr. 12 und Nr. 19) zu gestalten: vom Unisono „So lasst Trompeten schmettern und
Schlachtenruf erschallen” bis zum lautmalerischen und schwungvollen „Schmetternde Hörner,
rauschende Zimbeln, sausende Speere, wuchtiges Schwert”. Einen besonderen musikalischen Wert
haben das Quartett des ersten Teils (Nr. 13) und das Quintett im zweiten Teil (Nr. 18), die fast opernhaft
komponiert sind. Die verschiedenen Stimmen (Michol, Jonathan, Hexe von Endor, Saul, Samuel)
bewahren zwar jeweils ihren Charakter, bestimmt durch die Metrik und die musikalischen Motive, doch
verschmelzen sie letztendlich zu einer künstlerischen Einheit in den Duetten, Terzetten und Quintetten
zusammen. Mit Recht stellte der Chronist nach der Uraufführung 1882 fest, dass die Musik einer
italienischen Oper anmutet.

DIE URAUFFÜHRUNG DES ORATORIUMS 1882

Ein besonderes kirchenmusikalisches Ereignis für Temeswar brachte das Jahr 1882 mit sich: zum
25jährigen Dienstjubiläum Wilhelm Franz Speers (seit 1857 wirkte Speer als Organist und später als
Domkapellmeister an der Domkirche) führte der Temeswarer Philharmonische Verein dessen großes

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Oratorium Die Könige in Israel auf. Dieses Oratorium kann als das größte dieser Gattung betrachtet
werden, das im Banat jemals komponiert wurde. Beendet hat Speer dieses Werk am 30. Juni 1881 in
Temeswar. Der Originaltitel lautet:

Die Könige in Israel.

Biblisches Oratorium in zwei Abtheilungen für Soli, Chor, und
Orchester,
componirt und dem geehrten Praesidium des
Philharmonischen Vereins zu Temesvár
den Herren August Pummer und Johann Riedl,
Hochachtungsvoll gewidmet,
von W. F. Speer,
Regens-Chori

Eigentlich sollte die Uraufführung bereits am 1. April 1882 im großen städtischen Redoutensaal
stattfinden, doch hat man diese letztendlich auf den 15. April verschoben – ohne welche Gründe zu
nennen. Für die Uraufführung des Oratoriums wurden auch Textheftchen gedruckt. Die Temesvarer
Zeitung nannte in ihrer Ankündigung Speer das Zentrum des Musiklebens Temeswars, der durch sein
neues Werk seiner Stadt ein Denkmal gesetzt hat: „Der in weitesten Kreisen geschätzte Kompositeur hat
an dieses Oratorium seine beste Kraft und seine mehrjährige Muße gesetzt; gilt es ja doch sein
25jähriges Dienstjubiläum Temesvar durch Aufführung dieses religiösen Tonwerkes zu verherrlichen,
und der Philharmonische Verein hat sich dem Studium dieser prächtigen Komposition mit all jener
Pietät geweiht, die Altmeister Speer, der zum guten Theil das Zentrum des künstlerischen Musiklebens
Temesvars durch ein Viertel-Jahrhundert gebildet, mit vollstem Recht beanspruchen kann.“ In einem
anderen Zeitungsartikel wurden Lebensdaten Speers veröffentlicht und auch sein kompositorisches
Schaffen wurde erwähnt: „Der Jubilar ist übrigens auf dem Felde der musikalischen Composition kein
Neuling. Eine Reihe größerer und kleinerer Werke verhalfen seinem Namen schon seit vielen Jahren zu
einem guten Klange, und errangen überall einen ehrenvollen Erfolg.”

Das Präsidium des Philharmonischen Vereins bemühte sich, ihren Chormeister Wilhelm Franz
Speer noch lange Jahre zu behalten, galt er doch als das „musikalische Zentrum” Temeswars. Leider
gelang dies dem Vorstand nicht mit dem ersten Kapellmeister und Vereinschormeister Heinrich Weidt,
der, trotz zahlreicher Bemühungen, 1872 die Stadt verlassen hat.
Der Uraufführung von Samstag, dem 15. April 1882, waren viele Monate harter Probezeit
vorangegangen. Mehrmals wöchentlich wurde dafür geprobt, trotz vieler anderer Veranstaltungen, die
durchgeführt und organisiert werden mussten. Speer führte ja an allen Sonntagen in der Temeswarer
Domkirche Orchestermessen auf, hatte gute Musiker zur Verfügung, die teilweise von der Militärkapelle
kamen. Die Militärkapelle Temeswars war in der ganzen Doppelmonarchie bekannt und zählte zu den
Besten. Es gab fast kein großes vokalsymphonisches Konzert in Temeswar, ohne die Mitwirkung von
Musikern dieser Militärkapelle. Zu den Mitgliedern seines Orchesters gehörten auch Altmeister wie
Michael Jaborszky, Martin Novacek und dessen Söhne Carl, Ottokar und Victor.
Das Konzert wurde ein großes Ereignis: „Beim Eintritt des Jubilars wurde er vom Orchester
mit einem Tusch empfangen, während der Philharmonische Verein einen prachtvollen Kranz, dessen
Schleifen die ungarischen National-Farben hatten, seinem wackeren Chormeister aufs Dirigenten-Pult
legte.” Fast jede der 27 Nummern des Oratoriums wurde mit Beifallsbezeugung gekrönt, doch die Chöre
zählten zu den Höhepunkten des Abends: „Der Schwerpunkt der Komposition liegt in den recht
effektvollen Chören und Ensembles.” Sämtliche Solopartien wurden mit einheimischen Kräften besetzt:
die Michol (Sopran) sang R. Horstmann, die Hexe von Endor (Alt) Hermine Maresch, den Jonathan
(Alt) J. Wolafka, König David (Tenor) Eduard Löwenherz, den Saul (Bariton) sang August Pummer,

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den Abner (Bass) A. Luif. Zum Schluss wurde Speer mehrmals auf die Bühne gerufen und mit einem
langanhaltenden Applaus geehrt.
Nicht nur die deutschsprachige Temesvarer Zeitung brachte Berichte zur Uraufführung dieses
Oratoriums, sondern auch das ungarische Blatt Délmagyarországi Lapok. Diesem nach, sollte auch der
Solist Lungu mitwirken, der aber in letzter Minute wegen einer Heiserkeit durch Luif ersetzt werden
musste.
Nach der Aufführung dieses Oratoriums bedankte sich Speer beim Temeswarer
Philharmonischen Verein mit folgendem Schreiben:

Dem Philh. Vereine in Temesvár!

Ich fühle mich angenehm verpflichtet, dem Philh. Vereine hiemit
meinen tief gefühltesten Dank auszusprechen für die aufopfernde
Bereitwilligkeit und Mitwirkung bei der Aufführung meines
Oratoriums gelegentlich meines 25-jährigen Dienst-Jubiläums. Für
alle Ihre, an diesem Feste mir bewiesene Zuneigung und
Anhänglichkeit, für alle, bei dieser Gelegenheit an den Tag gelegte
Freundschaft und Brüderlichkeit, sowie für den, zu meinem Ehren-
Abende gespendeten prachtvollen Lorbeern-Kranz und für alle
diese Auszeichnung sage ich Ihnen meinen innigsten Dank.
Nehmen Sie die Versicherung, dass bei jedesmaliger Erinnerung an
dieses Fest der Philh. Verein in meinem Gedächtnisse die höchste
Stelle einnehmen wird. Es blühe, wachse und gedeihe der
Philharmonische Verein!

Temesvár am 1. Mai 1882

W. F. Speer
Chormeister & Regens-Chori

Die Uraufführung des Oratoriums Die Könige in Israel vom 15. April 1882 war die einzige
bekannte öffentliche Aufführung dieses Meisterwerkes. Die als Prachtband eingebundene Partitur und
einige Stimmen bekamen eine Inventarnummer und gelangten in das umfangreiche Archiv des
Philharmonischen Vereins. Diese wertvolle Noten- und Dokumentensammlung musste 1947, im Zuge
der staatlich verordneten Auflösung sämtlicher Vereine im damaligen Rumänien, in vier großen
Schränken der Fabrikstädter Millenniumskirche untergebracht werden, wo sie erst 1981 entdeckt wurde.

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In abenteuerlicher Weise konnten diese Musikdokumente vor der Beschlagnahmung und Vernichtung
gerettet werden. Und erst nach fast 140 Jahren ist es wieder möglich, dieses inzwischen verschollene
und zu Unrecht vergessene Oratorium öffentlich aufzuführen. Ein Meisterwerk, das der Stadt Temeswar
und dem Philharmonischen Verein gewidmet wurde.
Copyright © EDITION MUSIK SÜDOST, München 2021

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 DOCUMENTS FROM THE ARCHIVES OF THE
NATIONAL „GEORGE ENESCU” MUSEUM
IRINA NIȚU

NATIONAL „GEORGE ENESCU” MUSEUM

ABSTRACT: The archives are real treasures. Sometimes they reveal

forgotten things, resurrect memories, confirm, or disprove facts. A
simple document thus acquires an invaluable value. The archive of the
"George Enescu" National Museum consists of invaluable patrimony,
made up, among other things, of documents such as musical
manuscripts, photographs, posters, concert programs, telegrams, cards,
letters, many of them discovered and already included in the list of
cultural goods. Most of them refer, as is natural, to the life or work of
George Enescu and are subject of new editorial appearances and
thematic exhibitions of the museum.
For this presentation, we bring to front some of the documents from the
institution's archive, more precisely – pages of correspondence
(telegrams, letters) addressed to George Enescu, a charcoal portrait
representing the musician, as well as a concert statement. Two of the
senders were personalities of the Romanian political life and the
Romanian science (Eugeniu Grigore Neculcea and Constantin Motăş),
and the other two – musicians: one French (Fernand Halphen) and
another Romanian (Clara Haskil). The first ones wrote to Enescu on the
occasion of some anniversary days, pointing out certain facts less known
from his biography, and the latter referred to known events, giving us a
subjective point of view on them.

KEYWORDS: NECULCEA, HASKIL, CAUDELLA, ARCHIVE

GEORGE ENESCU AND EUGENIU GRIGORE NECULCEA

RESEARCHING George Enescu's correspondence in 1931, we were fascinated by a letter received

by the musician on the occasion of the fulfillment of half a century. George Enescu, already established
as an international personality, received congratulatory messages from outstanding representatives of
the Romanian and universal culture.
Among these we mention Eugeniu Grigore Neculcea (1876-1954), Doctor of physico-
mathematical science at the Sorbonne, Professor at the University of Iași and who worked in the Ministry
of Finance, being, among others, Ambassador of Romania and diplomat, appointed, after the First World
War, member of the Romanian delegation to the Peace Conference in Paris.

Fig. 1: Eugeniu Grigore Neculcea

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Over time, the destinies of these two men of culture intersected; thanks to them and the fact
that the meetings were recorded in a signed document, dated but also preserved, we can now enjoy the
special atmosphere evoked that brings George Enescu to the attention. Filtered, of course, by the
subjective memories of the recipient, the musician's image is outlined through the prism of events that
brought the two closer together, both in childhood and in adulthood.
From Eugeniu Neculcea's letter we learn various facts: that he met George Enescu in Slănic,
then that their parents knew each other and, finally, hearing the little musician playing the violin in his
parents' house, he also wanted to study this instrument. And in 1888, Enescu was enrolled as a student
at the Vienna Conservatory and a year later, back in the country in holydays, he went with his parents to
Slănic where he played for the first time as a violinist, in public. It is therefore possible that the two of
them met on that occasion. From his own confessions, Neculcea was impressed by the charm of the
performance of little Enescu, which is why, probably, his parents also appealed to the guidance of
Professor Eduard Caudella, and as they had done a while ago Costache and Maria Enescu. We also find
out details – not necessarily amazing, but impressive, though – about a concert given in Iași by little
Enescu, which records the presence of the musician's father. Full of emotion (or thus left in Neculcea's
memory) he was presented to him by Eduard Caudella.

Fig. 2: Letter – Eugeniu Neculcea to George Enescu, pg. 1, MNGE archive

The friendship of the two young men was preserved over time, as evidenced by those memories,
placing them both in Paris. The author of the letter evokes Enescu's recitals at which he was almost
always present, as well as a special event, which took place in 14 Brussels Street (the musician's
residence since 1904). Here he would have played, in front of Montoriol Tarrés, the Piano and Violin
Sonata in A major by César Franck. We recall that Enrique Juan Montoriol-Tarrés (Figueres, October
28, 1876 – Figueres, February 1, 1951) was a Spanish pianist, close to his fellow countrymen Enrique
Granados (1867–1916), dedicated to scores such as El Pelele in the Suite for Piano entitled Goyescas.
Settled in Paris, he made Granados' creations known to the public in the French capital, including an
article about the Spanish composer, published in the Parisian magazine La Revue Musicale in January
1913.

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Fig. 3: Enrique Montoriol-Tarrés

(Drawing, about 1900-1906 © Hermenegildo Anglada i Camarasa)

The moment of Enrique Montoriol-Tarrés' meeting with George Enescu evoked by Neculcea
could have taken place in 1913 or 1914, when the Spanish pianist, with the help of critic Emille
Vuillermoz, would have made possible a concert entirely dedicated to Granados' creation (on April 4,
1914), organized by Société Musicale Indépendante in Paris. It is important to note that both the founders
of the society – Gabriel Fauré, Maurice Ravel, Charles Koechlin, Florent Schmitt, and the critic
mentioned above were professors and colleagues of George Enescu. Obviously, things are related,
despite the limited information and their corroboration is essential, however, for the recovery of past
events, especially when referring to George Enescu. Returning to C. Frank's Sonata, it was composed in
1886 as a wedding gift for violinist Eugène Ysaÿe, but it became a piece de resistance in George Enescu's
repertoire. As far as we knew, he played it before 1900 in princess Bibescu's salon in Paris, where Proust
would have listened to her in Enescu's interpretation, a fact recounted in his novel, In Search of Lost
Time. Then there are noted other recitals in Paris, where he performed C. Frank's Sonata with Paul
Goldschmidt (15 and 19 April 1913) and in Bilbao – Spain, with Maurice Dumesnil (12 January 1914).
From this perspective, it could certainly be presented to Montoriol Tarrés at that time.

Fig. 4: George Enescu, violinist (MNGE Archive)

Another memory evoked in the letter is related to the concerts during the Great War, when
Neculcea and Enescu met again in Bucharest and Iași, "in my house in Carol Street where the
representatives of the French military mission came to admire you, with Marioara Ventura, Barozzi... "
(Neculcea). The concerts held by George Enescu in the company of Romanian musicians during the
terrible period of the First World War are well known, and here, considered memorable by one of the
witnesses.
Last but not least, it is worth noting the testimony of the admiration and attention shown by the
Royal House of Romania to George Enescu, with whom, moreover, the author begins his letter. Queen
Mary's article about the fulfillment of the "50 springs" of the Romanian musician had been read by
Eugeniu Neculcea, on which occasion he considered it opportune to send him "some small common
memories about our young women" (Neculcea).
We are glad that he had this initiative, because it constitutes on the one hand – a new proof of
the connection between two people of culture, and on the other hand – a reason to investigate more
closely certain aspects of the musician's life. Dated Paris, October 22, 90 years ago, written in French,
the letter ends with the following passage: "This will remind you of [...] the first young woman and I

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will prove that Moldovans, [...] when they have common memories, and tell them, thus strengthening -
to say the least - their sincere friendship, a friendship that, in my case, is doubled by an admiration and
unseen. " (Neculcea).

ENESCU-MOTĂȘ

On the occasion of his 65th birthday, George Enescu was congratulated by numerous personalities,
including Constantin Motăș and Romanian biologist, university professor, and taxonomist of
international prestige, considered the founder of freato-biology.

Fig. 5: Constantin Motăș

Born on July 8, 1891, in Vaslui, he was one of those who greeted the musician on the occasion
of his anniversary on August 19, 1946, addressing him the following wishes through a telegram, in
Sinaia: "Many and fruitful years for the everlasting glory of Romanian music! The Motăș family and
Professor Motăș".

Fig. 6: Telegram from C. Motăș to George Enescu, 19 Aug. 1946

We find out, therefore, that in George Enescu's entourage there was also a Romanian scholar
with complex studies in Romania and France, who obtained a bachelor's degree at the Institute of
Pisciculture and Hydrobiology in Grenoble in 1926 and his PhD in Biological Sciences at the University
of the same city, two years later. Returning to the country in 1937, Constantin Motăș became a tenured
professor at the Faculty of Scientific Studies of the University of Iași, then at the Faculty of Science of
the University of Bucharest, subsequently occupying various other functions of management. We recall
the management of the Museum of Natural Sciences in Iași (1937-1940), the Marine Zoological Station
in Agigea-Constanta (1937-1940), the Zoological Station in Sinaia (1940-1957) and the "Grigore
Antipa" Museum of Natural History in Bucharest (1944). After tough years of political imprisonment
(1949-1956) – dictated by the political leadership of the time, Constantin Motăș was rehabilitated, being
appointed Director of the Institute of Speleology "Emil Racoviță" in Bucharest. After two years (1958),
he was assigned the quality of full member of the Romanian Academy, and until his death (January
1980, Bucharest) he presented his research in numerous international and national societies of
hydrobiology, limnology, freato-biology, speleology, ecology, a.s.o.
The common point of the two personalities of the Romanian culture and science, Enescu – Motăș,
seems to have been Sinaia. Villa "Luminiş"– the house built by the musician at the foot of the Carpathians–
is also the place where a work of fine art signed by Constantin Motăș, dated 1944, is kept. An amateur
passionate about painting, he made the portrait of the composer who can still be admired today the walls
of the living room of the villa. It is an expressive composition, in charcoal, which immortalizes George
Enescu at the age of 63. Working as director of the Sinaia Zoological State between 1940-1957, it is
assumed that C. Motăș was the guest of George Enescu at the Villa "Luminiș" during this time, leaving as
a memory a portrait completed two years before the final departure from the country of the maestro.

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Fig. 7: Charcoal portrait by C. Motăș, 1944

In the absence of other testimonies, a portrait from 1944 and a telegram from 1946 – both
cultural assets from the patrimony of the "George Enescu" National Museum – attest to the friendship
of two important academics, Enescu-Motăș, connects their names to the city of Sinaia, while creating a
bridge between Romanian music and science.

FERNAND HALPHEN TO GEORGE ENESCU

The last two names presented in this paper are, as I said, of some musicians who knew George Enescu.
The first is Fernand Halphen. There are two letters in the MNGE Archive signed by him, both addressed
to the Romanian musician. It is known that George Enescu was a colleague of F. Halphen during his 4
years at the Conservatoire de Paris (1895-1899). A French composer born in 1872, who became a friend
of George Enescu despite the age difference, Fernand Halphen remained the sender of short epistles
from which today we can find out directly not only the feelings of camaraderie that connected the two,
but even some interesting adjacent information.

Fig. 8: Fernand Halphen, letter, 23 May 1897 (Arhiva MNGE)

This is the case of the meeting of the young Romanian musician with Gustave Lyon (1857-
1936), the director of the Pleyel instruments factory in Paris, acoustician and renowned instruments
builder. Appearing to be the intermediary of one of these meetings, Fernand Halphen wrote to George
Enescu on May 23, 1897: "My dear friend, nothing could make me happier than the story of your
meeting. I was convinced that you would pique Mr Lyon's interest. I wrote to him to thank him." The
interest was probably mutual, if we consider that, later, George Enescu dedicated to Gustave Lyon
Concert Allegro for chromatic harp, composed in 1904 as a competition repertory piece for the Paris
Conservatory. And coincidentally or not, in his home in Paris Enescu had a Pleyel piano that today is in
the museum's patrimony.

Fig. 9: Gustave Lyon

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Fig. 10: Allegro de concert pentru harpă cromatică by G. Enescu;

Cover of the score, with dedicated to Gustave Lyon

Five years later, in 1909, Fernand sent George Enescu an invitation to lunch, written on musical
notes.

Fig. 11: Fernand Halphen, letter, 17 February 1909 (Arhiva MNGE)

A joke between two musician friends, fondly kept by its recipient... Despite the busy agendas
of that period, of George Enescu's busy concert life, both composers kept in touch, as can be seen in
some of the situations recorded in the press articles of 1910.

Fig. 12: George Enescu, aprox. 1909 (Arhiva MNGE)

George Enescu – as a violinist, accompanied on piano by his colleague, performed on April 1st,
in a private matinee organized by Mrs. Willy Blumenthal, Fernand Halphen's Sonata for violin and
piano. As a rematch, Enescu’s Octet received a presentation due to Geloso and Chailley Quartets in the
Parisian salon of the Halphens, on May 8.

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Fig. 13: Fernand Halphen, oil on canvas, by Auguste Renoir.

©RMN – Grand Palais (Musée d' Orsay)/ René Gabriel Ojéda

Even 9 years older, coming from a family with a significant material situation (which is why
the Orsay Museum in Paris still preserves today a portrait of the little Fernand commissioned by the
parents to the painter August Renoir, in 1880), the two musicians had as common points the same
teachers and colleagues at the Paris Conservatory, but especially the passion for music, manifested even
during the First World War. Like George Enescu, Fernand Halphen tried to mitigate the impact of horrors
on the front, appealing to amateur musicians whom he organized in an orchestra with which he
performed between 1914-1917 in France.
Put in the service of the homeland, Fernand Halphen's life came to an abrupt end, at just 45
years old, in 1917. And for this reason, the documents from the archive of the "George Enescu" National
Museum that keep the evidence of the friendship between the two musicians seem to us even more
valuable, deserving to be brought to the attention of the general public.

GEORGE ENESCU AND CLARA HASKIL

Finally, Enescu – Haskil: two names with a special resonance in the history of Romanian and universal
music; two personalities marked by genius, united by the same and great passion for music. Their
connection is brought to the fore through documents from the Archive of the "George Enescu" National
Museum, brought to light on the occasion of the publication of the volume George Enescu.
Correspondence – Vol. II, Editura Muzicală, București, 2020 edited by myself.
The destinies of the composer and of the pianist intersected, the latter "stepping" – symbolically
– in the footsteps of the master. Endowed with that fabulous musical memory and the ability to learn an
instrument without a teacher (violin), she studied also in Vienna, then at the Paris Conservatory, later
knowing that elite musical world, having joint stage partners, friends or even those and meccena. It is
difficult to say to what extent the few concerts given together with George Enescu over time, the few
direct (or indirect) correspondence sheets aimed at the two, the memories of third parties that place them
simultaneously on the same stage constitute the evidence of a close friendship, the fact is that without
significant admiration and mutual respect, these human and professionals would not have been preserved
over more than 3 decades.

First meetings
With a notable concert debut in Vienna and amazing chronicles at just 10 years old, Clara Haskil was
taken by her uncle to Paris, where she tried two years in a row, without success, to be admitted to the
piano classes of the Conservatory. However, following the preparatory ones of Mrs. Chéné, encouraged
by professors Joseph Morpain and Gabriel Fauré, she was admitted, in 1907, to the piano class of Alfred
Cortot, then in her first year of teaching. Clara Haskil graduated from the Conservatory with a "Premier
Prix" in 1910, when George Enescu was part of the jury (Haskil, 1992, p. 336).

Haskil sings Enescu

It is interesting to note that in 1911, Clara attended a recital (recorded in the press by E. D. Fagure, in
Adevărul, February 23, 1911) which included Pavana from the Suite for Piano Op. 10 by George Enescu
(finalized and awarded by the French magazine Musica in 1903, then published in 1904). This will
become one of the few Enescu creations included in the pianist's repertoire (along with the Third Sonata
for piano and violin op. 25, "in Romanian folk character" and the 3rd Sonata for solo piano in D major),
Clara not being – according to the confessions of her collaborators, confirmed by the titles in the
repertoire of concertos – too fond of modern music. How exactly she came into contact with suite op.
10, not tim tim, but the fact that Alfred Cortot, her piano teacher, was in the jury that awarded this Enescu
work the First Prize – may be a mere coincidence – or not.

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Fig. 14: Clara Haskil, photo – post card (arhiva MNGE)

Enescu, Haskil and the Royal House of Romania

And because we have proposed a survey of the "common points" between Enescu and Haskil, we note
the presence of both on the stage of the Romanian Athenaeum in 1909, a moment that marks the concert
debut of Clara in Romania. Both she (being 14 years old) and George Enescu (aged 28) played, in
different concerts, under the baton of Dimitrie Dinicu, the founder of the Orchestra of the Ministry of
Public Instruction in Romania: Haskil – in January, Enescu – in December. Moreover, it seems that the
cellist Dimitrie Dinicu presented Clara to Queen Elizabeth (Carmen Sylva – the protector of George
Enescu). The tradition would have continued, the pianist being then introduced by George Enescu and
his wife, Maruca, to the next sovereigns: Queen Mary and King Ferdinand (Cf. Curierul israelit, 19 Nov.
1922, cited by Jérôme Spycket in: Clara Haskil, Ed. Muzicală, București, 1987, pg. 336-337).

Mutual Meccenas: The Princess of Polignac and Queen Elisabeth of Belgium

If George Enescu has enjoyed a growing success in the French capital, he manages to assert himself both
as a composer and as a performer and conductor, about Clara Haskil cannot be said the same thing. For
her, Paris has always been a place she has repeatedly tried to conquer. The city didn't seem to be
favorable to her, either during her studies or afterwards. The scoliosis and inhumane treatments to which
she was subjected for a period of 4 years (1914-1918) at the sanatorium in Berk removed her from the
capital of France, where – once restored, she returned burdened by hard weights. She lived for a long
time her his protector, Uncle Abraham, who had (beyond his good intentions) a rather negative influence
on the pianist's psyche. After his death, Clara saw herself almost alone. But she enjoyed the friendship
of people who always remained loyal to her. Among them were several people who were also in George
Enescu's entourage: Winaretta Singer, Prince of Polignac and Elisabeth, Queen of Belgium.

Fig. 15: Winnaretta Singer, Princess de Polignac, self portrait in oil

The wife of Prince Edmond de Polignac – a French aristocrat, composer and meccena, the
director of the Singer sewing machine business, Winaretta Singer created with her husband an influential
artistic salon in Paris, which became the center of an effervescent cultural life that brought them together
in the early 1900s, some of the most important representatives of the arts: Proust, Cocteau, Monet,
Chabrier, d'Indy, Debussy, Fauré, Ravel, Stravinsky, Enescu and many others. A controversial figure,
however, she supported many artists, including, notably, Clara Haskil. Not having for a long time a home
of her own, Clara had become a constant presence of the Princess’ salons (sometimes referred to, in her
correspondence, as aunt),who not only housed her, but supported her, motivated her, put at her disposal
her pianos to study, traveled together to her various residences from Italy (Palazzo Contarini Polignac
in Veniceti) or Switzerland, giving her for years a comfortable monthly annuity to cover her various
expenses. Without having any other job other than that of a pianist, Clara Haskil went through extremely
difficult periods, the only sources of income being her concerts – not too numerous (in her youth, at
least). There were other friends who supported her financially in the difficult times, too (Mrs. Gelis, Mrs.
Desmarais), but the Prince of Polignac is distinguished by his circumstances and generosity.
Remaining in the sphere of patronages, it happens that in the house of George Enescu in
Meudon, where she settled after the First World War, Clara Haskil remembers that she met Elisabeth,

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Queen of Belgium. The situation is depicted with humor in one of the letters of the pianist who, at that
time, does not know who she is talking to, behaving very naturally even when Elizabeth invited her in
her car to leave together from Enescu. A violinist, but she is also a student and a good friend of the
maestro, the one accountable for the Belgian premiere of the opera Oedipe and one of the few friends
who were close to the musician in the years before the end, Elisabeth of Belgium is therefore also among
the protectors of Clara Haskil.

Fig. 16: Queen Elisabetth of Belgium

Enescu-Haskil Recitals
Over time, the direct collaboration between Clara Haskil and George Enescu resulted in several recitals
and joint concerts, held in Switzerland and France. The first occasion when the names of both musicians
were found on the same poster was a concert made up exclusively of Enescian creations. Next to a sonata
for piano and violin and the Quartet op. 22, no. 1, the program featured the Suite op. 10 by George
Enescu, performed by Clara Haskil. The concert took place in the Lausanne Conservatory Hall on 5
February 1921 (the date of the first audition of Enescu’s Quartet). Interestingly, Enescu introduced
himself to the public both as a pianist and as a violist – performing also the braccio part from his quartet.
1929 was the year of another Enescu-Haskil collaboration, this time playing together, at the
Salle des Agriculteurs in Paris, within a soiree of Romanian music organized by the Rotschild
Foundation. On that occasion, the two presented to the public the Sonata for Piano and Violin of the
composer Marcel Mihalovici. Becoming a close friend of George Enescu, Mihalovici was awarded the
"George Enescu" Composition Prize in 1919, 1921 and 1925, for the pieces: Nocturne for piano, Sonata
for piano and violin, Introduction et mouvement symphonique. In 1954, one year before his death,
George Enescu entrusted him with the last indications for the completion of the score of the Chamber
Symphony, op. 33.
Returning to George Enescu and Clara Haskil, we highlight a series of four recitals and concerts
held in1935, 1948 and 1952, supported by the two artists and consecrated to the two artists and
consecrated to the two artists, scattered in three different decades of the 1900s, they remained true
landmarks in the international musical life.
On 8 February 1935, in Vevey (Switzerland), they performed Sonata No. 1, op. 78 by Johannes
Brahms. Three days later, on February 11, 1935, in Geneva (Switzerland), George Enescu and Clara
Haskil presented to the public, among others, the creations by Schumann (Sonata no. 2, op. 121) and
Enescu (Sonata no. 3, op. 25, "in Romanian folk character").

Fig. 17: Poster of the Geneva recital, 11 Feb. 1935 (MNGE archive)

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The events were echoed in the press of the time. Messager of Montreux note on February 13,
1935:
"The recital given on Friday in front of a full and vibrant hall was a real
delight. Brahms, Schumann, Beethoven at the encore were played with that
thrilling perfection that creates life and beauty. As for the technical value of
these two artists – which is transcendent – the interesting and acrobatic
Sonata in A minor by Enescu, we are shown the indisputable value of these
two greats and attractive Romanian virtuosos" (L.V.F.). Regarding the same
event, Charles Koella wrote in the Gazette de Lausanne, on February 12,
1935: "One of the most magnificent concerts of the season (...) No word could
express the emotion that engulfed us listening to Adagio from Schumann's
Sonata in D minor under the fingers of these two Romanians equal through
genius, through the deep sense of music, through the incomparable beauty of
the performance" (Haskil, p. 317)

A few months after these two concerts, Clara sent Enescu, on June 5, 1935, a card signed by
her and her close friend, the Swiss composer and pianist E. R. Blanchet, in which she wondered when
they would play the master's sonata together.

Fig. 18: Card adressed to G. Enescu by Clara Haskil & E. R. Blanchet,

5 June 1935 (MNGE archive)

Even if this did not happened, fate will bring back together the two Romanian musicians in
1948, when, on October 8th, the same Swiss city Vevey hosted a new recital of sonatas for violin and
piano by Mozart, Bach, Beethoven and Brahms in the performance of the duo Enescu-Haskil. In the
Gazette de Lausanne of October 12, 1948, it is mentioned: "Never before has Romania made us such a
great gift. For two hours the very numerous auditors– there was no free place – experienced a state of
mind full of exaltation (...) The success of the two artists reached its maximum when they performed in
the encore, in a fusion of two souls and two voices, the admirable Andante in Beethoven's Ninth Sonata".
(Clara Haskil, A life given to music, p. 323). The event was also described by Madeleine Lipatti, the
wife of pianist Dinu Lipatti, who said: "With Enescu it was not only a musical collaboration, it was the
same spring that erupts, the same breath that animates them, that same blood that gave life to music. I
then had a vision of paradise." (in an interview for Radio Cologne, December 5, 1965, quoted in the
volume Clara Haskil, A life given to music, p. 183).
The last concert of the two was held on June 19, 1952, in Strasbourg, in France, where Clara
Haskil performed Concerto no. 4 by L. van Beethoven, with George Enescu at the conductor's desk.
Dernières nouvelles d'Alsace of 21 July 1952 recounts this fact under the title "Symphonic Concerto

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conducted by Mr. George Enescu", and Carrefour – in his article entitled "The Great Stays of
Strasbourg" signal the performance of the two artists in terms of elogio.

Fig. 19: George Enescu and Clara Haskil after the 1952 concert (MNGE archive)

It was one of the significant concerts held in the last years of the composer's life, seemingly
tireless, particularly active musically, but reaching an advanced age – 71 years. Enjoying, late, a well-
deserved appreciation, Clara Haskil (herself being 57) was engaged in numerous concert events,
exhausting. Knowing a continuous ascent, she collaborated with great performers, conductors,
performing both in Europe and in America. A trivial accident, which occurred on December 7, 1960,
suddenly ended a life and activity put in the service of music, leaving, like the great spirits, a great void
in its wake. We are glad to remember these few common aspects of the biography of the two Romanian
musicians: Clara Haskil and George Enescu, illustrated through the prism of the documents from the
MNGE archive.
So far, a lot has been written about George Enescu and it is difficult to reveal new things about
him. However, some of the documents from the institution's archive manage even today to highlight less
known aspects of the musician's life. Thus, the personality of the creator takes a firmer shape, sketched
by those who have been with him fora while, their testimonies becoming important. World-renowned
historians, scholars, composers or performers – the four signatories of the corresponding pages
mentioned above have established themselves as leading personalities in their own fields of activity. It
is a proof of the type of people who were part of the musician's entourage, of the fact that he was
appreciated not only by his colleagues, but also by various other personalities of the Romanian culture
and society. All noticed the human and professional qualities of George Enescu, highlighting them in
the pages of the cited correspondence. We hope that their presentation at this symposium, revealing them
from the archive in which they are kept, will have achieved its purpose stated above.

BILIOGRAPHY:
***. (1917, iunie 17). La musique pendant la guerre: revue musicale mensuelle. (9b).
***. (n.d.). Academician Constantin C. Motăș. Retrieved iunie 29, 2020, from www.familiamotas.ro
***. (n.d.). Constantin Motăș. Retrieved iunie 29, 2020, from http://150.uaic.ro/personalitati/biologie/constantin-
motas/?lang=en
***. (n.d.). Dr.Constantin Motăș. Retrieved iunie 29, 2020, from https://antipa.ro/personalitati/dr-constantin-motas/
Enescu, G. (2020). Corespondență (Vol. II). (I. Nițu, Ed.) București: Editura Muzicală.
Florinela Popa, Camelia Anca Sârbu. (2009). Documente din arhiva MNGE (Vol. II). București: Editura Muzicală.
Haskil, C. (1992). O viață dăruită muzicii. București: Editura Muzicală.
S. Cărăușu, D. Cărăușu, V. Cărăușu. (1976). Scrieri asupra vietii si operei profesorului Constantin Motas. Studii și
comunicări, revista științifică a Complexului Muzeal de Științele Naturii. Retrieved from Studii și.
Spycket, J. (1987). Clara Haskil. București: Ed. Muzicală.

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 EDUARD CAUDELLA – TEACHER AND COMPOSER
180 YEARS SINCE HIS BIRTH
PROF.DR. DALIA RUSU-PERSIC, PH.D.

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF ARTS „GEORGE ENESCU” YASSY

ABSTRACT: A musician known for his multilateral work as a violin

teacher, composer, conductor, and music critic, Eduard Caudella
remained in our consciousness through the gesture of spiritual nobility
when meeting a genius child of only 5 years – George Enescu, who takes
directed the steps towards the high hierarchy of the Viennese school,
supporting him from the shadows in the artistic activities of over the
years.
Together with Gavriil Musicescu, Pietro and Enrico Mezzetti and
others, Caudella imprints a dynamic breath creating a new stage of
composition and a new stylistic trend in Romanian music. The lack of
enthusiasm and trust of the officials for the musical life of Yassy,
fortunately, did not minimize the momentum of the composers, who
believed in the destinies of the local music, in its future, as we will try to
prove in the current study.

KEYWORDS: 19TH CENTURY, HISTORICAL CONTEXT, YASSY, CAUDELLA

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The first half of the 19th century is the epoch in which the Romanian musical culture is
established in a Western European spirit. After long and tyrannical domination of Eastern art, the first
attempts in this regard are timid, but they reflect the need for artists to assimilate the Western culture
and assert national specificity. The process took place in very difficult political conditions, because the
Ottoman suzerainty, the Phanariot rulers, the Russian and Austrian occupations left their mark on the
secular musical repertoire.
The cultural mutation of the mid-nineteenth century can only be explained by considering a few
phenomena that coexisted, resisting for a long time in the background. We refer first to the constant
influence of Polish Catholicism (Pascu & Boțocan, 1997, p. 16)1 and the insertion of German
Protestantism (Schola Latina de la Cotnari, 1563). To the same extent, the neighboring Russian culture
became from the beginning of the XVIII century (1711 – the visit of Tsar Peter I to Yassy) the way of
penetration of the cult European music. Another role is played by French and Italian emigrants settled
in Yassy after 1800 (and as a result of the terror of the French Revolution), among them trained
musicians, some becoming music teachers in the great boyar houses. Thus, in 1835, when „at the royal
court of Mihai Sturza, everyone spoke French”, according to the mentioned source, the Mihăilean
Academy was founded, the first higher education institution. At a general level, the importance of the
geographical position of Yassy and its historical evolution in this spectacular assimilation of the
European culture is recognized. Being located at the crossroads leading from West to East, Yassy was
visited by countless musicians, theater, and opera troupes and its quality of capital during three centuries
(1564-1862) favored economic and cultural growth, the formation of a class of enlightened boyars. Thus,
in the first half of the 19th century, Yassy had a cultured society that valued music, already developing a
concert life.
The decisive influence is related to the successive periods of Russian administration 2, the
Russo-Turkish war of 1769-1774, bringing the first forms of Western life previously assimilated by the
society of St. Petersburg. Under the next Russian occupation (1806-1812), in the high sphere of the
Romanian society, the „worldly life” begins to manifest, the royal court and the great nobility adopting

1
„The Polish Catholic influence, through the Jesuit school, was beneficial for us preparing the appearance of the great chroniclers
Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Ion Neculce, and through the emphasis on teaching, an elite of highly cultured people was formed
in Yassy”
2
European Russian culture spread in Iasi society and due to several periods of Russian military rule: September 1769-January
1775; October 1788-March 1792; November 1806-May 1812; April 1828-April 1834, see
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lista_domnilor_Moldovei#Secolul_al_XVIII-lea

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the way and forms of life from the western states. During the ceremonies offered by the Russian generals,
balls, and dancing evenings, the taste of the high society is transformed, both in terms of clothing and
manners, as well as regarding the reception of another type of dance or ambient music.
During the reign of Mihail Sturdza (1834-1849), the worldly life of Yassy will be brilliant. To
his residence in the Rosetti-Roznovanu Palace, where sumptuous balls were organized, are added the
artistic salons opened by the great boyars of the time: Cantacuzino, Mavrocordat, Rosetti, Ghika, Catargi,
Moruzzi, Mavrogheni, Callimachi, Balş, Conache, Pogor, and others. a.
Salon music3, as a widespread practice in nineteenth-century European society, had special
merits in promoting local performers, the salon being the scene of the first amateur instrumentalists
(Ermiona Asachi, Smaranda Şaptesate, Eufrosina Lăţescu, for example) and future musicians
professionals such as Alexandru Flechtenmacher, Gheorghe and Teodor T. Burada, Eduard Caudella and
others. The genres of this compositional category can be associated with those practiced in European
ballroom music, constituting dances (polkas, waltzes, minuets, gavottes, etc.), potpourri (dance and song
suites), vocal miniatures (songs, romances, patriotic hymns).

EDUARD CAUDELLA – BRIEF PORTRAIT OF ACTIVITY

The most representative contributions in the field of composition in this historical stage of the
development of Yassy music are due to Eduard Caudella. Together with Gavriil Musicescu, Pietro and
Enrico Mezzetti, and others, Caudella imprints a dynamic breath creating a new stage of composition
and a new stylistic trend in Romanian music. The lack of enthusiasm and trust of the officials for the
musical life of Yassy, fortunately, did not minimize the momentum of the composers, who believe in
the destinies of the local music, in its future.
Although Eduard Caudella (1841-1924) was a versatile musician in performance, a violinist,
but also a pianist with an exceptional technical basis, in terms of courses with great personalities from
abroad (Henri Vieuxtemps, Hubert Riess, Delphin Allard) and with well-known artists in the house of
his father, Francisc Serafim Caudella, the composer drew a piece of music inspired by folk singing, in
which European stylistic elements intersect, as a result of his studies in Berlin, Frankfurt, and Paris. He
starts by composing piano pieces, then diversifies his sphere of interest, reaching most musical genres,
being attracted by vocal music, from songs, which are the basis of Romanian lied, to music for theater
and opera, defining this genre. musical by the first Romanian opera - Opera Petru Rareș - 1889. Also,
from chamber instrumental works to waltzes and orchestral potpourri, culminating with the National
Overture of Moldova (1912), in which classical symphonic patterns can be glimpsed. In Eduard
Caudella, positioned chronologically later as a period of composition compared to those mentioned
above, the works are more elaborate, more mature in composition, with a special expressiveness in songs,
in which European stylistic elements intersect.
His collaboration with the National Theater should also be mentioned, as a conductor and
orchestra arranger, many of these vaudeville arrangements being found in the collections of the Library
of the „George Enescu” University of Arts in Yassy. I must also emphasize his side as a music critic,
manifested in the chronicles published in the newspapers of the time towards the end of his life, as well
as a supporter of cultural-musical events held in Yassy, but also other cities in the country.
Another perspective of his personality is that of the director and conductor. In the period 1861-
1901, Eduard Caudella is among the professors of the Conservatory of Yassy, an institution he will lead
as director between 1893-1901.
The musician's contribution to the rescue of the Yassy Conservatory from its dissolution in
1876 is well known, one of the measures being the initiation of chamber music matinees, in which the
first instrumental bands were also established. Another measure he gradually developed was the
organization of the Conservatory Orchestra (p. 33)4 so that in 1894 the first concert of the ensemble took
place. Under his baton, accumulating increasingly advanced repertoires, the symphonic ensemble
exceeds the level of annual school productions, holding symphonic concerts proper. The repertoire
contained the works of the great European composers, but also creations of the representatives of the
young national composition school.
Of a particular peculiarity, however, remained in the consciousness of Romanians the gesture
of spiritual nobility of Professor Eduard Caudella (1841-1924), when he met a child of genius only 5
years old, in 1886 (Cozmei, 2008, p. 34). Caudella overcame any individualistic, selfish, personal
training pedagogical ambitions. In only two artistic meetings, the teacher from Yassy felt that he had to
take the „revealing step” of pedagogical renunciation in the country, for the good of our musical history.

3
In-depth research of the author dedicated to the Salon Music in the article: Salon music in Nineteenth-Century Yassy, in
„Musicology Today” no. 4/ 2019, cf.: http://www.musicologytoday.ro/40/studies5.php
4
According to the book section: 160 de ani de învățământ artistic modern la Iași, partea I, 1830-1950, coord. Aurelian Bălăiță,
(Chapter Musical Arts, authors: Laura Vasiliu, Carmen Chelaru și Dalia Rusu-Persic), Iași, Editura Artes, 2020.

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Gaining a thorough pedagogical experience for his time and especially for the culture of Yassy, he had
the strength to give up the retention of the brilliant disciple and to guide the child and parents to Vienna,
an European music center according to the demands of that mini artist's education.

THE CULTURAL-HISTORICAL DYNAMICS OF CAUDELLA'S COMPOSITIONS

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the problem of the stage of development of the composition
was the constant concern of music magazines. The authors were dissatisfied with the dynamism of the
development of sound art in our country, alarmed by the numerous causes that hindered the evolution of
this art in Romanian society. The fact that from high words with a general patriotic substratum we reach
problems of content, quality, and level fully demonstrates that we are in a higher phase. Bucharest in
particular appears to be organically integrated into the international music network, with numerous
exchanges of performers. In Yassy also, this exchange of performers was emancipated, especially in the
field of the concert stage. Here the emancipation of the music-loving public and the appearance of a
pleiad of local composers eager to impose the original professional creation intervene. These result in
the intolerance of the qualitative deficiencies existing in the musical sphere and the adoption of a critical
attitude that pleads for itself for the maturation of the artistic field.
During the birth of the national musical theater, when Ioan Andrei Wachmann 5 wrote the opera
Braconierii, Ludovic Wiest composed the ballet Doamna de aur, George Stephănescu6 partially wrote
the operas Brâncoveanu and Petra, and Mauriciu Cohen-Lânariu did his lyrical essays, the operas
Mazeppa, În ajunul nunții and Insula florilor, less known, as well as Meșterul Manole, work in three
acts on his libretto, Eduard Caudella focuses on the fundamental moments of the existence of the
Romanian people with a general orientation towards national values, stated in the works Harță Răzeșul
(1872) and Olteanca (1880) and demonstrates the influence of lied and romantic romance in the work
Hatmanul Baltag (1884). The composer focuses the action on the feeling of love in Beizadea
Epaminonda (1885), in which Zamfir and Zinca overcome all obstacles to be happy, outlines the conflict
between peasants and boyars in the opera Fata Răzeșului (1872), using authentic folk quotes.
The full synthesis of Eduard Caudella's achievements, the most important on the artistic level,
is found in the historical drama on the national subject - the musical piece Petru Rareș, which will have
a strong echo in posterity and through which the composer defines himself, acquiring his own identity.
This work reflects the psychological specifics of the Romanian people, the semantic accents being placed
on the struggle for existence, justice, and freedom. The opera benefited from a modern style for the time
of its composition, which was reproached in the chronicles of the premiere. The patriotic message of the
opera is played with force of conviction in the large mass scenes, in the songs that express the love of
freedom of the people. The declamatory recitative, handled with compositional skill, binds the musical
numbers and ensures the unity of the score. Diversity of forms used - ballad, dramatic monologue, aria,
arioso, glass song; the role given to the vocal ensembles denotes the mastery of the compositional craft,
of the means of expression specific to the genre.
The elementary condition of the affirmation of Romanian professional music was the
demonstration of its existence. The discouraging attitude of the officials played a decisive role in the
process of creating original music. The interest in the opera Petru Rareș by Eduard Caudella, cataloged
by current musicology as the first Romanian opera, was one of indifference, as mentioned by C.M.
Cordoneanu, in 1900 (no. 19, November 15/28): „Petru Rareș, Romanian opera, with a national
historical subject, this is indeed an artistic event of the greatest importance for our country. What pride
it would have been for other nations, for such an event! But what indifference in our first social strata,
because they did not even come out of curiosity to hear this work, for which no one would have forced
them to applaud or get excited! Our elite went to the German operetta as if for them there was no
Romanian opera” (Cosma O. L., 1976, p. 309).
Along the same lines, it is demonstrated how, in an unworthy way, an attempt will be made to
minimize Caudella's personality, without giving it due importance. The reflection in time, at the current
level, regarding the „debut” of the composer7, only in 1900 (art. Petru Rareș, without author, in Timpul
Journal, Bucharest, November 5), he was present in the chamber or stage repertoires since 1880: „Mr.
Caudella makes his debut, but he makes his debut as a master. Where? In a country where the means
and the environment for the formation of a composer are also missing...” (Cosma O. L., 1976, p. 309).
Although „he is a talented musician, both in performance and in his compositions, which are
not without charm”, as Mihai Eminescu mentions in the article Romanian Theater and its repertoire, in

5
In 1835, Ioan Andrei Wachmann initiated music education in Bucharest School of Vocal and Instrumental Music. On the initiative
of Ioan Andrei Wachmann and Ludovic Wiest, on December 17, 1851, the Bucharest Conservatory of Music was established,
whose director was appointed. Between 1852 and 1858 he was director of the National Theater in Bucharest.
6
He was the initiator of opera performances in Romanian and the founder of three lyrical societies preceding the Romanian Opera.
7
Reference to the premiere of the Opera Petru Rareș, November 2, 1900.

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Familia (18/30 January 1870), the interest was manifested by opposite attitudes, a kind of campaign to
compromise the original works, which may have exceeded the audience segment formed by the lower
society: „A national opera like Petru Rareș by Ed. Caudella, after repeated postponements, was
systematically boycotted by the so-called «high society»” (Cosma O. L., 1976, p. 309).
Musical life was not very demanding with the original compositions included in the repertoire
and, hence an ambiance too unfavorable to the creative competition, the confrontation of creative ideas.
There was no concern for quality, the composers not being supported by the musical institutions of that
time nor by music criticism. Subsequent musicology perceived the musical creation of that time as being
subject to the less evolved taste of the masses. For many, Romanian music was reduced to
„pseudocompositions of music, light, quasi-folk, launched by music publishers. The gray of these pieces,
the sentimental banality, the bad taste made to accredit the conception that this is our music, which, let's
face it, compared to the universal compositions - works, symphonies - to which it was related, could not
make a favorable impression” (Cosma O. L., 1976, p. 310). The authors of romances, waltzes, sârbe8,
doine9 and choruses „published in series by the publishers Gebauer et Comp.” were considered great
composers (Cosma O. L., 1976, p. 310).
Against this background, the magazines were acid in lawsuits, especially Musical Romania
Magazine, which was recorded in 1898 (no. 11, June 1, 1898, pp. 97-98), the lack of originality of
Caudella's works, in the context of promoting or not the works his: “Mr. Eduard Caudella, whom
Adevărul mentions first, although as in the works we only know Petru Rareș - and this of course, from
the Yassy newspapers […]. If she [Dsa]10 can occupy a place in the history of music in our country, he
is the author - in collaboration with Otremba - of the Romanian comic opera: Olteanca, whose music is
lacking in originality, being accommodated after all foreign operas and operettas. Dsa also worked on
the music of the operettas Hatmanul Baltag and Beizadea Epaminonda, which were not successful and
which Adevărul Magazine does not even hear mentioning - as about Olteanca - because it does not make
the slightest mention” (Roșca, 1987, pp. 195-196).
The taste of the public, of symphonic music lovers, of opera lovers, and chamber music was
not effectively emancipated either, but often acted negatively on the local compositional preoccupations,
from the opposite direction. Thus, if a composition reflected a more evolved musical language, closer to
the contemporary Western, although it did not yet resort to Wagnerian chromaticism or Franckian
symphony, but had certain reverberations identifiable in the creation of Schumann, Weber, Berlioz, Liszt
from rhapsodies, he was considered too bold, too advanced: „In a disguised form, Caudella is reproached,
for the music of Petru Rareș, that compared to the era in which the action takes place, music is too
modern. In this way, the direct opinion is expressed about the style of the work in which modulations,
diminished seventh chords, ninth chords, delays, etc. are encountered” (Cosma O. L., 1976, p. 311).
Of course, the assimilation of classical forms, starting from choral musical genres to symphony
and opera, as well as micro-structures starting from the phrase to the sonata form, was in the process of
being recognized in the creations of the time, with more or fewer examples. punctual: in choral music
the strophic form dominated, reaching as a genre the vocal-symphonic and operetta, in orchestral music
the genre of the overture was outlined, with successive structures of moments, with motives treated
developer, even pure symphony in the incipient form11.
The experience of conductor of the National Theater orchestra makes it appropriate and natural
for Caudella to lean towards more complex forms of the lyrical genre, thus, after 1882 to 1898, he
composed two works of romantic influence, the operas Dorman or Romanii şi Dacii, in which he uses
the French Grand Opera model and opera Petru Rareș. Both are focused on the "national foundation of
musical substance" (Cosma O. L., 1976, p. 519) while retaining the influence of European music. The
historical past, perceived in a patriotic spirit, was the source of inspiration and their thematic substance.
On the other hand, a voice present at the premiere of the opera Beizadea Epaminonda, from
1885, categorized the work as „dry music” (Maiorescu, p. 292). This remark was not one of a specialist,
but of a man of letters – Titu Maiorescu, who looked at everything in the context indicated above,
probably this work did not shine at all compared to the previous compositions signed by Caudella.
The musicological perspective of the twentieth century already looks more relaxed and
appreciates the consistency of the melodic substratum, of the composition technique, with appreciations,
but also reservations about maintaining the title in the stage repertoire: „due to some emotional songs,
their ingenious attire, the supple treatment of the voices (including the choir). [...] What is not capitalized

8
Romanian folk game with binary rhythm, which is danced in a semicircle formation, with arms on shoulders, with lively, fast
development, in detour or on the spot, with jumped or crossed steps.
9
The doina is a specifically Romanian vocal and instrumental genre in which the unknown author expresses directly the feeling
of longing, lament, alienation, revolt, sadness, love. It is inspired by the life of the Romanian people, reflecting the communion
between man and nature, the attitude towards life and death, towards the passage of time.
10
Probably Mr. (himself, the use of the feminine is unitary throughout the article).
11
In 1869, George Stephănescu composed the first Romanian symphony.

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on according to the motivation provided by the subject is the popular melody, which does not reach the
proportions of the Laughter Girl. For this reason, the sound substance of the work, described by T.
Maiorescu, laconic and without comments, as «dry music» cannot be appreciated without serious
reservations” (Cosma O. L., 1976, pg. 490-491).

CONCLUSION

The taste of the public and the critics had changed. The second half of the nineteenth century opened the
horizon of our intellectuals to the evolved forms of Western literature and music. The early comic genres
were fading, and the inclination towards national music takes on other dimensions.
The recognition of folklore as an intrinsic poetic-musical value generated a refreshment for the
Romanian compositional environment. The problem of capitalizing the verse and the popular song in
the cult creation was imposed, triggering a wide effervescence in the sphere of the principles of collection
and transposition, which was decisive for the musical composition. The beginning is modest in our
country, referring to the advanced state of taking over this fund in Western culture or by Russian
composers.
This new pulsation will reach maturity only in the first half of the twentieth century, through
the national school of composition supported by George Enescu, the creator of the Romanian musical
style of universal circulation; but the forerunner Eduard Caudella contributed substantially to the
development of local heritage in the second half of the nineteenth century. His compositional
preoccupations were oriented towards what the musician considered to be able to correspond so much
to the “national specific” phrase: miniature for piano, pieces for voice and piano, concerto for violin and
orchestra, piano quartet, opera with a historical subject.
Everything that Eduard Caudella created fully illustrates the assiduous effort to consolidate a
new style, which would emanate more strongly the Romanian specificity compared to what was used
until then. There are small compositions, miniatures, and cycles of miniatures with different characters:
occasional entertainment music, improvisations in which stylized folk intonations appear, larger
programmatic works, transcriptions of his orchestral creations, a convincing ensemble regarding the
Romanian composer's attempt to overcome the limits of the epoch, in the longing for what had not yet
been defined, namely, the right genre for Romanian music to “have a voice” in an international context,
to shape its own identity; an identity that today, after 180 years from its birth, perhaps would not have
the same substance, the same qualitative and quantitative compositional values, would not have had an
Enescu of the size we know.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

***. (n.d.). Lista domnilor Moldovei Secolul al XVIII-lea. Retrieved from Wikipedia:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lista_domnilor_Moldovei#Secolul_al_XVIII-lea
Cosma, O. L. (1976). Hronicul muzicii românești, vol. IV: Romantismul (1859-1898). Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.
Cosma, V. (1989.). Muzicieni din România: Lexicon biobibliografic (Vols. I (A-C)). Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.
Cozmei, M. (2008). George Enescu în viața muzicală a Iașului. Yassy: Editura Artes.
Laura Vasiliu, Carmen Chelaru, Dalia Rusu-Persic. (2020). Arte muzicale. In ***, & c. A. Bălăiță (Ed.), 160 de ani
de învățământ artistic modern la Iași, partea I, 1830-1950 (p. 33). Yassy: Editura Artes.
Maiorescu, T. (***). Însemnările anului 1885. Însemnări zilnice (Vol. II). Bucharest: Editura Librăriei Socec & Co.
Pascu, G., & Boțocan, M. (1997). The Chronicle of Iași Music. Yassy: Nőel Publishing House.
Roșca, I. I. (1987). De prin Bucuresci: Muzica la sfârșit și început de secol 1882-1904. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.
Studii. (2019). Retrieved from Musicology Today: http://www.musicologytoday.ro/40/studies5.php.

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IN THE YEARS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR
PROF.DR. VASILE VASILE, PH.D.

ROMANIAN COMPOSERS AND MUSICOLOGISTS’ SOCIETY

ABSTRACT: It is known that one of the most eloquent evidences of

patriotism of the most honest essence, proven by Enescu throughout his
life, is the fact that in times of restraint for our people he chose to stay
in his country with his own people, despite the fact that he could and
were offered places protected by the ordeal of the two world
conflagrations. One could speak of an excess of the repetation of this
truth, without investigating its concrete data, which not only support the
statement but complement the human personality of the great artist of
the 20th century – the century, who has repeatedly stated that artists are
apostles of peace.

KEYWORDS: FIRST WORLD WAR, YASSY, ACADEMY OF MUSIC

THE MOST eloquent confirmation of these assertions is given to us by Enescu's work in Yassy in the
years of the First World War. I was drawn to the subject from both directions. First of all, the desire to
investigate the human amplitude of the genius artist, reconfirmed by the complex activity carried out in
the First World War, when the city temporarily resumes its status as the capital of not only Moldova, but
Romania, occupied mostly by German troops who could not defeat the sacrifices of Mărăști, Mărășeşti
and Oituz and over which the revenge invaders could not cross, establishing here the temporal border of
Romania, which will become, at the end of the terrible slaughter, Greater Romania. On the other hand –
the attachment of the fighters, simple people who gave their chests to the bullets and shells of General
Makensen – who stated that „the army Romanian had risen from its ashes like the Phoenix bird” – was
matched by sui generis cultural acts hosted by the former Moldovan capital and led by George Enescu.
This broad cultural life contradicted the old saying: Inter arma silent musae (Cicero: Pro Milone IV-10:
„Between arms the muses are silent”).
The painstaking and responsible investigation of archival funds provided me with the material
necessary for the study published in 1979, in the musicological volume devoted to the great events of
1948 and 1918 and then of an extensive work on Enescu's footsteps in Yassy and Tescani, in the process
of being finalized (Vasile, 1979, pg. 149-199).
As I will highlight below, George Enescu's work is an illustration of his own statement
regarding the five hypostases under which he presents himself: violinist, conductor, pianist, composer
and pedagogue, all these hypostases being evident in the complex work carried out in Yassy, during the
years of the terrible world. That last quality must be understood in terms of intensive work to improve
the violinists of the era, what might be called „master of masters”, in Yassy being granted the title of
honorary teacher, carrying out an intense activity of perfecting many Romanian violinists. But in Yassy
one can talk about a 6th position: organizer and animator (manager) of musical life, activity concreted in
the organization of the symphony orchestra that will bear his name and memorable symphonic stages,
here also the recognition of the status of honorary rector of the Conservatory that will bear his name as
early as 1931.
The data of this enescologic approach strive to attract attention over important moments in the
life and activity of the genius of Romanian music and to complement and deepen them.
In order to understand correctly this complex, cultural, artistic, but above all humanistic and
patriotic activity, it is necessary to present the general historical framework in which it is part. Romania
goes to war against Austria-Hungary after two years of neutrality. In a first campaign, Romanian soldiers
liberated one third of the Transylvanian territory under Austro-Hungarian occupation. Unfortunately,
this victory is followed by the occupation of Transylvania and then Muntenia by the invading armies,
causing the exodus of the population and central authorities to Moldova, the old Moldovan capital
becoming for a period the capital of the whole country.
Among the personalities who settle in Yassy to include George Enescu. This takes place after
a sanitary internship at a military hospital in Bucharest. A chronicle signed only „A teacher”, published
in the Neamul Românesc on May 14th, 1919, retains the moment after the failure of Turtucaia, when the
Central School of Bucharest was transformed into a hospital of the Red Cross. The Chronicle notes that

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„among the first who ran” to give the necessary help to the wounded, „was also George Enescu, who
with a wonderful simplicity – with his blouse and the stretcher apron picked up the wounded who were
unloading from the cars that were always arriving, carrying them to the operating room and back to the
hospital rooms.

My surprise was so great that, not believing my eyes, I asked others if the one I saw working
like this was the grand master. And this humble job has been done every day for months... The
brancardier then changed into the ineshered violinist, who, in the afternoon hours, charmed those lying
between pillows, and sometimes the same blessed hands—wielding with the same skill the razor as the
bow—shaved all our wounded.”
The writer Vintilă Rusu-Şirianu, nephew of Ion Slavici, retained a quasi-expressist painting of
the soldier George Enescu:
„In a room with a makeshift operating table is brought a serious wounded
with gas gangrene. The colonel hires the scalpel. Stops.
- Wait a minute! I need one to hold the leg that I cut off, that table...
He's looking around. The hall is full of operators, pansators, wounded
waiting. See a white robe with a bucket of compresses in your hand.
Hey, young man! Shout out. Come here!
The young man, docile, is approaching. I can only see him now: Enescu!
Alarmed, I whisper to the colonel:
No way, Colonel. It's Enescu. (...)
- Look, Enescule, leave the bucket. Take this ham. I'm going to operate on my
feet.
George Enescu, without a word, looks for a moment at the colonel, at the
wounded. The only time in my life I didn't recognize his look or his face.
Something like a bitter wonder. A crunch. An alarm. Then put the bucket
down. take the stool, wait.
Colonel: - Sit there. You're holding this left leg on your knees with both
hands. Solid, young man! Because if he keeps jumping, I can't work. When
I'm done, you lift your foot up and deposit it there at the lavabouri. Is that it?
Enescu (his face is even more tense) whispers: Yes, and he does what he's
told.
I look at his noble face, now tormented. I'm boiling helplessly, but I can't
avoid his horrible chore. For the lad lying here every minute is a matter of
life and death. The Colonel begins (...) He's got the amputation routine...
Clac!, clac!, clac!... I'm catching the hemostatic tweezers, carefully. With the
same care, I always look at Enescu. His face, his complexion getting more
and more changed. A harrowing anxiety is all crushing me. The circle of
incisions in the muscles has come true. On the femur the saw has come into
operation. His sinister squeak also stirs my epigastrium with all the habit I
have. What about Enescu? Tresar At the corner of his mouth he's bleeding.
He bit his lips to the blood. He closed his eyes. The amputated leg – enormous
– remained in Enescu's arms. I'm looking at him fast. He tried to pick him up
as he was told. He can't. The dead leg, lead, presses it; lies like a corpse in
his arms, Enescu is livid. And his lips are white. He's wobbling. Desperate, I
want to jump. I can't leave the veins of the operation. How around. Oh, thank
God. In a hurry, with his arms raised by the white robe (...) with a nurse after
him, the surgeon Traian Nasta crosses the room. I'm his cousin. I shout
loudly, I nod: - Trajan, Quick! Enescu!
From a glance he understood. He's coming to me: - Run. Take the nurse. I'm
filling in for you here. Remove it immediately to the air. Rub him with
alcohol! We're recovering. It's about time. Enescu flips into my arms. The

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body of the hefty leg rolls like a guillotine on the floor.” (Rusu-Șirianu, 1969,
pg. 11-12)
The sacrifices of the artist lead him to the hospital admission, suspected of contamination with
the plague, as can be inferred from a letter addressed, as inferred, to a sister of charity in the Hospital
Elisabeth in Bucharest, to whom the young musician was entrusted for care: „Because I am no longer
fished, alive to thank you from the heart for your gentleness to the former sick... Give God only thrills
and happiness to them who think to please those who are forced to sit in a corner and get bored. So be
it!”1
Invited to go abroad so as not to risk his life, the citizen artist declared: „I remain here because
I understand to serve my country with my weapons, with my feather, violin and wand”.
I was writing 42 years ago about the brilliant artist's belief in the role of „purifying and uplifting
of music”, in which he believed with all conviction George Enescu, who took „the initiative of the rapid
freezing of teams of artists, with whom he roams hospitals, embalming the wounded with their art”
(Vasile, 1979, pg. 156-157).
In November 1916, after taking refuge in Yassy, he moved on to the titanic work of organizing
the symphony orchestra, which he would compose and conduct throughout the season of 1917–1918.
Until the first concert of the new orchestra and at the same time as the first concerts at the
National Theatre, the violinist, associated with the evil pianist, Nicu Caravia, gives the recital of May 2,
1917 „for the convalescent hospital”. An eyewitness to such memorable moments recalls: „I also see
him in the difficult years of the Iash of the World War, when he gave himself unto the suffering of the
wounded soldiers in the hospital, for the freezing of the symphony orchestra of Moldova”.2 (Vasilescu,
1955, p. 21)
Enjoying unanimous appreciation. both for his place in the artistic life of the country and for
his tireless work dedicated to reting the sufferings of those afflicted by the horrors of war, the
appreciation shared by the leaders of the military life of the time, the great artist moves on to the
organization of the symphony orchestra made up of instrumentalists mobilized for this purpose on his
initiative. What more beautiful way to leave to Yassy, Moldova, his acquaintances, friends, the public
and especially the unforgettable guide of his career?
In this activity of constituting the permanent symphony orchestra Enescu launches with all the
skill and prestige he enjoyed, as the most conscientious soldier who changed the stretcher and scissors
with his violin and wand. The great son of Moldova calls for the mobilization by the Grand Headquarters
of the most valuable instrumentalists, focused and scattered on the Moldovan fronts. General Prezan
himself helps to fulfill this beautiful dream with which Enescu comes to Yassy. „As it came – recalls the
moment another eyewitness inscribed in the same front of comfort through the beautiful artistic
sufferings and calamities of the conflagration, disciple of Charles Diehl – spread a fear, started from
young people in particular, nourished by the admiration of those who knew Enescu from the concerts
given in the country. The inswes, all, concentrated as they concentrate in a light projection apparatus...”
(Ștefănescu, 1983, p. 3)
The records of the time keep testimonies of efforts and a small work to search for the place
where the musicians needed for the orchestral apparatus and to obtain their mobilization in Yassy. „By
the time the order of concentration on the spot and mobilization, written by his hand (of George Enescu
– the note belongs to me) of those who had been incorporated, most had passed through fire and followed
their regiment to the front. With those who had not yet been mobilized, or whom he demobilized, he
formed two artistic teams that went from hospital to hospital, giving concerts” – wrote Ella Istratty
(Istratty, 1966, p. 64).
Enescu is forced to concentrate on the „regiment” put in the service of the beautiful musical
and the soul and moral healings of the population oppressed by the horrors of war, of Sub-Lieutenant
Alfred Alessandrescu to appeal to the supreme authority of the country, through the royal aide Ballif, as
evidenced by the letter of November 11th 1916, in which he is considered „our most significant
composer” and „has been in distimeary distress.”3
The future opera conductor, Jean Bobescu did not consider himself
„equipped for fights, I had an exaggerated sensitivity, for which tension, too
strong emotions could have the worst consequences (...) The meeting with
George Enescu happened by chance, while I was on a mission to Iasi. I was
passing on Lăpușneanu Street when I spotted Master George Enescu,
surrounded by some musicians (...) I greeted respectfully, I gave to move on,
but Enescu stopped me, asked me where I came from and where the unit I

1
Library of the Romanian Academy, quota 8/5, f. LXX.
2
State Archives in Yassy – Music Academy Fund, File 341, f. 4.
3
The letter is in the same fund of the Library of the Romanian Academy – quota 8 / 43 – LXX.

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belong to is. «You will stay in Iaşi», he decided. We're going to the Grand
Headquarters right now. I was happy. Being near Enescu, working with him
was more than I could have hoped for. At the Grand Headquarters Enescu
entered without difficulty, as at his home. A colonel (...) was in charge of
drawing up the necessary forms for the transfer of instrumentalists and
singers mobilized in different units, in Yassy”. (Bobescu, 1964, pg. 89-90)
For some musicians, repeated interventions are necessary, as Antonin Ciolan's proposal for
dispensation is refused to the Academy of Music, the future eminent conductor of the band is „officer,
and the rules of mobilization do not grant such dispensation to the higher ranks”.4
The archival documents investigated prove that members of the original symphony orchestra
were not permanently and totally exempted from military obligations. This is the case of the pianist Ilie
Sibianu, who on 30 August 1917 was able to dispense with mobilization. At the same time, the yellowed
papers of the weather reflect many other difficulties that the son of Livens must overcome: the lack of
orchestral materials and even instruments, the space suitable for repetitions, a problem exacerbated after
the requisition of the Conservatory building. Rehearsals take place in the hall of the National Theatre's
power plant, which could give way to the concert stage only one day a week, here operating the Chamber,
Senate, Court of Cassation and certain city services. But Enescu knows how to make the Hall of the
National Theatre's electric plant an ambient place to bring the peaceful music accords to life. Working
conditions in this ambience have remained in the memory of the music lovers of the place and of the
time: „Enescu takes off his coat from the entrance, now, to be more comfortable, removes the coat and
stays in the vest. That's all I saw in all the rehearsals, singing, talking, driving, the rush running down
his cheek and he, dressed, rather naked was called, but enthusiastic at the end when he seemed to have
won something with the orchestra.” (Ștefănescu, 1983, p. 3)
It borrows instruments from the most diverse places in the country or adapts to some like Carol
Nosek's horn „invalid war by losing his left forearm”.5
With indescribable efforts, the orchestra of Yassy reaches 73 members, including Bucharest's
instrumentalists such as violinists Constantin Nottara, Constantin Bobescu, cellist Dimitrie Dinicu, etc.
With this band Enescu will complete the first season of Yassy, which began in mid-December 1917,
shortly after the tragic death, of exantematic typhus, on the Romanian front, of the author of the immortal
times that had taken flight on June 18th 1917, Alexe Mateevici:
„Our language is a treasure
In the clogged depths,
A rare stone string,
On the overflowing estate.
Our tongue is burning fire
In a nation that without news
He woke up from his sleep of death
Like the valiant of the story...”
It is not excluded that Enescu knew the Bessarabian poet of Bugeac, a participant in the Battle
of Marăşeşti, in person. Communist censorship asked me to suppress the superb lyrics of the Bessarabian
Mateevici, who have since become, together with the winged song of archideacon Alexandru Cristea,
the national anthem of the brothers from across Prut.
In order not to overload this communication and not to repeat some data, I would point out that
it should be viewed in addition to that presented in the symposium of 5 – 6 September 2013, published
in the volume reserved for the works of the 17th edition (Vasile, Enescu and Basarabia, 2013, pg. 28-
32) and the 2011 edition (Vasile, George Enescu`s Career in the Articles of Iași Journalists, 2011, pg.
125-131). I can add here and welcome the initiative of the director of the National Philharmonic George
Enescu, Andrei Dumitriu, to reconstruct the cinema of the concert led by Enescu in Chisinau, on the day
that the Council of the Country voted to unite with the Fatherland – Mother – March 27, 1918.
The rare stone string poured on the Romanian estate, the string given by Enescu to the then
inhabitants of Yassy, will stretch during the period 1917 – 1918, comprising no less than 20 concerts,
supplemented by other chamber events and especially with the „recitals” of George Enescu, one of them
being the memorable musical „meeting” between the unrivalled performer of Bach's music and the one
from which he had „bitten death”, at the Chinul Plai, in the Trotus Valley, in a terrible clenching of those
called to assert „this way does not pass” and the invaders amazed by the sacrifices of the former, a
meeting held at the bed of suffering of the dying Mihail Jora. It is added such artistic manifestations
carried out in the surroundings of Iaş, such as the one mentioned by George Niculescu Basu:

4
State Archives in Yassy – Music Academy Fund, File 9/ 1915 – 1916, f. 22.
5
State Archives in Yassy – Music Academy Fund, File 3/ 1917 – 1918, f. 24.

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„I will never forget George Enescu how energetic and persistent he was in
all those years of difficult times. One day I saw him perched on a haystack
holding his violin on his knees. He returned from the surroundings of Yassy,
where there were numerous hospitals and had sung to the wounded.” (Basu,
1962, p. 246)
A similar scene was the poet George Lesnea:
„Enescu went and sang at a pet hospital. He'd go back and come back with
what he could. One day he was seen in a military haystack carrying hay. Such
a van is thousands of pounds. hay. Enescu and his violin could barely be seen
from this van against which the interest of passers-by had suddenly
increased. This happened on the road from Miroslava to Iasi. Enescu had
been and had played there for some wounded” (Ilisei, 1977, pg. 22-23).
Vibrant pages remained from the poet Benjamin Fundoianu for a concert in early 1917, that
winter that was preparing to freeze the souls of survivors, also threatened by the exantematic typhus. On
January 4th, 1917, B. Wecsler – as he signed the artistic chronicles – wrote:
„Now a magnificent violin has destroyed a hospital hall, to restore it to the
temple of art... Master Enescu has played for all so far. The crowd loaded the
lodges, her tribute and the tribute singed her crown. But Master Enescu has
never sung for the wounded. The peace budget did not provide for them. The
wounded came infirm and gallious—raw means for success—as sacrifices of
the ancient Hellenics, upled to the gods to make them their own. And Enescu
came down from the pedestal and came, anonymously and simply, to mingle
with the mob and comfort her. Someone next door, seeing him calm and
indiscreet, was surprised that he wasn't wearing his raised bears. And,
indeed, Enescu does not carry them with him. He left them at home, and
nothing in his attire, in his voice, in his nature, betrays the treasure of the
few... In a hospital room, with parallel beds and wounded alienated from the
lime white of his coat, in the enormous number of those in all the corners,
Enescu supported his violin under his chin and caught to tremble on the
strings stretched the infinity of a sonata (...) Wars pass. Everything passes.
Art remains. An artist pays a disaster. A man values muter than a pack of
improvised conquerors and a one-minute defeat. Blessed is the country that
has people. That's the future” (Fundoianu, 1917, p. 5).
Enescu himself will recall, in two decades, such manifestations of the soul:
„I was going to comfort the hospitals to those whom the inevitable plagues
of war were lying in bed. I was given not once to notice how much serenity
was blooming on the cheeks of the sufferers after the first notes. This
transformation into the soul is the ultimate reason for music. If it weren't for
her wonderful echo peacemaker, purifier, music would be an absurd string
of sounds” (Ranta, 1936 , p. 5).
And – I repeat the previous idea – some of these cultural services will pass the Prut, to the
Bessarabian brothers, Enescu being one of those who advocated, not only from the tribune, but especially
by concrete facts, for the union and culture of the whole country (Great Romania was considered by
Caudella „a thing that had been expected for 1000 years, to unite all Romanians”. (Cosma, 1954)
The presentation of the 20 concerts, with the repertory place, with the highlighting of the
interpretations would turn a communication at a symposium into an accounting report, or a technical
study, nor does the space allow us. Therefore, I believe that only a few general considerations are
required, without downplaying their importance for the musical life of Iasian, but also Romanian, in the
dire conditions of the atrocities of the war that opened the way for Greater Romania.
The auditors have become the beneficiaries of a vast universal repertoire, which extends from
Bach's violin concertos, through the symphonies of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, followed by concerts
by Mendelsohn-Bartholdy, Chopin, Schumann, Paganini, Liszt, Saint-Saëns, Tchaikovsky, Lalo and
famous symphonic pages by Weber, Saint-Saëns, Rossini, Wagner, Glinka, Franck, Massenet, Borodin,
Rimski-Korsakov, Greg. Rabaud, Dvořak, Rubinstein, Swendsen and others.
The concerts of this heroic and historical season remain not only simple artistic manifestations
organized in the half-time but are registered as authentic pages of Romanian culture. This status is
confirmed by the chronicles of the time and other records of the full, unwieldy halls of the National
Theatre, the 1300 seats being supplemented at each event with 500 others – standing. The publications
of the time, Neamul Românesc (the newspaper of Nicolae Iorga, which now appeared in Yassy)
Evenimentul and Opinia reflect the cultural effervescence of The Yassy culture maintained by the
concerts of the season. The catalogue of works presented to the yassians confirms the efforts to fly over

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the land of the musical literature of the times: symphonies, concerts, suites, symphonic poems, overtures,
etc.
Attentive to the evolution of musical life, Eduard Caudella and Teodor Burada express their
enthusiasm for the inclusion of their city in the constellation of major European centers.
„If we had it stable in Yassy, we could congratulate ourselves – write first –
on the condition, however, to be led by our great Master George Enescu, who
has everything he needs to attract the public and to fully thank him”
(Caudella, 1918, p. 2).
It should be noted that the heroic season of Yassy contributed to the launch of many works by
Romanian composers, beneficiaries of the composition prize initiated and supported by George Enescu
and launched under his baton. A special place occupies it in the suite of these artistic events is the concert
dedicated to Eduard Caudella.
„I can't find words expressive enough to thank the infamous and the great
Master George Enescu for his noble and generous initiative to give a musical
festival in my honor at the National Theatre”. (Caudella, Mulțumire, 1918, p.
2)
The Caudella concert is telling for the intergenerational connection: the conductor was the
tribute, the one who convinced little George's father to teach him musical notation and send him to study
in Vienna, and the violinist gave life to the Concerto for Violin and Orchestra which the veteran of the
musical life dedicated to the great violinist of the time.
George Enescu's work in Yassy was a work of the composer. That is why the artist, an honorary
citizen of the city, strived to shed light on the real musical potential of the city that had given him a
generous host. On October 7, 1918, in the hall of the National Theatre's power plant, the celebration of
the founding of the company, whose president for life is proclaimed the musician who had identified his
years in Iasi with the highest ideals of the inhabitants of the city and of Moldova. A month later, the
Conservatory of Music and Dramatic Art gave him the title of honorary teacher6. On January 31st 1919,
the City gave their distinguished guest the title of honorary citizen of the city, Vovidenia Street to wear
its rununes.
Eduard Caudella, the eulogy of the heroic season and Enescu's special role in laying the solid
foundations of the ieshean symphony orchestra: „All these 21 concerts were conducted outside by
Master Enescu who attracted the amateur music audience in an unusual way to us” and believes that the
society bearing his name will be able to determine the continuation in the „winter following with the
concerts started in 1918 by Master Enescu” (Caudella, Concertele simfonice în Iași, 1920, p. 2).
In Enescu's presence, the relay handover of the baton of Mircea Bârsan and then Antonin Ciolan
occurs. The stage between November 15th 1918 and May 11th 1919 grouped 25 concerts (of which only
two conducted by Enescu) plus the farewell, also conducted by the president of the symphonic society
George Enescu.
What happened to the Enescian cultural ctitoria in the years of the terrible world slaughter goes
beyond a communication, but unfortunately the return to the standards achieved under Enescu's guidance
will be delayed for decades, the symphonic society bearing the name of the brilliant musician will
overcome egos, lack of interest, intrigue, envy, even pettiness, outlined in the monograph I dedicated to
the conductor Antonin Ciolan presented between artistic „eternality”7.
The out-of-the-day period of Enescu's activity also records activities to increase and affirm
valuable musical performers and composers who worked directly with the one who paid his tribute to
his forefather, who directed his steps towards the melopolis of the era, Vienna.
As „the oldest teacher of the Yassy Conservatory of Music and the only one who is still alive
among the teachers with whom this school started”, Teodor Burada expressed his hope of remeeting and
his thanks „for all you did during the time you were in our midst” (Burada, 1919).
A complex musician, even more complex than some scholars believe, seduced by the quasi-
romantic aspects of his life, George Enescu also supported the movement that contributes to the
preparation of the 1921 act – the establishment of the Romanian Opera, as an independent institution
financed by Greater Romania. In the same years of terrible atrocities, Enescu's name is associated with
those of Wagner and Rossini, whose works are designed to be mounted in Yassy, which would have led
to the organization a few years earlier of what Edgar Istratty called „an opera institution that could rival
those in the big centers”. The Wagner designed in Yassy will be the debut of the Romanian Opera in
Bucharest, with George Enescu, who shines from Ion Jalea's bronze to the future of the emblematic
institution of Romanian culture (Istratty E. , 1918).

6
State Archives in Yassy – Music Academy Fund, File 7/ 1918, f. 222.
7
Vasile, Vasile: Antonin Ciolan – between artistic „eternality” and „eternality” in Iasi, acquired by the Romanian Composers
and Musicologists Society, in publication process.

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Although blocked by interpretive work, violinist, conductor, pianist and not least managerial,
Enescu does not completely neglect the composition.
„Conceived during the war, in a state of mind alternating between heroic
momentum, reminiscent of the joys of peace, of the sacrificed youth, of
torments and indeed fear of hell in the midst of the great struggle and, finally,
with the aurora of hope of a metaphysical world of reconciliation, comfort
and ecstasy – this huge triptych cannot be considered apart from its vast
human and symbolic meaning” (Ciomac, 1968, pg. 192-193)
affirmed Emanoil Ciomac, referring to the Third Symphony –presented in Bucharest in the spring of
1919, after the return to Bucharest of the Apostle of Music.
Analyzing with the characteristic professionalism of the Enescian symphony, Pascal Bentoiu
recalls a „programmatic evolution” of the work, but finds that „it is difficult to superimposed, indeed, a
particular literary argument for symphonic drama”, accepting that „the rethinking and recomposition of
a world in the end, was determined by the experience of war” and „drama, as people lived at the time
(free Romanians being crammed into a piece of Moldova)” , the work being „written there and then”
(Bentoiu, 1999, pp. 205-206).
The coordinators of the music life of Yassy take care to invite Enescu frequently to Yassy,
where a bust was unveiled and proclaimed honorary rector, hoping to support the help needed to establish
the institutions. In the same year, 1931, it is proposed that the Academy of Music and Dramatic Art of
Iasi bear its name, a proposal enthusiastically acclaimed „by the notabilities of the city, the faculty and
the students” of the institution. On December 1st, 1931, the proctor Antonin Ciolan signs address No.
103 which bore the new title, which means that the Ministry had approved the proposal. 8
In 1931 the genius artist turned 50 years old, an opportunity to honor his music lovers and his
Romanian admirers again, starting with those from Giurgiu and Turnu Măgurele and continuing with
those from Oraviţa and Arad. On November 15th, 16th and 17th he is the guest of Chisinau, from where
he leaves for Iasi for the next three days, where the memorable events will take place,
The honorable gestures of the outgoings increase in size if we also take into account what we
have called " a reluctance illustrated by the attitude of indifference manifested by some Bucharest
cultural officials towards the 1931 anniversary of the great musician, who will step into the next stage,
with recognized dignity, in the Academy Romanian (Vasile, George Enescu as a member of the
Romanian Academy, pg. 104-109).
The refusal of some of the leaders of Bucharest's artistic life to accept the desired anniversary
through a series of popular concerts, leads Enescu to realize his plan to address the general public this
anniversary year, in Iasi, where he had experienced the great joys and fulfillments in the hard times of the
war. The center of the celebration of the illustrious Romanian culture writer moves from Bucharest to Iasi.
It is stated, even through the voice of the rector of the Moldovan Academy of Music, Mircea Bârsan: „But
especially to us, the Moldovans in particular and the Iaşi in particular, (we) the duty and honor to pay
homage to Master Enescu, knowing that he is ours, son of Moldova. Therefore, the Academy of Music and
Dramatic Art of Iasi in union with the George Enescu Society will organize an Enescu week for the end of
November, both in Iasi and in the main cities of Moldova” (Bârsan, 1931, p. 7).
It was a sincere tribute to the man who had toiled in the Yassy of the terrible slaughter not only
to the organization of a memorable symphonic season with an orchestra composed by Enescu's efforts,
by organizing the Conservatory that will bear his name, to maintaining musical life in the former capital
of Moldova and where most of the Symphony no. III.

Image from George Enescu's celebration in Yassy on his 50th birthday

8
State Archives in Yassy – Music Academy Fund, File 11/ 1931, No. 103.

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The crowning of the celebration referred to the ancient musical traditions of the city of Teodor
Burada, Eduard Caudella, Athanasie Theodorini, Alexandru Zirra, Antonin Ciolan, not forgetting Gavriil
Musicescu and was signed by Al. O. Teodoreanu, grandson of the musician, the famous epigramist,
Păstorel:
„The brilliant star of eternity, from eternity I greet you! For hundreds of
years my country has been waiting for you, and I thank the One above for
allowing my ears to see you and my brotherly hand to shake your master
hand (...) You suddenly appeared and just when you must, like the Other, like
Mihai Eminescu, who unexpectedly burst like a havuz of living water in a
barren wilderness. He made the Romanian language sing. You made the song
speak. Be welcome in the house at which I have laid with the few bricks, a
burning soul and a hope, which through you is fulfilled. Welcome to your
home!” (Teodoreanu, 1931)

BIBLIOGRAPGHY:
Basu, G. N. (1962). Amintirile unui artist de operă. Bucharest: Editura muzicală.
Bârsan, M. (1931, septembrie 17). Sărbătorirea maestrului George Enescu. Dimineața(8883), p. 7.
Bentoiu, P. (1999). Capodopere enesciene. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.
Bobescu, J. (1964). La pupitrul operei. Bucharest: Editura muzicală.
Burada, T. (1919, March 14). G. Enescu. Evenimentul(33).
Caudella, E. (1918, aprilie 17). Al 15-lea concert simfonic. Evenimentul(63), p. 2.
Caudella, E. (1918, noiembrie 16). Mulțumire. Evenimentul(230), p. 2.
Caudella, E. (1920, noiembrie 30). Concertele simfonice în Iași. Curierul artelor(7-10), p. 2.
Ciomac, E. (1968). Enescu. București: Editura muzicală.
Cosma, V. (1954, noiembrie). Răsfoind memoriile lui Caudella. Muzica(11-12).
Fundoianu, B. (1917, ianuarie 4). Maestrul Enescu. Opinia(2953), p. 1.
Ilisei, G. (1977). Cu George Lesnea prin veac. București: Editura Eminescu.
Istratty, E. (1918, octombrie 17). ***. Scena.
Istratty, E. (1966). Jean Athanasiu. București: Editura muzicală.
Ranta, A. (1936 , octombrie 18). Sub vraja lui George Enescu. Popasuri necesare pe plaiurile natale. De
vorbă cu magicianul muzicii românești. Lupta (XV)(4501), p. 5.
Rusu-Șirianu, V. (1969). Vinurile lor… Ore trăite cu George Enescu, Constantin Brâncuși, Mihai
Sadoveanu, Octavian Goga, George Coșbuc…. Bucharest: Editura pentru literatură.
Ștefănescu, I. D. (1983, septembrie 2). Enescu și militantismul artei. Cronica(35 (918)), 3.
Teodoreanu, A. O. (1931, noiembrie 25). Nemurirea. Cuvânt rostit în sala de festivități a Academiei de
Muzică din Iași. Opinia(7372), pg. 1-2.
Vasile, V. (***). George Enescu as a member of the Romanian Academy. Proceeding of the „George
Enescu” International Musicology Sympozium (pg. 104-109). București: Editura muzicală.
Vasile, V. (1979). Activitatea muzicală ieşeană în anii primului război mondial. În V. Vasile, Marile
evenimente istorice ale anilor 1848 şi 1918 şi muzica românească (pg. 149-199). Bucharest: Editura
Muzicală.
Vasile, V. (2011). George Enescu`s Career in the Articles of Iași Journalists. Proceeding of the „George
Enescu” International Musicology Sympozium. 2, pg. 125-131. București: Editura muzicală.
Vasile, V. (2013). Enescu and Basarabia. Proceeding of the „George Enescu” International Musicology
Sympozium (pg. 28-32). București: Editura muzicală.
Vasilescu, I. (1955, mai). Marele nostru îndrumător. Muzica(5), 21.

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MUSICAL CRITICISM
 OEDIPE'S TRIUMPHANT RETURN TO BERLIN
PROF.DR. MIHAI COSMA, PHD

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MUSIC BUCHAREST

ABSTRACT: The following text share impressions and details from

the most recent staging of the opera Oedipe by George Enescu –
Berlin, August 2021. The author presents, for a start, a review of all
the stagings of Enescu’s masterpiece from its world premiere in 1936
until today. Some details of Komische Oper’s production are provided
below, so that readers can make an impression on the novelties and
director’s ideas. The conclusion is that it was an original, interesting
show, characteristic to the current specific to Germany that promotes
"Regietheater", but at the same time well sung and, most importantly
in this context, very well received by the public.

KET WORDS: OEDIPE, REGIE, KOMISCHE OPER, BERLIN

THERE ARE some famous cases in the history of music when a composer wrote a single opera, that
proved in time to be a supreme success, which has established itself and which has become a reference
in the landscape of the genre.
It is also the case of George Enescu, whose lyrical masterpiece represented (first only for
himself) his fundamental work, "the dearest of all"1 his compositions. Well, this own assessment
(coming, let's not forget, from a man extremely demanding of himself and his scores) began, little by
little, to be confirmed by the public route of the opera Oedipe, which now sums up most European
countries, crossing even the Atlantic.
Just as the composer was preoccupied with this creation for almost a quarter of a century, the
tempo of recognizing the Oedipe as a masterpiece of the 20th century was not at all alert. In the first 40
years of its existence, the work has benefited from only 4 theatrical productions (in France, Belgium,
Romania and Germany, the last two of them translated into the national languages of the respective
countries)...

City Venue Director Year

1. Paris l’Opéra Pierre Chéreau 1936

2. Bruxelles Théâtre Royal de La Monnaie Roger Lefévre 1956

3. București Opera Română Jean Rânzescu 1958

4. Saarbrücken Landestheater Jean Rânzescu 1971

Fig. no. 1

The next 45 years, however, multiplied this number by 8, now being harder to find countries
that are significant in terms of musical life that Oedipe did not reach. This year alone, two major
European theatres chose Enescu’s opera for the launch of the season, thus the total theatrical
representations of the score reaching 32 cities in 11 countrie, from Europe, North America and South
America.

1
”It is not for me to say if Oedipe is the best of my works. But I can certainly state that it is my dearest one of all. First because
it cost me months of work, years of torments. Next because there I put my entire soul, up to identifying, in some moments, with
my hero. If I would say in what state of exaltation I was while mediting at Oedipe, then when I wrote note by note this large
work, nobody would believe me!” (Gavoty, 1982).

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City Venue Director Year

5. Varșovia Teatr Wielki Jean Rânzescu 1978

6. Weimar Deutsches National Theater Sorana Coroamă-Stanca 1984

7. București Opera Română Cătălina Buzoianu 1991

8. Kassel Die Kasseler Oper Ernst A. Klusen 1992

9. Viena Wiener Operntheater (im Jugendstiltheater Sven Hartberger 1993

auf der Baumgartner Höhe)

10. Cluj-Napoca Opera Română Rareș Trifan 1995

11. București Opera Română Andrei Șerban 1995

12. Berlin Deutsche Oper Götz Friedrich 1996

13. Viena Staatsoper Götz Friedrich 1997

14. București Opera Națională Götz Friedrich 2001

15. București Opera Națională Petrika Ionesco 2003

16. Cagliari Teatro Lirico Graham Vick 2005

17. Urbana- University of Illinois, Foellinger Great Hall, Nicholas di Virgilio 2005
Champaing Krannert Center for the Performing Arts

18. Iași Opera Română Eduard Sveatchevici 2005

19. Bielefeld Stadttheater Nicholas Broadhurst 2006

20. Toulouse Théâtre du Capitole Nicolas Joel 2008

21. Bruxelles Théâtre Royal de La Monnaie La Fura des Bauls 2011

22. București Opera Națională Anda Tabacaru 2011

23. Buenos Aires Teatro Colón La Fura dels Baus 2012

24. Frankfurt Oper Frankfurt Hans Neuenfels 2013

25. București Opera Națională Valentina Carrasco 2015

26. Londra Royal Opera „Covent Garden” La Fura dels Baus 2016

27. Amsterdam De Nationale Oper La Fura dels Baus 2018

28. Gera Theater (Theater&Philharmonie Thüringen) Kay Kuntze 2018

29. Altenburg Altenburger Landestheater, Kay Kuntze 2019

(Theater&Philharmonie Thüringen)

30. Salzburg Felsenreiterschule (Salzburg Festival) Achim Freyer 2019

31. Berlin Komische Oper Evgeny Titov 2021

32. Paris l’Opéra (Opéra Bastille) Wajdi Mouawad 2021

Fig. no. 1

If we were to add the presentations in concert, too, this list should be completed with Athens,
Moscow, Stockholm, Amsterdam, Barcelona, Miskolc, Lucerne, Edinburgh and London (in the

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Netherlands, Switzerland and Scotland Oedipe was presented at the famous International Festivals that
take place there). And, of course, some of the concert variants scheduled, over the years, at the
“George Enescu” International Festival, with foreign artists in the foreground, including orchestras
from abroad (Orchestre National de France conducted by Lawrence Foster in 1998, London
Philharmonic conducted by Vladimir Jurowski in 2017) would also enter here.

Oedipe – the list of all 52 premieres2 :

Paris, l’Opéra (Théâtre National Opéra), director Pierre Chéreau,

1936
Brusselles, Théâtre Royal de La Monnaie, Roger Lefévre, 1956
Bucharest, Opera Română, Jean Rânzescu, 1958
Moscow, Bucharest Opera international tour, J. Rânzescu, 1962
Paris, Opera (Palais Garnier), Bucharest Opera international
tour, J. Rânzescu, 1963
Sofia, Bucharest Opera international tour, J. Rânzescu, 1965
Athens, Bucharest Opera international tour, J. Rânzescu, 1966
Wiesbaden, Bucharest Opera international tour, J. Rânzescu,
1966
Stockholm, Bucharest Opera international tour, J. Rânzescu,
1966
Saarbrücken, Landestheater, J. Rânzescu, 1971
Berlin, Bucharest Opera international tour, J. Rânzescu, 1975
Iași, 1975, concert (Baciu, Filarm. Moldova)
Warsaw, Teatr Wielki, J. Rânzescu, 1978
Lausanne, Bucharest Opera international tour, J. Rânzescu,
1981
Bucharest, 1981, Festivalul Enescu, în concert (dir. I. Baciu,
Filarm. Moldova)
Luzern, Festival, 1981 concert (dir. M. Brediceanu, Filarm.
Transilvania)
Weimar, Deutsches National Theater, Sorana Coroamă-Stanca,
1984
Bucharest, Opera Română, Cătălina Buzoianu, 1991
Kassel, Die Kasseler Oper, Ernst A. Klusen, 1992
Vienna, Wiener Operntheater im Jugendstiltheater auf der
Baumgartner Höhe, Sven Hartberger, 1993
Cluj-Napoca, Opera Română, Rareș Trifan, 1995
Bucharest, Opera Română, Andrei Șerban, 1995
Athens, Bucharest Opera international tour, A. Șerban, 1996
Berlin, Deutsche Oper, Götz Friedrich, 1996
Amsterdam, Holland Festival, Concertgebouw, în concert, 1996
(Foster, Radio Filharmonisch Orkest)
Vienna, Staatsoper, Götz Friedrich, 1997
Bucharest, Festivalul Enescu, 1998 (Foster, Orch. Nationale de
France)
Bucharest, Opera Națională, Götz Friedrich, 2001
Edinburgh, Festival, 2002, în concert (dir. Cr. Mandeal, BBC
Scottish Orch.)
Barcelona, Gran Teatre del Liceu, 2003, în concert (dir. L. Foster,
Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona i Nacional de Catalunya)
Bucharest, Opera Națională, Petrika Ionesco, 2003
Cagliari, Teatro Lirico, Graham Vick, 2005
Urbana-Champaing, University of Illinois, Foellinger Great Hall,
Krannert Center for the Performing Arts, Nicholas di Virgilio,
2005 (versiune semi-scenică, dir. Ian Hobson, Sinfonia da Camera
Orch.)
Iași, Opera Română, Eduard Svetchevici, 2005
Bielefeld, Stadttheater, Nicholas Broadhurst, 2006

2
The performances maked with bold letters are productions presented on tour by Bucharest Opera.

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Toulouse, Theatre du Capitole, Nicolas Joel, 2008

Bucharest, Opera Națională, Nicolas Joel, 2008/09
Brusselles, Théâtre Royal de La Monnaie, La Fura des Bauls, 2011
Bucharest, Opera Națională, Anda Tabacaru, 2011
Buenos Aires, Teatro Colon, La Fura dels Baus, 2012
Frankfurt, Oper, Hans Neuenfels, 2013
Bucharest, Opera Națională, Valentina Carrasco, 2015
London, Royal Opera, La Fura dels Baus, 2016
Miskolc, 2016, BartokPlus Opera Festival, Bucharest Opera
international tour, concert (dir. T. Soare)
Bucharest, Festivalul Enescu, 2017 (dir Vl. Jurowski, London
Philharmonic Orch.)
London, Royal Festival Hall, 2017 (dir. Vl. Jurowski, London
Philharmonic Orch.)
Amsterdam, De Nationale Oper, La Fura dels Baus, 2018
Gera, Theater Gera, (Theater&Philharmonie Thüringen), Kay
Kuntze, 2018
Altenburg, Altenburger Landestheater, (Theater&Philharmonie
Thüringen), Kay Kuntze, 2019
Salzburg, Salzburg Festival, Achim Freyer, 2019
Berlin, Komische Oper, Evgeny Titov, 2021
Paris, Opéra National de Paris (Opéra Bastille), Wajdi Mouawad,
2021

The newest production was presented in the German capital, at the Komische Oper
(institution managed by the famous director Barrie Kosky), on August 29, 2021, at the opening of the
season of this institution. This way Berlin becomes the third city abroad (after Brussels and Vienna) to
resume, in a second directorial version, Enescu’s opera. The first Oedipe in Berlin was presented in the
vision of the celebrated director of Deutsche Oper, Götz Friedrich, 25 years ago, in his theater, that for
many years (during the Cold War) represented West Berlin on the map of European operas. And
because I referred to the attraction of Berliners for Oedipe, proved by this revival of the opera in a new
version, it should be noted that Germany is the country with the most cities that presented stagings of
this score: 8 cultural centers, from various regions, in a span of 50 years (1971-2021). More than in
Romania!
Benefiting from a strong subject, with a fascinating central character and an overwhelming
musical score – modern, expressionist in places, but with a system of leitmotifs of post-Wagnerian
inspiration –, Oedipe has become a real magnet for directors and conductors. The author of the new
stage version, the young Yevgeny Titov (who studied acting in St. Petersburg and theatrical directing
in Vienna, and who is at his second meeting with the opera), proposed to the Berlin audience a
condensed version of Enescu’s score, which covered 1 hour and 55 minutes in duration (compared to
the complete versions, which last about 160 minutes or even longer). We can remember with
annoyance an approach of this kind that happened in 2013, when director Hans Neufels cut off the
entire Act IV in his production at the Frankfurt Opera, thus changing the meaning and message of the
play, grossly altering its denouement. However, this time it was not about such "barbarism", but about
an approach that contained "surgical" cuts, made in order to focus attention on the main character,
eliminating music that could be categorized as additional from this point of view and giving up non-
essential characters (such as Phorbas or Thesée).

For example, the following moments were not sung:

The dances of the shepherds in the first act
The first scene in the first tableau of the second act, which thus
began directly from the entrance of Meropa, who comes to talk to
Oedipus (so his friend, Phorbas, was completely missing)
The beginning of scene 2 of the second tableau of the second act
(The scene with the Shepherd alone, who worriedly contemplates
the bad weather and the unfriendly places from the cross between
the 3 roads, where he watches over the statue of Hecate, the one
with 3 faces).
In the sequence of the confrontation between Oedipus and Laïos, a
reduction of extras is operated: the king is alone, not accompanied
by servants / soldiers.

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The scene with Creon at the end of act II, in which he banishes
Oedipus. After the king removes his own eyes, Antigone says to
him, "Father, father, I will follow you..." and Oedipus leaves
Thebes.3
Athenians are missing in act IV, as is the scene with Theseus (that
is, the first scene in act IV) and the arrival of Creon, with his
attempt to abduct Oedipus. Thus, the confrontation with Creon is
replaced by a confrontation with himself (like the previous one with
the Sphinx): the conclusion is – "I am innocent", confirmed by
Eumenides, as messengers of the gods.

The show is of great impact, despite a simple stage image without any changes of scenery.
We see tall, straight, gray walls, the same color as the costumes of the Thebans (Rufus Didwiszus sets,
Eva Dessecker costumes). The involvement and acting are intense, and some original ideas appear as
surprising and welcome: Oedipus is on stage even before the opera begins, and then he witnesses his
birth and "baptism", the sending of the infant to death, by entrusting him to the shepherd. The head of
the newborn is, from the beginning, the head of a mature man, identical to the face and dimensions of
Oedipus-the-mature. In Act II Oedipus faces the Sphinx, which is... himself! Again through makeup
and masks the head of the Sphinx is identical to that of Oedipus, as are the suit, the hair, even the
stature and the body attire (the mezzo-soprano thus appears as if it were a man). The watchman
becomes in this directorial approach a kind of guardian / observer / master of ceremonies, with an
extended presence throughout the opera, being also present on stage even before the intonation of the
Prelude. Iocasta is presented as an extremely attractive woman, as a kind of top model, when Oedipus
is offered (as a reward for saving the city) the wedding with the queen dowager. The plague is
"visualized" by the leakage on the walls of a black liquid paste, which smears everyone's clothes and
faces.

I will detail some other interesting directorial solutions, too:

Oedipus is a witness to all the actions in Act 1 (Prologue). Jocaste
gives birth closely watched by the Thebans, who huddle around
her. We notice that it is a group of extras, all with long disheveled
hair and gray clothes to the ground; this is how they will remain
dressed throughout the opera. Jocaste remains completely naked
and gives birth to the baby. Tiresias reveals the fate of the
newborn. The child is left on the ground and is carefully watched
by the mature Oedipus; the baby is a doll with complex
mechanisms, which moves hands and feet. The king calls the
shepherd (a kind of tool of evil with sadistic glimmers in his eyes)
to entrust the child. After giving the order of murder, the King goes
over Jocaste and penetrates her, to procreate another child, again
defying the command of the gods.
Oedipus tells Merope about his dreams of mating with his mother,
illustrating the nightmares with physical actions upon Merope.
After leaving Corinth he meets the Shepherd, who carries with him
Oedipus the baby. It touches the ground that was still stained by
the blood in the belly of Jocasta, which remained from birth.
Oedipus kills Laïos in utter darkness, when he sees nothing; and
when it lights up, the king's body we see that it is smashed, with the
guts on the outside. The Shepher and Jocaste come to see the
assasinated king (the queen wearing a black dress with a huge
train).
The Sphinx descends from the sky (it was a staircase of coiled light,
now it unfolds and descends). But it appears in the form of a man:
exactly an out of body experience of Oedipus, a man with the same
face and the same body and the same clothes. The key question is
asked after the first 2 bodies seemed to merge (the Sphinx
embraces Oedipus forming a single body – we see the body of
Oedipus having the head of the Sphinx), then they stand face to
face, like a reflection in the mirror, seen from the side. The text of

3
In the French original: "Père, je te suivrai." (***, Oedipe op. 23. Tragedia lirica in quattro atti. Testo del libretto., 2015).

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the question is also uttered by the mouth of Oedipus (who repeats

silently the words of the Sphinx). The laughter of the Sphinx is also
Oedipus' laughter, after the correct answer, continuing the idea
that the two are actually one and the same.
Oedipus is acclaimed by the Theban people delighted that the
monster was killed. The watchman conducts the adulation
ceremonies and Oedipus greets the people, then tries to temper
them with gestures that show that it is too much. Jocaste is
introduced: beautiful as a model, in a wedding dress – the Sphinx
leads her, now dressed in a red, ceremonial men's suit. Oedipus
tries to retreat from their path and attempts hard to repel the bride,
but Jocaste, guided by the Sphinx, provokes Oedipus to have sex. At
firs she feels pains like those of childbirth, then allows to be
penetrated again by the son whom she cannot recognize. Act II
ends with a general orgy.
Tiresias is brought to find out the source of the plague; Oedipus
addresses him in derision (Oedipus seems here like Hamlet
simulating madness). Tiresias' famous retort "Woe... How tough it
is to know, when knowledge doesn't serves..."4 (Cosma M. , Oedipe,
2011, p. 54) is sung without a voice, each syllable being sucked in
instead of expired; the sound effect is staggering. Upon hearing the
prophecy, Oedipus slammed the clairvoyant to the ground, who
reveals what is to come, after in turn he physically dominates
Oedipus.
The people overwhelmed by the plague remain stuck in the pit
where they had been not long ago, all of them being covered by the
slime of the pandemic; then they take refuge around Jocaste.
When the deeds of the past are revealed, the Shepherd with the
newborn child appears in the scene, like Laoïs, a walking dead, full
of blood, holding the infant Oedipus in his arms.
Merope herself comes (again the presence of Phorbas is
eliminated), brought by the wheelchair. Jocaste commits suicide by
cutting off her throat and blood splatters the walls, as in a film by
Tarantino.
In act IV blind Oedipus is assisted by Antigone. He enters the well
and from here on he remains alone in the scene. The staircase of
light that symbolized Destiny is now over the water pit/ fountain
and at the end it rises to the sky. Oedipus dies alone, at the bottom
of the stage. I would have expected the director to come up with a
powerful idea for this ending, which, in this placid form, does not
have the expected impact.

Sets – those walls that form an open cube – contribute to the formation of excellent acoustics.
The choir located in the hall, on the balcony, sounds just as good, causing a spectacular stereophonic
sound balance between what is heard from the front and what comes from behind. This solution
allowed the anonymous characters who appear on stage to be extras (actors), not choristers as we
would have expected.
I really liked Leigh Melrose's high-class performance as Oedipus, who brought to the
forefront of importance the first monologue ("Oú juis-je? Le corbeau crie"5 - intonated first ironically
and mockingly) and not necessarily the second, as is usually done. He proved to be an excellent actor,
whose singing is adapted to the role, to the character and to the evolution of dramatic situations
generated by the text and outlined by the score, while having a strong and perfectly controlled voice.
All the other soloists, including the minor roles, were very good – a performance rarely achieved in
theaters, as many Operas seem to be inclined to offer casts dominated by 2-3 world-class stars,
showing themselves instead too little preoccupied with the secondary roles.
The music director of Komische Oper, Ainars Rubikis (a conductor of Latvian origin who
took over the artistic direction of the Berlin institution in 2018), conducted the complex score, offering
a natural flow and a richness of colors, paying equal attention to both the terrible passages and the

4
In the French original: "Hélas ! Qu'il est dur de savoir, lorsque savoir est inutile". (***, Oedipe op. 23. Tragedia lirica in quattro
atti. Testo del libretto., 2015).
5
Where am I? The raven cries… (in French in the original libretto).

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lyrical sequences. Of course, it was also helped by the quality of the orchestra in the pit, an excellent
group with quality instruments that contributed to the highest quality sound. Already, in the press
package, a CD with the most representative sequences of the work has been featured, which can lead
us to think of a possible discographic version that may appear soon. It would be worth it! 6
It was a great success, with long minutes of standing ovations, positioning Enescu's work and
this new stage version in the top of the European season events.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
***. (1978, May 28). Edyp. Retrieved from Teatr Wielki. Opera narodowa:
https://archiwum.teatrwielki.pl/baza/-/o/edyp-28-05-1978/42723/20181
***. (1996, June 8). Oedipe. Retrieved from Holland Festival:
https://www.hollandfestival.nl/nl/programma/1996/oedipe/
***. (2013, December 18). ”Oedip”, de George Enescu, interpretată la Opera din Frankfurt fără
Actul al 4-lea. Retrieved from The Epoch Times Romania: https://epochtimes-
romania.com/news/oedip-de-george-enescu-interpretata-la-opera-din-frankfurt-fara-actul-al-4-lea---
209038
***. (2013, December 8). Oedipe. George Enescu. Retrieved from Oper Frankfurt: https://oper-
frankfurt.de/de/mediathek/?id_media=107
***. (2015, August 14). Oedipe op. 23. Tragedia lirica in quattro atti. Testo del libretto. Retrieved
from l"Orchestra Virtuale del Flaminio: https://www.flaminioonline.it/Guide/Enescu/Enescu-Oedipe-
testo.html
***. (2021, August). George Enescu, Oedipe. Retrieved from komische-oper-berlin.de:
https://www.komische-oper-berlin.de/programm/a-z/oedipe/
***. (n.d.). About Evgeny Titov. Retrieved from Evgeny Titov: https://evgenytitov.net/about.html
***. (n.d.). Oedipe (Oper). Retrieved from dewiki.de: https://dewiki.de/Lexikon/Oedipe_(Oper)
Condé, G. (1981, November 30). Un Centenaire oublié. Georges Enesco à Radio-France. Le Monde.
Cosma, M. (Ed.). (2001). George Enescu: Oedipe. București: Editura Universității Naționale de
Muzică.
Cosma, M. (2011). Footsteps Following Oedipus’ Journey Through the Arts, from the Greek Antiquity
up to Nowadays. In M. Cosma (Ed.), Proceedings of the „George Enescu” International Symposium
(pp. 197-207). București: Ed. Muzicală.
Cosma, M. (2011). Oedipe. București: Ed. Muzicală.
Cosma, V. (2004). Oedipe de George Enescu - dosarul premierelor, 1936-2003. București: Editura
Institutului Cultural Român.
Gavoty, B. (1982). Amintirile lui George Enescu. București: Editura muzicală.
Pătrașcu, A. (2017). Oedipe - o călătorie. Retrieved from Despre Operă:
https://despreopera.com/2017/08/29/oedipe-o-calatorie/
Vasiliu, A. (2020). Constantin Silvestri: muzicianul problemă. Documente inedite de presă. Artes.
Revistă de muzicologie, 21-22, 56-71.

6
Later edit: During the Symposium Mr. Ulrich Lenz (dramaturg of the Komische Oper) told participants that such a recording
will not be commercially released, because of financial restraints...

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 THE PRESENCE OF MAESTRO GEORGE ENESCU
IN ORADEA.
FIRST AUDITION OF THE 3RD SONATA
FOR PIANO AND VIOLIN „IN ROMANIAN FOLK CHARACTERˮ
CONSTANTIN-TUFAN STAN

UNIVERSITY OF ORADEA

ABSTRACT: The 3rd Sonata „in Romanian Folk Characterˮ was

performed in first audition in Oradea, on January 16 th, 1927. The
audience from Bucharest would hear the masterpiece of maestro Enescu
on January 29th, the next interpretation being dedicated to music lovers
of Timișoara, on February 13th. The prologue of my memoir
contextualizes the imposing event of the interpretation of the work at
Oradea and Timișoara, revealing, afterwards, aspects regarding the
level of reception and the reactions of the specialized critics within
reviews of Romanian and Hungarian expression. The review of the
recitals offered by maestro George Enescu in Oradea between 1921 and
1938, enthusiastically mirrored by the local press, offers a genuine and
complex image of the Moldavian Orpheus during his itinerancy in west
of the „Mioritic spaceˮ.

KEYWORDS: ORADEA, ENESCU, 3RD SONATA, FIRST AUDITION, PRESS

ORADEA, a permanent sentry at the western border of the „mioritic spaceˮ, the residence of the
ancient Partium, has always been endowed with the vocation of multiculturalism, interethnic and
interdenominational harmony. A conclusive example, in this sense, represents the cultural and
theological work of the Greek-Catholic Bishop Samuil Vulcan, „the protector of the entire Romanian
cultureˮ (as portrayed by Nicolae Iorga): founder of cultural and pedagogical institutions, promoter of
publications in Romanian, protector and financier of the Romanian Preparandia from Arad, a
providential institution for cultivating and promoting our identitary heritage. His successors, among
whom we mention the bishops Demetriu Radu (scholar and parliamentarian in the interwar period, who
tragically disappeared in 1920, in the attempt that occurred in the Plenary Hall of the Senate) and Valeriu
Traian Frențiu (bishop-martyr, beatified in 2019 by Pope Francis) gave expression to the same
Promethean energies, which increased the spiritual dimension of the old burg. The cultural and political
vocation of the city situated on the banks of the Crișul Repede river has been entirely expressed, over
the centuries, by Francisc Hubic, honorary canon at the Theological Academy of Oradea, choir master
and composer at national level, by the organists and composers Johann Michael Haydn (brother of
Joseph Haydn) and Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf, bandmasters within the Dome of Oradea, as well as
Emanuil Gojdu, „the Hungarian citizen endowed with a Romanian heartˮ, a supreme patriot, episodical,
in Lugoj (1861), on which occasion, at his inauguration, he uttered a memorable phrase, true exhortation
and teaching for Romanians forever and everywhere: „My dear compatriots! You have all heard the
hymn Deșteaptă-te, române! (Awaken thee, Romanian!). May this be your prayer in the morning, when
you get up, as well as in the evening, when you go to sleep!” (Stan, 2021)1 In the context of the
reverberative cultural emulation, with its epicenter in the citadel of Oradea, we must mention the
academician Iosif Vulcan, the founder of certain publications with a decisive role in the growth of the
Romanian language and culture: „Aurora românăˮ, one of the first periodicals of belletristic profile in
the history of the Romanian expression press written in Latin script, as well as the prestigious „Familiaˮ,
a true catalyst for the aspirations of Romanians within the Transylvanian area. In this context, maestro
George Enescu's attraction for a cultural topos with baroque values, found under the spectrum of
multiculturalism seems intelligible yet, at the same time, impregnable citadel representing the Romanian

1
Double Jubilee at the University of Oradea: 55 years of historic academic education and 20 years of doctoral studies, within
the online page of the daily newspaper „Crișana”, Oradea, from June 22nd, 2021.

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identitary spirit, capable of resonating with the harmonies impregnated by the transfigured folk melody.
Thus, an exceptional musical event was represented, on January 16 th, 1927, by the first audition of the
3rd Sonata for Piano and Violin „in Romanian Folk Character”, a masterpiece of universal chamber
music.
The concert itinerary of maestro George Enescu consisted of eight performance stages
throughout the city of Oradea, between 1921 and 1938, holding 11 recitals. In our historiographical
excursion we will retrieve, quasi-exclusively, information (chronicles, impressions, essays, notes) from
the Romanian expression press of Oradea, the excerpts from the Hungarian press representing the subject
of a consistent chapter from the volume published in 1980, by Pintér Lajos (Pintér, 1980, pg. 45-71).
The first concert performance in Oradea (June 4 th, 1921, within the Recital Hall of the Catholic
Circle) took place after an extensive tour that included the cities of Timișoara (May 23 rd-24th), Constanța
(May 29th-30th) and Cluj (June 2nd and 3rd). In the prelude to the concert, col. George Bacaloglu2
presented maestro Enescu to the melomaniacs of Oradea in a portraiture contour, covering the main
stages of his biographical chronology, which, according to the author, had culminated (until that year)
with the 3rd Symphony in C major. Bacaloglu emphasized the amplitude of maestro Enescu's personality,
admiring his virtues as “distinguished violinist, eminent pianist, delicate choir master and composer”
(Bacaloglu, 1921, pg. 349-350). At the same time, certain concise information regarding the pianist
Nicolae Caravia was offered, as well.
The repertoire included works by Pietro Nardini (Sonata for violin and piano in D major –
performed in Timișoara, as well, on May 23 rd-24th, the first recitals from Banat after the Great
Reunification), Ludwig van Beethoven (Romance in F major), Couperin/Kreisler (Chanson Louis XIII
and Pavane), Ottokar Nováček (Motto perpetuo) and Pablo de Sarasate (Spanish Dances, op. 21).
In the periodical „Beiușul” (Romanian Art in Oradea, 1921, pg. 6-7), the chronicler (signed
under the pseudonym of Cor.), indignated, deplored the absence of the public (Romanian and Hungarian)
from this musical feast. The disillusion was profound, in a burg with a majority Hungarian population:

„Orădenii n-au suflet românesc și le lipsește orice simț pentru cultura

românească. Din București, vin artiști celebri ai geniului românesc, ca să se
convingă de ignoranța și păcatele orădenilor, pe care, pesemne, îi satisfac
spectacolele frivole și arta ungurească. Maestrul Enescu, cunoscut pe
scenele mari din Anglia și Franța, unde, cu vioara lui măiastră, a cucerit
admirația lumii pentru arta românească, împreună cu artistul Caravia, a dat
un singur concert în sala Cercului Catolic, în 4 crt, în prezența abia a câtorva
români și unguri. Ne-a fost rușine de acest atestat al goliciunii noastre
sufletești”3.

The concert performed on November 21 st, 1923, after a few unpleasant experiences (Oradea –
1921 and Arad – 1922, the first recital within the citadel situated on the Mureș River – the political
capital of the Great Reunification, with a modest participation of melomaniacs), became a veritable
triumph, unfolded in a refined cultural atmosphere, emphasized by the presence of certain illustrious
actors within the National Theatre of Bucharest4. Worthy of mention is the involvement in the
enthusiastic celebration of maestro Enescu of the representatives of the alleged “minorities” (which
aspect confirmed the commencement of a recreation phase within a cosmopolitan socio-cultural
landscape with subliminal sensitivities, inserted distortedly into the collective mentality over the
decades), the carry-on arms, by students, of maestro and the symbolic harness to the carriage:

2
George Bacaloglu (1874-?), career officer, amateur violinist, prefect of Bihor County, director of the cultural meeting „Cele trei
Crișuriˮ, founder of the magazine of the same name.
3
The article also mentioned the performances of the troupe of the National Theater in Bucharest (three performances between
June 10-12), emphasizing, in the same spirit of deep disappointment, the absence of spectators, who had shown a surprising
indifference. The impassivity of the Romanian leaders, absent from the event, but also of the local authorities was underlined: in
the empty theater. I did not see there the alleged „leadersˮ of the Romanian society, who know how to arrogantly consider
themselves at a banquet, e.g. I did not notice those hidden in high situations, but I did not see the representatives of the authorities
either. We are no longer surprised by the indifference of those who, in Isidore Lechat [the main character in Mirbeau's comedy],
could see the most faithful icon of their soul gripped by the fever of the love of money at any cost. They would have benefited
more, and the theater, as a trend, had the desired effect. They did not come because their consciousness had not yet perished,
which, on waking, would have made them remorseful. The artists left desolate. How else can we draw artists to us, when the
apostles who come among us are chased away with the stones of indifference? And their accusation is all the more serious, as they
could hear how, at cultural manifestations of an inferior nuance, people push for a place in the gallery”. In contrast, the suite of
performances performed by baritone Jean Athanasiu, the soloist of the Bucharest Opera, in the company of artists from the
Hungarian Theater in Oradea, in the presence of Hungarian music lovers, who had filled the hall to the brim, was evoked.
4
In the repertoire: Giuseppe Tartini (Sonata „Devil's Trillˮ), Henri Vieuxtemps (Polish), Johannes Brahms (Violin Concerto),
Pablo de Sarasate (Zigeunerweisen) and M. Ravel (Tzigane).

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„În toamna anului acesta, orașul nostru a fost vizitat de cei mai valoroși
artiști. Astfel, a jucat pe scena Teatrului «Regina Maria» trupa de
propagandă a Ministerului Artelor, în frunte cu Aristide Demetriade și Ion
Marin Sadoveanu, cu piesele: Hamlet, Vlaicu Vodă, Arvinte și Pepelea,
Moartea lui Fulger și Pe malul gârlei. George Enescu a dat un concert și a
fost ovaționat de români și minorități. Studenții l-au purtat pe brațe prin oraș
și s-au înhămat la trăsură, plimbându-l ca pe un cuceritor antic. Toți artiștii
sunt cunoscuți bine de publicul românesc, așa că laudele noastre n-ar avea
nimic de adăugat la faima lor. Atât putem menționa că presa minoritară i-a
răsplătit pe toți cu elogii neobișnuite până acum din partea ei, ceea ce
dovedește că talentele și manifestările românești de cultură încep să fie
apreciate în adevărata lumină de concetățenii noștri de origine străină. În
modul acesta, nădăjduim că o apropiere între ei și noi nu va fi imposibilă”
(Manifestări culturale la Oradea Mare, 1921, p. 185).

As an echo of the triumphant recital, the poet Alexandru Iacobescu 5 will dedicate to maestro
George Enescu, in 1924, a poem (Lui George Enescu, p. 6):

Lui George Enescu

I.

Tu smulgi din cutioara ta de lemn

Furtuni de glasuri aspre ce se-ngână,
Un strigăt risipit de-un cald îndemn,

Un șopot surd și-un murmur de fântână,

Și-n vraja ce se tânguie pe strune
Închizi un zvon de fluier de la stână.

Când peste dealuri soarele apune

Și-n tainic vuiet frunzele pe crăngi
Pornesc cu glasul apei să răsune

În plâns adânc și jalnic de tălăngi.

II.

Și când pe-un fir subțire de lumină

Coboară parcă undele din zbor,
Arcușul tău pe raze vii se-nclină

Smulgând un cântec trist din vraja lor.

Iar când sub alba stelelor ninsoare,
Prin parcuri vechi țin umbrele sobor,

Pe strune faci un gând să se-nfioare

Și strângi din rouă salbă de mărgele,
În tremur viu, când floare după floare

Adoarme blând, cu ochii către stele...

The year 1927 was prodigal regarding Enescian recitals performed on concert stages from the
western part of the country: Oradea (January 13 th, 14th and 16th – the first audition of the 3rd Sonata „in
Romanian Folk Characterˮ), Arad (January 17th and 18th), Caransebeș (February 8th), Lugoj (February
9th and 12th), Timișoara (February 10th, 11th and 13th – with the reiteration, for the third time, of the 3rd
Sonata)6.

5
Alexandru Iacobescu (1875-1945), fiction writer and poet, contributor to the monthly „Cele trei Crișuriˮ.
6
The first audition of the 3rd Sonata performed in Bucharest had occurred on January 29th, 1927 under the dome of the Romanian
Athenaeum, with the contribution of Nicolae Caravia.

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In Oradea, the repertoire of the three recitals included the following structure: January 13th: J.
S. Bach (Sonata), E. Ysaÿe (Chanson d'Hiver), W.A. Mozart (Rondo), L. van Beethoven (Romance in
F major), J.S. Bach (Aria), Couperin/Kreisler Kreisler (Chanson „Louis XIII” and Pavana), M. Ravel
(Tzigane), Fr. Kreisler (Liebeslied); January 14th: G. Fr. Händel (Sonata în A major), W. A. Mozart
(Concert no. 6 in E major), Leclair/Kreisler (Tambour), I. Scărlătescu (Bagatelle in Romanian folk
character), J. S. Bach (Bourré in D major), Pablo de Sarasate (Habanera); January 16th: Émile-Jaques
Dalcroze (Concert for violin), Ravel (Kaddisch), Debussy (Minstrels), Wieniawski (Souvenir de
Moscou), Bach (Ciaccona) and maestro Enescu (the 3rd Sonata).
In a supplement to the monthly „Cele trei Crișuri” (Enescu-Ventura-Stoenescu, 1927, pg. 31-
32), Th. Simionescu-Râmniceanu7, preparing the public for the series of Enescian recitals, evoked the
names of certain artists who had ennobled, through their presence, the artistic life of Oradea, „three
illustrious representatives of Romanianism” (the Romanian expression press was still under the empire
of enthusiasm generated by the Great Reunification, in a city with emphasized and expressed
cosmopolitan accents, the chronicles expressing a certain degree of genuineness, as well as the expansion
of a long-repressed identitary sense): „the musician maestro George Enescu, the distinguished artist
Marioara Ventura, the brilliant art painter Stoenescu [...], who, through their artistry, perpetuated the
eminence of the Romanian genius overseas, in that occidental City-Light and universal metropolis [the
allusion to Paris, the City of Lights is evident], because they proffered and still offer us the most trasured
of national propagandas, the one that, initially, ravishes the hearts, offering all foreigners, friends and
antagonists, the chance of meditating on our varied capacities of artistic expression”. Within the portrait
dedicated to maestro Enescu, „martyr of music”, the author acknowledged his complexity as a musician
(composer, violinist, pianist and choir master), admired his personality and essential qualities of („as
less egotistic, as he was noble”, „high-minded and great-hearted devotee”), observing and anticipating,
as a specialist of musical criticism, the future projection of his creation, a music „for centuries to come”.
At the same time, the chronicler enumerated the genres approached by maestro Enescu: chamber music,
choral, symphonic, dramatic. Presenting an insight into the Enescian works, Th. Simionescu-
Râmniceanu reminded his readers of a few works created by maestro Enescu until that year, 1927: the
three symphonies, String Quartet no. 1, Op. 22, in E flat major, the first two sonatas for violin and piano,
as well as fragments from the opera Oedipus that he had the opportunity to hear. Impressed by the
originality of language and expression („this new melody, that arises exclusively from maestro Enescu
is entirely different from the existing contemporary musical genres”), the chronicler of the periodical of
Oradea emphasized the modernism of the Enescian work, „the new Romanian musical expression”,
envisaging premises for a futuristic music. Finally, in a medallion elaborated by G. Bacaloglu (illustrated
by an effigy created by the sculptor Ion Dimitriu Bârlad), the high-mindedness of Enescu was
emphasized, who had comforted, through his art, the hearts of the wounded heroes on the front of the
First World War, as well as his international vocation as true ambassador of Romania.
A brief article, presenting the first two recitals of maestro Enescu (January 13 th and 14th), the
citizens of Oradea being exhorted to seize the opportunity of being present at the final concert, as well
(with the premiere of the 3rd Sonata), in view of being introduced to „a phenomenon of musical art”,
was published in the columns of the weekly „Tribuna”, as well (Concertul Enescu, 1927, p. 2):

„Marele violonist mondial George Enescu a dat, joi și vineri seara, două
concerte de vioară atât de perfecte încât a exaltat publicul auditor. Enescu a
cântat la vioară așa cum numai el știe să producă acea vrajă a cântului, care
a cucerit lumea întreagă. Enescu va cânta și azi, duminică seara, la Cercul
Catolic. Acei care nu l-au ascultat pe Enescu și vor să cunoască un fenomen
al artei muzicale, să nu piardă ocazia de a-l asculta pe acest geniu, care a
dus faima numelui de român în întreaga lume civilizată. Programul de astă-
seară e: Dalcroze (Concert de violină, partea a II-a), Ravel (Kaddisch),
Debussy (Minstrels), Wieniawski (Amintiri din Moscova), Enescu (Sonata,
vioară și piano. Premieră)”.

Expressing the emotions shared on the occasion of the memorable recitals of maestro Enescu,
on the pages of the same weekly (Concertul Enescu, 1927, p. 3), the author emphasized the apotheotic
atmosphere of the last evening, when maestro Enescu, „with his elegant figure, yet in the absence of any
vanity, had conquered the hearts of the public. The anonymous author of impressions emphasized the
composer virtues of Enescu, who had proved, through the 3rd Sonata, that „not only was he a great artist,
but an excellent composer, as well”:

7
Th. Simionescu-Râmniceanu (Sym) (1882-1946), music and theater critic, with specialized studies at the Faculty of Arts in Paris,
subdirectory and general director (1920-1922) of the Romanian Theaters and administrative director of the Bucharest Philharmonic
(see Cosma 2005, 256-257).

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„Marele violonist român George Enescu a dat trei concerte și în orașul

nostru. Concertele – mai ales cel de duminică seara – au atins acel nivel înalt
de artă muzicală pe care numai de la Enescu îl putem aștepta și numai
Enescu îl poate ajunge. În ultima seară de concert, Enescu a fost fermecător.
Când figura sa elegantă, dar lipsită de orice trufie, apărea pe scenă, printr-
o singură mișcare cucerea inimile publicului spectator, care izbucnea în
aplauze frenetice. Dar când punea arcușul pe vioară, ca prin farmec se făcea
liniște mormântală, încât se auzeau și cele mai încete acorduri până în cele
mai depărtate colțuri ale sălii, ticsită de mulțime. Publicul cădea în extaz
când arcușul, ce părea fermecat, aluneca pe coardele violinei, dând acele
sunete armonioase care înalță simțurile până la sferele dumnezeiești.
Talentul și tehnica cu care Enescu a executat bucățile de operă clasică, vechi
și moderne l-au ridicat pe maestru deasupra tuturor marilor violoniști care
s-au perindat în orașul nostru în ultimul deceniu. Niciunul din ei nu a fost
sărbătorit cum a fost sărbătorit Enescu duminică seara. Fără a detalia
bucățile, executate cu un talent neîntrecut, e destul să amintim că, atunci
când își termina o arie sau bucată din operă, publicul, extaziat, izbucnea în
aplauze atât de puternice, încât amenința să prăbușească sala și era chemat
de câte 5-6 ori la rampă și silit să repete. La fine, publicul, stăpânit de vraja
artei maestrului, nu voia să se despartă de el și, timp de 15 minute, a tot
aplaudat și vuit, chemându-l de nenumărate ori la rampă. Pentru a determina
publicul să plece, s-a stins electrica, dar publicul nici așa nu voia să plece,
până ce, în cele din urmă, maestrul a fost silit să apară cu vioara pe scenă și
să mai cânte o arie de Kreisler. Enescu a cântat și bucăți de compoziție
proprie, care au dovedit că maestrul nu este numai un mare artist, ci și un
excelent compozitor. La plecare, publicul l-a așteptat în stradă și l-a
sărbătorit cu ovațiuni și urale, apoi tineretul i-a desprins caii de la trăsură
și l-au tras, înconjurând Teatrul până la Hotel «Park», în continue ovațiuni
și cântece studențești. Concertul Enescu va rămâne mult timp o plăcută
amintire în sufletul publicului orădeanˮ.

As an echo of the memorable sequence of three recitals, within the columns of the periodical
„Cele trei Crișuri” (***, column „Memento”, 1927), as a reverberation of the distinguished first audition,
a concise consignment of the event was inserted:

„Marele nostru George Enescu, întovărășit de pianistul Caravia, a dat o

serie de concerte în Oradea, în serile de 13, 14 și 16 ianuarie, fermecând
publicul orădean cu arcușul său supraomenesc. Seara de 16 a culminat prin
execuția minunatei sale opere Sonata a 3-a (cu motive românești), a cărei
primă audiție a avut-o orașul nostru. După concert, maestrul a onorat cu
vizita sa localul Reuniunii și al revistei «Cele trei Crișuri», fiind primit aici
de reprezentanții noștri. Cu neîntrecuta-i amabilitate, d-sa a făgăduit că va
da revistei noastre, spre publicare, un fragment din opera pe care, într-o
măsură, a legat-o definitiv de numele Oradiei. Ne bucură și ne măgulește
semnul de nobilă atențiune pe care ni-l dă unul din cei mai aleși fii ai
neamului, cu atât mai mult cu cât această bucurie se leagă de-a dreptul de
meritele muncii noastre”.

The chronicle within the Hungarian periodical „Nagyvárad”, published after the third recital
(Sărbătorirea lui Enescu, 1927), highlighted the exceptional event of the audition, in premiere, of the
„imposing” 3rd Sonata. The chronicler rightfully distinguished the unity of the musical structure, based
on the observance of traditional forms, yet transfigured by the „advanced means of modern music”, the
„elaboration” of the work by virtue of folkloric motifs, being, thus, dazzled, by the „extraordinary
effect”:

„Nivelul concertului a fost demn de măreția lui Enescu, iar în conținut s-a
deosebit de concertele anterioare. Sala Cercului Catolic a fost plină până la
refuz, ceea ce, după succesul primelor două concerte, e la fel de explicabil
ca și interesul iscat de programul concertului de duminică seara. A
participat, într-un număr neobișnuit de mare, acea categorie a publicului
evreiesc care, îndeobște, frecventează prea puțin concertele. Pe lângă

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interesul trezit de personalitatea marelui artist, faptul se explică și prin

programarea de către el a unui vechi cântec funebru ebraic în prelucrarea
lui Ravel. Au participat însă în număr mare și reprezentanții intelectualității
române, încercând în felul acesta să repare, pe de o parte, lipsa de interes
manifestată anterior, pe de altă parte dorind să fie prezenți la un eveniment
muzical excepțional, care va rămâne memorabil în istoria muzicii, odată ce
George Enescu și-a cântat la Oradea, pentru întâia oară, grandioasa Sonată
pentru pian și vioară.
Concertul s-a desfășurat sub semnul înaltului nivel pe care Enescu îl asigură
tuturor manifestărilor sale. Programul a început cu un Concert pentru vioară
de Émile Jaques Dalcroze, de o mare frumusețe, din care ascultătorii au
reținut îndeosebi mișcarea a doua. A urmat Kaddisch de Ravel, după care
Enescu a tălmăcit, cu o deosebită intuiție artistică, ideea unei scurte piese de
Debussy, lăsând o impresie de o rară subtilitate, cu neputință de uitat, tot așa
cum a fost și Souvenir de Moscou de Wieniawski. Alți violoniști concep
Ciaccona de Bach ca pe un punct culminant al concertului lor. Or, acest
minunat maestru al arcușului a cântat-o ca supliment între alte două piese.
Și a cântat-o așa cum pe Bach nu-l cântă decât singur Enescu. A urmat după
asta prima audiție a unei noi compoziții a maestrului, Sonata pentru pian și
vioară, urzită pe motive populare românești. A construit-o cu o muzicalitate
absolută, respectând formele tradiționale, dar folosind și mijloacele evoluate
ale muzicii moderne. A turnat, astfel, sonata sa într-o formă muzicală
unitară, de un efect nemaipomenit, datorită geniului său creator și
interpretativ… Asistența a întâmpinat cu entuziasm admirabila realizare, la
care și-a dat contribuția și pianistul Caravia.
După concert, Enescu și acompaniatorul său au fost din nou oaspeții
Clubului ziariștilor, unde au avut parte de o sărbătorire spontană. Maestrul
și-a exprimat mulțumirile și în scris, pe portretul făcut de Kara Mihály , în
cuvinte pline de recunoștință față de ospitalitatea ziariștilor orădeni”
(Pintér, 1980, pg. 53-54).

The review „Familia” (Concertele George Enescu, în rubrica „Cronica teatralăˮ, p. 23) (article
signed by Misa – the pseudonym under which Mihail G. Samarineanu appeared) emphasized the
celebration spirit that had animated Oradea and the elevated atmosphere of interethnic ecumenism in a
city with cosmopolitan traditions:

„Și ca un corolar, ne-a fost dat să savurăm fiorii sublimi ai muzicii. Maestrul
George Enescu, însoțit de pianistul Caravia, a dat în orașul nostru trei
concerte. Întreg orașul a fost în sărbătoare. În înălțimea artei acestui
neîntrecut virtuoz al muzicii, în mâinile căruia vioara prinde aripi și sunete
de heruvimi care te răpesc și te duc, ne-am întâlnit, desfigurați, dezbrăcați
de tot ce este omenesc, înfrățiți, toți cei câți venisem să-l ascultăm. Nu
existam majoritate sau minorități, unguri, sași, evrei sau români, nici
aristocrați, burghezi sau proletari în sală, ci numai simțuri care vibrau la
unison, atinse de arcușul fermecat al marelui maestru. Iată propaganda...
Ceea ce a făcut maestrul G. Enescu în trei seri nu e în stare nimeni să facă,
cu toate milioanele risipite pentru propagandă. La plecare, maestrul a ținut
să ofere «Cercului ziariștilor», al cărui oaspe a fost, desenul executat de
sculptorul M. Kara, pe care-l dăm pe copertăˮ.


Mihály Kara (Kronn) (1892-1961), graphic artist, painter and sculptor with studies at the Academy of Arts in Budapest and the
Academy in Florence, member of the Masonic Lodge in Oradea, sculptor of the Royal House, author, in the interwar period, of
the sculptures of the royal couple Ferdinand (equestrian statue) and Maria in the center of Oradea. Enescu's portrait illustrated the
Ist cover of the periodical “Familiaˮ, no. 1-2 / 1927.

Cf. Katona Béla, Enescu in Oradea (The presence of maestro Enescu in the city of Oradea), chronicle interspersed with short
fragments of interview, after the first recital, in Manolache 2005, 175-178.

Mihail G. Samarineanu (1893-1969), poet, prose writer and journalist, member of the Romanian Writers’ Union, one of the
main promoters of the reappearance of the magazine „Familiaˮ in 1926. In 1919 he settled in Oradea, at the invitation of Colonel
G. Bacaloglu (the director of the periodical „Cele trei Crișuri”), who assigns him the position of editorial secretary; see the
Romanian Academy, Dicționarul General al Literaturii Române (General Dictionary of Romanian Literature), S-T, Univers
Enciclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest, 2007, p. 35-36.

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After the remarkable event that occurred in Oradea, in mid-January, maestro Enescu will
present again his chamber masterpiece to the melomaniac public, in the city of Timișoara, on February
13th, 1927. The Moldavian Orpheus held three concerts in Timișoara that year: February 10 th, 11th and
13th. There weren’t any announcements, articles, chronicles about the concerts of maestro Enescu
mentioned in the Romanian expression press of Timişoara. Dedicated music chroniclers, who were
experts in the interpretation of works of art, had already existed in the city of Timișoara, utilizing the
instruments of modern musicology, the rich and complex musical manifestations of Banat: Gabriel
Sárkány, Dezső Braun and Dezső Járosy, the founder of a remarkable musical review of Timişoara,
„Egyházi Zenemüveszet”.
The mirroring of maestro George Enescu's recitals within the „minority” press or the
acknowledgment of his creative genius, in a cosmopolitan burg where, after 1918, Romanians were the
ones who were being esteemed with this appellative, represented a sensitive subject of debate within the
Romanian expression press, in the early years following the Great Union. The tribulations regarding the
founding of a symphonic orchestra in Timişoara, starting with the creation of an alleged Communal
Orchestra, in 1920, under the aegis of Gida Neubauer – event followed by other such initiatives, started
by Guido Pogatschnigg, Béla Tolnay and Leo Freund, until the emergence and development of a semi-
professional ensemble, the orchestra of the Society „Amicii Muzicii”, which was to express, in the
interwar period, the spirit of cult music, practiced at the highest level, were able to artificially engage
this marginal subject. An excerpt from the concert chronicle of the Orchestra of the Society „Amicii
Muzicii”, at the end of the 1923-1924 season, in which the author, Dezső Járosy, was referring, with
great accuracy and musicological application, to the structure of one of Enescian Rhapsodies (we
presume that it was the Ist Rhapsody in A major), defines the manner in which the Enescian art was
perceived, in Timişoara, by a neutral auditor, who could not be accused of tributary excesses to an
exalted patriotism:

„Concepţia noastră muzicală s-a îmbogăţit cu noi reprezentări, fiind

martorii unui proces de clasicizare a muzicii populare româneşti, cu
perspective din cele mai frumoase. Este drept, Enescu se luptă cu forma,
Rapsodia se derulează caleidoscopic, în culori sclipitoare şi, pe alocuri,
străluceşte prin complexitatea ţesăturii polifonice, în ansamblu însă în
lucrare există prea mult potpuriu. Dacă ar fi cineva, atunci Enescu este cel
menit să schimbe această situaţie, şi locul potpuriului să fie preluat de
unitatea formei” (Stan C.-T. , 2018, pg. 107-108) (Bodó Mária, 2010, pg.
132, 134).

A chronicle of the recital performed on February 13 th, in which the 3rd Sonata „in Romanian
Folk Character” was played for the melomaniac public of Timișoara, was published on February 15th
in „Temesvári Hírlap”, under the signature of Dezső Járosy (Pintér, 1980, pg. 98-99). If the Hungarian
organist and musicologist had consciously expressed himself regarding the Enescian Rhapsody, the
structure and expression of the 3rd Sonata seemed to him „ultramodern and singular”:.

„George Enescu a avut grijă ca, printr-o înțeleaptă economie a programului,

să asigure celor trei concerte ale sale un crescendo vădit. Cea de-a treia
seară a însemnat culmea a tot ceea ce îl face unic pe artist și pe plan
internațional. În prima piesă a programului și-a exprimat admirația față de
geniul muzicii clasice, atunci când, ținând seama de centenarul morții lui
Beethoven din acest an, a transformat Concertul pentru vioară, de o
nepieritoare frumusețe, în astrul dominant al întregului program. Puțini
violoniști sunt capabili să tălmăcească atât de congenial arta lui Beethoven
ca maestrul român. Interpretarea sa a stat tot timpul sub semnul unei expresii
nobile, subtile și profunde. În ciuda faptului că nu disprețuiește nicio măsură
din partida sa concertistică, spre a descompune până și motivele de scurtă
respirație în amănuntele lor, surprinde faptul că travaliul acesta în
profunzime nu dăunează defel concepției și valorificării unitare a muzicii.
Sub arcușul lui Enescu, temele beethoveniene dobândesc un contur aproape
profetic prin afirmarea cu o nemaipomenită subtilitate artistică a
abstracțiunilor muzicale, ca și cum clasicismul lui Beethoven ar face pact cu


Járosy Dezső (Desiderius), musicologist, choir master, organist, music critic, teacher, editor, Roman Catholic priest (see Tomi
2014, 243-244).

Reports in the Timișoara press about George Enescu's concerts on February 10th, 11th and 13th as well as a preview (February
1 ), in „Temesvári Hírlapˮ on February 1st, 1927 (see Pintér 1980, 97-98, preview at the concerts performed in Timișoara).
st

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surplusul de romantism muzical. În partea a doua a programului, Kaddisch

de Ravel propune prea puține probleme în stare să-l stimuleze pe Enescu la
o tălmăcire mai individualizată. Poemul compozitorului francez modern este
un recitativ-imitație, care s-a desfășurat cu o obositoare monotonie, fără a
prilejui o emoție ieșită din comun. Cu atât mai copleșitor ni s-a părut poemul
Minstrels de Debussy, care obligă tehnica viorii să imite efectele sunetelor
chitarei.
Programul a luat sfârșit cu Sonata în stil [sic!] românesc a lui Enescu,
înrudită mai degrabă cu o fantezie, datorită lipsei de unitate în construcție.
După părerea noastră, bogatul tezaur al sufletului popular românesc a fost
exprimat, în factura ultramodernă a lui Enescu, într-o manieră mai curând
bizară decât captivantă.
Sala arhiplină a răsplătit cu entuziasm perfecțiunea aerianei interpretări
beethoveniene, ovaționându-l îndelung pe unul dintre cei mai mari violoniști
ai zilelor noastre”.

A laconic announcement, in which maestro Enescu's presence in Oradea was signaled, on

November 1929, was published in „Tribuna” (***, George Enescu dă trei concerte la Oradea, 1929) :

„Renumitul violonist George Enescu, care a dus faima artei românești în

lumea întreagă, face cinste orașului nostru, venind aci să dea trei concerte,
luni, 25, marți, 26, și miercuri, 27 noiembrie [sic!] în sala Cercului Catolic,
cu concursul dlui N. Caravia. Programul e bogat și variat, e de prisos să-l
înregistrăm. La concertul Enescu vor merge toți amatorii de muzică oricare
ar fi operele ce le cântă. Concertul Enescu va fi un interesant eveniment
artistic în orașul nostruˮ.

In the Hungarian expression press, the event of the two Enescian recitals was, as usual, widely
reflected, representations from the Parisian („Le Figaro”) and London („Daily Mail”) press being
reproduced, as well. As a discordant note, which contributed to overshadowing, to a certain extent, the
enthusiastic atmosphere, the reduced number of spectators, as had happened in 1921, as well, along with
the debut of maestro Enescu, on the concert podium, in Oradea. The chronicler from „Nagyvárad” was
pensively observing, with outbursts of indignation, as well (his words appeared reproachful!), the
inexplicable absence of the Romanian intellectuals from the musical feast. Maestro Enescu performed
works by César Franck (Sonata in A major), Beethoven (Sonata „Kreutzer”), Sarasate (Zigeunerweisen)
and J. S. Bach (Aria).
The event of conferring the title of Honorary Citizen, on November 28 th, 1931, was
vaguely recorded in the Romanian press, more concerned with the image of the poet of „our passion”,
Octavian Goga (born, like Enescu, in 1881), who he had also played the role of the politician (minister)
in a sensitive historical stage, having the chance to escape unharmed from the 1920 bombing (which
directly targeted him), set up in the Senate hall, where Demetriu Radu, Greek-Catholic bishop of Oradea,
had perished.


The 3rd Sonata will be resumed by Enescu in Timișoara in 1931 and 1942.

The third recital will not take place anymore. George Enescu canceled his third recital, being forced to leave for Bucharest,
where he was to conduct, on December 1 st, on the stage of the Romanian Athenaeum, the first of a series of four symphonic
concerts.

„We should rather be surprised that, after the crowded halls two weeks ago in Paris and London, in the hall of the Catholic
Circle, several rows of seats were empty, although this blessed artist made his concert a real one celebration of music. In fact, we
should be thrilled, since Enescu is not only a famous name, but he is also Romanian. Or, apart from some art-loving professors
and students from the Academy of Legal Sciences, as well as a few intellectuals, where was the bulk of the Romanian intellectuals
in Oradea?” (Pintér 1980, 56-57)

The chronicle from „Nagyváradˮ also refers to a so-called Poemă românească (Romanian Poem), which could be the Enescian
3rd Sonata or the work of Scarlatescu, Bagatelă în caracter popular românesc.

With a majority Hungarian population, the Romanian press has traveled, in Oradea, a difficult road of assertion. I did not identify
any German language periodical in the interwar period at Oradea.

„Mr. Octavian Goga escaped, so, that two students stopped him in the corridor with their gifts. Maybe, if these students didn't
hold him back, our fate would end up too. Or, if I had the patience to wait for him at the entrance to the presidential office, where
he would come, I would escape with him, because that was where we would talk.ˮ († Roman Ciorogariu, December 8 th, 1920. The
attack on the Senate, reproduction from Zile trăite (Days Lived), in „Legea româneascăˮ („Romanian Law”), Oradea, XVI, 23,
December 1st, 1936, p. 213-214)

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„George Enescu și Octavian Goga au fost sărbătoriți în chip strălucit în

toată țara pentru împlinirea a cincizeci de ani de viață. În frunte, M.Sa
Regele, care a binevoit să acorde înalte distincții acestor distinși fii al țării,
s-au desfășurat entuziaste manifestații de simpatie atât în Capitală, cât și în
provincie. Instituții și autorități, societăți culturale și reuniuni de intelectuali
au glorificat cu dragoste desăvârșită geniul nepieritor al acestor mari
români. Consiliile municipale din București, Iași, Chișinău și Oradea l-au
proclamat pe George Enescu Cetățean de Onoare, Academia Română și
Sfatul Țării și-au rostit cuvântul de urare, drept prinos de recunoștință față
de însușirile marelui luptător pentru întregirea neamului, poetul Octavian
Goga.”

Details about the marking of the masterʼs jubilee were published in the Hungarian press:
„Nagyváradˮ of November 26 („At yesterday's meeting of the Interim Commission, he was elected
Honorary Citizen of the city, and his diploma will be awarded on the evening of the concert. Then, the
celebration of the master at the National House, to which many representatives of minorities were also
invitedˮ.) „Nagyváradi Napló” (which reproduces the interview with Enescu in the Timișoara periodical
„Temesvári Hírlap” („His technique is amazing, under his bow the voice of the violin becomes
sometimes whispering, sometimes thunderˮ). The diploma of Honorary Citizen was awarded to him by
Eugeniu Speranția, city councilor, Nicolae Zigre gave him, from the National House, a silver laurel
wreath, and Miss Greceanu offered him a bouquet of flowers („Nagyváradi Naplóˮ of December 1,
1931). Enescu's recital included works by Händel, Schumann, Leclair, Vitali and Dvořák.
In an article signed by M. G. Samarineanu in „Familiaˮ (a material with essayistic valences),
in the spring of 1936 – more than half a year before the Enescian recital (December 16), the first presence
of George Enescu in the burg on the banks of the Crișul Repede, revealing some constants: the modest
participation of the spectators and the reluctance of the minorities (just a few years after the Great
Union). A little later, Enescu had managed, through the spell of his bow, to dispel the atmosphere of
suspicion and mistrust: „Were there nationalities in the city then? Were they differences of faith, political
overtones, antagonisms and racial hatred? Were they then majorities and minorities? No!ˮ
The author of the article also recorded the exceptional event of the first absolute audition of the
opera Oedipus on the great Parisian lyrical stage. „This work is considered by the great music critics as
an epochal work... For 25 years no such thing has been written and it will be a long time until the genius
of mankind will produce something identical ...ˮ Marked by the passage to the eternal of the writer Gib
I. Mihăescu, Samarineanu drew a parallel between the prose writer, the author of a study dedicated to
the so-called „Oedipus effectˮ (Oedipus's complex in literature and art – 1933) (Crețu, 2010), and
Enescu, in the context of the premiere of Enescu's lyrical masterpiece: „It is a pity that death has shattered
our justified hope. An Oedipus of writing, like the one that master Enescu gave us in music, we could
have one day from Gib I. Mihăescuˮ. True leitmotifial constants in the portrait sketch dedicated to the
great musician, were reiterated his proverbial modesty, but also the sublime generosity and discretion,
manifested in the case of Stan Golestan, who, overwhelmed by material problems, had benefited from
Enescu's charity.

„Acei care l-au cunoscut pe George Enescu și-au dat seama de deșertăciunea
încrederii în sine, a mândriei și a cultului propriei lor valori. George Enescu,
marele nostru muzicant, se strecoară în lume modest, alunecând parcă
incomodat de celebritatea care deschide ochii admirativi în juru-i. Și cât e
de natural! Câtă creștinească înțelegere a acelora care vin să-i solicite o
îndrumare în întortocheatul drum al portativelor!...


George Enescu and Octavian Goga, in „Cele trei Crișuriˮ, XII, 11-12, November-December 1931, column „Noteˮ („Notesˮ), p.
162.

István Gárdony, Convorbire cu Enescu (Conversation with Enescu), who turned fifty, but kept him young at the time, in
„Temesvári Hírlap”, 29, 272, November 29th 1931, p. 5, in Manolache 2005, 268-270. During the interview, Enescu also made
some surprising appreciations regarding jazz music: „Jazz? It shouldn't upset us. There is, so it would be a waste of time to dwell
on it. We'll forget him. Instead, we will not forget Bach, Mozart in the same wayˮ.

Eugeniu Speranția (1888-1972), poet, prose writer, esthetician and memorialist, professor of philosophy of law (since 1921) at
the Academy of Law in Oradea, professor at the pedagogy department of the Normal School for Boys „Iosif Vulcanˮ and master
of philosophy at Theological Academy. Founding member and vice-president of the Cultural Meeting „Cele trei Crișuriˮ.

Nicolae Zigre (1882-1962), lawyer from Oradea, delegate to the Great National Assembly from Alba Iulia (Ugra Electoral
Circle), prefect of Bihor County (1919-1920), dean of the bar of Oradea, president of PNL Bihor, undersecretary of state in the
Ministry of Internal Affairs, senator in the Romanian Parliament. Imprisoned in Sighet between 1950 and 1955.

Gib I. Mihăescu (1894-1935), prose writer and playwright.

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Apoi, pe scenă, la concert, ce înfrățire cu vioara, încât om și instrument,

contopiți, nu formează decât un rug în care se aduce prinos celui mai autentic
zeu al sublimului: arta!...
La Oradea, acum câțiva ani, când George Enescu a venit pentru prima oară,
cu toate că era cunoscut și ultimului cetățean, auditoriul a fost redus ca
număr. O reticență de altă natură – eram în primii ani ai întregirii, și
minoritarii nutreau alte speranțe și aveau altă atitudine – oprise mulțimea
de la concert. George Enescu a cântat fără să țină cont de sală. Și arcușul
său a transmis în afară unde de înaltă tensiune, care au înfrânt opreliștea
publicului. Erau naționalități atunci în oraș? Erau diferențieri de credință,
nuanțe politice, antagonisme și ură de rasă? Erau atunci majoritari și
minoritari? Nu.
Arcușul fermecat al maestrului George Enescu lansase atunci primul mesaj
al înfrățirii pe tărâmul superior al artei. Și la al doilea concert, sala a fost
luată cu asalt. Cât de modest, dar cu cât drag l-au sărbătorit apoi grupul de
scriitori și ziariști din localitate și cu câtă familiaritate s-a apropiat maestrul
George Enescu de ei. Era el, geniul muzical al românismului, între noi? Un
prieten al tuturora, care savura o glumă bună, modest, cel mai modest, poate,
din tot grupul... În această privință, în ceea ce privește modestia, George
Enescu a avut, până în toamna trecută, un îndeaproape înrudit, vrednic în
ale camaraderiei și valoros în ale scrisului, pe Gib I. Mihăescu.
Cu toate că nici nu s-au cunoscut, poate, personal, eu, care i-am cunoscut pe
ambii, pe scriitorul Gib I. Mihăescu, mai îndeaproape, și pe maestrul George
Enescu, din relația inerentă de publicist și gazetar față de concertant, găsesc
o mare afinitate sufletească: modestia, ca bază și tendință spre himalaicele
culmi ale artei, ca țintă... George Enescu, realizat în întregime, de aceea
mare mondial; Gib I. Mihăescu, în plină dezvoltare, de aceea apreciat numai
între hotarele țării și de puțini. E păcat că moartea ne-a frânt justificata
nădejde pusă în el. Un Oedip al scrisului, ca acela pe care ni l-a dăruit
maestrul Enescu în muzică, îl puteam avea într-o zi de la Gib I. Mihăescu.
George Enescu e și un mare suflet: un mare compozitor, un mare virtuoz al
viorii și un mare suflet. E gradația uniformizată la care poți vorbi despre
acest mare artist, după cum vedeți... Mare, mare, mare...
Un caz povestit de însuși beneficiarul, de Stan Golestan. Enescu vine la
Paris. Află că compozitorul Golestan e la strâmtoare. Fusese bolnav timp
îndelungat. Și, ca să-i vie într-ajutor, fără tobe și surle, organizează un
concert. Concert dat de George Enescu: un regal pentru o capitală, chiar ca
aceea a luminii, cum e capitala Franței. Ei bine, venitul întreg al acestui
concert, fără ca să știe nimeni, George Enescu l-a vărsat aceluia care era la
strâmtoare, lui Stan Golestan...
Pe George Enescu îl știam un compozitor foarte apreciat. Partiturile sale
completează de zeci de ani încoace programe la cele mai de gală praznice
muzicale. Auditorii i-au savurat Rapsodiile, Simfoniile... minunate.
Anul acesta, maestrul ne-a rezervat o surpriză, ne-a dat o operă: Oedip, care
s-a cântat pentru prima oară la Paris, la Opera Mare. Lucrarea aceasta este
considerată de marii critici muzicali ca o operă epocală... De 25 de ani nu s-
a scris așa ceva și va trece mult până când geniul omenirii o să producă ceva
identic...
Numele lui George Enescu e un steag de vitejie purtat de glorie în lumea
largă. În faldurile lui e marea geniului românesc, care cucerește teren în
sufletele cele mai alese ale aleșilor omenirii. Suntem mândri de maestrul
George Enescu...ˮ (column „Note. Idei-Oameni-Fapte, 1936, pg. 99-100)

I did not identify, in the Romanian press from Oradea, chronicles at the concert of October 12 th,
1937, after the recitals held in Lugoj (October 7 th), Timișoara (October 9th and 10th) and Arad (October
11th). Just a review of the intense artistic activity: the entirety of Beethoven's symphonies with the Radio
Orchestra („officers of the musical gospelsˮ, „true purifications of the soulˮ), recitals and violin concerts
at the Romanian Athenaeum, the two concerts dedicated to Wagnerian creation, being evoked and the
premiere of Oedipus, in 1936, the masterpiece of „the only genius of Romanian musicˮ.

„Actuala stagiune muzicală a stat sub semnul proslăvirii geniului muzicii

românești, care este George Enescu, prin manifestări de înaltă artă muzicală

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datorate maestrului. Timp de peste două luni, concertele, recitalurile date de

Enescu au pus în umbră celelalte manifestări din domeniul muzicii, afirmând
astfel că și noi avem elementele necesare spre a contribui la valorificarea și
propagarea culturii muzicale și fără elementul străin. Maestrul Enescu a
început cu ciclul complet al simfoniilor lui Beethoven – mentorul său
spiritual, și, ca apoteozare, Simfonia a 9-a, cu soliștii Corului „Carmenˮ și
Orchestra Radio. Execuțiile acestor simfonii au fost oficieri de evanghelii
muzicale, care, prin bagheta lui Enescu, erau adevărate purificări sufletești.
A doua etapă a activității maestrului a prilejuit o incursiune în domeniul
Sonatei, datorată clasicilor și modernilor, în care vioara lui Enescu era
crainica frumuseților melodice din aceste sonate, având colaborări adecvate,
la pian, din partea dnei Cella Delavrancea, Gitta Mendel-Schapira, Dinu
Lipatti, Nadia Chebap, I. Filionescu, I. Gherea. Între ele, recitaluri de
vioară, s-a trecut în revistă literatura acestui instrument. Apoteozarea
acestei activități au fost însă cele două festivaluri închinate muzicii lui R.
Wagner, prin execuția unui act (III) din opera Siegfried, cu participarea
vocilor adecvate acestei muzici, dnele: El. Basarab, Aca de Barbu
(Brunhilda), M. Moreanu (Erda) și dnii Nicu Apostolescu (Siegfried) și P.
Ștefănescu-Goangă (Wotan), precum și neobosita falangă orchestrală a
Filarmonicii, care a fost plină de elan sub bagheta lui Enescu. Muzica lui
Wagner, care timid s-a introdus prin regretatul Ed. Wachmann, a putut să se
ridice pe primul plan al programelor simfonice, precum și în repertoriul
Operei, datorită maestrului Enescu, care, în 1915, a prezentat un act întreg
din opera Parsifal, cu soliști, cor și orchestră, pe scena Teatrului Național.
Nu se poate accentua îndeajuns apostolatul lui Enescu pentru propovăduirea
muzicii clasice și-a lui R. Wagner, care a avut ca urmare o purificare a
atmosferei viciate a muzicii noi. Bach, Beethoven, Brahms, R. Strauss, clasici
francezi și R. Wagner au fost pilonii sufletești ai lui Enescu în manifestările
sale muzicale. Întreaga lume muzicală de la noi și de pretutindeni l-au
preaslăvit pe singurul geniu al muzicii românești, care este Enescu, atât cu
ocazia premierii lui Oedip, ultima sa lucrare lirică, cât și cu ocazia
concertelor menționate mai sus. Însuși M.Sa Regele Carol II, însoțit de
Marele Voievod Mihai, a ținut să participe la sărbătorirea lui Enescu, cu
prilejul festivalului Wagner, răsplătind munca și eforturile sale prin
decorarea cu cordonul «Steaua României». A fost gestul marelui nostru rege
al culturii, care știe să prețuiască munca acelora care contribuie la ridicarea
și valorificarea culturii românești. Un omagiu bine-meritat, care ne așază în
rândul marilor centre muzicale și culturale (George Enescu. Sărbătorirea
geniului muzicii românești, 1937, p. 238).

In the unfortunate context of the resurgence of fascism and military aggression in Central
Europe (the annexation by Germany of Austria – the so-called Anschluss – and the region of the South),
interethnic tensions and the degradation of social and cultural life (Stan C.-T. , 2017, pg. 97-101), a last
concert was given by Enescu to the music lovers of Oradea (accompanied by Ionel Gherea), as an oasis
of hope, on November 15th, 1938. A chronicle of the concert, elaborated with professionalism, we owe
to the music critic Boda Oszkár:

„Vioara aceasta ne-a împărtășit toate gingășiile de care e în stare sufletul

unui artist. Felul cum își articulează frazele muzicale îl situează pe Enescu
în rândul celor mai mari esteți. Am simțit cum pune aici o virgulă, colea un
semn de întrebare, dincolo un semn de exclamare. Dar arta cu care își
mânuiește arcușul! Tonurile ținute, schimbarea de arcuș denotă o
nemaipomenită măiestrie. În timpul cantilenei sale, arcușul sporește parcă,
sporea fără să se mai sfârșească, ca să se isprăvească în cele din urmă la
capătul frazelor din mișcările lente ale pieselor de Bach și Schumann.”
(Pintér, 1980, pg. 70-71)

In conclusion, the recitals given by George Enescu in Oradea, between 1921 and 1938, west of
„Mioritic spaceˮ, had the gift to convey to the Oradea public (with a composite structure, representing
various ethnic and denominational entities) the message of interpretive excellence, inducing a state of a
positive spirit in a sensitive historical period. Gathered under the spell of great music, Romanians,
Hungarians, Germans and Jews from Oradea established bridges of spiritual communion, sharing the

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sound message of the performer Enescu and contributing to the consecration of a blessed multicultural
topos. The first absolute audition in Oradea of the 3rd Sonata „in Romanian Folk Characterˮ consecrated
the universality of a burg, which resonated with Euterpe's message at the western frontiers of a haunted
space.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

***. (1921). Manifestări culturale la Oradea Mare. Cele trei Crișuri, 185.
***. (1927, January). column „Memento”. Cele trei Crișuri VIII, 23.
***. (1927, January 16). Concertul Enescu. Tribuna 3.
***. (1927, January 18). Sărbătorirea lui Enescu. Nagyvárad.
***. (1929, November 24). George Enescu dă trei concerte la Oradea. Tribuna IX, 46, 4.
***. (1931, noiembrie-decembrie). George Enescu și Octavian Goga. Cele trei Crișuri(XII), 162.
Bacaloglu, G. (1921, June 1). George Enescu. Cele trei Crișuri, II, 349-350.
Bodó Mária, J. (2010). Opera Omnia I. Muzica simfonică la Timișoara în anii 1920. (româno-maghiară, Ed.) Arad:
Editura Gutenberg Univers.
Cor. (1921). Romanian Art in Oradea. Beiușul I, 3, 6-7.
Cosma, V. (2005). Muzicieni din România: Lexicon biobibliografic (Vol. I (A-C)). București: Editura Muzicală.
Crețu, I. (2010, March 18). Gib Mihăescu şi efectul lui Oedip. Cultura, 14-15.
Goering, H. (1937). George Enescu. Sărbătorirea geniului muzicii românești. Cele trei Crișuri, XVIII, 11-12, 238.
Iacobescu, A. (1924, January). Lui George Enescu. Cele trei Crișuri V, 1, 6.
Manolache, L. (2005). George Enescu. Interviuri din presa românească (1898-1946) (ed. a II-a). (L. Manolache,
Ed.) București: Editura Muzicală.
Misa. (fără an). Concertele George Enescu, în rubrica „Cronica teatralăˮ. Familia, 23.
Pintér, L. (1980). Mărturii despre George Enescu. București: Editura Muzicală.
Samarineanu, M. G. (1936, March). column „Note. Idei-Oameni-Fapte. Familia, series III, year III, no. 3, 99-100.
Simionescu-Râmniceanu, T. (1927). Enescu-Ventura-Stoenescu. Cele trei Crișurino. 2, 31-32.
Stan, C.-T. (2017). George Enescu and the Multi-Ethnic Cultural Space of Timișoara. Proceedings of the George
Enescu International Musicology Symposium.
Stan, C.-T. (2018). George Enescu. Consonanțe bănățene. Timișoara: Editura Eurostampa.
Stan, C.-T. (2021, iunie 22). Dublu jubileu la Universitatea din Oradea: 55 de ani de învățământ academic în istorie
și 20 de ani de studii doctorale. Crișana.
Tomi, I. (2014). ToLexicon. Muzicieni din Banat. Ediția a II-a, Banatul Timișean. Timișoara: Editura Eurostampa.

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CONFLUENCES
 AVANT-LA-LETTRE REVERBATIONS
OF THE “CANCEL CULTURE” PHENOMENON,
IN ENESCU’S YEARS OF EXILE
NORELA-LIVIANA COSTEA

„ACTUALITATEA MUZICALĂ” MAGAZINE

ABSTRACT: History and time are two interdependent concepts that

undergo continuous changes – from changes of perspective to changes
of the reflections of the collective consciousness or of the one who lives
them – then or later. But how many times are these two altered to
become convenient to those at their helm? In this study I set out to
discover the result of the influence that the phenomenon of “cancel
culture” has had over the image of the composer in the last decade he
spent on this earth.

KEYWORDS: CANCEL CULTURE, EXILE, PARIS, RHAPSODIES

THE LAST years of George Enescu's life are marked by the exile tacitly imposed by the new regime
and by the inevitable consequences of the totalitarian philosophy of government, whose ways of altering
reality had bad results culturally (and this did not happen only in Romania, but – as we well know – on
the territory of the entire communist bloc).
One of the methods that were frequently used by those in power was to carry out sustained
campaigns to discredit certain characters in the local cultural landscape who did not meet the newly
imposed norms and who, moreover, refused to cooperate with the governing structures. Among the
famous victims that were targeted by these campaigns we find Constantin Brâncuși, Mircea Eliade or
(of course) George Enescu ... but the list continues with a large and sad number of artists who lived to
see their art die...
For some time now, it seems that these campaigns are being justified again, materializing in a
phenomenon called “cancel culture”. Due to the growing influence of social platforms and in the context
of collective radicalization for the support of minorities, this has been increasingly used, becoming a
powerful weapon (and not always useful). But “cancel culture” affects history since ancient times and
was implemented in principle by almost all political, ideological or religious regimes that sought to gain
ground and followers as quickly as possible. In the following I will try to define this process,
exemplifying some famous victims from universal history, then stopping at the permanent efforts of the
communist regime to discredit George Enescu, by exercising this phenomenon (even if it was not defined
as it is nowadays).
*

In the most cases the expected result of a “cancel culture” campaign is the negative change of attitude
towards an individual or group (religious, political, etc. – usually a minority), which leads to a boycott,
to “cancellation” from social circles or to statements or actions offensive to the target of the attack
(www.dictionary.com, no year). Basically, the power of different media platforms is used for a well-
defined purpose, namely to turn a public person into an “non-frecventable” person.
“Cancel culture” is for some a way to signal past mistakes. For others, it is an excessive and
aggressive reaction to manipulating public opinion. One recent example is the elimination of historical
figures associated with racism, following protests in the United States over the attempted arrest of
George Floyd.
But an initial manifestation (of course, on another scale) of this type of behavior is found even
in public trials that culminated in whipping and other public punishments in the city squares, so popular
in the Dark Ages. I am referring in particular to the trials of the witches of Salem (who also set a
precedent for the communist regimes that resumed the “purging” behaviors of those considered
different). Another phenomenon of “cancel culture” that affects universal history from the beginning is
that of the “discovery of America”; in fact, the explorers had discovered the lands occupied by
indigenous cultures (it is true, an unknown land, but not an unpopulated land!); the omission of this

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distinction represents precisely the annulment of the identity of these peoples, here, leading to the
decimation of the aboriginal inhabitants of those lands. However, the (self-)criticism so zealously
practiced by the cultural strata during the regime would not have worked if – paradoxically for a secular,
atheist regime – there had not been a Christian heritage in the history of our people (forbidden by the
regime, with the correspondent (again, on another scale) of (self-)flogging – this “historical
punishment”).
The same was intended for George Enescu1. “Enescu was appreciated only for the fact that his
eventual return to Romania would have raised the prestige of the communist regime in Bucharest. And
don't think that they were not promised, as people say, “all the riches in the world” to his return: from
recognition to income and a possible recovery of a part of the fortune that had been confiscated in
Romania (Comandașu, 2011).
Although what happened to George Enescu after he left Romania in 1946 was brought to light
in the country, the efforts to discredit the composer did not stop. The musician had come to the attention
of the communist authorities since the consolidation of the regime. Thus, during the almost ten years in
which the composer was in France, in Romania there was an extensive campaign to „flag” George
Enescu's creation – on the already cemented pattern of the chronicles of “criticism and self-criticism”,
whose only expected result was to highlight the errors of inspiration of “foreign”, “exotic” or “non-
national” origin. In order to increase the influence of these “objective criticism”, they were printed in
national publications with large circulations. ... And the fact that the Romanian press was censored,
verified and published exclusively under the auspices of the Communist Party is no longer a secret 2.
Perhaps the most important material published in this process supported by the “cancellation”
of the scientific current due to the “cosmopolitan policy of the nobility”, is the Resolution of 1949 – year
in which the Society of Romanian Composers became the Union of Composers of the Romanian People's
Republic. Here we find a mention of the strong and exclusive connection that composers must have with
the people – ultimately the need to lower the academic level of the compositions, so that they do not
(anymore) require much of the intellect of the ordinary listener.
With the above-mentioned transformation of the Company, George Enescu was no longer on
the list of members, for a few years (and in no case would it be the management committees). Moreover,
during the years of his absence, he was harshly criticized in the meetings of the Romanian Composers
and Musicologists’ Society, especially by composers as Elly Roman or Savel Horceag (Cosma, 2020, p.
291).
Thus, Enescu's works were interpreted only insofar as they fit the ideology of the Resolution -
by an unintentional coincidence by the author, but assumed by the regime. Rhapsodies and Suites, having
a clear national character, were among them; in fact, these works were - when necessary - also the object
of praise. We notice very clearly this strategy in the article written by Zeno Vancea: „...Due to a
superficial contact with the masses and with the real local ambiance, as well as through a deliberate
integration in the western musical currents, George Enescu achieved the national specificity only in a
few of his works, such as Sonata III for violin, The adagio from the Violin Suite, the Country Suite
(Săteasca, na), the Romanian Poem, the three (?!, Na) Rhapsodies ... Only these were subject to the use
of Romanian folk music” (Cosma, 2020, p. 258). It seems, therefore, that his “national” spirit was lost
after the above-mentioned works, being criticized by Iosif Petre, in an article in the Flame of 1949, with
a pompous title: „Pentru combaterea unui hipnotic periculos” (Let us combat a dangerous hypnotic).
Here it is mentioned that Enescu's music “breaks with life and the wonderful source of inspiration that
is the people and is overwhelmed by the musical rot of the sunset” (Cosma, 2020, p. 262). There is a
presence of “exotic, mythological themes, unrelated to the thinking and feeling of our people, such as
Acteon, Armida, Agamemnon, Hecuba, Marsyas, Oedipus, which” populate our music, which
completely lacked Doja, Horia, Tudor Vladimirescu, Bălcescu »“ (Cosma, 2020, p. 272).
In the Diplomatic Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs – which I recently had the
opportunity to consult – I found even a few articles from 1961 (the year of the second edition of the
“George Enescu” Festival) in which this is also confirmed. inclination towards works with influences of
national origin:

1
The case of Enescu was special, however, if we consider the desire of the leadership to assimilate him to the regime without too
many questions, on a possible return to the country. But even so, the efforts to cancel his compositional value did not remain
without an echo in those times, leading to the almost total absence of Enescu from the concert posters, as we will see.
2
In a report of the Press Directorate issued by Gh. Mavrocordat on July 6, 1945, we find the following statements regarding the
coordination of control and censorship of the press: „the province has to meet the conditions of the Armistice regarding the control
of the press. (...) We consider it absolutely necessary to draw up a plan for the organization of a state agency responsible for both
the dissemination of official material and the reception and dissemination of information to foreign news agencies. (...) The Press
Directorate aims to support the ongoing press campaigns on the application of the Armistice, the popularization of the Soviet
Union and the strengthening of their relations, support for the actions of the Progressive Youth, the Anti-Fascist Women's Union,
all democratic organizations, all political and economic campaigns of the Government, those in progress as well as those that will
arise” (Petcu, 2016, p. 381)

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Ex. No.1: „Magazinul”, 06.09.1961 (Diplomatic Archives in MAE)

The “cancel culture” phenomenon actually reduced Enescu to a few works composed in his
youth, long before Enescu's genius had reached the depth of maturity that characterizes his ultimate
opposites. Although they are not worthless, they only represent a very small part of his personality.
Undoubtedly, this caused him great dissatisfaction, as can be read in the article written by George
Georgescu (in an article published in the Cotidianul – Daily-News – of September 1, 1961) which I will
annex.

Moreover, in parallel with this continuous contestation, the party continued taking advantage of Enescu's
reputation for the benefit of their own image. Right from the first months after the establishment of the
regime, although the composer had already left the country, he was on the candidates lists of the
“Democratic Parties” for the Grand National Assembly (Marea Adunare Națională). Leaders have tried,
in a wide-ranging campaign to strengthen their political power, to use the musician's reputation – as well
as the reputation of other important intellectuals – to improve his reputation in the country, but especially
abroad. The absence of a categorical refusal of affiliation from George Enescu is moreover interpreted
as a tacit accession, especially since he was elected on November 25, 1944 as “president of the music
subsection within the ARLUS General Council”.
However, in the file instrumented on his name (Voicu-Arnăuțoiu, 2015-2021) there are two
documents regarding the approval that he would have given to the leaders in Dorohoi County. These
were telegraphed from the Romanian Legation in Washington to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in
Bucharest. The documents date from 27 October 1946, have the same number (49447), but the text
differs, as can be seen:
“(...) I hereby declare that I accept the decision taken by the Bloc of Democratic Parties in
Romania and receive an isolated candidate in the parliamentary elections of November 1946, on the list
of the Democratic Parties in Dorohoi County.” The second message stated: (...) Master George Enescu
asked the above-mentioned Diplomatic Office to send you the following statement, written and signed
by His Excellency: “As a tribute to M.S. King Mihai I and as a sign of love for our peasantry, I agree to
be on the list of intellectual deputies outside of any party. I insist that I do not involve in politics and I
do not take any obligation in the political field. Long live the country and the King!” (File S.I.E. no.
5483, CNSAS Archives) (Voicu-Arnăuțoiu, 2015-2021).
The last tour undertaken in the U.R.S.S. was also capitalized politically, the leaders of the time
using especially the musicians’ testimonies about the extraordinary feedback he enjoyed. Thus, even if
Enescu's presence in the Soviet territory did not present a premiere – because his artistic relations with
Russia had been established since the beginning of the century (since 1909) – the communist government
tried on this occasion to highlight as well as the alleged benefits of the recent establishment of the

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totalitarian regime (although not even Soviet historiographers spoke then or later about any ideological
association of the composer during his visit).
However, these details did not reach the general public at the time; the composers’ presence
was therefore assumed by those in power as a metaphorical ladder which, in the perspective of the
ordinary reader, confirmed the “passage” they had acquired from the Master of Romanian culture and
intellectuality. Nothing worse, though! As he himself stated, he considered himself the representative of
the hated (then) bourgeois-landlord class. His music did not obey the canons of the regime, it was not
“uplifting”, it often urged melancholy, unwanted states, sometimes even leading to the dreaded musical
tragedy; but in order to reap the benefits of his international reputation, he was only locally criticized in
obscure musicological articles. Along with many other Romanian composers, George Enescu was
criticized in culture magazines, which had, by now, become real propaganda platforms. His
compositions were criticized as modern music, “not connected to the people”, lack of “ideological
commitment”, or, in other words, lack of attachment to the “popular masses”, being considered too
cosmopolitan. In his own country, Enescu was erroneously presented as “the simple son of the nation,
apostle of poverty and class struggle” (Jurnalul, 2021), and his destiny and redemption were invariably
linked to his return to the nation.
One of the photos of his grave, where the Romanian composers paid their last respects, is clearly
retouched, most likely by the „Security Services”. The picture was part of the musicologist Viorel
Cosma's collection, which he published, without any explanation, at the Farewell Concert. The
photograph does not show the wreath of flowers of Free Europe (Europa Liberă) and the cross brought
by Maruca Enescu; also, the inscriptions on the two visible wreaths differ from those recorded by the
archive report of Free Europe, in a last effort to transform Enescu from an artist of the world in an “artist
of the people” ...

Ex. No. 2: The delegation of Romanian musicians, in 1956, at the grave of George Enescu
(Source: Viorel Cosma, Farewell Concert) (Eskenazy, 2021)

One can hardly imagine his sadness in his last years when, helpless in facing the illness, far
away from his loved ones and every day less able to sing, he found that even the works with which he
identified most as an artist, were not played...
But, even if during his life Enescu suffered a lot because of the constant campaigns (on the
“cancel culture” pattern) on his national cultural value; even if, as can be seen, his efforts to consolidate
the Romanian music school were invalidated during his lifetime, and this caused him great sorrow, over
time they will not spoil the beauty and richness of the scores whose musical fabric was woven with a
thread of love for the country through which he longs for his homeland – as only our Master knew it.

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Annex:

A.1: Cotidianul, 01.09.1961 (Diplomatic Archives of MAE)

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
(n.d.). Retrieved from www.dictionary.com: https://www.dictionary.com/e/pop-culture/cancel-culture/
Comandașu, C. (2011, decembrie 8). România Muzical. Retrieved from www.romania-muzical.ro:
https://www.romania-muzical.ro/articol/george-enescu-un-exil-supravegheat/154461/22/2
Cosma, O. L. (2020). Universul Muzicii Românești (2 ed.). București: Ed. Muzicală.
Eskenazy, V. (2021, mai 18). Europa Liberă. Retrieved from romania.europalibera.org:
https://romania.europalibera.org/a/arhiva-podcast-victor-eskenasy-george-anescu-in-arhiva-europei-
libere/31261097.html
Jurnalul. (2021, Februarie 18). Retrieved from www.jurnalul.ro: https://jurnalul.ro/cultura/carte/senzationalul-
adevar-istoric-dezvaluit-la-omul-si-timpul-la-tvr-1-866791.html
Petcu, (. M. (2016). O cronologie a cenzurii în România. București: Editura Tritonic.
Voicu-Arnăuțoiu, I. (2015-2021). Muzicieni în Arhive. Retrieved from www.muzicieni-in-arhive.ro:
https://www.muzicieni-in-arhive.ro/george-enescu-ro.php

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 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE MAMAIA FESTIVAL
OCTAVIAN URSULESCU

ROMANIAN COMPOSERS AND MUSICOLOGISTS’ SOCIETY

ABSTRACT: In 1963, the Romanian Composers and Musicologists’

Society undertook a cultural forum to organize a national festival of pop
music, following the model of Sanremo (very popular in our country, as
well as all Italian pop music). Actually, it was discovered that in the first
editions each song was presented in two versions, until 1970 there was
only a Creation contest, dedicated to composers. The first edition
coincided with the inauguration of the Summer Theater in the tourist
resort of Mamaia, on the shores of the Black Sea, a theater that was
originally called „Ovid”, after the poet exiled from Rome on the shores
of Pontus Euxinus. At the beginning, only the leading composers signed
up, the most famous, reputed, younger creators only appearing along
the way. The same situation was registered at the level of performances,
the songs in the contest being entrusted only to the stars in great vogue
at the time. The accompaniment was provided by the best orchestras,
with the best conductors of the moment, the Radio and Television
Orchestra – conductor Sile Dinicu, and the Electrecord Record House
Orchestra – conductor Alexandru Imre. Later, combo-type groups
appeared, in a smaller formula, especially for the recitals moments that
were introduced outside the competition. The Mamaia Festival is the
most important page in the history of Romanian pop music; it was
interrupted several times, mainly for political reasons, the last time in
2012 – until today not being resumed.

KEYWORDS: MAMAIA, FESTIVAL, FLACĂRA

IN FEBRUARY 1963, a debate took place at the Music Council, at the State Committee for Culture
and Art, as the current Ministry of Culture was then called. At the proposal of the representatives of the
Union of Composers and Musicologists of Romania, it was decided to launch a festival and a pop music
contest, in order to encourage and promote the original creation. The term used in our country, „light
music”, was also found in other languages until recently, the former „light music” being today more and
more replaced with „pop music” – in the US music rankings can be found the category „AC” (adult
contemporary). But the terminology is less important, because let's not forget that George Enescu
expressed himself sharply: „There is no hard and light music, only good or bad music!”. In fact, over the
years, especially in the years when the Festival enjoyed great official recognition, the juries were led not
once by the presidents of the Romanian Composers and Musicologists’ Society – Ion Dumitrescu,
Nicolae Cǎlinoiu, Pascal Bentoiu, Adrian Iorgulescu, along with them taking place in the jury box
recognized personalities of cult music: Arta Florescu (held the title of Artist of the People, now missing),
Elvira Cârje, Georgeta Stoleriu, Cornel Trăilescu, Luminița Vartolomei, Petre Codreanu, Smaranda
Oțeanu, Vasile Tomescu, Vasile Donose. Also, the works from the Festival were brought to the
microphone by important voices, with performances recognized on the lyrical stages: Ludovic Spiess,
Florin Georgescu, Bianca Ionescu, Dorin Teodorescu, Marcel Roșca. The beneficial intention of the
musicians' guild was to continue the exceptional traditions left by the true founders of the genre, Ionel
Fernic, Vasile Vasilache, Gherase Dendrino or Ion Vasilescu, whose creations are still sung today at the
great musical events. Despite its popularity, but also of the genre as such, the Mamaia Festival did not
have a smooth history: it was no longer organized in 1967, 1968, 1970 (a period in which certainly all
efforts, creative and financial, were directed towards the first editions of the international festival „The
Golden Stag” in Brașov), and between 1976 and 1983 it was interrupted (many feared a final abolition)
following „bayonet” attacks from the most influential publication, including politics, from that period,
the magazine „Flacăra”, led by the poet Adrian Păunescu. Here is what he wrote on August 5, 1976,
immediately after the end, on July 31, of the Mamaia Festival: „We would have expected a more serious
effort by composers and lyricists to include the soul life of the builders of socialism, a life so complex
and not devoid of dramatic accents, of course if we think of the great action to which all people are called
work. Let's not forget the idea that comrade Nicolae Ceaușescu emphasized when talking about artists,

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namely that they must address the source, not the jug... Life, with its joys, struggles and pains, did not
reach Mamaia this year. And life needs an art that addresses itself directly to man”. And not to anyone
Adrian Păunescu, a remarkable poet, did not like traditional pop music, promoting at the Cenacle
„Flacăra”, which he presented (huge audience, full stadiums) especially the folk genre, called „young
music”. Obviously, the workhorse was mainly represented by the lyrics of the songs, in the same article
he practically abolished even the „thematic” songs, with patriotic thrill, such as Romania, If I Were to
Be, „The 100 Years”. So, although other similar songs were awarded at that edition, as required by the
Party directives („Tell Me, My Country”, „Today, Here, Now”), at the highest level it was decided to
ban the Festival, which will not be resumed until 1983, thanks to the ability of the Secretary of State of
the Council of Socialist Culture and Education, Ladislau Hegheduș. He introduced an infallible system:
the „thematic” songs opened and closed, as between the covers, the festival evenings, along the way he
sprinkled two or three songs of the same kind outside the competition, so the rest was sung without any
problems! There were the years when, until 1989, some of the most beautiful hits of the genre were
awarded in Mamaia: Strada Speranței, And I Fell In Love With You by Vasile Veselovski, Water and
Fire, Well, Why? by Horia Moculescu, At 5 past Half, at the University by Ionel Tudor, I Didn't Think
About Parting by Dan Dimitriu, If You Don't Come, Come Back, Love, If One Day You Will Love Me by
Ion Cristinoiu, Why Don't You Tell Me You Love Me? by Vasile V. Vasilache, Silent Lovers, Who Loves
by Jolt Kerestely, How Much I Loved You, Bringing Love Back by Dumitru Lupu, Stay by My Forehead
by Mircea Dragan and many others. Since the 1990 edition, appreciated by the music critic Mario
Luzzato Fegiz in the Italian daily „Corriere della sera” as „Sanremo alla romena sul Mar Nero”, it is
obvious that the „thematic” pieces have not been imposed, appearing titles that do not even we could
have thought before, such as Ave Maria by Cornel Fugaru (Grand Prize in 1990), Give, Lord, Song! by
Viorel Gavrilă and others. Unfortunately, the freedom of expression in the lyrics was not always
accompanied by musical gains, the dilution of the substance of the event causing the renowned
composers to stop participating in the competition. As a result, a degradation of the festival has been
observed since 1998, which did not stop until its interruption (the longest so far) in 2012. The last edition
of the Romanian pop music Festival in Mamaia (this is how it was conceived at the beginning, which
became later we will see during this series) took place in 2012 at... Constanța, at the Soveja garden,
being presented by the performer Daniel Iordăchioae, as he recalled in a very successful and funny show
„Vara lui Măruță” from ProTV. And if we are still here, we can not but praise Cătălin Măruță, who
introduced in July-August 2021 in his show no less than 10 important moments related to the Mamaia
Festival, although he never presented the Festival, nor ProTV never broadcast it! Instead, TVR, which
has all the footage (if they hadn't deleted it, as I understood it would have done with those from
„Becoming Hits” and „The Nameless Star”...) and which could have proceeded to a beautiful history of
the Festival, did nothing... But until we review the unforgettable sequences from this Festival founded
in 1963 with the decisive contribution of the Union of Composers and Musicologists of Romania, we
find absolutely revealing the position of the lyricist (he signed hundreds of songs, many of which become
a hit), to the librettist and writer Eugen Rotaru, published in the magazine „Actualitatea Muzicală” in
June 2001, in the very first issue of the new series, color: „Why do we pay from everyone's money the
stupid activity of a few? Who decides this payment? Who has been forcing us to endure for several years
now the inability of some civil servants who have nothing to do with the art of music, but who are
clinging to organizing this NON-MUSIC Festival in Mamaia?” Here are some questions to which I will
try to give some answers as a member of the Union of Romanian Composers and Musicologists. At the
time when the Union was involved in the organization of the festival in Mamaia, the result was a real
celebration of Romanian pop music. The quality of the chosen songs represents the educated taste of
several generations of composers who endorsed the excellent content of the genre repertoire. The texts
were redone until their final form could be proudly published in any magazine. Without being about
censorship, there were composers, lyricists, poets, orchestrators called to judge the stage at which the
Romanian genre creation was, trying every year to add new works and new people to the common
fortune. But something happened. Someone changed the order of importance of the organizers of this
event... primarily artistic. Slowly, slowly on the organizational level, the Ministry of Culture passed on
the first place through its representatives, on the second place the Romanian Television through its
artistic officials, on the third place the local organizers, and the Romanian Composers And
Musicologists’ Society remained without the „object of work”. Who made the new „original” order of
organizing a music festival... without music? There is only one answer: POVERTY. Poverty is the cause
of the decent withdrawal of specialists in the face of the invasion of impudence and mitochondria,
elevated to the rank of supreme judgment. The poverty of ideas gave us the unfortunate solution to
concede the Festival to Adrian Ștefănescu – a suburban trickster – and to put Doina Păuleanu – a
museographer with musical aspirations, at the artistic direction of such an event. Woe to you, Romanian
Pop Music! Last year, the poor quality of Patron brought the Festival to the hands of people who have
nothing to do with what is called the National Festival. People without any measure in social behavior
awarded a Mercedes car and imposed on a prize a modest restaurant singer, who sings well, but who

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does not communicate anything (n.ed.: In 2000 the trophy for Interpretation was granted to Rafael
Ciobotaru, who much later would collaborate with the band Iris). The Romanian Composers And
Musicologists’ Society will always stand by the organizers from Constanța with friendship and
dedication only as long as a quality music of Romanian tradition is desired, far from any children's
fashions that have been zealously promoted in recent years. The Union of Composers will not make any
discount on quality just to be part of the organizers. We are indebted to our forerunners to defend all that
is good, in our parameters of professionals, and it can represent us now and in years to come, when our
descendants will judge us”. In the above lines, we recall, dating from two decades ago (but how current
today!), Eugen Rotaru made a relentless analysis, but absolutely correct and objective, of the Festival
from Mamaia to the border between the millennia. A few clarifications are required, for those less
familiar with the field. Doina Păuleanu, a respected art critic (in the field of painting), was later the
director of the Art Museum in Constanța and passed away last year, but I don't think she got too involved
in the musical „kitchen” of the festival, being just a representative civilized organization of local
organizers. Instead, from Adrian Ștefănescu, through the 1998 and 1999 editions, which were
incomprehensible to him, as Eugen Rotaru rightly remarks, the decline of the Mamaia festival began.
Self-entitled „producer”, although he had neither musical nor... financial competence, he upset the event,
introducing new sections, choosing inexperienced moderators and generally turning everything into a
circus from which the Festival will no longer return. The scandals with unpaid collaborators (Alina
Chivulescu, Gabriel Cotabiță) date from that period, but especially with two excellent winners of the
Mamaia Trophy, the beautiful Natalia Barbu (from Chisinau) and Adria Șerban from Buzǎu (forced to
focus on classical singing, the rise in pop music being barred from it). Adrian Ștefănescu, becoming the
all-powerful producer, tricked them into signing absolutely enslaving exclusive contracts with him,
which simply took away their artistic freedom! Starting with the 2000 edition, to which Eugen Rotaru
refers, the reins of the festival were taken over by Liana Săndulescu, from TVR, under whose command
the skid deepened, leading to the “final victory”, the 2012 death of the Festival ... As I said, „The first
contest and festival of Romanian pop music” (so the poster said) took place between August 25 and 29,
1963, inaugurating the „Ovidiu” Summer Theater, with 1100 seats. Much of the information about the
editions up to 1969, when I arrived at the festival in person, was provided by the passionate historian of
pop music, Mircea Nicolau from Constanța. Although so much time has passed, it is amazing that we
still hum the choruses of some of the songs that won then: Towards the Sun by George Grigoriu (UTM
award), Dawn by Temistocle Popa (Seaside Award), Mirrors of the Sea by Eugen Teger Radiotelevision
award), I Would Like the Years of Youth Again ... by Henry Mălineanu (UCMR award), How Is It? by
Florin Bogardo (Writers' Union Award), The Sun Is In Love by Dinu Șerbănescu, I'm Looking for You
by Florentin Delmar – a piece appreciated as a „masterpiece” by Horia Moculescu (both – Mentions).
The jury awarded Special Prizes to the performers Ioana Radu, Dorina Drăghici (both, Emeritus Artists),
Gigi Marga, Lavinia Slăveanu, Doina Badea, Constantin Drăghici, Margareta Pâslaru, Luigi Ionescu,
Nicolae Nițescu. The second edition was scheduled a little earlier, July 14-17, 1964, and was as seen
with a shorter day. This time we had a Grand Prize awarded by the State Committee for Culture and Art
to the song You by Vasile Veselovski, otherwise the same distinctions were awarded, except for the RTV
award. Winners: Two Swallows by Radu Șerban (UTM award), Nobody by Henry Mălineanu (Seaside
award), As on the First Day by Elly Roman (UCMR award), The Moment Then by Noru Demetriad
Writers' Union, the lyrics being signed by Nina Cassian), Your Eyes by Gelu Solomonescu (mention).
The Special Awards went to Sile Dinicu, conductor of the RTV stage orchestra, Alexandru Imre,
conductor of the Electrecord record label orchestra, Doina Badea and Constantin Drăghici, while Special
Mentions went to the soloists Margareta Pâslaru, Ilinca Cerbacev, Luigi Ionescu, Nicolae Nițescu,
Aurelian Andreescu. In 1965, the third edition of the Mamaia Festival took place between August 10-
14, occasioning some spectacular debuts: the duet Alexandru Jula-Ionel Miron, Horia Moculescu, Anca
Agemolu, Jean Păunescu, Grațiela Chițu, Jancsy Korossy. The winners were almost all the leaders of
those golden years of the genre, all with inspired refrains: Radu Șerban – Tell Me and I Believe You
(UCMR award), Temistocle Popa – Dorule (Writers' Union Award), Vasile Veselovski – With You (RTV
award) and The Moon in Mamaia (Seaside award), George Grigoriu – Let's Sing (UTC award). Mentions
were given to the songs Singing For the Sake of Whom I Love by Aurel Giroveanu (one of the performers
being Horia Moculescu), A Simple Song by Elly Roman, How to Forget What It Was by Nicolae
Kirculescu, I Didn’t Know How to Keep You by Noru Demetriad (great hit, one of the soloists being
Horia Moculescu), Evenings by the Sea by Sile Dinicu. At this edition, the organizers awarded Special
Prizes to both the three conductors (Sile Dinicu, Alexandru Imre, Horia Moculescu) and to the soloists
Margareta Pâslaru, Ilinca Cerbacev and Aurelian Andreescu. New distinctions also appeared: Award for
the best performance (Constantin Drăghici), 1964 Romanian Light Music Disc Award (to the same
Constantin Drăghici), Interpretation mentions (Lucky Marinescu, Horia Moculescu, Grațiela Chițu),
Honorary diploma (Jancsy Korossy). It was the last edition in which the finalist pieces from the Creation
contest benefited from two interpretive versions. About those years when he debuted at the festival in
Mamaia (because in the resort he sang with his orchestra, the place being always crowded), the famous

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composer Horia Moculescu, whom I happened to notice in the above lines, remembers: „In 1964 I sent
two pieces to the pre-selection, which did not enter, but my ascent is related to that year's edition. I took
over, playing at the Casino in Mamaia, ten pieces from the pre-selection and I processed them for a band
of five people. We sang them in front of two leading representatives of the Party culturally. The success
was so great that we were proposed to the artistic agency of impresario, OSTA. Three soloists joined us:
Marina Voica, Ilinca Cerbacev, Constantin Drăghici and the comic actor Ovid Teodorescu. We started
some fabulously successful tours, which brought us an hour of broadcasting on New Year's Eve TV 65.
Then I ended up accompanying a quarter of the Festival, together with the other two conductors, Sile
Dinicu and Alexandru Imre”. The first three editions of the Festival outlined the guidelines for the
following years, after which everything that was good was kept and gave up what had not brought an
indicative addition to the jury, such as the two interpretive versions. Instead, from the next edition there
are a series of interesting innovations, which, unbelievably, we find in the current development of the
Sanremo Festival!
We will insist in this material especially on the old editions of the Mamaia Festival, practically
unknown to the young or little known even to the elderly. Until 1989, the Festival was an emblematic
event, eagerly awaited by all lovers of the genre, being, if you will, our Oscar or Grammy awards! There
was no shortage of famous composers (which has not happened since the late 90's, when, as I wrote, the
deterioration of the Festival, from an artistic point of view, gained alarming notes and removed the
creators), also for performers was a title of glory to lead to awards songs that would later become national
hits, hummed by music lovers of all ages.
Even at the level of the organizers, this huge interest led to the permanent modification of the
regulation, of the system of deployment, this happening for the first time at the 4th edition, in 1966, which
lasted not less than a week, between 8 and 14 of August. The innovations consisted in the selection of
22 successful songs released in the last year, these, plus the 32 in the first audition, being presented in
three distinct stages (of course, the ones from Sanremo copied us, over the years!). In the first stage all
54 songs were presented, in the second the jury operated a selection, the retained ones being performed
in the third concert, which was actually identified with the Laureates Gala. Also, the formula with double
interpretation was abandoned, the pieces having only one version at a time. It was the edition in which
performers were noticed who later became authentic stars – Luminița Dobrescu, Pompilia Stoian, Dan
Spătaru, Anda Călugăreanu, Sergiu Cioiu, Menzel Brothers- as well as others successful in that period,
such as Trio Do-Re-Mi, Elena Neagu or Denise Constantinescu (protected by Nicolae Kirculescu). In a
TV show, years ago (Sunday With the Family, on Antena 1), Marina Voica offered a recording with her
accompanied on the piano by the composer Radu Șerban, who had entrusted her with the song Dear
friend. But as the artist, who came from the USSR, had entered a period of political interdiction (she had
several during her career ...), the composer rightly decided that it was a pity to lose such a beautiful song,
chosen in a survey by Radio Romania on the border between millennia as „The hit of the twentieth
century”. It was the chance of the student of Philology at the University of Bucharest (English-French
faculty) Pompilia Stoian, who gave life with great sensitivity to the song awarded at that edition with
the Grand Prize of the State Committee for Culture and Art. Pompilia Stoian's revelation also brought
two other winning songs to the fore: The First Call by Paul Urmuzescu (Mention) and My Dream, My
Life by Aurel Giroveanu (Jury Prize). So many decades have passed since then, but, incredibly, the
choruses of many of the winning songs automatically come to our lips! Thus, the U. C. M. R. prize was
awarded to Nicolae Kirculescu's composition Colors, Colors (soloist Constantin Drăghici), while the
Writers' Union prize went to the play signed by Vasile Veselovski on the lyrics of the poet Ion Minulescu
Sang a Sailor (Doina Badea). Over the years, other songs from the palmares remained in the
consciousness of the general public, such as Don't Be Upset by Paul Ghențer, with Anda Călugăreanu
and Mihai Dumbravă, the latter also signing the lyrics (UTC Central Committee Award) or The Song of
the Wind by Alexandru Mandy, with the actor-singer Sergiu Cioiu (Award of the Executive Committee
of the People's Council of Constanța). Other distinctions went to titles such as If I Were Born Again by
George Grigoriu, soloist Gica Petrescu, since then a veteran (Romanian Radio and Television Award),
Mamaia, au revoir by Noru Demetriad, soloist Ilinca Cerbacev („Carpathians” National Tourism Office
Award), Youth Olympics by Temistocle Popa, soloist Dan Spătaru (Union Award for Physical Culture
and Sports). Of course, the distinctions were also established by the jury, only that a number of official
bodies were included at the organizational level in the list. Three Interpretation Prizes were awarded –
Doina Badea, Constantin Drăghici, Gelu Solomonescu (conductor of the „Bucharest” orchestra, which
was in fact of the „Constatin Tănase” Music-Hall), while the Interpretation Mentions reached Pompilia
Stoian, Ilinca Cerbacev (at that time it seems that no one was bothered by the obvious cacophony...),
Anda Călugăreanu (she was luckier: Anca was in the bulletin and someone noticed her and changed a
consonant for her!), Dan Spătaru, Sergiu Cioiu, Alexandru Imre (conductor of the Electrecord record
label orchestra). As can be seen, the separate performance competition, open to young aspirants to glory,
had not been introduced, but the deserving artists were highlighted in the final list. And the true masters

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were never forgotten, proof that in 1966 Gică Petrescu was awarded an Honorary Diploma, and the well-
known romance songs soloist Mia Braia was awarded the „Disc Award” in 1965.
For obscure reasons, the 1967 and 1968 editions probably did not take place, as I wrote before,
due to the fact that all artistic forces, as well as Romanian Television, were involved in organizing the
first edition of the „Golden Stag” International Festival of in Brașov – a bet that the political leadership
had to win and succeeded (we suspect that for the same reason the 1970 edition was „skipped”, when a
contest took place in Bucharest, which we will naturally insist on). So, here we are in 1969. The 5 th
edition (July 25-27) marks the introduction of the Interpretation competition and also the forced move
to the Dramatic Theater in Constanța, due to the unfavorable weather (the summer theater in Mamaia
was not covered and remained so, despite attempts to mount a tarpaulin in a few years). As in 1966, the
successful pieces released in the previous year were also taken into account, but this time there were
separate rankings. They confirmed some of the young soloists stated at the previous edition (Anca
Agemolu, Dan Spătaru – both had represented Romania at the first „Golden Deer” in Brasov, in 1968,
Sergiu Cioiu), but there were others who in the coming years will meant a lot in the economy of the
genre, such as Angela Similea, Doina Spătaru, Aura Urziceanu – with a fulminating career in jazz, Dorin
Anastasiu, Acvilina Severin. In the Creation/ Works section in the first audition, the first prize was
awarded to the song You Can't! by Henry Mălineanu, with the great lady of Romanian romance Ioana
Radu (by the way, the song is indispensable, year after year, from the manifestations dedicated to this
so Romanian genre, „Golden Chrysanthemum” from Târgoviște and others). The second prize went to
Vasile V. Vasilache's composition The Old Piano, an extensive piece, which will also have a notable
international career, highlighting the vocal ambition of the soloist Doina Badea. On the third position
were placed, tied, two pieces whose title is ... completed: I Did Not Know by Mișu Iancu (Doina Badea)
and ... I Know by Nicolae Kirculescu (Constantin Drăghici). The three mentions were directed to the
compositions of the frantic drummer Sergiu Malagamba – With Closed Eyes (Doina Badea), the hit-
maker George Grigoriu (It's The Age of Questions – Mihaela Mihai) and the conductor Gelu
Solomonescu (Your Hands – Luigi Ionescu, soloist under his baton at the „Constantin Tănase” Music-
Hall Theater). With great interest, of course, the confrontation of the songs already known to the general
public, released between April 1968 and April 1969, was expected. You could already feel the „breeze”
of the „thematic” works, the first prize going to the song Always on this Earth by Temistocle Popa, sung
by Doina Badea, ideal for this kind of songs (the singer died dramatically in the 1977 earthquake). The
exceptional composer, pianist and music director Florin Bogardo was never credited with the Trophy or
the first prize, but in 1969 two of his creations won the second prize: Let's Not Forget to Love the Roses
(Margareta Pâslaru) and The Hour of the Song (Mihaela Mihai). One of the songs awarded, also ex
aequo, with the third prize was From Yesterday to Today by Laurențiu Profeta (Aurelian Andreescu),
and the second makes us send a smile, but also a reproach to the jury of that edition, being about Oh,
Little Heart! by Edmond Deda, with whom Luminița Dobrescu had won the „Golden Stag” in Brașov a
few months earlier - the first Romanian victory at the big Festival! The three Mentions were directed to
the composition of Constantin Drăghici, also sung by him, It Should Not Be, to the creation of a veteran
of the genre, Elly Roman I Hug You, My Love, on the lyrics of the poet Victor Eftimiu – soloist Luigi
Ionescu) and to Petre Mihăescu's song You Left Laughing, entrusted to the star of the moment, Luminița
Dobrescu. The juries, not only in Mamaia, are always confused when they are dealing with a big hit, as
it had become since the launch of Passing the Military Marching Band, performed by Dan Spătaru. But
as Temistocle Popa had already been awarded the first prize, a compromise formula was used: only a...
Mention of popularity. But what still matters, certainly the diploma lies, yellowed by the weather,
through a bridge, but the world is still humming the nice march inspired by the author of the Galați
fanfare of his childhood... Gică Petrescu won the „Record Award” in 1968 – is there any an elderly
family that still doesn't have a few vinyl records, published by Electrecord, with the legendary performer,
even if the pick-ups have disappeared? At least two remarkable songs did not enter the record, but since
then a lot has been sung, which says it all: After the Night Comes the Day by Aurel Giroveanu, on lyrics
by Tudor Mușatescu (Margareta Pâslaru) and If You Don't Love by George Grigoriu (Luminița
Dobrescu), although normally they had to be awarded. As can be seen, with rare exceptions the
composers relied on established voices, not having much confidence in young people, maybe that's why
it was decided to introduce a performance competition, even if some of the winners were already well
known, proof that the first prize was shared by Dan Spătaru and Dorin Anastasiu, the second prize by
Aura Urziceanu and Anca Agemolu, while Sergiu Cioiu won the third prize. Of the five young people
awarded with Mentions, the best known today is by far Doina Spătaru; with successes at the time were
Acvilina Severin and Gabriela Teodorescu, and not much is known about Valentina Popescu. The fifth
„Mention” has an interesting story. A few years ago, an elderly performer came to the I Am Waiting for
You on the Same Road romance festival in Zlatna, about whom her former stage colleague from Cluj-
Napoca, from her student days, Stela Enache (found in the jury), said that he should not be admitted to
the competition. It was about Octavian Cadia, settled for a long time in the USA, where he had also tried
his luck as a film actor, the celebrity bringing him the role in the movie „Dracula” by Francis Ford

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Coppola, the crazy spider swallow who was waiting beyond thanks to the adored master, a role probably
entrusted to him due to his Romanian origin. Cadia, mentioned in 1969, passed away some time ago.
What we find interesting, if Mircea Nicolau's information is correct and really competed, is the fact that
soloists such as Angela Similea, Alexandru Jula, Puica Igiroșanu, Elena Constantinescu, even George
Răpcău did not enter the list, but their ascent was just beginning... Therefore, except for 1969, for three
years, 1967, 1968 and 1970, exactly during the first four editions of the international festival „The
Golden Stag” from Brașov, the Mamaia Festival did not take place. So, from the Black Sea all the forces
of Romanian pop music – composers, lyricists, instrumentalists, conductors – had moved to the
mountains, adding to them the impressive team of Romanian Television, the event being broadcast live
on the small screen. The notebook (actually an impressive book in size, containing over a hundred
scores) with Romanian genre creations was sent in advance all over the world, and for Romanian
composers it was a great joy to listen to their works performed by valuable soloists from abroad, some
of them having a good business card at that moment (Frida Boccara, Joe Dolan, Kiki Dee, Jacques
Hustin, Guy Mardel).
As probably the decision not to organize a fifth edition of „The Golden Stag” in 1972 had
already been taken at a high level, between July 23rd and 25th, 1971 I returned to Mamaia, for the 6th
edition. As can be seen, only three days of the Festival, of which only the first took place at the Summer
Theater in Mamaia, after which the event was moved due to bad weather, as in 1969, at the Dramatic
Theater in Constanța. Extremely interesting is the fact that either the level of entries was lower than
before (more than likely), or the requirement of the jury that year increased, but the first and second
prizes for Creation were not awarded – a first in the field. Instead, three songs were awarded with the
third prize, ex aequo: Trust by Ion Cristinoiu (Marina Voica), as well as two songs sung by Dan Spătaru
– But What Don't You Have? by Vasile Veselovschi and My Mind Came Around by Henry Mălineanu.
But there were no less than five distinguished songs with mentions: Once Upon a Time” by Horia
Moculescu (Dan Spătaru, soloist in his best period), I'm in Trouble on the Calendar by Aurel Giroveanu
(song specially designed for the veteran Gică Petrescu), First Place on Earth by Alexandru Mandy (with
the favorite soloist of the composer-poet, the actor Sergiu Cioiu), The Sun of Love by George Grigoriu
(Margareta Pâslaru), Do You Remember? by Constantin Alexandru, the pseudonym under which the
composer Ramon Tavernier (soloist Aurelian Andreescu) appeared for a while. As can be seen, the
names of the composers who had already made an important business card frequently returned to the
record, the same being true for the soloists who had taken over the position of stars from their
predecessors – Margareta Pâslaru, Marina Voica, Aurelian Andreescu, Dan Spătaru, Sergiu Cioiu. With
the exception of the deceased (Spătaru, Andreescu), they are still active today, proving an astonishing
longevity at a high level. And in the interpretation contest, at the 1971 edition, artists appeared who will
be added to them in the „national group” of performers who, in turn, with some exceptions, enjoy
popularity and appreciation. But here is the record of the Interpretation competition from Mamaia 1971:
Cornel Constantiniu, Dida Drăgan (first prize), Stela Enache (second prize), Petre Geambașu, George
Enache, Ana Petria (third prize). Constantiniu, Geambașu and Petria would later be colleagues for a long
time at the „Ion Vasilescu” Theater in Bucharest, which had a strong music-hall section. Just a Mention
for today's golden voice, Mirabela Dauer, on the same level appearing George Răpcău and Anca
Dimitriu. The future extremely popular artist Mihai Constantinescu also competed, although he did not
enter the list, but he had the consolation that his then friend, Olimpia Panciu, to whom he had entrusted
the composition The Puppet, was rewarded with a mention for the youngest competitor".
From 1972 until the brutal interruption in 1976, the Festival in Mamaia did not have an
Interpretation contest, it reappeared at the resumption, in 1983, instead there were recitals of the beloved
stars. The organizers have always been the same: the Council of Socialist Culture and Education, the
Union of Romanian Composers and Musicologists, the Romanian Radio and Television and the
Constanța County Committee for Socialist Culture and Education. It returned to the stage of the Mamaia
Summer Theater, adorned with successful sets, and the accompaniment was provided by the Estrada
Orchestra (this was the term at the time) of the Romanian Radio and Television, conducted by Sile
Dinicu. As in the 1963-1965 editions, the performance of the finalist songs in two versions was resumed,
and the duration of the festival again covered almost a week. Thus, the 7 th edition took place between
July 25th and 30th, 1972, being embellished with the applauded recitals given by Doina Badea, Marina
Voica, Anda Călugăreanu, Mihaela Mihai, Corina Chiriac, Aurelian Andreescu, Dan Spătaru, Mihai
Constantinescu, George Enache, that is, exactly the artists with a high box office at that time. The first
prize was shared by two composers who dominated the landscape of the genre, George Grigoriu with
Your Beauties (Doina Badea, Mihaela Mihai) and Radu Șerban with Spring of Beauty (Doina Badea,
George Enache), both are understood with a discreet „thematic” perfume, which will be accentuated in
the years to come. The second prize went to Temistocle Popa, for the songs The First Love (Doina Badea,
Ioana Iliant) and In Row Four (Anda Călugăreanu in both evenings, Dan Spătaru missing at the last
moment of the festival). The last piece, otherwise a big hit, produced a lot of fun through Mircea Block's
text, because there were only 3 rows in the classrooms, the benches in the third one being all in the

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window anyway, so it would have been correct „window”! The renowned composer Aurel Giroveanu
received the third prize for two works, In Every Harbor (Marina Voica, Mihaela Mihai) and The
Romance Has Rejuvenated, I Still Listen to You Today ... (Corina Chiriac, Elena Munteanu). This last
song is still present at the romance festivals in the country, led by „The Golden Chrysanthemum” from
Targoviste. Elena Munteanu traveled the world singing aboard cruise ships with Stela Enache; his
daughter, Tina Munteanu, is a young star of operetta and musical. Also with the third prize was awarded
the wonderful song of Florin Bogardo A Butterfly, a Bird, performed by Aurelian Andreescu and Stela
Enache, the soloist being the new wife of the composer. Three songs received Mentions, these being
Look at the World by Gelu Solomonescu (George Enache, Mihai Constantinescu), Who Says It's Easy?
by Petre Mihăescu (Corina Chiriac, Cornel Constantiniu) and In the Sweet Fair of Iasi by Richard Stein
(Corina Chiriac, Cornel Constantiniu – who was also an actor at the National Theater in Iași). Richard
Stein is the author of the famous song Sleigh with Rattles, shamelessly appropriated by the American
guitarist Les Paul (and also sung by Edith Piaf!), But also, more recently, by Danny Klein (who
insolently responded to journalists to „The Golden Deer” when she was questioned on this topic!) and
Vaya con Dios. It was, it seems, an international process, but what chance did a musician from a socialist
country have of winning, even if justice was 100% on his side? The organizers and the jury probably felt
the need to give three so-called „Popularity Mentions” to songs that were really successful: Say Goodbye,
You Bride! (Mihai Constantinescu) and Hey, Sea! (Mihaela Mihai; Stela Enache and George Enache –
no kinship between them!), both by George Grigoriu, How Young You Are! by Radu Șerban (Anda
Călugăreanu; Olimpia Panciu and Mihai Constantinescu). The soloists with outstanding performances
were rewarded with Special Awards for Interpretation, these being, in general, the same as in the
previous edition: Doina Badea, Marina Voica, Anda Călugăreanu, Stela Enache, Corina Chiriac, Mihaela
Mihai, Ioana Iliant, Dida Dragan, Aurelian Andreescu, Cornel Constantiniu, Mihai Constantinescu,
George Enache. Thus, at the beginning of the eighth decade, the groups of composers and performers
had transformed, as they say, everything they touched, this aspect being evident in the 8 th edition, July
17th-22nd, 1973, when the recitals were given by Doina Badea, Marina Voica, Margareta Pâslaru, Corina
Chiriac, Dida Drăgan, Cornel Constantiniu, Mihai Constantinescu, George Enache. This time the
organizers nominated separate, own distinctions, each of them rewarding two creations by the same
composer. George Grigoriu marked his supremacy again, obtaining the Prize of the Council of Culture
and Socialist Education with the songs Sweet, Sweet Romania (Cornel Constantiniu, Mihaela Mihai) and
The Stars (Marina Voica, Margareta Pâslaru). The other two important distinctions followed the same
formula, a slightly „thematic” piece, next to which a „neutral” one was placed. Thus, the Award of the
State Committee of the Romanian Radio and Television went to Radu Șerban, for the creations Who
Found My Youth? (Sergiu Cioiu, Mihaela Mihai) and A Branch to Heaven (Corina Chiriac, Eva Kiss),
and the Composers and Musicologists’ Soicety rewarded the talent of a young composer who would
write history in Mamaia. Marius Țeicu was awarded the U.C.M.R. Prize for The Call of Love (Adrian
Romcescu, Dida Drăgan) and Young People (Anda Călugăreanu, Mihai Constantinescu). The same three
organizers also awarded two mentions each. The Council of Socialist Culture and Education focused on
You Are My Spring by Florin Bogardo (Aurelian Andreescu, Mihaela Mihai), an emblematic piece of
the genre, and To Us by Aurel Manolache (Margareta Pâslaru, Dan Spătaru). The radio and television
rewarded with its own mentions the compositions of Temistocle Popa Sing a Shepherd (Margareta
Pâslaru, Dan Spătaru), And I Woke Up That I Love You (Margareta Pâslaru, Ioana Iliant), while the
Composers and Musicologists’ Soicety, naturally, to some creations of great refinement, giving no less
than four mentions: Song by Horia Moculescu (Horia Moculescu Quintet, Eva Kiss) or You Told Me You
Love Me by Misu Iancu (Aurelian Andreescu, Mihaela Mihai). Along with these, the guild of music
professionals gave two mentions to the songs of Vasile Veselovschi Someone Caroled These Places
(Doina Badea, Corina Chiriac) and Hour (Mihai Constantinescu, George Enache). The same great
celebrities, consecrated from now on, were invited, as a sign of recognition of their value, to give recitals
in 1974, at the 9th edition of the Festival, scheduled between July 23-28: Gică Petrescu, Doina Badea,
Marina Voica , Corina Chiriac, Mihaela Mihai, Aurelian Andreescu, Cornel Constantiniu, Mihai
Constantinescu, to which was added Aura Urziceanu, who had not yet fully dedicated herself to jazz.
From this year the politicization of major distinctions begins to become the rule, the first prize, for
example, returning to the song Homage by Temistocle Popa, the two versions belonging to Doina Badea
and Cornel Constantiniu, soloists „condemned” to give life to the extensive, vibrant „thematic” works.
First prize: I Love You by Vasile Veselovschi, with the same two soloists. Marius Țeicu confirmed the
superlative launch from the previous edition, winning the third prize with the songs Now I Found You
(Marina Voica, Aurelian Andreescu) and Just Peace (Adrian Romcescu, Dida Drăgan). Another third
prize was awarded to a regular of the trophies, George Grigoriu, for The Day that Is Not Forgotten
(Cornel Constantiniu, Dida Dragan). I mentioned Marius Țeicu, and in 1974 other composers appeared
on the list of laureates for whom the presence on the podium in the future will become a habit, both
being rewarded with Mentions: Ion Cristinoiu with Happy Years (Corina Chiriac, Stela Enache),
respectively Marcel Dragomir with Adolescents (Mihai Constantinescu, Olimpia Panciu). The other

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mentions went to the songs Who Would I Be? by Mișu Iancu (Cornel Constantiniu, Mihaela Mihai),
Moments by Andrei Proșteanu (Corina Chiriac, Aurelian Andreescu), Unbelievable by Mihai Dumbravă
(Sergiu Cioiu, Mihai Dumbravă), Longing and Thought by Aurel Giroveanu (Doina Badea; Mihaela
Mihai and Cornel Constantiniu), I Was Born in Romania by Petre Mihăescu (Cristian Popescu, Dan
Spătaru), Your Beloved Eye by Florin Bogardo, on lyrics by Mihai Eminescu (Stela Enache, Mihai
Constantinescu). The 10th edition of the Mamaia Festival (July 22-27, 1975) brought as an innovation
the micro-recitals of young soloists, usually launched at the TV contest The Star Without a Name: Janina
Matei, Doina Limbășanu, Clara Anton, Monica Moldas, Cezar Tataru, Radu Tozo, compensating in a
way the lack of acting competition. The evenings were completed, of course, with recitals of the „heavy”
genre: Marina Voica, Margareta Pâslaru, Dida Dragan, Cornel Constantiniu (here he could, poor man,
prove that he can sing songs ... normal!), Mihai Constantinescu, Adrian Romcescu. After his somewhat
timid appearance a year before, with a Mention, the remarkable composer (equally conductor and
percussionist) Ion Cristinoiu strikes, as they say, occupying the highest step of the podium with no less
than three songs – a premiere in the field. So, the first prize went to her showcase for the songs For You,
My Country (Doina Badea, Angela Similea), Melodies of Love (Margareta Pâslaru; Olimpia Panciu and
Mihai Constantinescu), The Reviewing (Aurelian Andreescu, Mihaela Mihai). The record holder of the
awards in Mamaia, George Grigoriu, was placed only on the second position, although both of his
creations were clearly „on the official line”, more present and suggested to composers, if they aspired to
an award: Here, At My Home (Margareta Pâslaru, Cristian Popescu) and Ballad for This Earth (Cornel
Constantiniu, Clara Anton). Ironically, although he received a text subliminal patriotic song after the
highly successful The Tree of Jolt Kerestely (Aurelian Andreescu, Stela Enache) was awarded third prize
only ... And as the officials were vigilantly asleep with the texts of the awarded songs, in the category
Mentions could also find their place the love songs: If You Want My Love by Horia Moculescu (Corina
Chiriac, Marina Voica), You Appeared As a Story by Radu Șerban (Corina Chiriac, Aurelian Andreescu),
Declaration of Love by Camelia Dăscălescu (Stela Enache, vocal group „Studio 8”), All Day, Good Day
by Mihai Dumbravă (Mihai Constantinescu, Mihai Dumbravă), together with ... the inevitable We Want
Peace on Earth by Vasile V. Vasilache (Mihaela Mihai, Cornel Constantiniu). Who could have guessed
that the 11th edition (July 26-31, 1976) would trigger such a virulent reaction, leading to the interruption
of the Festival? The attacks of the poet Adrian Păunescu focused, as we have seen, on the texts of the
winning „thematic” pieces, although they were not worse than before. Again in the lead, George Grigoriu
won the first prize with the songs The 100 Years (Doina Stănescu, a discovery of his; Cornel
Constantiniu) and If I Were to Be (Mihaela Runceanu, Doina Stănescu). The second prize was awarded
by two renowned composers, each with two pieces, one of which is obviously „thematic”: Temistocle
Popa with Romania (Doina Badea, Cornel Constantiniu, the unfortunate specialists of this kind of songs
...) and A Love Novel (Margareta Pâslaru, Doina Spătaru), and Vasile V. Vasilache with Tell Me My
Country (Cornel Constantiniu, Angela Similea) and Dorul (Aurelian Andreescu, Olimpia Panciu). Florin
Bogardo with Definition (Aurelian Andreescu, Angela Ciochină) and Horia Moculescu with My Parents
(Corina Chiriac, Aurelian Andreescu) stood shoulder to shoulder on the third step. The mentions were,
as usual, numerous and seldom tributary to the political commands of the day. Among the winners: Gelu
Solomonescu with Today, Here, Now (Angela Ciochină, George Sava, both missing in full force), Ion
Cristinoiu with Carnival On the Seaside (Mirabela Dauer, Mihai Dumbravă) and I Love the Present
(Mihai Dumbravă), Ramon Tavernier, returned to his name, with The Infinite Column (Adrian
Romcescu, Călina Anastasiei), together with the younger Vasile Șirli with The Road (Angela Similea,
Adrian Romcescu) or Andrei Proșteanu with The Streets (Aurelian Andreescu, Corina Chiriac).
Doina Badea, Margareta Pâslaru, Corina Chiriac, Olimpia Panciu, Mihai Constantinescu
performed in recitals, and the micro-recitals belonged to rising voices – Mirabela Dauer, Mihaela
Runceanu, Mihaela Oancea, Teohari Fitanidis, Viorel Fauer, Eugen Ionescu. Absolutely sad that just
when remarkable soloists such as Angela Similea, Angela Ciochină, Mihaela Runceanu, Mirabela Dauer
had started to have consistent and applauded appearances at Mamaia, for seven years they could not
show their exceptional talent, the festival being banned. until 1983 – years wasted for them, but also for
pop Romanian music...

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

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 THE NEO-MUSICOLOGY OF
NON-MUSICOLOGICAL MUSICS
MARIN MARIAN

„CONSTANTIN BRĂILOIU” INSTITUTE FOR ETNOGRAPHY AND FOLKLORE

ABSTRACT: Subject to national/nationalist selections, exclusions and

purisms, throughout the entire course of the 20th Century the Romanian
musicologies had ignored the musics of some religious minorities –
which, anyhow, made out of music a very important vehicle for spiritual
enrichment, for moral and social emancipation, for and survival and
progress. The „Neo”-musicology that is suggested here is actually
almost the same musicology/ethnomusicology (from Romania and
anywhere else). Only that the liberation from the limitations, restrictions
and rejections/idiosyncrasies of the past, the respect and interest in the
musics previously non-musicological (in the sense that the official,
mainstream, professed musicologies considered them undignified,
unworthy of academic interest), hence the advanced degree of empathy
and humanism that can be acquired only be the contemporary decades...
they all make a difference.

KEYWORDS: MUSICS, ETHNOLOGIES, SUBJECTIVITIES, POLITICS

BY THE VOLUME Muzicologii, etnologii, subiectivități, politici1 [Musics, Ethnologies,

Subjectivities, Politics] I launched – and the demonstration was reiterated more or less obviously,
directly, demonstratively or ostentatiously inside that book – the idea that we should (ought to or at least
it would be worthy to) speak not only about musicology (and almost about all the other human studies),
at singular, but about musicologies (ethnologies, anthropologies, etc), meaning at plural forms. Inasmuch
as it was desired (and it’s still desired) homogeneity to exist, unitary consolidation and unique
constitution (at any level and within any field), there has always been plurality, a plurality that deserves
encouragement (and not only plurality, but pluralism too). Also by the innocent and tolerant syntagm
„everyone does whatever he/she can” (plus the honorable adding, „at his/her better”, and most honorably,
„at his/her best”) one presumes and it indicates the fact that, also quality-wise, not just quantity-wise,
there is no homogeneity, unique standard and style, „egalitarian”, synonimical and interchangeable
forms and structures of academic performance, there is no singular and unidirectional vector, there is no
consonance of simple, mimetic (if not mere banal, handy) harmonies. There exists content and
cognitive/gnoseologic heterogeneities, hence there is value, intellectual, structural or quality pluralism.
As a consequence, musicology is not one (only) and good, solo and singularly, or only generating cuts
and multiplications and autonomisations of branches/subdisciplines. There always has been and still are
musicologies and ‘musicologies’, in time also its branches, its conceptual subdivisions and
autonomisations becoming again of various, plural categories, genres, styles, paradigms. Musicology is
not just autonomous; it lives also in accordance with the contribution of one or another from
musicologists, schools/groups; musicology „has” to also enjoy originality, inner diversity, plural
alternatives. The pluralization of the term, thus, is natural (absolutely not subversive, in the contrary,
creative).
Of course, the term neomusicology is, on these pages, rather suggestive/indicative,
metaphorical. Intending to draw attention, in the same time to argue with the traditional, historical
musicology (and especially with the communist one), for the fact that they ignored some dimensions of
music itself, more exactly some musics (repertoires, human activities and communities) for which „it
was not found” a curious, interested, tolerant, empathic, applied or associable professionally-academic
musicology.

1
Marian-Bălașa 2011 (unfortunately, read quickly, the volume’s title was wrongly taken by a few colleagues; the plural of the
first nouns did not refer to musicologists and ethnologists as pysicial persons and historical contributions, actually pluralizing the
named academic disciplinespluralul primelor substantive nu se referea nicidecum la muzicologi și etnologi ca persoane fizice și
contribuții istorice, în realitate pluralizând disciplinele academice numite).

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However, the sense of the term is not totally or exclusively metaphoric, also having a
motivational, inspirational role, determining the consciousness and aspiration towards expansions,
upliftings. If we will get to realize that, though, the „classical”, traditional, conservative, major and
dominant has been, to Romanians, heavily conditioned by the imperatives typical to elitist, purist,
nationalist, selective and authoritarian imperatives, if we will get to acknowledge that some kind of
metanoia (conversion), a freeing up from the superiorities, materialisms (I did insist at length:
factological/historical-positivist and not at all „dialectical”) and the ideologically imbued mystifications
– determinants which had dominated the musicologies since the interwar times until the presumed fall
of the communist system – then there could certainly be sensed a desformalism and desossification, an
elegance and an „ulterior life”, with a more smiling „sun” – hence (at least an impression of) a new
musicology – on the Romanian soil. More or less poetical, what I am suggesting now is the idea of a
more hospitable, this amplified, humanism, of an empathy or at least professional interest to also be open
before the musical repertoires that, for many decades, remained under political lids, namely the musics
of marginalized Christian minorities. As „neo”-(musicology) it also could look-like the implicit
reconsideration and adapting of the theory, methodology, terminology and conceptualizing, the new
breath of the formalism, fixations, complexes and clichés lack, of the departure from the wooden,
repetitive, excessively unnuanced phrases, by which the systematic musicology academism and of the
analytic ethnomusicology have trained/programmed the professional mind.
In what ethnomusicology is concerned, at least „today” it is to be consigned (meaning put down
within the historical dated index) the apocalyptical fetish of exhaustive fieldwork collections, of the
Corpuses which present „everything” (though they did it „anthological” only, very selective, by „the
most representative” variants), of the „typological” transcriptions and analyses (that proved nothing
beyond the operations of being done), etc.
On the occasion of a last big international Symposium hosted by Bucharest (UNMB: September
2-4, 2019), I organized two panels on a theme that integrates within the present plead, talking at that
time about „unofficial, clandestine, sectarian, forbidden, prosecuted” musics. Thus, speaking about the
musics of an entire century (the anterior one) which belonged or at least were characteristic to those
minor religious communities that contravened to the dominant religious and political systems. For all
such minor denominations and musics there was no place – during a century long – in the official,
dominant, major musicologies, which means that they themselves had considered those musical
repertoires unworthy or underserving, henceforth the present verbalization: nonmusicological (musics).
Which means musics ignored and excluded by the (Romanian) musicologies of the 20th Century.
Despite their non-musicological status, we talk about musics that, in the shadow of the noble
symphonism, turning their back towards the proudish folklore (rural and urban, peasant-agrarian or
professional fiddling), have still survived and flourished in manners full of human, social, cultural,
political, spiritual and strictly artistically meanings. We talk about the musics of the modern Christian
cults and denominations, of the forbidden, marginalized and prosecuted movements and communities.
„Minor” musics, of exalted amateurism, yet musics which, among Romanians, in Enescu’s Century and
in Brăiloiu’s Century2 have evolved/diversified more and more, had their „stages” and their own,
discrete, often illegal and „subterranean” musical life, musics of interference between pure symphonism
and anonymous romance, with choirs, vocal soloists, fanfares, harmoniums and organs, symphonic-type
orchestras or, over last communism decades, pop-rock-type bands, accumulating more and more
German-English protestant hymns as well as songs on lyrics and melodies originally Romanian.
Throughout the 20th Century the sectarian, protestant and neoprotestant musical-poetic composition was
massive, still remaining strange to the Romanian musicological mainstream.
In a recently published volume (Dobrincu, 2018), Dorin Dobrincu makes a minute
(impressively long/comprehensive) historiography of Romanian Evangelicals movements, growth, and
social-political suffering (Dobrincu, 2018); whereas Vilmos Kis-Juhàsz and Iulian Teodorescu (Kis-
Juhàsz & Teodorescu, 2018) identify all the hymns and communal songs, as well as a cappella choirs
and vocal-instrumental (re)arranged pieces, that were taken by evangelicals from ancient (gregorian or
byzantine) sources, from early protestant composers, from neoprotestant – european and north-american
– communities, as well as from further/modern-times composers (such as those of the Oastea Domnului
orthodox-pietistic movement/representatives). Myself, I sketched over there (same volume) (Marian-
Bălașa, 2018) a selective and critical history, a survey based on several conceptual themes, all striving
to demonstrate the essential role of music-and-poetry creation (plus music singing and performing) for
the benefit of social and psychological survival and thriving, as well as for the process of identity
developing and strengthening.
As we all know, and it is well documented/documentable, for almost the entire length of the
20th century the neoprotestant communities in Romania were minorities of social and political
devaluation/despise; they were treated with distance and suspicion by dominant population and state

2
Which means to the historians, theorists and critics of the Romanian art-music, respectively to the Romanian ethnomusicologists.

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politics, were surveilled, controlled, marginalized, belittled. Among consequences: the less/humbler
public space and affirmation, the more/greater musical creativity and development.
My major task, in this musicological endeavor, is to see and prove that music (sung poetry and
music played organologicly), were much more than identity expression/affiliation and devotional
performance. Apart from or beyond all that communities themselves have conceptualized and
communicated/confessed about the meanings and place of their specific religious musics (inside their
religious performances and private lives), their musics were a tool for personal/individual and social
resistance/survival, growth, emancipation, self-bettering, as well as mental and cultural development
(personally/individually and socially speaking). In this respect, there are numerous avenues, topics and
paths to elaborate on this major point/idea, and, as said, the small text in that volume is indicative for
many other analytical, supporting cases.
For the time being, and on this particular occasion, I am proposing to your reflection a different
and complimentary topic, namely what I would call the ecumenical processes, meaning/discussing the
twists, developments, migrations, borrowings and – more or less overt and conscious – collaboration
among various communities in the field of music/singing creation/composition and appropriation.
It is true that, in parallel with the musical goods circulation (among communities), there was
also a transfer – through spiritual conversion and social-administrative affiliation – of people (from one
denomination to other). But let us not go astray by looking at and talking about this aspect; let us be
musicologists (or musical anthropologists) only, focusing on music and its virtues only. Because, in the
accounts of a history of cultural values, inventorying historical data and time-wasting within
political/institutional views and competing (side-taking) debates, it’s way too common/banal,
shipwrecking. Why and how people shifted – from sheer/fundamental Orthodoxy, such as Dumitru
Cornilescu, or from Oastea Domnului, such as Nicolae Moldoveanu – to neoprotestantism, is less
relevant hereby, only because we cannot see and demonstrate that music itself was a major motive for
conversion. Yet, there were cases of personal/individual conversion in which music played a major role,
was The main factor.3 In this sense, it is very relevant the fact that a contemporary Anglican musician,
composer and conductor, is capable of settling down in Romania and joining the Baptist community,
only to get dissatisfied with his new co-religionars because these modern fellows cannot accept his
claims to more musical space, order, structure and participation within the religious service; in the end,
quitting the Baptists and converting into local Orthodoxy, because only in its liturgical forms he found
the musical infatuation/effusion that satisfied his religious concept and sensitivity.
However, coming back into history, allow me to remind you of the radically different and
apparently competing sonic-acoustic atmosphere that divided the Romanian society once the
neoprotestant communities appeared and manifested themselves inside the massive folk music and
orthodox liturgical reception, performance and consumption of the majorities. The Western hymns and
sonic influences (German-British-North American) were alien to Muntenian Romanians, and if choral
harmonic singing and brass bands did already have some popularity in the Austro-Hungarian
Transylvania and Northern Moldova, the proliferation of those forms among the neoprotestants was seen
by the major, orthodox populations as inflammatory, „colonial/imperialistic”, attacking (actually,
divorcing from) the national/traditional, folk and orthodox way of life, i.e. identity. To unfriendly
listeners, the new musics were revolting/repealing, to converts, they were appealing, nourishing,
demonstrative, proselytizing. And the more the musical sensitivity of commoners became
familiar/accustomed with the Western forms and genres, the better the musical styles and forms of the
western influenced/inspired neoprotestants musics were accepted, often borrowed, by the religious
majorities.
The Oastea Domnului movement was – among many other things – also a sort of counter-
reform, and founder-priest Valerian Trifa also understood that his ostași4 need to make out of music a
powerful tool for persuasion and intimate enthusiasm, i.e. devotion/piety, and growth. Initially, their
specific publications (such as the popular magazine „Lumina Satelor”) promoted the Dimitrie Cunțan’s
musical editing and transcription of the orthodox liturgy (songs, hymns, responses and all the usual vocal
church music). Then, as the movement evolved and more poets and musicians got involved,
devotional/paraliturgical repertoires, of original poetry and music pieces, were composed and
disseminated5. With less folkloric melismas, at times in western tonal and rhythmic/metric systems, still
(slightly) closer to the folklore forms (and mainly romance-like tunes), representatives of the Oastea
Domnului were very prolific in terms of melo-poetic repertoires. Only that, once they were persecuted

3
See the memorial/autobiographic book by Gh. Boeriu (Boeru–Boeru Ander 2016), in which the author based his conversion
(from common Orthodoxy to fascism/legionarism and to evangelical christianity), as well as life survival, to music/vocal singing
only.
4
Hereby I translate their own calling as „soldiers” and „soldering songs”.
5
See details such as with the recent page https://oasteadomnului.ro/noutati-editoriale-sa-cantam-domnului-vol-ii.

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by both State and Official Church, they went socially and culturally underground, and their production
circulated discreetly, mostly anonymous. Yet, they multiplied, and often were appropriated by common
orthodox devotees as pricesne, ignoring (or not) their „sectarian” origin. For instance, a twenty years old
volume of pricesne from Maramureș, collected and published by a young folklorist (Băncescu, 2000),
were mostly cântece ostășești (soldering songs), that were created by the orthodox pietists belonging to
the clandestine Oastea Domnului and disseminated also by the forbidden (clandestinely active) Greek-
Catholics in the entire Transylvania and especially into Maramureș, eventually to penetrate within the
uniformized community of orthodox proper and ex-Catholics that were converted by force to the
historical Orthodoxy (often formally calling themselves orthodox, yet using the religious services of
covert/illegal Uniate/Greek-Catholic priest that continue to secretly activated as such).
As with the case above cited, folklorists (ethnomusicologists included) continued to either
ignore the non-Orthodox origin of songs – such as those for pilgrimage (which during the communist
period were sung by Orthodox people in Transylvania, but were of a clear Catholic origin, just translated
into Romanian by the Greek-Catholics and performed as such for over two centuries). Whereas in what
the Oastea Domnului repertoires were concerned, field collectors of the last eight decades met them
almost everywhere in Transylvania, simply refusing to pay attention to their existence, refusing to record
and archive them6.
Just in a parenthesis, I will signal an anecdotal case I stumbled upon in 2018 in Blaj. The Greek-
Catholic Cathedral there, forcefully converted to Orthodoxy in 1948, regained his stature and status of
(Greek-)Catholic main headquarters in 1991. From the modern carillon in his main tower the day and
religious hours are marked by a modern song, which is a half-romance/half-march, of a source that it is
not of a Western-Catholic origin, rather, I presume, is a „soldering” inspired one (cântare ostășească).
I hope someone will either doubt of me being right, or verify my provocative proposition, as to bring
forth exact data.
As for the neoprotestants, the songs by „soldering” poets such as Trăian Dorz and Costache
Ioanid, set on music by composer Nicolae/Niculiță Moldoveanu, were already in their repertoires during
the WW2 and especially under the communist ban. And, as already mentioned, after the formal
eradication of Greek-Catholicism, those remaining faithful, in clandestine (as Greek-Catholics), also
took them over and made them theirs. After 1990, the recuperation of the Oastea Domnului musical
production and heritage entered back into the musical sensitivity and acceptance of common (non-
schismatic/sectarian) Orthodox people, and there are more and more Orthodox churches in which the
devotees overtly inserted inside the church program (sometimes before and after the sermon), programs
of devotional vocal songs or choir songs that are to be found in the books authored and published by the
Oastea Domnului Association.
In a concluding phrase, I resume the major point of this presentation: here, with music among
minor, oppressed, alternative or counter-cultural and often (or to some extent) clandestine religious
communities, we see music as a major, vital life dimension, as creating culture, as solid, strengthening
and pillar and motor for inner development. Technically, is to be talked about the musical culture of
intimate devotions, of musical pietism. Which, in the recent Romanian history, can be traced and
analyzed under the concepts of Orthodox dynamism, Uniate/Greek-Catholic clandestine, and
neoprotestant expansion. To all these, one concept more is to be added, as to explain the complex
dynamics of the music’s role and effects; in this context, the concept of applied (or performed)
ecumenism. Because the folklore-like circulation, appropriation and dissemination of musical forms
(songs and instrumental ensembles) among various denominations, cults, and religious communities was
a consistent form/path for ecumenism. And in this respect, I will present just one (and last) case more.
It is about the poet Ioan Alexandru (1941-2000), a layman and Orthodox proper, who suffered
a profound religious turnover and devoted his life to religious thinking, teaching and preaching. In his
poetry writing, as in his academic/university teaching, he professed unrestricted Cristian symbolism and
pedagogy. Since the 1970s, at the University of Bucharest, when delivering lectures, classes and courses
on Romanian old literature, he used to talk to students mostly about sacred writings (mainly the Bible),
when teaching Jewish culture he presented only Old Testament and Mosaic writings, when talking freely
to people he always rather preached. Despite his Securitate close watch, in the 1980s he would visit and
speak in churches of any denomination, professing ecumenism at all levels. He was the only intellectual

6
See Teodoreanu 1993, who who mentions the existence of „de oaste” songs – romances/romanced – without identifying them,
then specifying that such songs (mistakingly calling them „cântecele de armată,”, instead songs of the Lord’s Army
soldering/ostășești songs) are „lipsite de un interes folcloric deosebit” (laking any special folkloristic interest) – p. 205; he however,
signals some identification number in the Arhive of the Institute of Ethngraphy and Folklore (p. 206), again, then, denying their
worth of any scholarly inteerest and importance, forwarding also an „academic” excuse: „Cântecele religioase culese de Gh.
Cernea [Cântări religioase din regiunea Cohalmului, jud. Târnava Mare], ca și cântecele de oaste [„cântecele care se cântă la
întrunirile organizației ortodoxe Oastea Domnului” – he says in the footnote], sunt lipsite de specific local”. Briefly resumed:
either published, or circulating orally, the Oaste songs were lacking „local specificity”, hence folkloristic obliteration.

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to write about Trăian Dorz, the Oastea Domnului greatest poet, in the communist press (presenting him
as a „peasant poet”). Ioan Alexandru’s poetry volumes were immensely popular, especially among
neoprotestants, because of their profound Christian symbolism. Many of you can remember him as the
one who during the 1989 Revolution days carried either an large icon or a cross in the streets, then in the
Parliament, where he would call for religious piety and political attitude with a voice stronger than any
priest’s one. The prayer group he founded in the Parliament (gathering Orthodox priests and evangelical
reverends that were members of the Parliament) died out together with his own passing away. I wanted
to draw your attention upon Ioan Alexandru’s rare human profile also because his poems, so much
religious, until 1990 were also sophisticated, less accessible to everyone, reason why within the
neoprotestants gatherings they could very rarely find place for recitation, hence no composing/singing
opportunities (neither for solo nor for communal singing). Because of expressing his (mystical)
religiousness too coded/subtly, Alexandru was rarely set on music. During communism, only the pop
singer Dan Andrei Aldea turned Lumină lină into a slow-rock song (of clear, vibratoless vocalism, setting
the leimotivic „Lumină lină, lini lumini” on an emotionally effective reverse-chromatism formula). After
1990, only Tudor Gheorghe made of the same poem a vocal-symphonic piece. Whereas Teodor Caciora,
a baptist composer in Oradea set on chamber music (of modern art music style) a suite for voice and
piano on three hymns by the late Ioan Alexandru7.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
***. (2017). Orthdodox Christian Revival Movements in Eastern Europe. (A. Djurić Milovanović, & R. Radić, Eds.)
Cham, Palgrave Macmillan/ Springer International AG.
Ašković, D. (2017). The Prayer Chanting of the God Worshipper Movement. In A. D. Milovanović, & R. Radić
(Eds.), Orthdodox Christian Revival Movements in Eastern Europe (pp. 191-212). Cham: Palgrave
Macmillan/Springer International AG.
Băncescu, I. (2000). Cântările religioase din Maramureş. Text şi context. Târgovişte: Ed. Macarie.
Boeru, G., & Boeru-Ander, G. (2016). Muzică, suferință, credință. București: Ed. Muzicală.
Caciora, T. (2011). Trei cântece pentru tenor şi pian pe versuri de Ioan Alexandru (Bucium, Izvorul, Mulţumire).
Oradea: Ed. Artes.
Constantineanu, C. (2017). The Romanian Lord’s Army: a Case Study in Eastern Orthodox Church Renewal,. In A.
D. Milovanović, & R. Radić (Eds.), Orthdodox Christian Revival Movements in Eastern Europe (pp. 231-259).
Cham: Palgrave Macmillan/Springer International AG.
Dobrincu, D. (2018). Omul evanghelic. O explorare a comunităţilor protestante româneşti. (D. Mănăstireanu, Ed.)
Iași: Ed. Polirom.
Dobrincu, D. (2018). Sub puterea Cezarului. O istorie politică a evanghelicilor din România (a doua jumătate a
secolului al 19-lea – 1989). In D. Dobrincu, & M. Dănuț (Ed.), Omul evanghelic. O explorare a comunităţilor
protestante româneşti (pp. 37-243). Iași: Ed. Polirom.
Kis-Juhàsz, V., & Teodorescu, I. (2018). Bazele închinării evanghelice – cazul evanghelicilor din România. In D.
Dobrincu, & D. Mănăstireanu (Ed.), Omul evanghelic. O explorare a comunităţilor protestante româneşti (pp. 720-
750). Iași: Ed. Polirom.
Marian-Bălașa, M. (2018). Muzica în cadrul bisericilor minore – funcţii, identităţi şi roluri socioculturale. In D.
Dobrincu, & D. Mănăstireanu, Omul evanghelic. O explorare a comunităţilor protestante româneşti (pp. 705-719).
Iași: Ed. Polirom.
Teodoreanu, N. (1993). O cercetare etnomuzicologică în satul Paloș, județul Brașov. Anuarul IEF, 4, pp. 197-211.

7
Caciora 2011. For the international conference held in September 2019 in Bucharest (and during which I introduced the theme
that makes the core of this text), T. Caciora provided us with a recording of his musical suite. Alas, not only the recording was
poor, but also the conception and performance, which were of an unrefrained operatic vocal trembling-vibrato, making the textual
poem unintelligible. Perhaps it was such a musical treatment that disappointed Ioan Alexandru’s wife, who refused Iulian
Teodorescu (another contemporary evangelical composer) the right to use musically the poet’s lyrics. This refusal was confessed
by Teodorescu himself, who on that very occasion informed the entire audience of his composition intention and the received
negative answer.

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 RICHARD WAGNER'S LOHENGRIN AND ITS
RELIGIOUS-SOCIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
HELMUT LOOS

INSTITUT FÜR MUSIKWISSENSCHAFT, LEIPZIG

ABSTRACT: The study reveals some of the interferences between

religious, social, historical, political, philosophical and musical aspects
in Germany (more specifically, in Dresden) and Wagnerian thinking.
There are presented many examples on Wagner's attempts to approach
the religious theme in his work creation. Also, his role as a pioneer is
outlined, considering the development of the musical language he
created by unifying the traditional musical rhetoric with the symphonic
achievements of the motivational-thematic work.

KEYWORDS: WAGNER, LOHENGRIN, RELIGION, SOCIOLOGY

IN HIS LOHENGRIN, composed in Marienbad in 1845, Wagner created an almost striking

apotheosis of Christianity in its victory over paganism, embodied by Lohengrin and Ortrud. This was in
keeping not only with the guiding conviction of traditional denominations for centuries, but also with
rationalist Protestant theology, which towards the end of the 18th century absorbed the perfectionism of
the classical period and saw the spread of Christianity as a process of perfection. Wagner grew up in
Dresden in this tradition and was socialised into a pronounced theatre composer who understood his
compositions as musical language based on the tradition of musical rhetoric.
As extensively as Wagner literature always discusses the progressive, socialist to anarchist
influences on Wagner, the religious-sociological environment of his socialisation is usually not taken
into account. The demonstrably important early childhood imprint on a personality, especially in
religious terms, is not given enough attention. Richard Wagner grew up in Dresden in a diverse religious
society in which the church was responsible for large areas of education. As is well known, the court
had been Catholic since 1697, while the population continued to adhere to the Evangelical Lutheran
faith. The king thus left his function as summus episcopus with episcopal rights and the church leadership
passed to the church council and the Oberkonsistorium. The chief court preacher thus assumed the most
important leadership position in the church.

In the Saxon Regional Church, Pietism found little resonance (with the exception of the
Herrnhut Brethren congregation); rather, the revival movement led here to a moderate Neo-Lutheranism
in demarcation from theological rationalism. In Dresden, Franz Volkmar Reinhard (1753-1812) served
as high court preacher from 1792-1812; he was one of the early representatives of this doctrine. The
work of Carl Christian Tittmann (1744-1820) as Oberconsistorialrath, pastor and superintendent in
Dresden lasted until 1820. In his writing „Christian Morals” he confesses in the third edition of 1794:

In the main, however, it has become important to me to lead everything back

to Jesus and to show how he is also the center of morality, to which everything
leads back and must be led back, if it is to be Christian morality.

And in doing so, he emphasises a balanced position between enlightened eudaemonism and
Kantian moralism:
It is evident that Christian morality is equally far removed from the limp
indulgence of a frivolous philosophy and the excessive severity of an
overstretched and reasoning philosophy, that it is in the middle between the
two, and, by attacking man from all sides and seeking to interest him in the
good by motives of all kinds, is in its motives as well as in its precepts more
suited to the powers and needs of human nature at all times and can work
more wisdom and virtue and happiness than any other.

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Johann Georg Rosenmüller (1736-1815) advocated a more rationalist theology in Leipzig from
1785-1815. Later, neo-Lutheranism spread here as well. The co-founders of the „Erlangen School” Adolf
Harless and Konrad Hofmann found their followers in Leipzig, and the professors Karl Friedrich August
Kahnis, Christoph Ernst Luthardt and Franz Delitzsch worked here from the middle of the century as the
so-called „Lutheran triumvirate”. In Dresden, the moderate direction prevailed to such an extent that the
Old Lutheran Johann Gottfried Scheibel (1783-1843) was accepted as a lecturer at the teachers' seminary
after his suspension by the Uniate Protestant Church in Prussia in 1832 (no doubt also due to neo-
Lutheran anti-Unionism).
The conciliatory atmosphere of Saxon Lutheranism apparently did not weigh on Richard
Wagner's ideal of a „gospel of love”, of which he wrote in letters to Ludwig II, just as he was sympathetic
to religion throughout his life. He grew up in an environment in which Christianity formed the self-
evident basis of daily life and shaped state structures. It is difficult to assess to what extent the
Catholicism of the court had an influence on him even in his younger years. After all, his stepfather was
a court actor, so whether he visited the Catholic court church with Richard and listened to the church
music there, which was considered an important cultural event, remains to be seen. The revolutionary
unrest in Leipzig in 1830 represented an exceptional situation in which Wagner's participation
challenged him to critically examine the existing conditions. All in all, the situation in the cities outside
Saxony where Wagner stayed after his time in Leipzig differed only gradually from the one described.
Even Riga was predominantly Protestant-Lutheran and German-speaking at the time (German was the
official language). Wagner came to Paris in a Catholic city whose socially critical generation of the
1830s was influenced by François-René de Chateaubriand (Chateaubriand, 1802). Victor Hugo raved
about him. Wagner came into contact with the ideas of Alphonse de Lamartine, Félicité de Lamennais
and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, all of whom derived their social or socialist ideas more or less from the
notion of a romantic primal Christianity. Even Proudhon famously distanced himself from Karl Marx
because he rejected revolutionary violence. Since his return to Dresden (1842), Wagner’s deepened his
engagement with the revolutionary ideas of the time. Above all, he maintained a lively exchange with
August Röckel, who had been his music director since 1843. Röckel was Catholic and enthusiastic about
the ideas of Lamennais as well as Robert Owen and Wilhelm Weitling, who saw in Jesus a prophet of
liberation through communism. Röckel had little understanding for Ludwig Feuerbach, whose critique
of religion may have been communicated to Wagner conversationally first by Samuel Lehrs in Paris in
1841, then, according to his own testimony, by a German Catholic preacher named Metzdorff in Dresden
(he did not read it himself until 1849). Wagner was not preoccupied with the internal religious battles
about the German Catholic priest Johannes Ronge in connection with the pilgrimage to Trier in 1844,
but he did take note of David Friedrich Strauss and his contribution to research on the life of Jesus. As
important as Wagner's participation in the intellectual-historical debates of the time were, he lived within
the old structures as Court Kapellmeister and fulfilled the traditional duties, at least in the early years.
For Wagner, too, the most important task of the court orchestra at this time was not opera performances
but, according to the old tradition, its church music service in the court church. In 2013, Günter Ottenberg
has pointed out with great merit (which had not been noted until then) that Christian Albert Schiffner
has documented numerous engagements of Wagner in the Hofkirche since 2 February 1843, including
in 1844 the direction of concert liturgical music by Carl Gottlieb Reissiger, Johann Gottlieb Naumann,
Joseph Schuster, Francesco Morlacchi and Carl Maria von Weber, i.e. a specifically „Dresden”
programme. Finally, however, Wagner committed himself in the spirit of Cecilianism to the
„incomparable masterpieces of Italian church music” that had been shaped „by the Christian spirit”, i.e.
to a cappella music (to be performed without instruments according to the understanding of the time).
Just as he denounced the decline of Italian opera music, which had gone hand in hand with „the decay
of the church” and no longer had anything to do with „the inexpressibly expressive depth of the Italian
church music of earlier centuries”, Wagner wanted to restore to the church music of the Catholic Court
Church in Dresden „the almost completely lost dignity of religious sublimity and intimacy” by proposing
that it be entirely restored to a cappella music in the „pure church style” after the model of Palestrina.
However, he did not make this suggestion until 1849 and apparently saw in the orchestra's liberation
from strenuous church service an opportune opportunity to harness its instrumentalists more strongly for
the stage.
A general aggravation of the situation in Saxony, both politically and religiously, can be seen
in 1843/44. At this time, Wagner's worldview began to change from a traditionally self-evident, basic
Christian understanding to atheism. In his historical-mythological treatise Die Wibelungen (The
Wibelungs) of late summer 1848, he not only identified the Grail with the Nibelungen hoard, he also
equated Siegfried with Christ according to the alleged conception of Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa).
This corresponded with the first drafts of the Ring of the Nibelung, and in the spring of 1849, Wagner
designed a social revolutionary drama Jesus of Nazareth according to the ideas of a propertyless original

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Christianity. The fact that Wagner then rejected this draft in favour of his Siegfried meant a complete
turn from the Christian to the Germanic circle of myths.
In his Lohengrin, on the other hand, composed in Marienbad in 1845, Wagner created an almost
striking apotheosis of Christianity in its victory over paganism, embodied by Lohengrin and Ortrud. This
was in keeping not only with the guiding conviction of traditional denominations for centuries, but also
with rationalist Protestant theology, which towards the end of the 18 th century embraced the
perfectionism of the classical period and saw the spread of Christianity as a process of perfection.
When Wagner asked Franz Liszt to perform Lohengrin, he met with an open door, for Liszt,
according to his entire socialisation, was a convinced and deeply devout Christian of Franciscan
character. His enthusiasm for Weimar Classicism stemmed from a time when it was by no means clear
from a socio-political point of view that the Classical period's enthusiasm for antiquity and its
devaluation of the Middle Ages represented a radical antithesis to Christianity. In Weimar, according to
Liszt's conception and under his direction, the inauguration of the Herder Monument was to take place
one year after the centenary of Goethe's birth on 28 August 1849 with one of the three world premieres
of Robert Schumann's Scenes from Goethe's Faust, and thus the celebration of a Protestant clergyman
in front of his church. The dedication of the monument took place on Herder's birthday on 25 August
1850, and on the evening before, a festive performance of the choruses to Herder's Entfesseltem
Prometheus by Franz Liszt was heard in the Court Theatre. Liszt had also planned a performance of
Handel's Messiah in Herder's translation, which did not materialise. The celebration continued until
Goethe's birthday on 28 August, when Liszt conducted the premiere of Lohengrin. The entire planning
of the monument and its dedication celebrations reveal cultural-political differences in the motivation of
the event. Liszt's conception was clearly Christian. Herder's Prometheus, in stark contrast to Goethe's
famous ode, clearly possesses the traits of a tolerator of Christological character, which also correspond
to Wagner's Lohengrin and its personally tragic ending.
In his major essay on Wagner's Lohengrin and its premiere „on the occasion of the Herder and
Goethe festivals in 1850”, Liszt's religious attitude comes up in his assessment of Herder when it comes
to the location of the monument. Its location in front of the church was controversial at the time and was
in line with an assessment by Herder that Liszt formulated as follows:

We do not want to examine here to what extent this thinker bore witness to
unquestionable orthodoxy, he who loved Christianity as the mildest of all
doctrines of faith and admired the Roman Church as the firmest of all
governments, which might almost lead us to the conclusion that he was close
to being more Catholic than Christian.

However, Liszt also showed understanding for the opposing party, which he, however, provided
with a justification of his own provenance:

…but we cannot but confess that that part of the park which faces one of the
most beautiful streets in the city, and where those who disagree with the
present site wished to see the statue erected, seemed to us much more
advantageous for its moral and material effect. [...] Moreover, in a
picturesque and natural setting, in harmony with the idyllic sense of Herder
and his so pure inclinations for the scenes of a laughing nature, the statue
would not have excited that sad feeling which is aroused by the constant
contrast between a church built centuries ago with such humble and warm
faith and the shining monument erected in honour of one of its servants, who
sought only another myth on the same altars on which, according to the faith
of worshipping and hoping peoples, God himself descended.

From his point of view, Liszt thus came to an all-round positive assessment of the final
monologue of Lohengrin:

In the [narration] of Lohengrin [...], as he continues in the narrative, an

inexpressibly bright day dawns. A solemn calm takes possession of the soul,
as if an unearthly, mystical brightness were spreading further and further
and shining ever more vividly and irresistibly. Every note here sounds like a
sigh of happiness as it describes the place where neither evil nor pain, neither
death nor corruption have access, the place where holiness is called to enjoy
all the fullness of ineffable heavenly bliss, where the soul of the elect revels
in superhuman delights bestowed by the sight of God.

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There is no mistaking the idea of heavenly paradise behind Liszt's words, which Lohengrin
awaits despite the personal tragedy of love with Elsa. The fact that Wagner agreed with Liszt's remarks
against Stahr suggests the fascination that Christian ideas and ceremonies had for him, even if at the
same time he was already putting them into perspective again. Although Liszt said in view of Lohengrin,
„Wagner is really too much of a poet to want to translate philosophy into action in his dramas”, his
personal imprint still came through again later with the recourse to the Arthurian legend in Parsifal,
which contributed not least to the break with Friedrich Nietzsche. The stage festival Parsifal presents a
world of its own, detached from history and traditional religion, in which redemption comes from man,
contrary to Christian understanding. This atheistic trait of Parsifal is not present in Lohengrin; the God-
striker is to be understood as an envoy.

Wagner's decision not to compose a Jesus of Nazareth after his Lohengrin, but to turn to the
Germanic saga world, corresponded to a socio-politically developing dominance of enlightened thought
in the sense of modernity with a national orientation (the latter clearly recognisable in Die
Meistersinger). Wagner did not trigger this movement, but rather followed it and thus chose a subject
matter favourable to the zeitgeist for his later success. The fact that he oscillated between different
currents of the time with his comments on the works allowed the audience, gripped by his musical
language, to adapt the works to their respective world views. Wagner served the socio-political trends
of his time with material that corresponded to them. He became a trend-setter in the shaping of his
musical language by uniting traditional musical rhetoric with the symphonic achievements of motivic-
thematic work. Wagner's Lohengrin thus proves to be a work at the height and turning point of his
development, both musically from the motif of memory to the leitmotif, and religious-sociologically
from Christianity to atheism.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Chateaubriand, F.-R. d. (1802). Le Génie du Christianisme. Paris: Migneret.

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 SECTION 5:
STUDENTS’
MUSICOLOGICAL RESEARCH
 TŌRU TAKEMITSU – THE ZEN POET OF MUSIC
FROM THE LAND OF THE RISING SUN.
PERCEPTION OF TIME IN JAPANESE MUSICAL CULTURE

IOANA BÎGU

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MUSIC, BUCHAREST

ABSTRACT: The 20th century was one of the darkest centuries, with
tragic events such as the two world wars that left their mark on
humanity. These events could not leave musical thinking unaffected.
Composers of the last century chose therefore to reflect in their works
the unhappy reality that confronted them, using a very different musical
language. However, one of the composers of the time, Tōru Takemitsu,
does not affiliate himself with the thematic trends of his time, but rather
chooses to borrow only the musical language from his contemporaries
in the West. This involved approaching music from a perspective that
emphasized timbrality, texture, and the spaciousness of sounds.
Therefore, the renowned Japanese composer does not always aim for
his music to be under the patronage of external events, but rather wants
the music he composes to live through the richness and expressiveness
of each sound within the piece, which has its own identity. One of the
characteristics that inspires Takemitsu's music and makes it original in
its approach is the concept of ma, relating to time and space, taken from
Japanese philosophy.

KEYWORDS: TAKEMITSU, JAPAN, ORIENT, OCCIDENT

„I have never doubted that the love of art

is the love of unreality.”
Tōru Takemitsu (Takemitsu, Confronting silence, 1995, p. 15)

LIFE AND CREATION HIGHLIGHTS

TŌRU Takemitsu is considered the most important Japanese composer who has contributed
significantly to the international popularity of his country's music. He was born in 1930 and graduated
from Keika High School in Tokyo in 1949, but in 1944 he had to interrupt his high school studies because
of his military service. He was mainly self-taught but mentions that he studied composition under the
guidance of Yasuji Kiyose (Yoko Narazaki, Masakata Kanazawa).
Early in his creative period, Takemitsu tried to shape his compositional style in line with
Western music, moving away from traditional Japanese music that reminded him of the war and the
bitter time he experienced while in the army. The first composers who inspired Takemitsu and influenced
his creation were Debussy and Messiaen, from whom he took various elements that were to become
representative of the musical language he used. Debussy inspired Takemitsu in terms of orchestration
and the way he created the play of sound colours, shadows and contrast. From Messiaen, in Lento in due
movimenti – Takemitsu’s first work to be performed in public – he takes the technique of superimposing
modal melodies on a chromatic sound background, showing a remarkable sensitivity to timbre and
registration. He also takes up the idea of a piece without a specific meter. The work was not received
positively by the public, but among the listeners were two appreciative supporters who were later friends
of Takemitsu, those with whom he founded Jikken Kōbō in 1951 – a group that organized a series of
experimental workshops combining various art forms that departed from Japanese tradition, affiliating
themselves with contemporary influences coming from the West (Yoko Narazaki, Kanazawa Masakata,
2001).
A philosophical concept of these multimedia exhibitions is that they are organic, that all the
elements that appear in the show coexist and lose their meaning if they are removed from the whole.
These workshop presentations included moments in which pieces by members of the group were
performed alongside works by established composers such as Messiaen, Satie, Bartók, Copland, Barber,

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suggesting thus a strong affinity for French and American contemporary music (Takemitsu, Confronting
silence, 1995, p. 11). The experience was beneficial to Takemitsu's development, as joining the group
subsequently brought him many awards and nominations as a composer. Around the same time,
Takemitsu encountered Pierre Schaeffer's experimental musique concrète and enthusiastically explored
the sonic possibilities this genre generated.
A memorable event occurred in 1959. Igor Stravinsky is invited to Japan, where he asks
employees of NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation) to show him recordings of works by the leading
Japanese composers of the time. Although NHK had not intended to show Stravinsky any of Takemitsu's
compositions, by mistake a version of the Recviem composed in 1957 slipped through the tapes. Asked
if there was a piece that caught his attention, the Russian composer mentioned Takemitsu's name and
described Takemitsu's work as „sincere” and „passionate” (Burt, 2001, p. 71). As a result, the Japanese
composer received an important commission to write The Dorian Horizon (1966).
In 1964, Takemitsu’s meeting with John Cage would change his perception of how to approach
his own music, but not only in terms of taking on some of the American composer's techniques. Rather,
his contact with John Cage brought him a revelation of the expressive potential of Japanese music,
together with the traditional instruments and philosophy that are undeniably reflected in the music and
influence its development. As Takemitsu himself relates, he reconnects with his own native values,
which he had previously ignored: „For a long period I struggled to avoid being «Japanese», to avoid
«Japanese» qualities. It was largely through my contact with John Cage that I came to recognize the
value of my own tradition.” (Takemitsu, Contemporary Music in Japan, 1989, p. 3). During this period
of (re)discovering the richness and value of the music of his homeland, Takemitsu composed his first
concert for traditional Japanese instruments: Eclipse (1966) for biwa (Japanese lute-like instrument) and
shakuhachi (Japanese wind instrument). Commissioned by the New York PO, he writes November Steps,
a concert for the above instruments, in which he seeks to emphasize the difference between the sounds
of Japanese instruments and those of European orchestral instruments. However, certain similarities do
appear: the sound of the plectrum striking the biwa strings resembles the percussive sound made by the
string section, through certain techniques such as lightly striking the body of the instrument; also, the
chromatic clusters, combined with the glissandos of the orchestra, convey the strength and suppleness
with which the air flows through the air column of the shakuhachi instrument (Yoko Narazaki, Kanazawa
Masakata, 2001).
In the 1970s, the Japanese composer turned his attention to new techniques that would allow
him to differentiate more strongly between timbres and harmonic structures. In Garden Rain, his first
piece for brass instruments, he aims to emphasise the spatialisation of sounds rather than highlight
harmonic colour. It is also in this decade that he defines his concept of musical form, resonating with a
kind of continuous structure, a succession of scenes that unfold without interruption. He compares this
image to „the relationship between a garden and a person walking through it” (Yoko Narazaki,
Kanazawa Masakata, 2001). He projects this metaphor of musical form onto Quatrain for clarinet, violin,
cello, piano and orchestra. In another piece, A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden, he takes a
different view, preferring this time to relate to the sonorous „garden” from a distance. In music, this is
suggested by the theme of the oboe (the flock), with a sinuous melodic contour that seems to differ from
the static harmonies of the orchestra (the garden).
After 1980, Takemitsu moves towards a more tonal idiom, stating that in a work for violin and
orchestra such as Far Calls. Coming, far!, he wanted to illustrate „a sea of tonality”. The main musical
motif in the piece is built on the sounds e♭-e-a-c♯-f-a♭,e♭is read in German as es („s” in English) –
hence the pun s-e-a (sea). Throughout the piece, this motif appears transformed, inverted, and will be
used by the composer in other works. Other scores from this period that have a subject that refers to the
aquatic theme are A Way, A Lone for string quartet (1981), and Riverrun for piano and orchestra (1984)
(Yoko Narazaki, Kanazawa Masakata, 2001).
In addition to concert music, Takemitsu also composed film music, which often gave him
greater freedom of expression. At first glance, this statement seems at odds with reality, as the music
must fit the action of the film, be suggestive and highlight certain ideas present in the film, and this could
draw a clear path from which the composer cannot deviate. However, Takemitsu states that the freedom
he enjoys when composing for film comes from the fact that he can dispense with certain procedures
present in concert music, such as techniques for developing the material (Siddons, 2001, p. 10). Among
the films for which Tōru Takemitsu wrote music are Nostalghia (1983), Ran (1985), Rikyu (1989).

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PHILOSOPHIES THAT GUIDED HIS CREATIVE PROCESS

To really get inside Tōru Takemitsu's permanently vivid music and see how traditional Japanese
aesthetic values shaped his output, it is necessary to know his philosophy on music, nature, and sounds.
Takemitsu firmly believes that a lifestyle that is not in harmony with nature is frightening, and
that it is necessary throughout life to try to establish a balance with it, because, in his opinion, „art
originates in harmony with nature and will end in it” (Takemitsu, Confronting silence, 1995, p. 15). He
does not understand „harmony” as an artificial, human-defined balance, but rather as transcending
functionalism. The composer makes a remark about expressiveness in art, arguing that each person who
appreciates art has the freedom to understand and discover it according to his or her own rules. However,
for Takemitsu, the term „expressiveness” has an apparent detachment from art, because he is aware that
our attempt to give life to art, to make it alive, ultimately makes it unnatural, artificial, no matter how
loyal we are to it and how hard we try to portray what we perceive as real. From this point of view, the
composer has no doubt that our love of art conceals a love of unreality (Takemitsu, Confronting silence,
1995, p. 15).
Although he considers music and nature to be parts of the same whole, he does not compose
music to describe natural landscapes, even though these places devoid of people sometimes leave a
strong impression on him. On the other hand, because of the Japanese respect for nature and its beauty,
he believes that the sounds of nature and those of music are very similar (Kikkawa, 1987, p. 86). This
is, in other words, a perception that highlights the intrinsic quality of sound.
Takemitsu's music gives sounds the privilege of not being shackled by the canons of some
Western music, which stifle musical expression by having too strict, even mathematical, structures.
When sounds are conditioned by this approach, and when they exist only in the shadow of the concept
that should define them, music suffers. From this point of view, Takemitsu leaves the sounds freer,
giving them the opportunity to „breathe” (Takemitsu, Confronting silence, 1995, p. 16).
The real legacy that Tōru Takemitsu has left us through his creation is not limited to the
instruments used, the way he conceives certain harmonies or displays colourful sound tapestries. The
expressiveness of his work is underpinned by a strong philosophy that is the basis of many of his seminal
works. This is the collective Japanese cultural perception of the term ma, which denotes a singular entity
related to space-time, a void that isn’t empty, an absence that suggests rather a presence, a boundless
energy present between two things that have an apparent distance between them. To illustrate this
concept, the composer returns to his image of the garden, imagining himself as a gardener walking in a
“sound garden” when listening to his music, enjoying its various textures, shapes, and colours. This
approach to sound creates a timeless effect and gives the listener the impression that time loses its
meaning and becomes distorted. Some notable works that induce this feeling are Piano Distance (1961);
Quatrain for clarinet, cello violin, piano and orchestra (1975); Far Calls. Coming, far! for violin and
orchestra (1980); Riverrun for piano and orchestra (1984); From me flows what you call time for five
percussionists and orchestra (1990).

GARDEN RAIN

The metaphor of the sound garden is also explored in Garden Rain, a piece for brass ensemble composed
in 1974, inspired by a haiku written by an 11-year-old schoolgirl in Australia:
Hours are leaves of life./ And I am their gardener./
Each hour falls down slowly.
This is one of the programmatic works that incorporates the musical motif referring to the
aquatic theme – „es-e-a” (s-e-a) - anticipating Takemitsu's later predilection for pieces inspired by the
aquatic world, musics – or gardens – floating on the „sea of tonality” (Takemitsu, Confronting silence,
1995, p. 92), as he likes to define his quasi-tonal period.

Ex. No. 1: Tōru Takemitsu, Garden Rain, bars 1-3

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The way the musical phrasing is carried out, the static harmonies, the repeated rests that are
elevated to the level of a gesture (more like active rests), the indications for expression (dying away) and
tempo (nearly stationary – quoting, not incidentally, John Cage), convincingly illustrate Takemitsu's use
of the metaphor of the „sound garden”, which describes the way those born into Japanese culture
perceive time. Through the philosophy of ma, the composer explores and harnesses that energy present
between two gaps, i.e. between those active rests, which are not meant to be interruptions, but rather
oases of „silent stillness” in which the listener can admire the various colours within the sounds.
Garden Rain is designed for two groups of five instruments, the first group consisting of two
trumpets in C, a horn in F, a trombone, and a tuba. The second group comprises two trumpets in C, two
trombones and a bass trombone. These two groups are placed on stage at different heights, with one
group at the top of the stage and the other at the bottom.
The piece is written in sonata form. The first theme runs up to bar 22, and the second theme
begins in bar 23. The development begins at bar 33, where the tempo indication is Breathe. The
recapitulation is at bar 110, and the coda begins at bar 133. The boxed numbers that appear above the
staves in the score are subjective indications of duration, telling the performer how long to sustain the
harmony or melody in a particular measure. Takemitsu intentionally specifies that those numbers do not
indicate exactly how many seconds a particular measure should take, but rather serve as an approximate
guide for the performer.
The exposition has material constructed predominantly from simple modal structures, such as
oligochords, pentachords, pentatones (he uses the Japanese pentatonic kumoi), which are organized in a
homophonic texture, which enhances the static character. The resting measures that appear between
chordal expositions are precisely intended to integrate the active rests, which also give a sense of
homogeneity, continuity, and timelessness. Takemitsu intentionally gave subjective indications of
duration, as he wanted the effect to be more like that of a shō (Japanese wind instrument with organ-like
pipes). The sound of this instrument is thought to be formed more in relation to the performer's breathing
and naturalness in sustaining it, rather than to strict predetermined durations (Burt, 2001, p. 167).
The piece begins with the first group of instruments supporting the harmony of the first theme
or a pedal, which gradually changes. The harmony is predominantly diatonic, but some instruments
descend in minor seconds, while others remain, giving the impression of slipping into a chromaticism of
material. At bar 16 the second group of instruments appears. The two trumpets and the first trombone of
the second group play a canon (in prime and retrograde form), while the second trombone and the bass
trombone each have a pedal. This intervention of the second group anticipates an abrupt surge of the
first group towards a moment of chaos, in contrast to the equilibrium of the previous (bar 17).
After this brief exit from the atmosphere of the section, the gradually changing harmonic path
returns. At bar 20, on trumpet 1 of the first group, the s-e-a motif appears, only it is transposed to the
notes a♭- a - d. At bar 23 the second theme appears, with an agitated and incisive character, the trumpets
having strongly chromatic material superimposed over pedals formed of second and third chords. This
temporary turmoil can be likened to the spontaneity of a gust returning to its previous state of stillness.
At the same time, by physically placing the two ensembles at different heights on the stage, Takemitsu
creates the impression of spaciousness, and the pedals stand out in the foreground with their indication
of dynamics crescendo gradually and molto.

Ex. No. 2: Motif (e)s-e-a, transposed on a♭-a-d.

The development (bar 33) begins with a perpetuum mobile performed by trumpets and horns
(small trombone interventions occur), which is built on a major tetrachord (E ♭-F-G-A♭). As the tension
builds, the material begins to become increasingly chromatic and a new wave of energy builds up, but
then recedes. In bars 71-72, two trombones from the second group are gradually introduced, playing
pedals together with the horn, while the trumpets „pendulate with seconds”; then those who had the
pedal take over the infra-melody, and the others hold long notes. The two trombones have dynamics
indications oscillating between ppp and p, again suggesting the idea of waves. More and more
instruments are introduced, and the interval suggesting this pendulum turns into a third, again a
suggestion of rippling water. From bar 86 to 109, trombones, horn and tuba play the role of
accompaniment, being in isorhythm, while the trumpets have a polyphonic writing. From bar 93 to 109
two planes appear: that of the pairs of trumpets in isorhythm, and that of the remaining instruments, also
in isorhythm.
At bar 110 is the recapitulation, which begins with the second theme. A chord reminiscent of
the first theme is inserted in the second measure of the recapitulation. From bar 115 onwards, the

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instruments use the mute, which gives this canon, which appears in the recapitulation, a darker and more
withdrawn sonority. In the coda, some chords are similar to those in the beginning of the work are
repeated, with the indication that some instruments use the mute for a softer sound, while others dispense
with the mute but keep the sonority as low as possible.
The work Garden Rain has a free, airy character in its harmonies, texture and pauses, but it is
not without vitality, as the intervening changes bring different waves of tension that give the piece
diversity.

TIME IN JAPANESE CULTURE

In Tōru Takemitsu's music, a unique element is the rest, used as a musical element, not playing a passive
role, as is generally the case in Western music. In the moments of rests, which arise naturally from the
fading out of the intensity of a sound after it has been attacked, the listener can notice various other
colours within it and appreciate the stillness that gradually takes over the place, without the sound having
any tangible and determinable finality. The moment when the sound fades out represents the ma. This
effect is explored in the piano piece Pause Ininterrompue, mainly following the sonority of the notes
from the moment of attack until they dissipate, creating virtual rests in the piece, since, according to the
concept of ma, rests do not really occur, because there is always that energy between two events, which
have a „gap” between them.
Another parameter that is directly influenced by Japanese culture is timbre. Those who have
been brought up in the spirit of this culture have a native predilection for judging the beauty of a sound
according to its timbre, which, as Takemitsu says, „represents the perception of the changes that occur
within the sound” (Takemitsu, My Perception of Time in Traditional Japanese Music, 1987).
In the piano piece Piano Distance, performers must bring sounds to life in a relevant way,
guided by the indication with feeling. They have to consider that in the absence of other indications in
the score they must bring out the most appropriate qualities of the sounds in question, each of which is
an object of its own beauty. In the score, note values are written that correspond to the actual time in
which a sound played on the piano is heard, according to dynamics and mode of attack, thus integrating
the natural resonance of the instrument into the composition. The emphasis is not on the movement of
the sounds or their sequence, but rather on their quality, suggesting another Japanese concept enunciated
by Takemitsu: „the philosophy of single-note satisfaction” (Takemitsu, My Perception of Time in
Traditional Japanese Music, 1987).
In both Pause Ininterrompue and Piano Distance, there are some bar lines delimitating three-
second units, to guide the performer through the piece, but they are not an element that influences the
perception of the music, the feeling they leave being similar to that of performing a piece ad libitum.
Moreover, certain sounds extend beyond the so-called bar line, making it even harder to detect the
accented beat.
Unlike Westerners, who relate to time as an axis, or as a river, which clearly suggests
movement, Easterners have a more interesting view of time, comparing it to „a placid, silent pool within
which ripples come and go” (Northrop, 1946, pp. 376-383). Although it looks like a static image, it is
not devoid of vitality, as the waves that roll through it give it diversity and movement. Yet they do not
disturb its boundless calm.

CONCLUSIONS

Tōru Takemitsu remains a relevant Japanese composer who has managed to translate philosophy into
music in a poetic way, relating to the beauty of nature around him and innovating with his original
approach to sound material. His contribution to the world music repertoire is significant both because of
his approach to the concept of ma, which he illustrated so beautifully through sound, and because of his
creativity in combining traditional Japanese instruments with those of the West, achieving a kind of
blending of tradition and modernity. Composer Peter Lieberson described him as noble, mysterious,
inquisitive and enchanting, and said that he left the impression of „a man who lived his life like a
traditional Zen poet” (Lieberson, 1997). Lieberson composed a piece for Takemitsu, The Ocean Without
East or West, a title which comes, he says, „from a line Tōru wrote on the postcard Peter Serkin received
a few days after Tōru's death. This had the inscription on it: «I am enjoying swimming in the Ocean that
has no West and no East».” (Lieberson, 1997).

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Burt, P. (2001). The Music of Tōru Takemitsu. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kikkawa, E. (1987). The Musical Sense of the Japanese. Contemporary Music Review, 86.

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Lieberson, P. (1997). The Ocean that has No West and No East. Retrieved April 10, 2021, from
https://www.wisemusicclassical.com/work/30179/The-Ocean-that-has-No-West-and-No-East--Peter-Lieberson
Northrop, F. S. (1946). The Meeting of East and West. New York: Macmillan Company.
Siddons, J. (2001). Tōru Takemitsu - A Bio-biography. Westport: Greenwood Press.
Takemitsu, T. (1987). My Perception of Time in Traditional Japanese Music. Contemporary Music Review, 10.
Takemitsu, T. (1989). Contemporary Music in Japan. Perspectives of New Music, 3.
Takemitsu, T. (1995). Confronting silence. Berkeley: Scarecrow Press.
Yoko Narazaki, Kanazawa Masakata. (2001). Takemitsu, Toru. In D. L. Root, The New Grove Dictionary of Music
and Musicians (pp. 22-25). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Yoko Narazaki, Masakata Kanazawa. (n.d.). Tōru Takemitsu. Retrieved April 10, 2021, from
https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.27403

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 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE UNIVERSE
OF WAGNERIAN OPERAS AND THAT OF
THOMAS MANN'S STORIES.
FROM MUSIC TO LITERARY FICTION
ANA-MARIA CAZACU

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MUSIC, BUCHAREST

ABSTRACT: The present study is part of the research entitled

„Interferences between music and literature – The case of Thomas
Mann”. It proposes a brief analysis of several stories belonging to the
writer Thomas Mann. The approach refers to a series of premises
focused on highlighting possible findings of Wagnerian compositional
visions in the development of literary fictions that are strongly anchored
in the tendency to update various myths in the context of modern culture.
Thus, by referring to short stories such as Tristan, Death in Venice,
Tonio Kröger or the Wälsungi Lineage, it will be demonstrated, as far
as possible, that if Wagner was regarded as „our greatest musical
miniaturist” and a complete connoisseur of „speech to all the
cowardices of modern man”, the figure of Thomas Mann is associated
with that of the writer-psychologist, a fine analyst and a harsh critic of
his time, who turned his writings into true frescoes of society.

KEYWORDS: MANN, WAGNER, TRISTAN, ISOLDA

WHEN trying to place Thomas Mann's writings in the European socio-cultural context, we notice both
an orientation towards certain aesthetic tendencies accepted as classics, as well as an approach to a series
of paradigms specific to the first half of the twentieth century. His novels and short stories stand out, at
first sight, by taking over and recontextualizing literary techniques such as elaborate descriptions of
details, characterization of characters through caricature images, or orientation of literary perspectives
to the realm of naturalism, especially to analyse how certain pathological conditions influence the destiny
of some of the characters (Petrovai, 2018).
Considered one of „the most torn artists of the twentieth century” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p.
841), Mann will bring his work to the realm of relentless dramas of existence, starting from the
assumption that „a masterpiece is always carried along as a whole, and even aesthetic philosophy claims
that the works of the word and of music, unlike visual arts, depend on time and its flow, they also tend
to be whole at any moment. In the beginning live both the middle and the end, the present is imbued
with the past, and even total focus on the past mirrors the concern for the future” (Mann, Cum am scris
Doctor Faustus, 1995, p. 707).
Music thus becomes a paradigm of the times, but also an embodiment of art which, often
subordinated to the theological dimension, adopts the orientation of the mystical side towards a deep
rooted present connotation, where modern man „inherits and radicalizes the polarities of previous
centuries” (Braga, 2006) and thus, in order to integrate into his own existence both aspects of rational
thought and concepts anchored in the utopian sphere, tends to become part of an art and prisoner of it,
often seen as one of the obstacles of the human being on the way to Paradise (Micu, 2007, p. 39).
From this point of view, Thomas Mann's short stories and novels can also be seen in relation to
a tendency to define his characters through a fine psychological analysis, made with a detailed
description of feelings, which bring them, somewhat, closer to the Proustian style, where certain aspects
on the destiny of culture and society are illustrated by appeals to metaphors and symbols (Micu, 2007,
p. 29). At the same time, Thomas Mann's writings fit into a stylistic paradigm close to the Russian
literature, especially Dostoievski, based on actions in which the characters are defined in terms of
dialogues (Petrovai, 2018). A third typology of Mann's characters approaches the sphere of expressionist
literature, whose main representatives Franz Kafka and James Joyce, often suggest complex characters,
who become, on the one hand, witnesses of a social context split between the existential becoming and
the struggle for survival, and on the other hand, prototypes for a world dominated by fear and

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permanently anchored in the present trends to find unexpected valences in the past, while the future is
projected as a consequence of the decay of the present (Petrovai, 2018).
At the same time, we note that Mann's entire creation stands out as an embodiment of a musical
journey, as he himself confesses: „I have always loved music with passion, it has always been close to
me, it has stimulated me enormously, it has been a great teaching for my art (...). I always looked at my
talent as a kind of transposed musical vocation. As a storyteller, I used its techniques, in my attempts to
criticism I described its transformations. (...). In music, the German-romantic element has always been
the closest to me (...). I keep an old and determined sympathy for Tchaikovsky, from whom, before my
eyes unfold a modern trend, as modern as Stravinsky, whose art deeply concerns me” (Micu, 2007, p.
56).
Of all stylistic-aesthetic directions illustrated above, one can grasp a certain connection between
Thomas Mann's writings and a series of sound paradigms. The most representative is the closeness to
the typology of works of the German romantic composer Richard Wagner, Thomas Mann mainly refers
to explore and exploit the universe of metaphor. In Wagner's personality, Mann sees, on the one hand,
the figure of a „discoverer of the myth for opera, as the saviour of opera through myth” (Mann, Pătimirile
și măreția lui Richard Wagner, 2013, p. 57) and on the other hand of a composer who "did not want to
write dramas, but musical dramas, to depict not only the actions and thoughts of the characters, but to
express especially their emotions and thus give us the essence of their soul" (Mann, Pătimirile și măreția
lui Richard Wagner, 2013, p. 59).
Mann thus, admits „the passion for Wagner's charming opera, that accompanied me, from the
moment I discovered it and I tried to grasp its meaning, to understand it, fascinating and shaping me,
and I will never forget how much I owe it, as well as I will never forget the hours of deep, lonely
happiness (...), hours when my soul and mind rejoiced, hours when I explored the magnificent meanings
that only this art can offer” (Mann, Pătimirile și măreția lui Richard Wagner, 2013, p. 19). This fact is
demonstrated in each of his stories and novels, which take from Wagner the power to define themselves
as dimensions of a highly individualized stylistic world, as „flawless steps and stages of the unity of
creation always closed in itself, of a project that emerges as a life plan” (Mann, Pătimirile și măreția lui
Richard Wagner, 2013, pg. 34, 36).
Starting from this assumption, we can see that Mann's stories and novels tend to reflect his
concern related to the universe of Wagnerian works in order to explore and exploit the dimension of
metaphor. Through this, the character of the writer can be associated with that of an „admirer of
harmonies” who, „eager to multiply the consonants of life” (Ianoși, 2002, p. 133), leads his creation to
the „sphere of expression, of the flow of feelings and musical dialectics” (Ianoși, 2002, p. 29). The new
vision is highlighted in a series of short stories and novels that relate to Wagner's operas, to illustrate
states of social and moral decadence, defining in this respect being the novel Buddenbrooks – where
certain leitmotifs in the Wagnerian Tetralogy are seen in the context of a story „about giving up love in
the service of power and wealth” (Micu, 2007, p. 56) – and the short stories Tristan and The Blood of
the Walsungs, in which ideas from operas such as Tristan and Isolde and Walkiria „bring forth truths
of the context of Mann's art, where suffering or distortions of family ties seem to prevail as constant
phenomena” (Micu, 2007, pg. 56-57).
Thus, the characterological typologies of the characters proposed by the German writer tend to
migrate from one writing to another and extend, consequently, from one identical context to another,
„the irreconcilable conflict between art and life” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 853) being updated through
a split of the spirit between a natural, purely existential state, a dreamlike dimension, strongly anchored
in the metaphysical and a tendency to access the cultural, through a permanent state of longing for the
transcendent doubled by a need for rational knowledge (Balint, 2018, p. 53).
Mixing literary ideas with those anchored in the art of sounds, Mann lays a strong emphasis on
his own themes and characters. There are permanent oscillations between archetypes subordinated to
universal truths-life-death, disease-health, aristocracy-simplicity, with nuances of ascetism-which, if in
music could be understood through phrasing, accents rhythmic-melodic profiles, here they are
distinguished by symbols and leitmotifs often emphasized by the ironic side of the narrative (Bolduc,
1983). As a result, like Wagner, Mann aspires to identify himself with the psychologist writer, even
through leitmotifs, „magical formulas sometimes used in the old opera, which gradually become part of
a deep and skilful system by which the art of sounds become an instrument of allusions, introspections
and psychological revelations” (Mann, Pătimirile și măreția lui Richard Wagner, 2013, p. 14). At the
same time, many of the stories emerge from events, experiences and feelings often present obsessively
in the writer's life, about which it is known that, like some of his heroes, „he himself had witnessed the
Wagnerian opera performances being gripped by their dangerous spell, had had many of the
conversations transfigured into the imaginary, through marriage had become part of an illustrious and
rich Munich family, poetized and mocked at, had estranged himself from former friends and had visited
tuberculosis sanatoriums, saving himself from the real disease, thoroughly describing it” (Ianoși, 2002,
p. 227).

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It is worth to also consider the connection that Mann draws in his short story Tristan (1903), which
inspired by the Wagnerian opera Tristan and Isolde, associated with the legend of „a medieval world
long forgotten and never more up-to-date by its subject” (Micu, 2007, p. 60), suggests the orientation if
the initial theme – love and desire for death, which transcends early existence and confers spiritual wealth
– in the realm of a spiritually impoverished world and a live that is both obsessive and transient.
If in his operas Wagner replaces the specific arias of the Italian compositional style with simple
melodic motifs, becoming in Nietzsche's vision „our greatest musical miniaturist, able to accumulate in
the smallest space an infinity of meanings and nuances” (Micu, 2007, p. 61), the nonconformism of
Mann's stories reflect a preoccupation with the meticulous analysis of the psychology of heroes and the
contexts of situations often rendered through the indirect free style of the inner monologue, the appeal
to irony, to bring historical distance to consciousness and create a game with „pre-existing forms and
themes”, anchored in both traditional values and the tragic dimension of modernity (Mann, Povestiri,
2008, pg. 854-855).
In the same time, if the beginning of Wagner's opera is suggested by a prelude based on „a
miracle of long, passionate and continuous melody” derived from two adjacent motifs that are at the
same time distinct in structure (Ex. no. 1), Mann's short story highlights, in turn, the insight of two
motifs, associated with the images of two characters: Detlev Spinell, a strange and eccentric writer and
Gabriele Klöterjahn, who claims to have connections with art, even though the fact that she was born in
Bremen. They seem to turn the archetypal love between Tristan and Isolde into a burlesque fugitive love
between „a mime, a braggart, a sentimental artistic crook and a naive being, „a victim of sentimental
artists or pseudo-artists” (Ianoși, 2002, p. 233).

Ex. No.1: Prelude from Tristan and Isolde (mm. 1-3)

Following the course of the action, we can see that the resemblance between Wagner's opera
and Mann's story is based on a series of common stylistic landmarks (Schnitman, 1971).
Thus, if Wagner uses musical motifs to characterize the typologies of the characters, Mann
suggests a series of leitmotifs, the story suggesting from the beginning, a focus on the male character,
fact emphasized by the shortening of title of Wagner's opera. From Mann's saying, he does not seem to
suffer from a physical disease but rather from an existential stasis, easily curable by entering an „empire-
dominated universe, whose clarity and harshness, cold simplicity and reserved severity confers attitude
and dignity, purification and inner restauration” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, pg. 170-207; 179).
The sanatorium where the protagonists are hospitalised also bears a suggestive name, Einfried,
Mann hinting at Wagner's villa in Bayreuth (Wahnfried), but also at the image of the sanatorium as a
place of solitude, or as a metaphor for the ship Tristan and Isolde were travelling to the king Marke. The
one who runs the sanatorium, „a man that science estranged from others, suggesting him a calm and
intolerant pessimism” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 170), bears a symbolic name, Leander, which highlights
Mann's concern for myth, that of the legend about Hero and Leander, similar to the medieval motif of
love between Tristan and Isolde (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 811).
Also if Wagner's operas proved that „without music, entire life would be nothing but a great
wandering” (Micu, 2007, p. 66), Mann develops in his writings the idea of the ability to „awaken time”
and „to awaken us to enjoy time to the fullest” (Micu, 2007, p. 63). In this context, Gabriele's childhood
memories of musical life tend to play a much stronger role now, in adulthood, especially since this was
forbidden to her at the sanatorium. It us the moment when Gabriele gets trapped in a game of death so
as not to „let beauty fade away and die, before it could speak” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 191) through
music. On the sound of Chopin's Nocturnes, the one in E Flat Major (Op.9, no.2), highlighted its
virtuosity, „the firm and velvety touch, the sense full of nervousness for the different shades of sounds
and the joy for the rhythmic mobility led to the fantastic” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 192), Gabriele

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enters, along with Mr. Spinel, in the mysterious universe of a score, whose title is not mentioned. From
Spinell's remarks, the work seems to approach the universe of the Wagnerian opera Tristan and Isolde
even through the sound illustration of two motives, longing and death, „two forces, two ecstatic beings,
longing in suffering and happiness one after another embraced in their ecstatic and crazy thirst for eternal
and absolute” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 193).
The action of the short story begins with an exposition that lasts until the preparations for the
sleigh ride (chapters 1-7) and is based on highlighting the context and the characters of the story, while
the central section culminates with this walk, which heralded by the piano performance of the lyrical
duet in the Wagnerian opera (chapters 8-9), determines a focus of the narrative voice on the
psychological side of the characters. Spinell and Gabriele become, like the heroes of Wagnerian opera,
the protagonists of a „legendary mystery”, of „a secret duet that brought them both together in the
nameless hope of death in the name of love in the endless inseparable embrace within the wonderful
empire of night” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 194).
Both creations conclude in the death of the protagonists, but in different contexts. In both cases
they are anticipated by the scene of a confrontation between two male entities: the duel between Tristan
and Melot, king's Marke faithful servant, can thus be associated with the letter and dialogue between
Spinell and Herr Klöterjahn, the latter being reproached for his rude nature and lack of sensitivity for
Gabriele's shy beauty and dreamy will, whose aim was to obtain a new status through marriage, that of
a „wife, housewife and mother”, governed by „banality, life and ugliness" (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p.
200).
In the Wagnerian opera Tristan dies at Isolde's feet, being fully convinced by the existence of
a love meant to find its fulfillment beyond death, and Isolde, „singing the supreme hymn of love, falls
lifeless next to Tristan” (Constantinescu, 2008, p. 477). In Mann's story, Spinell's apparent death occurs
both after Gabriela's (for whom love seems to be a transient feeling, suggested only when interpreting
fragments from the Wagnerian opera), as well as in the dispute with her devoted husband. Thus, it
acquires a meaning close to the loss of identity, in the context of a world „full of irritating naivety, of
what I call unconscious fellows” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 200). His death can thus be associated with
a tendency of inner refuge, to escape from light: „Mr. Spinell did not see the sun; his path led him in
such a way that the sun remained covered and hidden for him. He was walking with his head bowed,
humming a fragment of a song, a sound that rose fearfully and melancholically, the reason for longing...”
(Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 206). Also: if Tristan dies in Isolde's arms, Spinell is chased in his run by the
cheerful shouts of little Anton Kloterjahn, a child dressed in white, with puffy cheeks, „with a cheerful
and undisturbed look” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 206).
In Mann's story we notice constant descriptions of narrative details, associated both with a
thorough analysis of characters and a framework anchored in symbolic connotations. Eloquent examples
can be found in the central section of the short story, considered in this context as a lyrical pseudo-duet
of the protagonists, starting from certain ideas oriented towards the context of the opera Tristan and
Isolde. It is the moment when the narrative perspective of the story tends to be oriented towards another
archetypal dimension, associated with the combination between art, disease, and death.
Starting from the assumption that „art is a slippery and cursed realm” (Ianoși, 2002, p. 233) and
the artist's image overlaps with the defining one for a cold, prodigious, unnatural being, often wandering,
estranged „in a careless crowd” (Ianoși, 2002, p. 233), Mann finds hidden similarities between illness
and a possible antidote to overcoming the human condition. Thus, Gabriele, a new sanatorium patient,
weakened by the birth of her son and prone to tuberculosis, becomes the prisoner of a spiritual game.
Together with Detlev Spinell, the „serpent that leads Eve into temptation, the siren voice that calls for
perdition or the venomous that saves himself from death by a life surrogate that becomes art surrogate”
(Ianoși, 2002, p. 233), she tends to return in a time associated with an absolute state of mind back in her
childhood, when she used to accompany her father, a merchant from Bremen and a violinist, „an artist
to a greater extent than others who call themselves so and live out the glory” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p.
184). All these elements place the story in a philosophical dialectic where art and the state of musicality
are distinguished as existence paradigms and beauty can acquire meanings close to a morbid state
(Ianoși, 2002, p. 232). The main scene – associated with the moment when Gabriele plays one of
Chopin's Nocturnes on the piano and scenes from the Wagnerian musical drama focused on the forbidden
and fatal love between Tristan and Isolde – brings forth a transformation of the male character, who now
became an embodiment of the Mephistophelean spirit, which „prefers to be a captive for beauty and art”
(Ianoși, 2002, p. 233) and devilishly forces its victim to an uplifting effort paid even with life.
Wagner and Mann both refer to the mythical dimension of the night, setting the meeting of the
two characters in a cold winter night, an image associated with the detachment of action from a
transcendental love. From this perspective, the short story also highlights Mann's tendency to distort
love (in both cases forbidden) between the two characters: if Wagner's love declarations are full of
passion, Mann's characters have reserved attitudes, close to the context of a platonic love. Thus, it can
be noticed that both in the opera and in the short story, the night stands out as a symbol of love and death.

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Mann sees in Tristan and Isolde a „praise to death”, a „sublime, devastating, morbid work, with magic
filled with the most dangerous and noble mysteries of romanticism” (Mann, Pătimirile și măreția lui
Richard Wagner, 2013, p. 52), starting from the assumption that „the one who glares with love the night
of death and its sweet mystery has no other desire in the deceitful light than the longing for the holy
night which is true and eternal and makes two souls become one... (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 193).
In both Wagner's opera and Mann's story, the disposition of the literary plan is noticed starting
from the contrasting image of the three characters. Thus, in the short story Tristan, we notice that the
central figures are Detlev Spinell, main character and prototype of the romantic hero, whose love for
Gabriele resembles the one between Tristan and Isolde. The connection between the two is highlighted
by resemblances in the artistic field (Spinell's image that convinces Gabriele to play the piano, to return
to childhood). At the opposite side is Herr Klöterjahn who, like king Marke, seems to embody the image
of a pragmatic and strong husband, deeply anchored in the social and material dimension of existence.
Like Isolde, Gabriele is described as a fairy tale heroine, a delicate, elegant being and at the
same time resembling angels, as suggested by the assigned name. But just as the Wagnerian heroine
cannot stop her strange emotion and love for Tristan, neither can Gabriele overlook the intensity of
Spinell's devotion at the sanatorium, nor can she control her passion for music, despite the fact that this
strong emotion may endanger her health.
Mann's images of Spinell and Gabriele sharply contrast the portraits of Wagner's idealized
characters. Gabriele, despite her beauty and inspired spirituality, is affected by her health and
conventional attitudes. She is a bourgeois, delicate housewife, without physical endurance, without
Isolde's vital and passionate force, while Spinell is initially depicted as the embodiment of a romantic
hero-an „imposing stature, well dressed and fashionable, with a black frock-coat and a long waist coat
with colourful dots” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 176). At the same time Mann assigns this portrait a series
of less graceful details: „He looked very strange, with a sullen, round, wild and childish face His
gleaming brown eyes were gentle, his nose was a little flat and too fleshy. He had large, decayed teeth
and sparsely sized feeet” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 176). Under the same contrasting portrayal, Mann
will refer to Spinell's artistic nature, an eccentric intellectual, an unsociable nature”, who did not seek to
approach any soul and who only rarely was in a friendly mood, and this, whenever he was overwhelmed
by an aesthetic zeal, when the sight of something beautiful, the harmony of two colours, a vessel of a
noble shape, the mountains laminated by the setting sun, were snatching exclamations of admiration,
uttered aloud” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 176). As the action unfolds, we are told that, while he cherishes
music and decodes its most mysterious meanings, Spinell cannot even create it nor interpret it: „such
things seldom meet together” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 194). The unravelling of the short story brings
forth a third hypostasis of the character, this time becoming one of the world's saviours, be it embodied
by the presence of the female character who dies „but does not perish in vulgarity but rises from the
abyss of humiliation and dies proud and happy under the deadly kiss of beauty” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008,
p. 201).

Mann's concern with transposing the content of Tristan and Isolde's opera into his writings seems to be
constant, as evidenced by a series of exhaustive considerations gathered in a series of unfinished stories.
We thus mention the story of Tristan and Isolde, that places love between the two medieval characters
in a paradigm closer rather to a Shakespearean dramatic context. „Tristan and Isolde are celebrities if
their time and have long learned much about each other from people's sayings. Tristan is for Isolde the
ideal man, without her ever having seen him and she is for him the embodiment of her dreams of feminine
grace and nobility” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, pg. 523-530; 523). Although the destinies of the two
protagonists seem to be united by unseen ties, as each „bears in their heart the image of the other, and
their thoughts encounter each other beyond distance” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 523), a proper approach
seem to be impossible, considering the ancient rivalry between Ireland (Isolde's land) and Cornwall (the
kingdom Tristan belongs to). As the action unfolds, Tristan claims to be the one who „wants to establish
peace between the two countries, which have done so much harm to each other through hatred and war”
(Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 524) and that is why he agrees to go to Ireland, where he will propose Isolde
for his uncle, king Marke. Arriving at the Irish court, Tristan makes a pleasant impression, „both in
words and in his being” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 525), all appreciating his lofty spirit, common sense,
his knowledge, and talent. The love between the two rises when Tristan becomes Isolde's teacher,
teaching her music and foreign languages lessons apprenticing her in „the art of beautiful manners”
(Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 525).The wedding between Isolde and Marke – looked upon by the bride's
parents with „surprise, anger, joy and parsimony” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 525) also attracts a conflict
between uncle and nephew, the latter having „a free way to Isolde's chamber”, thus becoming the
protagonist of an „unhappy happiness” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 526). The two lovers are separated,

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and Tristan becomes a wanderer around the world, „being the hero of many adventures” (Mann,
Povestiri, 2008, p. 527) that culminate with his stay in the Arundel dukedom.
Here he will meet Isolde the One-with-white-hands, with whom he seems to fall in love,
composing songs (in which the name Isolde always appears), telling her fairy tales, singing and writing
with her. Their wedding will be perceived as a fraternal bond, because „in Tristan's soul there is a
struggle for his devotion for the Irish Isolde, whose memory convolves his heart in a spell from which
he hopes to heal later” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 528). Overwhelmed by desire, Tristan falls into despair,
the outcome being tragic. Wounded in battle, having no chance to heal, the protagonist asks his brother-
in-law to go to Ireland and bring Isolde. A new mark is established to confirm or to deny her presence,
by lifting a white or black cloth (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, pg. 528-529). The dialogue between the two is
heard by Isolde, the One-with-white-hands, „the gentle, little one, who now becomes an untamed cat
who now swears to revenge, but still pretends to be a loving and devoted wife” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008,
p. 529). Cunningly, she notified Tristan that the cloth is black, which causes the death of the hero, and
then that of the Irish Isolde, who once arrived, „hears all over the streets cries of pain and wailings, as
well as funeral cathedral and chapel bells” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 529). Upon hearing the news, the
attitude of the princess, whose beauty and dignity astonishes all, is overshadowed by pain, culminating
with the moment when, with a „broken heart, she collapses near the coffin, dead” (Mann, Povestiri,
2008, p. 529).

Seen as bridges over time, Thomas Mann's stories transpose a series of mythical and mystical aspects in
the context of the twentieth century mentality. Indirectly Mann becomes a vehement critic of his time,
bringing his contribution in establishing the position of art in society through a broad vision, constantly
oscillating between a clear spirit and fantastic atmosphere.
Gradually, the two paradigms, come together harmoniously, in a broad literary context,
endowed with biblical, mythological, historical, or philosophical values, deeply rooted in modern
culture, where art and music become embodiment of a split existence between the absolute manifestation
of talent and a state of suffering, seen as a landmark of the implacable destiny. Consequently, Mann's
heroes constantly tend to distinguish themselves as archetypal characters anchored both in the values of
the past and in the revolutionary spirit of the present, witnessing a reality in which the state of social
decline attracts an implicit moral and spiritual decay.
Whether detached from the Faustian myth, from the author's intention to demonstrate that the
„German spirit is metaphysical” (Mann, Cum am scris Doctor Faustus, 1995, p. 705), or the need to
illustrate through fiction „the crisis of the bourgeois culture” (Mann, Cum am scris Doctor Faustus, 1995,
p. 705), Thomas Mann's stories and novels often offer extensive references to various musical
phenomena, which become metaphors of the same world under a permanent reversal of ideals and
paradigms of the past. Thus, Mann highlights a series of contexts in which music, viewed in certain
philosophical conceptions as a form of imitation of nature, supposes, at the same time, a way in which
the human being asserts his permanent existence „in mystery and revelation” (Blaga, 1969) and becomes
a messenger of the world he lives in.
At the same time, the destiny of each characters tends to assert itself from the perspective of an
initiating journey, during which „the heroes do not wander” (Micu, 2007, p. 28), but try to move towards
a deeper dimension of existence. Thus, a permanent oscillation between universally valid ideas and truths
is suggested, anchored mainly in the author's need to define himself as a free spirit, who „at maturity
seemed to have felt better in the company of musicians, composers and conductors than that of writers”
(Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 844). Thus, beyond personal experiences associated with historical events
and „the compulsion to live in exile” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 845), Thomas Mann distinguishes
himself from the writer who, deeply connected to the dignified spirit of Nordic culture and aware of the
purpose of his art (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 838), „chose his themes according to the imperatives of his
time and made remarkable efforts to make his writings a coherent work” (Mann, Povestiri, 2008, p. 838).

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Balint, G. (2018). Privirea estetică. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.
Blaga, L. (1969). Geneza metaforei și sensul culturii. Bucharest: Editura Literaturii Universale.
Bolduc, S. A. (1983). A Study of Intertextuality: Thomas Mann's "Tristan" and Richard Wagner's "Tristan und
Isolde". Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature Vol. 37, No. 1/2 (pg. 82-90). Rocky Mountain Modern
Langua.
Braga, C. (2006). Thomas Mann. Ruptura faustică dintre suflet și spirit”. În De la arhetip la anarhetip (p. 213). Iași:
Polirom.

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Constantinescu, G. (2008). Splendorile operei. Bucharest: Editura Didactică și Pedagogică.

Ianoși, I. (2002). Thomas Mann. Temă cu Variațiuni. Bucharest: Editura Trei.
Mann, T. (1995). Cum am scris Doctor Faustus. În Doctor Faustus (p. 707). Bucharest: Editura Rao.
Mann, T. (2008). Povestiri. Bucharest: Editura Rao.
Mann, T. (2013). Pătimirile și măreția lui Richard Wagner. Bucharest: Editura Humanitas.
Micu, I. (2007). Thomas Mann. Istoria unei partituri literare. Cluj Napoca: Casa Cărții de Știință.
Petrovai, G. (2018, march 30). „Destinul artistului in societate, temă de referință în opera lui Thomas Mann”.
Retrieved from https://ziarulnatiunea.ro/2018/03/30/destinul-artistului-in-societate-tema-de-referinta-in-opera-lui-
thomas-mann/
Schnitman, S. (1971, April). Musical Motives in Thomas Mann's Tristan. MLN, Vol. 86, No. 3, German Issue, pg.
399-414.

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 PARADIGMS AND SIMILARITIES IN THE
CHORAL CREATION OF
TIMOTEI POPOVICI AND MARȚIAN NEGREA
TEODORA CONSTANTINESCU

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MUSIC BUCHAREST

ABSTRACT: In the study „Paradigms and similarities in the choral

creation of Timotei Popovici and Marțian Negrea” I want to highlight
the elements that have been transferred from teacher Timotei Popovici
to the choral creation of Marțian Negrea. Timotei Popovici was
Marțian Negrea's music teacher at the Andreian Seminary in Sibiu and
played an important role in his formation as a musician. I proposed to
structure the study in several points, including a brief analysis of the
writing, musical syntax, rhythm, metrics and dynamics, continuing
with elements related to aesthetics, the processing and use of the
folkloric element, as well as other stylistic features found in secular
songs, religious music and carols composed by the two.

KEYWORDS: POPOVICI, NEGREA, CHORAL MUSIC

A PROMINENT FIGURE in Romanian musical life at the end of the 19th century and the first
half of the 20th century, Timotei Popovici distinguished himself as a teacher, composer and conductor
of numerous vocal ensembles. Born in Tincova, in the Banat region, he undertook a sustained research
activity in the field of folklore, compiling one of the most important collections of carols. His credo
was based on his knowledge of Romanian folklore, which he subsequently confirmed with each of his
creations. He preserved and perpetuated Romanian traditions through the reworkings and
harmonisations he created for various types of choral ensembles.

As a folklorist, Timotei Popovici aimed at harmonizing and processing folk

songs for various choral groups, thus enhancing the Romanian folk melody.
(Delu)

As a teacher, Timotei Popovici educated his students with great dedication, instilling in them
his love for traditional Romanian song. He also made an important page of history through the
children's songs he composed, managing to give them beauty and freshness through the simplicity and
fluidity of the Romanian folk melody.

Many of Timotei Popovici's children's songs are still preserved today in the
school repertoire, because the melodic simplicity and the popular
intonation give most of the pieces the accessibility that is typical of the
musical genre for children. He is rightly considered a classic of Romanian
music for children. (Cosma, Romanian Musicians. Lexicon, 1989, p. 111)

Timotei Popovici benefited from a thorough musical training, first at the Romanian Orthodox
Diocesan Seminary in Caransebeș - where he attended both the pedagogical section (1887-1890) and
the theological section (1890-1893) - and later at the Conservatory in Iasi, with Eduard Caudella and
Gavriil Musicescu as teachers. Since 1887, the composer from Banat has been intensely active in
music and theology in Caransebeș, Iași, Lugoj, Brașov and Sibiu, where he was also a priest and
teacher, composer and conductor of several choral ensembles including the Youth Choir of the Church
of Brașovul-Vechi (1896-1899), the Choir of the Romanian Craftsmen's Meeting of Brașov (1897-
1899), the Metropolitan Choir of Sibiu (1899-1945), the Romanian Sodal Choir of Sibiu (1910-1911)
and others.a.

Priest and teacher at seminaries, primary schools, gymnasiums and normal

schools, Timotei Popovici did not have the time necessary for large-scale
composition, his role being rather that of missionary in the field of

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education, mass musical culture, patriotic spirit in the education of youth.

(...) He wasted his time collecting folklore, struggling to publish his didactic
works, collaborating in yearbooks and village calendars, working in
various peasant societies in Banat, writing articles and reviews that
appeared in obscure publications, convinced that musical education must
start from school and amateur circles in order to be effective in adulthood.
(Cosma, Romanian Musicians. Lexicon, 1989, p. 110)

Between 1899 and 1919, Timotei Popovici was a music teacher at the Andreian Seminary in
Sibiu where, for four years, between 1910 and 1914, he had the young Marțian Negrea as a pupil. The
study of vocal music and church singing with the teacher and theologian Timotei Popovici during that
period would later be reflected in the choral work of the Siberian composer.

Between 1910 and 1914 Marțian Negrea attended the pedagogical section
of the Andreian Seminary in Sibiu, where his music teacher was Timotei
Popovici. (Dimoftache, 2003, p. 21)

Born in Vorumloc, in Sibiu county, Marțian Negrea was a good and talented child, who came
into contact with music in his native Transylvanian village where traditions and customs were still
alive. Singing was never absent from his family home, and little Marțian sang constantly, to the delight
of his parents and the villagers.

As a child, Martian, with an angelic voice, read the Apostle and sang all
the ecclesiastical songs, psalms, canticles, troparia, hymns, heraldics. He
also sang from a whistle, or from a leaf, or with his voice, being listened to
with emotion by all the people of the village, from children to the elderly.
He was also a regular at the horă, where he learned the song of the lute
players, the shout, the dance figures. (Dimoftache, 2003, p. 17)

Marțian Negrea began studying music at the Roman-Catholic Hungarian High School in
Odorhei, then followed the pedagogical section of the Andreian Seminary in Sibiu, where he studied
with Timotei Popovici, and later perfected his studies at the Academy of Music in Budapest and the
Akademie für Musik und darstellende Kunst in Vienna. At the Andreian Seminary, he was a model
pupil, showing a particular preuption for music and other subjects, in which he obtained very good
grades. Part of the knowledge he acquired at the Andreian Seminary under the careful guidance of his
music teacher has over time left its mark on Marțian Negrea's creative personality.
In the Negrea family archive are preserved the testimonies of the school
years at the Andreian Pedagogical Seminary of the Archdiocese of Sibiu
with the grades Distinguished (in Church and Typical Songs, Vocal Music,
Instrumental Music, Arithmetic and Geometry), Eminent, Good, Sufficient,
as well as the teacher's diploma signed by Timotei Popovici. (Dimoftache,
2003, p. 24)

Devoted to national values, a keen observer, with a particular musical intelligence, Marțian
Negrea has also worked on a series of folkloric themes for mixed choir, his predilection for folkloric
quotations in the avant-garde musician's vision being found everywhere in his creation. In the volume
Encounters with 20th century musicians signed by George Sbârcea, Marțian Negrea stresses the
importance and uniqueness that national specificity gives to music:

Through it, everything is clarified, valorized and transformed into a kind of

reflex. In its absence we are dealing with the paucity of colours and
nuances of the formalist currents, with the absence of the elements of
music's sensitive connection with life. The emotion expressed in music
becomes accessible only when the creation is integrated into a popular
language. (Sbârcea, 1984)

Both Marțian Negrea and Timotei Popovici were inspired for their works by the life of the
village where they grew up, the picturesque atmosphere and the simplicity of life in the past. Although
Negrea's mature choral works represent the sum of the knowledge he acquired during his studies with
several personalities of musical life in Romania and abroad, they still preserve the spirituality and
authentic beauty of Romanian folklore and the clarity and balance of his writing - a legacy from
Timotei Popovici.

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Marțian Negrea's music stands the test of time thanks to its sensitivity,
spontaneity, clarity of message, varied colouring, but above all the
professional rigour of each score. If it has been rightly said that music
identifies with man, then (...) Negrea (...) cannot be separated for a moment
from his native land (to which he has always returned by way of folklore,
which he deciphered in his childhood and youth) and from the
Transylvanian church where he began his basic studies. (Cosma, Romanian
Musicians. Lexicon, 1989, p. 66)

We will now present a series of similarities and particularities that can be found in the choral
creations of the two composers, taking into account several parameters that come together in the works
under discussion, without, however, aiming at an exhaustive research of this subject, about which so
much can still be discovered.
As far as rhythm is concerned, the two composers have always preferred simplicity and
homogeneity, expressiveness being generated by the alternation of nuances and tempo indications and
not by the stringing together of musical durations. Nevertheless, there are many moments of
isorhythmia in the choral works of the two that cannot be overlooked. They build up tension, become
the focus of the work and lend a rich stylistic expressiveness, proving their mastery in devising a
frenetic homogeneity, integrated into the work at just the right moment. For example, the first section
of Marțian Negrea's declamatory Psalm 123 is based on this principle (Ex. 1).

The work begins with a motif unfolding on the arpeggio of F# minor,

followed by the declamation of the whole chorus, inspired by the meaning of
the words. (Dimoftache, 2003, p. 123)

Ex. No. 1

With the exception of the second measure, which creates tension by moving the tenor
downward from the C# sound to B in the F# minor subdominant chord in the I inversion, the entire
section exhibits isorhythms. At the same time, the Andante tranquillo indication and low key create the
intimate, prayerful atmosphere necessary for this work. We also find isorhythmia towards the end of
the work, when the tension has eased and the fiery words have fulfilled their purpose, in measures 50-
54 (Ex. 2).

Ex. No. 2

Originally published in 1937, in the Treatise on Musical Forms, Psalm 123 was composed on
a text with a particular load, musically doubled in an exceptional way by the creative genius of Marțian
Negrea, which made this work a permanent center of interest in the repertoires of choral ensembles in
the country.

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Isorhythmia also predominates in another work by the Siberian composer, in the Love Song,
Part III (Ex. 3). Marțian Negrea has made use of this simple technique, which gives clarity and clarity
to the musical discourse, precisely in order to highlight the major role that the natural flow of words
plays in a musical work.

Ex. No. 3

Timotei Popovici used isorhythmia mainly in his well-known and appreciated carols, in the
end of the works La poarta lui Ștefan Vodă (Ex. no. 4), Domnul Iisus Hristos (Ex. no. 5), Praznic
luminos (Ex. no. 6) and in some sections of Mândruțo, poale ciurate (Ex. no. 7).

Ex. No. 4

Ex. No. 5

Ex. No. 6

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Ex. No. 7

The Sunday Axion presents isorhythmic sequences, which, as in Negrea's Psalm 123, induce
the idea of ritual, of incantation specific to the state of prayer (Ex. 8).

Ex. No. 8

In religious works we find declamated text, the repetition of several syllables on the same
note. For example, in Psalm 123, such a recitative is found in measures 4 and 42 (Ex. nos. 9 and 10).

Ex. No. 9

Ex. No. 10

Both composers place at the centre of the melody the word to which the music is subordinate.
Polyphonic writing is found in both Timotei Popovici's and Marțian Negrea's works. We find the
imitation in the works Ian' te scoală gazdă, where the soprano and tenor enter the canon, followed by
the alto and bass in a descending quatrain (Ex. no. 11), while the second stanza of Psalm 123 is written
polyphonically (Ex. no. 12).

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Ex. No. 11

The disparate entries of the voices are included by both composers in their works, so that in
La poarta lui Ștefan Vodă, Timotei Popovici gives voice to the bass, then to the soprano, and then the
internal voices enter simultaneously. We find a similar debut in Marțian Negrea's Doarme firea
legănată, where the soprano leads the way for the other voices, followed by the alto and tenor singing
at the same time and then the bass in the second measure (Ex. no. 12).

Ex. No. 12

The two composers use homophony, especially Timotei Popovici in the works Axion
duminical, Hațegană, Mândruțo, poale ciurate, in the carols Astăzi s-a născut Hristos, Praznic
luminos, Îngerul vine or Linu-i râurelu-i linu.
As for the assignment of the theme to a certain voice, Timotei Popovici generally gives the
soprano primacy, as can be seen in the works Linu-i linu, Praznic luminos and Somnu mi-i. In many of
his works, Marțian Negrea also gives the theme to sopranos, for example in Ia ieși mândră pân' la
poarte, Foaie verde popâlnic or Ian' te scoală. In Păstorița, however, Marțian Negrea allows the other
voices to shine, giving the work many expressive qualities. In this respect, he attaches particular
importance to the bass part.
The elements of dynamics and agogics are a central point of the aesthetic in the music of both
composers, the phrases always being built on a chain of nuances to suit the natural flow of the spoken
phrase. Likewise, the stanzas or sections of choral works are carefully enriched with indications of
movement, which contributes fundamentally to their expressiveness.
In terms of structure, Timotei Popovici focuses on accessibility, symmetry and balance, so
that many of his works have strophic form, including La poarta lui Ștefan Vodă (6 stanzas), Linu-i
râurelu-i lin (6 stanzas), Astăzi s-a născut Hristos (4 stanzas), Florile dalbe (4 stanzas) or Praznic
luminos (4 stanzas). A more complex structure is present in Îngerul vine, a carol from Maramureș
published in 1945. A keen observer, an eclectic musician with Impressionist influences, Marțian
Negrea resorts to broader structures in keeping with the moods his creation suggests. Thus, Cântecul
de dragoste (Love Song) presents a more complex form, a three-part lied with coda, while Păstorița
(Little Shepherdess) is structured in four tableaux of distinct character and atmosphere, unified by a
common theme.
Probably the element that links the two composers most musically is the use of the folk
quotation, the inspiration and processing of which is found in many of their works.

Like his colleagues of his generation, Mihail Jora and especially Sabin
Drăgoi, Marțian Negrea, using the folkloric quotation, composed several

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pieces, which are surpassing in beauty. Such are Cucule cu pană sură,
Fire-a dracului Mărie, Pe drumul de la Cepari, Foaie verde popâlnic, Ia
ieși mândro pân la poartă, respectively numbers 8, 9, 15, 16, 17 from the
Choral Album op. 10.
These choirs are based on proper songs, which belong to the parlando
rubato system, as in the case of the choirs Cucule cu pana sură or Pe
drumul de la Cepari, others work on game songs, the melody of the Banat
dance, in Fire-a dracului Mărie - a unique choral piece of exceptional
beauty, and game song, binary, with Banat dance latencies, in Foaie verde
popâlnic. These last two choral pieces resemble each other, not only in the
popular game song on which they are based, but also in the manner in
which it is processed. (Dimoftache, 2003, pp. 127-128)

Păstorița, one of Marțian Negrea's best known and most sung works, concentrates in its
structure the musical acquisitions of the composer's lifetime and his predilection for village life and
customs. The text chosen for this work - George Coșbuc's poem - is a possible example of how to deal
with the theme of transhumance, a true emblem for the Romanian people. In Negrea's work, the
shepherdess, a potential female version of the ballad Miorița, has a sincere and tender dialogue with
the personified sun, to whom the girl bears an ancestral love. Thus, the lyrics chosen are an excellent
example of the folkloric influence that has followed the Siberian composer all his life. Also, in the last
two bars of the third movement, in the soprano, Marțian Negrea offers a true spiritual legacy with a
simple phrase, without the support of the other voices, which places the word "dor" at a higher octave
than the previous sounds, on the sound of E2, in a leap that is as diaphanous as it is difficult to execute.
(Ex. 13) Marțian Negrea shows an affinity for Coșbuc's poetry, using one of his writings in his
Cântecul de dragoste. The Ipostazele Păstorița takes us into an idyllic atmosphere, full of calm, grace
and naturalness, in the four paintings in which the work is structured.

An idyllic and reverie nuance, an emphasis on the descriptive and

programmatic, brings Marțian Negrea's music even closer to his native
village. (Cosma, Romanian Musicians. Lexicon, 1989, p. 66)

Ex. No. 13

However, this complex work is not only based on folkloric inspiration, but also on a series of
techniques and influences acquired by Negrea during his creative work, as Veturia Dimoftache states:
The speech is "in a narrative tone", without strong contrasts, in a calm,
balanced, graceful atmosphere. The national note is dominant but not
exclusive. The motives contain characteristics of popular song, but also
Debussy influences. The harmony flows naturally from the melody, and
sometimes, when it imposes itself as the pre-eminent element of the musical
discourse, it has romantic glints and impressionistic reflections. Marțian
Negrea's "Păstorița" is like Nicolae Grigorescu's "păstorița", an homage to
the peace and beauty of the Romanian village. (Dimoftache, 2003, pp. 276-
277)

As far as Timotei Popovici is concerned, his work Hațegană shows a strong folkloric
character, the name of the work designating a folk game from Transylvania in binary measure, which
is danced in pairs in a rather fast tempo. The 'game' character is also present in the works Horă (for
choir of equal voices), Mândruțo, poale ciurate and S-a dus cucul de pe-aici.
Melody is a fundamental element in the work of both composers. In Marțian Negrea it is
generated by harmony, while Timotei Popovici uses melody as an exhaustive expressive means, giving

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it versatility and placing it at the centre of his musical universe. Harmonisations for several voices,
reworkings and arrangements of folk melodies often lead to a simple, clear and balanced harmony.
In conclusion, we can say that both Marțian Negrea and Timotei Popovici managed to stand
out for the beauty of their works, for the simplicity, expressiveness and ingenuity with which they
managed to combine multiple techniques and ideas to obtain masterpieces. Marțian Negrea, as a
disciple of Timotei Popovici, took over and developed his teacher's affinity for Romanian folklore,
which he enriched and polished through the many musical acquisitions obtained through the study of
personalities such as Zoltan Kodály, Eusebie Mandicevski or Franz Schmidt. Although there are many
differences between the two in their approach to choral works, each of them has given the Romanian
repertoire a series of emblematic pieces that bear a personal stamp. Timotei Popovici's and Marțian
Negrea's visions of structure, rhythm, dynamics, themes and musical forms can also be found in the
creations of other composers who have used Romanian folklore as an endless source of inspiration. By
studying these aspects and understanding the source, it is very likely that we can extend this insight to
all composers who have drawn inspiration from folkloric sources, revealing an ethos so exploited that
it continues to reveal itself in new and novel ways.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Bughici, D. (1978). Dictionary of musical forms and genres. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.
Cosma, V. (1989). Musicians from Romania. Lexicon (Vol. VII (N-O-Pip)) Bucharest: Editura
Muzicală.
Cosma, V. (1989). Musicians from Romania. Lexicon (Vol. VIII (P-S)). București: Editura Muzicală.
Delu, I. (no year). Preface. In T. Popovici, Choirs.
Dimoftache, V. (2003). Martian Negrea. Iași: Novum.
Negrea, M. (1921-1938). Album of mixed choirs, op. 10.
Negrea, M. (1937). Ian gets you up. (Score).
Negrea, M. (1959). Love song, mixed chorus, verses by George Coșbuc.
Negrea, M. (1959). Păstorița, mixed chorus, verses by George Coșbuc.
Popovici, T. (no year). Choirs. (T. Moisescu, Ed.) State Publishing House for Literature and Art.
Sbârcea, G. (1984). Encounters with 20th century musicians. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.

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 THE DISSONANCE-CONSONANCE RELATION IN
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART’S AND
PASCAL BENTOIU’S VISION.
THE CASE OF THE SLOW INTRODUCTION IN THE STRING QUARTETS

VLAD-CRISTIAN GHINEA

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MUSIC, BUCHAREST

ABSTRACT: The dissonance-consonance relationship has known

different hypostases throughout the ages, being influenced by the
geographical space in which the composers were living and by the
context in which their music was performed. Shortly after the emergence
of the genre, the string quartet became an innovative space in which
composers were able to experiment with various musical parameters
(musical form, melody, rhythm, harmony etc.), and the development of
musical discourse largely depended on the way that emphasized the
dissonance-consonance relationship. In the present paper we analyzed
two different views regarding the treatment of the tension-alleviation
game in the slow introduction of the first part of two string quartets:
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in the String Quartet K. 465, in C major,
respectively Pascal Bentoiu in „Consonances” Quartet no. 2, op. 19.

KEYWORDS: BENTOIU, MOZART, CONSONANCE, DISSONANCE

IN THE LATE Baroque and the transition to Classicism, composers paid increasing attention to the
dramatic construction of musical discourse, both in textual and instrumental music. Important figures
after 1750 include Domenico Scarlatti, Johann Christian Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach and Wilhelm
Friedemann Bach, in whose work new genres and patterns of musical architecture began to crystallise.
These favoured the exploration of harmonic parameters (intensification of chromatic areas, novel
harmonic inflections) against the background of the newly affirmed homophonic syntax, and the
increasingly important role given to dynamics (especially through the work of Johann Stamitz in
Mannheim) enriched the palette of compositional techniques. In parallel with the crystallisation of the
sonata form, composers also turned their attention to a new chamber genre, the string quartet, combining
elements from the sonata a quattro, the Italian symphony and the Austrian and South German
symphonies of the mid-18th century.
After 1760, the string quartet entered a new period of development, closely linked to the name
of Joseph Haydn, one of the most important exponents of the Sturm und Drang movement.
Experimentation with different configurations of form and harmony (both at the micro and macro levels)
was a long-standing preoccupation of Haydn, who achieved a synthesis of „dramatic irregularity and
large-scale symmetry” (Rosen, 1998, p. 112). In fact, Haydn played a particularly important role in
positioning the string quartet among the central chamber genres, especially because of his way of
involving the relations between musical media (Rosen, 1998, p. 120) in shaping a convincing dramatic
path. Taking his cue from Johann Christian Bach's gallant and Italian style, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
chooses to follow the path of experimenting with musical parameters in the string quartet and begins to
use the processes practiced by Haydn. The cycle of Viennese Quartets is an example of this, where
numerous innovations can be identified in terms of form, in the sequence of parts, but also in the shaping
of the thematic work (Berger, Cvartetul de coarde de la Haydn la Debussy, 1970, p. 39).
A new stage in Mozart's work is marked by the baroque style of Johann Sebastian Bach and
Georg Friedrich Händel, an influence resulted after studying the manuscripts in the library of Baron
Gottfried van Swieten. After making transcriptions of the Well-Tempered Harpsichord for string
quartets, Mozart began to experiment with integrating polyphonic syntax into the structure of sonata
form, one of his earliest creations being the Quartet K.387 in G major (1782), whose final movement
illustrates the fugue-sonata form. This quartet is the first in a series of six works dedicated to Joseph
Haydn, in which rhythmic diversity and striking harmonic language (inspired by Bachian creation) are
harmoniously combined with rigorous principles of sonata form (tonality, two contrasting themes)
(Georgio Pestelli, transl. Eric Cross, 1984, p. 155).

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Also containing polyphonic moments in the developing passages, where the dynamic flow
allows greater freedom of variational and harmonic order, the Quartet K. 465 in C major (the last of the
set of six) caused much public discussion after its premiere (1785), especially due to the introduction,
which contains bold dissonances and false relations. In fact, these aspects were at the origin of the name
subsequently given to it: the Dissonance Quartet.
The introduction combines polyphonic syntax and tonal instability from the first moments.
Starting with the viola, the theme is taken up in turn by the 2nd violin and the 1st violin in a stretto-like
construction, and the harmonic path has a descending chromatic pattern, starting at the key of A flat
major, passing through G major, G minor, G flat major, F major and reaching F minor in bar 9.

W.A. Mozart, String Quartet K. 465, in C major, first movement, bars 1-5

The famous false relations of the viola-violin I pair appear in measures 1-2 (Ab - A) and 5-6
(Gb - G), but the harmonic path begins to become more stable from measure 10, when it modulates to
E-flat major, and then settles on a pedal area of the dominant of C major (the key of the first theme of
the Allegro). With the exception of the second violin, the other instruments (in the order viola, violin I,
cello) successively take over the thematic statement, reaching relative homophony towards the end.

W.A. Mozart, String Quartet K. 465, in C major, first movement, bars 9-15

In addition to its polyphonic treatment, the melodic profile of the introduction has aroused the
interest of musicologists because of a possible cyclicity linking two closely related works, the present
work and the earlier quartet, K. 464 in A major (1785) (Berger, Ghid pentru muzică instrumentală de
cameră, 1965, p. 74). The developmental opening of K. 464 uses very similar material (but lacks the
false relations found in K. 465) to that of the dissonant introduction of K. 465, even respecting the order
of the instruments' entries.

W.A. Mozart, String Quartet K. 464, in A major, fourth movement, bars 86-89

Classical music composers used dissonance more as a means of „colouring” the musical
discourse, or it was emphasised at certain key moments (usually dramatic climaxes). From that stage,
the tonal system went through several „steps on the way [...] to the extreme widening of its boundaries”
(Vartolomei, 1974), with dissonance coming to play an essential role in the time of expressionism. The
false relations found in Mozart's String Quartet in C major, K. 465 may today be mere specks of colour
compared to certain 19th and 20th century works, with consonance and dissonance finally coming to

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equal footing in atonal writing. The appearance of melodic profiles also undergoes substantial changes
compared to the practices of classicism, and polymeter and polyrhythms become common procedures in
20th century opuses.
All these elements can be found in many of the works of Romanian composers of the second
half of the 20th century (whether modern moderates or radicals), who, although situated in an
unfavourable social-political context, were able to encounter the compositional techniques used at the
time in the West. In his own introduction to the first part (Adagio-Allegretto) of the „Consonances”
Quartet No.2, Op.19, Pascal Bentoiu has brought back some of those Mozartian sonorities from the
Quartet of the Dissonances, „cleansing” them of the initial dissonances and giving them a more
consonant aspect. In the hall programme of the event where the Quartet was premiered (1973), Bentoiu
said: „I wanted to check if it really can no longer be written tonally. So I wrote tonal”1. But Bentoiu's
words must be seen in the light of the stages of tonal language up to that time, passing through modal
tonality, Wagnerian chromaticism or the reconfiguration into the new dodecaphonic system cultivated
by the second Viennese school. The consonant quartet depicts a (largely) modern tonal-modal language2,
where atypical chaining and resolutions of seventh, ninth or eleventh chords are frequent. Bentoiu also
expresses a desire for „a renewed contact with the subtleties of consonance” (Bentoiu, 1973) in a time
dominated by dissonance, where 18th century consonances can become „dissonances” for 20th century
ears3.
In the nine bars of the introduction (a modern version of Mozart's Dissonances), the Romanian
composer „condenses [...] the entire harmonic (and eventually even melodic) essence of the work”
(Vartolomei, 1974), illustrating through certain chordal structures and dissonances considered natural in
the 1970s (e.g. diminished octaves): „The career of dissonance has reached such heights that even the
first-year composition student thinks naturally in diminished octaves, augmented elevenths, minor ninths
and overlapping semitones [...]” (Bentoiu, 1973).

Although the allusion to Mozart's work is obvious, Pascal Bentoiu keeps the polyphonic syntax
only in the first two bars, and later he opts for an homophonic development. Mozart's false relations are
now missing, their place taken by minor (seventh and ninth) and major chords. However, the composer
reinforces the appearance of the first chord with a greater degree of dissonance (chordal structure in
fourths, bar 5) by using a syncopation (while retaining a muted, piano-like nuance), followed by a
dissonant contrary passage, which resolves into a minor fourth-sixth chord. Next (bar 7), another passage
starts from the overlapping fifths, resulting in a diminished octave chord, and the end of the introduction

1
Pascal Bentoiu, in the concert programme of 20 June 1973 (the work was performed by the "Pro Arte" quartet, but without
specifying the institution where the event took place).
2
Vartolomei, p.12: „The harmony of this work, far from being limited to the chaining of perfect chords, pigmented at times by
sevenths or - at most - dominant ninths (as one might wrongly imagine at a certain point), frequently uses ninths and elevenths,
and their resolution is by no means imposed by rigid scholastic rules”.
3
Bentoiu, concert programme: „I wrote the quartet looking to the future, but also with the strange feeling that nowadays perfect
chords might prove - to some ears, at least - as irritating as a few false harmonic relationships were in Mozart's time”.

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is set on a structure often found in cadential sequences of classicism or romanticism: dominant seventh
chord.
*
In the almost 200 years between Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Quartet of Dissonances and Pascal
Bentoiu's Quartet of Consonances, the means that can be used to compose a musical work have
undergone a gradual but very important change. With them, the dissonance-consonance relation has
undergone different interpretations and reinterpretations depending on the geographical area in which
the composers worked or the context, the environment in which the works were performed. Although
they belong to composers who worked in completely different times and spaces, the examples analysed
above contain common elements, linked to the harmonic parameter, which are used to the full to create
an atmosphere of uncertainty. If Mozart's introduction shows a greater dynamic range, this is also
determined by the construction of the musical discourse through polyphonic syntax. The role of the
introduction in the architectural and dramatic configuration of both a part and the whole opus must also
be considered. While the Mozartian Quartet does not further develop the ideas set out in the introduction,
Pascal Bentoiu uses a generative cell (the first four notes of the introduction), „which lies at the heart of
the composition” (Bentoiu, 1973), combining it with chordal structures found throughout the work.
Shortly after the premiere, Pascal Bentoiu pondered the transformation of harmonic language
over several eras, noting that the numerous „possibilities of constructing increasingly subtle synthetic
judgments” could lead to the emergence of „relays of a delicate complexity that made the necessary play
between tension and relaxation, between rest and instability, between consonance and dissonance
infinitely more diverse” (Bentoiu, Gândirea muzicală, 1975, p. 125). His analysis also touches on the
interplay between tension and relaxation, which is „the concretisation of specific thought processes, in
no way inferior in complexity to those assumed by the great achievements of the human spirit through
any of the other major lines of activity: philosophy, poetry, science” (Bentoiu, Gândirea muzicală, 1975,
p. 125).

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Bentoiu, P. (1973). Programul de sală al concertului din 20 iunie 1973.
Bentoiu, P. (1975). Gândirea muzicală. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.
Berger, W. G. (1965). Ghid pentru muzică instrumentală de cameră. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală a
Uniunii Compozitorilor din Republica Socialistă România.
Berger, W. G. (1970). Cvartetul de coarde de la Haydn la Debussy. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală a
Uniunii Compozitorilor din Republica Socialistă România.
Georgio Pestelli, transl. Eric Cross. (1984). The Age of Mozart and Beethoven. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Rosen, C. (1998). The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven. New York: W. W. Norton &
Company.
Vartolomei, L. (1974). „Cvartetul Consonanţelor” de Pascal Bentoiu. Muzica nr. 1, p. 12.

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 IGOR STRAVINSKY AND MIHAIL JORA.
RESEMBLANCES BETWEEN THE BALLETS
PETRUSHKA AND LA PIAȚĂ
ANA-LUIZA HAN

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MUSIC, BUCHAREST

ABSTRACT: Igor Stravinsky stands out as an influential creator and

through his constant innovations he gained the „revolutionary” label.
On the other hand, Mihail Jora is well-known in the art of musical
composition of the Romanian music history. Although the two of them
have never met, their creations reveal many common points of interest,
including their affinity to the ballet genre in composition. The study aims
to identify some links between the two ballets mentioned in the title and
to find parallels between the thinking process of the two great
composers, provided through practical examples.

KEYWORDS: JORA, STRAVINSKY, BALLET, PETRUSHKA, LA PIAȚĂ

„There is a vitality, a life force, an energy, a quickening that is translated
through you into action, and because there is only one of you in all time,
this expression is unique.
And if you block it, it will never exist through any other medium and will
be lost.”
Martha Graham (Popova)

THE FIRST decades of the 20th century had known a significant number of political and cultural
events that were to have a profound influence on human thinking. The figure of the Russian composer
Igor Stravinsky stands out in the diverse picture of modernity as that of an influential creator, capable of
modifying the conventionality and at the same time revolutionize what had been known until then.
Located at another geographical pole but synchronizing with the latest European music news, Mihail
Jora is recognized in the local space as a well-known name in the art of musical composition.
Although the two creators have never met, they have many common interests on their creative
paths. An example on the axis of a possible spiritual or ideological meeting between Igor Stravinsky and
Mihail Jora could be materialized in the attention shown by both to the ballet genre. Characterized by
the synchronization of three elements – music, dance and the ability to tell a story – the interest that is
channeled in music and defined by gestures becomes an important common feature, confirmed and
deeply exploited in the creation of both musicians. In Stravinsky's case, the ballet genre is emancipated,
revolutionized, gaining new value in the European music literature. Jora, on the other hand, brings to the
Romanian space the first examples of the genre, giving extraordinary reference models to future
generations of composers.
In addition to the „vitalism”1 shown in the Western European composers from the desire to
encourage the crude, direct expression related to the evocation of the archaic through the folk element
in creation, Stravinsky and Jora have in common the naturality and the skill to detail the narrative with
the help of musical art. Experiencing a language with certain valences from traditional music combined
with various rhythmic patterns, polyrhythms and irregular rhythm, to which we can add the unique use
of timbre in orchestration are common elements that link the creation of the two composers. The
Dionysian aesthetics can also be identified as a common element for the vision of the two.
As Stravinsky's Russian ballets made a massive impact on modern composition in the early
twentieth century, in Romania, Mihail Jora is known as the composer who wrote the first „Romanian
ballets”, thus becoming a promoter of this genre in his country. His compositional language balances the
use of Western models combined with Romanian folklore tones. Mihail Jora's creation brings important

1
The word is mentioned in Dan Dediu's research and in his courses, Compositional Strategy and Currents, Styles, Languages at
the University of Music in Bucharest.

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works in the Romanian lied and ballet repertoire, his music being an encouragement for the creators and
a model for the new composition school in formation.
On the other hand, the desire to incorporate the archaic into the composition in Stravinsky's
case had an exciting course, characterized by radical changes. Here, folklore influences combine, as an
ingeniously concentrated mixture, with elements chosen from both the cultured and the urban world.
The Stravinskian language is known for its unusual elements of rhythm, characterized by syncopations,
irregular beats, polyrhythms, and unexpected changes in tempo and measure.
In the case of Mihail Jora we can discuss about a certain „stylization of the folk substance”
(Popa, 2009, p. 103) that brings with it a unitary character of the work. Thus, direct quotations are
replaced by an „imaginary folklore”2, which approaches reality in style. We can say that there is a
unifying vision when it comes to appealing to traditional music material, an exciting source of
compositional inspiration. However, in the case of Jora we notice a proper and authentic representation,
almost a re-evaluation of the folklore in the direction of its assimilation and reinvention. In Stravinsky's
works, however, at least in the early period, the quotations are direct, probably out of a desire to portray
different affections and to incorporate the Russian spirit into the musical composition by direct, raw and
acid intercalation.
The development of Stravinsky’s own musical language, without the influence of his teacher
Rimsky-Korsakov, by incorporating the expression of his Russian heritage in the context of musical
modernism, is believed to have begun with the second ballet commissioned by choreographer Sergei
Diaghilev, Petrushka (1911). Following the success of his first ballet The Firebird, the Petrushka ballet
offers what Richard Taruskin describes as „Stravinsky's process of self-discovery” (Taruskin, 1996, p.
662) (Kenneth Gloag, 2003, pp. 79-97). This particular way of composing consists largely in adapting
materials borrowed from Russian folklore, defined as a process that immediately suggests the idea of
conjunction between past and present, but redefining this material generates a sense of distance from its
original context. In Stravinsky's case, the folklore source is quoted directly, losing its original purpose.
Mihail Jora was both interested and influenced by the choreographic events presented by Sergei
Diaghilev under the auspices of the „Ballets Russes” and, at the same time, intrigued by the international
success of Stravinsky's ballets. Therefore, between 1928 and 1966, the Romanian composer wrote the
first Romanian compositions of the genre, six in number: La piață (1928), Demoazela Măriuța, Curtea
veche, Când strugurii se coc, Întoarcerea din adâncuri and Hanul Dulcineea. Just by reading the titles
we realize a certain intention of bringing a certain joviality and at the same time an idyllic atmosphere,
into the compositions which enlivens the very substance, the essence of the Romanian tradition.
Regarding the use of folklore melodic material in creation, we can see that this attitude is similar
to Jora and Stravinsky, but the difference comes from the way the material is processed.
The folk influences in the Petrushka ballet are various, but it is mainly the direct quotation of
the songs that should be noticed. Also, the quote is wisely presented, the arrangements of these songs
proving a rhythmicity specific to the Russian spirit; they are full of life and bring new accents to the
writing and even polyphonic moments. Only later, in the mature Stravinskian style, we notice a certain
synthesis of the folk element, similar to that of Jora's creation. Stravinsky cites pre-existing sources of
various melodic inspiration in Petrushka, present in the urban, Parisian and Russian landscape, two
waltzes by Joseph Lanner3, but also several Russian folk songs taken from his teacher’s, Rimsky-
Korsakov, collection.
For example, in Michel Fokine's4 original choreography, a group of drunken merrymakers stand
out from the crowd, dancing after Stravinsky's adaptation of the popular song „Volochobniki Song”. The
theme is brought up several times with a different rhythmic structure that induces the impression of a
new idea every time (Taruskin, 1996, p. 697). Another example is found in the vigorous dance of the
three dolls at the end of the first scene. It is based on two Russian folk songs: „A lime tree is in the field”
and „Song for St. John's Eve”. The latter initially appears as a fragment, later being extended. This idea
of starting with a fragment of a melody and extending until it is finally heard in its full form is found in
Rimsky-Korsakov's compositions (Taruskin, 1996, pp. 707-709). The fourth and last scene of the ballet
offers a return to the technique of quoting Russian melodies. Here Taruskin identified six specific
borrowings (Taruskin, 1996, p. 697). Perhaps the most striking example is the song performed by Oboe
in „The Nurses Dance”. Although there is a clear distinction between melody and accompaniment,
Stravinsky surrounds the melody with an orchestral texture rich in detail and motion.
As it was mentioned before, in the case of Jora's ballet, the folk material is not quoted directly,
but stylized in its own way that contains certain elements of the local spirit. We focus on the ballet At
the market for this comparison. Thus, the Bucharest slum becomes the source of inspiration, and he

2
Expression used in the case of George Enescu. It is essentially an own conceptualization from which results a new melodic
material that is inspired by traditional music and / or suburban music.
3
Joseph Lanner (April 12, 1801-April 14, 1843) was an Austrian composer and conductor who distinguished himself by
outstanding contributions to the genre of social dance music.
4
In 1909 he became the choreographer of Sergei Diaghilev's Parisian company „Ballets Russes”.

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chooses to use descriptive musical details, specific to its universe to outline his characters. In the dancing
moments – whether we mention the „Tema precupeților”, „Dansul oltenilor”, „Dansul chivuțelor” – the
composer is heading towards a different spirit, an energizing attitude inspired by the Romanian
traditional dance songs. Rhythm seems to be the defining element, combined with a simple melody and
a tonal-modal conception specific to peasant music (Popa, 2009, p. 126).
According to Florinela Popa's description: „in fact, the ballet La Piață contains both suburban
and peasant music sources.” (Popa, 2009, p. 126). Therefore, Jora chooses to incorporate a certain
oriental air for characters such as Chiva, the gypsies or the fiddlers. Sometimes the composer also uses
quotes that bring direct stylistic allusions, the best example for this is the theme of the merchant from
La Piață which is inspired by measures 29-30 from Petrushka – Scene 1. The presence of this similarity
(at landmark 5 in Petrushka indicating a small group of tipsy merrymakers, prancing, passes by)” (Popa,
2009, p. 127). Stravinsky uses a clear quote to portray this group of cheerful people, „Volochobniki
Song”, and his presence in the score is frequent, intersecting with other sound characters. It is interesting
that Jora appeals to the almost the same leitmotif repetition in the appearance of the merchant's theme.
Returning to the Stravinskian work, the subject of the Petrushka5 ballet is also full of color,
with a lot of suspense and dressed in a festive atmosphere. The ballet stage is divided into four scenes,
the first and last taking place in a public space, in the Admiralty Square in Saint Petersburg, around
1830, the middle scenes are set in a totally different setting, indoors, focusing on the profile of individual
characters.
The ballet opens and closes with a musical frame – a crowded scene where we find a
kaleidoscopic panorama, the main character seeming to be a collective one. Stravinsky slightly changes
the center of the action, the events combining lightly, as if a film script had been thought of. Thus, the
passages are cut and joined, and the rhythmic patterns support each other.
In the first scene from Petrushka we notice an effervescent, festive atmosphere, where various
characters are presented such as: salesmen, dancers and musicians, drunks, simple people but also a
magician with his three puppets, who will take over the narration in the following scenes. Finally, the
solo flute brings the three puppets to life, the stage closing in a brilliant Russian dance, which later
became emblematic. The two middle scenes are placed in a more intimate setting, with Stravinsky
relying less on the full orchestra, compared to the previous scene. In the first moments of these scenes,
the attention is directed to the Petrushka puppet. Here a diverse psychological portrait crystallizes, the
character being invested with intense thoughts and feelings (generated both by low self-esteem and
despair caused by the inability to win the ballerina's heart). The fourth and final scene returns to the
festive atmosphere. The orchestra introduces a chain of colorful dances while a series of seemingly
unrelated characters come and go from the stage as the snow begins to fall in the evening.
In comparison, the choreographic painting La piață, opus 10 (1928) has been a success since
its premiere in 1932 on the stage of the Romanian Opera Theatre. The music of the ballet proves highly
evocative, the symbiosis of subject and sound may be due to Jora's personal approach to writing the
libretto of his own musical composition. This multilayered mastery is a clear example of his ability to
weave a clear and pleasant musical story for the listener/viewer to follow. Cella Dellavrancea's allusion
that „the libretto is reminiscent of the Russian novelist Gogol” (Popa, 2009, p. 103) is suggestive of the
connection between Stravinsky and Jora. The Russian spirit seems to be intertwined with the story in
which the main character is a collective, complex and exciting one. The square is „captured in its specific
dynamism over the course of half an hour: between 5 and 5:30 in the morning.” (Popa, 2009, p. 103).
The libretto is built on a love plot where the florist Chiva uses her personal charm to get what she wants:
the Plutonier's heart and colourful beret.
From the point of view of compositional scheme, such as the use of harmonic combinations,
musical form, rhythmic form and the procedures used in the strategy of the whole, we can draw possible
parallels between Petrushka and La piață. As musicologist Florinela Popa reminds us: „there are enough
arguments to consider the ballet La piață a Romanian replica of Stravinsky's «barbaric style»” (Popa,
2009, p. 125).
The chosen orchestration is somewhat similar, but the most significant aspect is the importance
given to the musical timbre in characterising the moments and characters. Stravinsky's work is written
for a large orchestra, including a bold array of percussion instruments, while of course the piano plays
an important role. The remarkable expressiveness of the orchestration brings with it the characterisation
of the characters. For example, in La piață we can speak of the onomatopoeic rendering of the traveling
salesmans „advertisements” on horns or the tinsmiths' cries on three trumpets in semitone (Popa, 2009,
p. 211). In the first tableau of Petrushka the beats of the two drummers summoning the crowd are
incorporated into the score. The magician appears at once with mystical moans from the bassoon and
contrabassoon and when he manages to get the crowd's attention, he summons the three puppets with a

5
The Petruchka ballet tells the story of three puppets brought to life by a magician during the Shrovetide fair (1830) in St.
Petersburg, Russia.

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melody on the flute that seems to be improvised. The puppet theatre curtain rises to reveal three puppets
hanging on the wall: The Moor, The Ballerina and Petrushka. When the Magician touches them with his
flute (there is a clink), the three come to life. This moment can be paralleled with the striking of the
clock (harp, piano, celeste), announcing the awakening to life and the beginning of a new day in La
Piață.
Regarding the harmonic language, we can observe similarities between the two scores,
represented by a diverse chordal system that participates in the unification of the tonal system with the
modal system, finding on these coordinates various polytonal solutions. Also, the use of ostinato
procedures and polychords are common to both composers. To mark off the insolence of one of the
puppets, Stravinsky used an unusual combination of an F-sharp major arpeggio and a C-major arpeggio
(in Scene 2 and Scene 4). This tactic is recognized as the „Petrushka chord” and is an important example
of the first use of polytonality in modern music.
The presence of polytonality, which influenced the course of European music, seems to have
inspired Jora in his compositional approach. A concrete example of this could be the scene of the
„chasing of the reveller out of the inn”, where the intention of polytonality, more specifically the
bitonality of the Ab7/ A (elliptic of third) (Popa, 2009, p. 106) chord, is clearly present. It is important
to note that in Mihail Jora's music the harmonic coordination is conceived as the main means of
expression, whereas for Stravinsky the rhythmic parameter is often brought to the fore, neglecting
harmony.
We can also observe similar compositional strategies, where we notice a common method of
accumulation and combinatorics. Themes are frequently brought in simultaneously, with previous motifs
being recalled. Rhythm emerges as an extremely important expressive factor for the ballet genre,
mirrored by the diversity of dances present in both works described so far.
In conclusion, the vitality and energy, specific to the dance genres, are expressed in the works
of the two composers by specific means, as if there is a sinuous, yet organic path that has managed to
emerge easily. There are parallels that transcend purely musical boundaries, which can confirm certain
similarities in their thread of ideas. All this is also due to a modernist spirit of the time combined with
tradition. We find definite links between Stravinsky's world and Jora's, harmonic procedures, striking
rhythms, musical characters, all combined in a highly expressive manner, as if Stravinsky and Jora
shared a unique bond that transcends the limits of existence.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

***. (1971). Igor Stravinsky: An ‘Inirentor of Music’ Whose Works Created a Revolution. Retrieved from New
York Times 48 : https://www.nytimes.com/1971/04/07/archives/igor-stravinsky-an-inventor-of-music-whose-
works-created-a.html
Hallquist, R. N. (1979). Stravinsky and the Transcriptional Process: an Analytical and Historical Study of
Petrushka. Retrieved March 2021, 05, from UNT Digital Library:
https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc500654/m2/1/high_res_d/1002783576-Hallquist.pdf.
Huizenga, T. (2011, June 13 ). Stravinsky's 'Petrushka' At 100: A Composer Finds His Voice. Retrieved March 31,
2021, from https://www.npr.org/sections/deceptivecadence/2011/06/13/137154534/stravinskys-petrushka-at-100-
a-composer-finds-his-voice
Huscher, P. (n.d.). Program Notes, Igor Stravinsky, Petrushka. Retrieved March 31, 2021, from
https://cso.org/uploadedFiles/1_Tickets_and_Events/Program_Notes/ProgramNotes_Stravinsky_Petrushka.pdf
Joseph, C. M. (2001). Stravinsky Inside Out. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
Kenneth Gloag. (2003). Russian rites: Petrushka, The Rite of Spring. In e. Johnathan Cross, The Cambridge
Companion to Stravinsky (pp. 79-97). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Popa, F. (2009). Mihail Jora, un modern european. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.
Popova, M. (n.d.). Martha Graham on the Life-Force of Creativity and the Divine Dissatisfaction of Being an Artist.
Retrieved March 2021, 21, from https://www.brainpickings.org/2015/10/02/martha-graham-creativity-divine-
dissatisfaction/
Robinson, D. (2014, October 30). Stravinsky: Petrushka. Retrieved March 31, 2021, from
https://derricksblog.wordpress.com/2014/10/30/stravinsky-petrushka/
Schonberg, H. C. (2008). Viețile marilor compozitori. Bucharest: Editura Lider.
Sternfeld, F. W. (1945). Some Russian Folk Songs in Stravinsky's Petrouchka. In M. L. Association, Notes, Second
Series (pp. 95-107). http://www.jstor.org/stable/890385.

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Taruskin, R. (1996). Stravinsky and the Russian Traditions: A Biography of the Works Through Mavra, Vol. I.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
Vancea, Z. (1968). Creația muzicală românească în sec XIX-XX. Vol. I. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.
Wu, M. (2019). Dance with Petrushka: The Ballets Russes, Russia, and Modernity. Open Journal of Social Sciences
7 (8), 81-96. doi:10.4236/jss.2019.78007

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 THINKING THE ENESCU MUSEUM’S HERITAGE
AS A DIGITAL PLATFORM FROM A
SOCIO-SEMIOTIC PERSPECTIVE
DOINA-MARIA MAREGGINI

UNIVERSITY OF MODENA AND REGGIO EMILIA

ABSTRACT: The initial design of a possible website will be discussed

in a transdisciplinary perspective. Some of the questions considered are:
- how a heritage institution could offer its collection through interface
development?
- can texts be converted in a different format and translated into
metadata?
- how metadata could lead to the creation of a heterogenous rhizomatic
ecosystem?
- can a socio-semiotic focus create narrative paths for the „Model
Readers”, as designed by Umberto Eco?
These are some of the tools to realize a dynamic digital platform that
not only conserves but also offers access to knowledge.

KEYWORDS: HERITAGE, DIGITAL PLATFORM, PRESERVATION

ENESCU AND ZAVATTINI: FAR IN HISTORY, CLOSE IN PRESERVATION1

WE ARE perhaps finally emerging from a critical emergency, which has put the entire art industry to
the test. The world's cultural heritage, as well as most economic sectors, has been brought down, forced
to face what could be defined as one of the most important crises of recent decades. Even today, it is still
impossible to quantify the extent of the consequences, although promising signs of recovery are being
seen. Among these, the awareness that, now more than ever, distances are to be shortened, if not
eliminated altogether.
Most museums remained closed, unable to accommodate tourists or researchers because
physical travel was simply denied. With a few exceptions, as those who managed to convert to virtual
and/or digital in a very short time, the works kept within the physical walls of the museums did not see
the light of day for months.
Archive in person, those in which the documents, papers and originals of individual authors are
preserved, have also suffered. As scholars and researchers, we need to browse through unpublished
documents to advance our analyses and, unable to get to the premises, the need to have access to the
archives without space or time limitations has become more and more evident.
This realization came about while a team of researchers was proceeding with studies inside an
in-person archive:
Mauro Salvador, PhD in Cultures of Communication at the Catholic University of Milan, who
studies the declinations of the videogame and its relationship with other forms of communication, now
contract professor at the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia and the University of Bologna;
Nicola Dusi, researcher of Media Semiotics, teaches at the Department of Communication and
Economics at the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia. He also deals with theory and analysis of
cinema, television seriality, digital media and the translation relations between arts and media;
Maria Doina Mareggini, PhD student at the Marco Biagi Foundation, Department of
Economics, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, who is studying the evolution of the
representation of the „female world” and „work” in Italian cinematography with a socio-semiotic
approach.
Converging these skills, we set ourselves the goal of create what is still an articulated idea, that
is, the digitization of a section of the Cesare Zavattini Archive, namely the neo-realist film subjects

1
Please keep in mind that in this paper all the citations have been translated from the author. There are originally written mostly
in Italian.

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written by the screenwriter but never realized, kept in the Panizzi Municipal Library in Reggio Emilia,
his hometown.
So, what are the common points between the George Enescu Museum and the Zavattini
Archives?
On one hand we have a permanent collection, divided into three rooms (scopribucarest.com),
housed inside the Palatul Cantacuzino și Casa Memorială „George Enescu” (georgeenescu.ro) building.
A permanent collection that includes „displaying photographs, manuscripts, various documents,
diplomas, medals, drawings, sculptures, musical instruments, costumes, furniture, decorative art,
personal objects, a casting of the artist's hands and his mortuary mask” (georgeenescu.ro/en). On the
other hand, we have an archive of people whose structure is complex, composed of 16 series and 73 sub-
series. This documentation is also heterogeneous: in addition to his personal collections, his private
library and thousands of original papers, typewritten and partly handwritten, there are DVDs, posters,
photo envelopes, books, photographs, sound and video recordings, and comics owned by the artist
(www.cesarezavattini.it).
Both are considered outstanding personalities, multifaceted artists, well-rounded, broad-
minded, indispensable to the artistic heritage of their country. Enescu, the most important Romanian
musician, was a composer, violinist, teacher, pianist, conductor. Zavattini, one of the most relevant
figures of the Italian neo-realism cinema, was a journalist, writer, scriptwriter, cartoonist, narrator
especially humorous, experimenting also the world of theater and radio.
Since 1958, the prestigious George Enescu International Festival (www.festivalenescu.ro) has
been established in Romania. The festival is considered the most important musical event in Eastern
Europe, an international competition of classical music in memory of the Romanian composer Enescu.
In Italy, there is the Cesare Zavattini Prize (premiozavattini.it), an initiative promoted by the Fondazione
Archivio Audiovisivo del Movimento Operaio e Democratico (www.aamod.it) (Audiovisual Foundation
of the Workers' and Democratic Movement), an award for young video-makers for short documentary
films that reuse archival film material.
The Italian and Romanian mission is shared: „preserve and promote the cultural heritage”
(www.georgeenescu.ro), to protect what has been left by the two talents and to raise awareness as much
as possible about the knowledge and study of these famous figures.
At the same time, however, it is correct to point out that we are talking about two specific, niche
subjects, to which the right value is given almost exclusively by the precise, cultured public that wants
to deepen certain aspects, and therefore already knows what to consult. Moreover, especially for the
Cesare Zavattini Archives, if you do not go there in person, it is very complex, if not impossible, to view
the materials. It is imperative to follow a certain procedure, which is not wrong, but rather not fluid and
static, especially if we think of the dynamism of today's online archives, which are digitally accessible.
How can we overcome these limits, which are common to the two international situations?
The idea proposed here, in a generic key, is a part of the work that is currently being carried out
at the Zavattini Archives2. It should not be considered a case study to be taken as an example and to be
replicated as it is, but rather a reasoning that is still in progress, whose theoretical bases can be useful,
reconsidered and applied to more realities, thus creating an interdisciplinary link between two realities
that are not so far apart.

A DIGITAL PLATFORM AS AN ONLINE ARCHIVE

How can we create a digital platform that can enhance the value of a cultural heritage that is now
physically preserved in an archive?
We began to think about the possibility of creating a digital platform, whose skeleton reflects
the theories of platforming design and game design, whose content structure is organized according to
central themes of semiotics, the general science of signs. In this way, we would respond to the need to
widen the accessibility of the archives not only to all those users who are interested but unable to
physically present themselves (for whatever reason), but also to all those users who would meet these
materials in a casual way. The online hooking up of an audience that arrives at ours content accidentally,
or through links suggested by the search engine itself, even if it's not the best way to „publicize” one's
own offer, is nevertheless a potential increase in the user base that physically, in the archives, it's difficult
to assume would happen – one person does not find himself by mistake inside an archive.
Certainly, we are talking about digitizing paper texts, but what we want to accomplish is a
more complex and articulated work than the simple upload of single digitized materials in PDF format.
We do not just want to make documents available online decontextualized from their frame of belonging,
rather we want to accompany the user in a semi-guided path, within which he can manage both to move

2
We want to create is a transmedia knowledge ecosystem that connects physical archives, online publications, and author
monographs

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independently and to follow a track in case he finds himself lost and/ or in an environment which he is
not familiar with.
This is the reason why we are talking about a platform and not of a digital archive, because
what we want to publish online is not a mere copy of the archives but a re-organization of the documents,
therefore the same contents distributed and structured in a different way.
The proposal we are putting forward here is still a work in progress, reasoned on a conceptual
level, meticulously thought out in theoretical terms, a reflection that continues to improve every time we
consult with a new expert in the field. This is to make sure that we get to the final stage of implementation
without further changes to be made, since once we start it will be difficult to go back. It is of fundamental
importance to underline that our work does not pretend to supersede or replace the studies and research
carried out by archivists, since our competencies are not historical, nor is it our intention to propose a
different cataloguing from of the papers in the physical archives, which already exists.
The challenge of creating a digital platform is twofold. On the one hand, we are awakening
what is now a „dormant” cultural heritage, a niche, difficult to access. Consequentially, knowledge about
the archives is enriched, maintaining its integrity and preserving both its overall vision, as an archive of
people, and its heterogeneous nature, attentive to the single document, giving life to papers and
manuscripts that, otherwise, would continue to remain in the shadows. On the other hand, the paper
material is preserved from deterioration. In fact, removed from its folders only to create its digital
version, and using it from that moment on, we expose the original as little as possible to corrosive agents,
we limit the likelihood of damage, even accidental, while preserving identity and integrity of the
documents.

WHY PLATFORM DESIGN IS GAME DESIGN?

We strongly believe in the potential of an interdisciplinary approach. When you find common points in
different disciplines, which at first glance seem distant, you identify and then discover interesting
intersections, unexplored, that hide knowledge and innovation, roads that if followed can lead to new
studies, thus contributing to the world of research. Here is that platform design and game design share
some aspects that concern and describe the user experience.
Reasoning about theoretical design is a work in progress and an article has been written about
it, currently under revision, that will be published in the class A journal „Cinergie – Il Cinema e le altre
Arti” (cinergie.unibo.it) by the end of the year. A work written by eight hands, by me
(www.fmb.unimore.it), professors Nicola Dusi (personale.unimore.it) and Mauro Salvador
(personale.unimore.it) and Dr. Antonella Capalbi3. The article is entitled „A Website for Cesare
Zavattini's Work. Digitizing and Dynamizing a Personal Audiovisual Archive”4 and each author
contributed at least one in-depth paragraph. Specifically, Capalbi opened the article by outlining the
theories of platforming design that, translated and applied to our idea of a digital archive, allow us to
create the platform that best meets our needs, taking into account all the problems related to the
engagement of the contemporary user. Salvador isolated some typical game design strategies that, even
if adapted to a different context, prove to be effective for the correct functioning of the digital version of
the archive. Dusi, with a semiotic approach, compared other person archives that were taken as examples.
These turned out to be interesting, graphically reflecting what we would like to achieve, which we are
currently hypothesizing at a theoretical level. Finally, Mareggini’s paragraph discusses the actual
digitization work.
Going over briefly5 what has been written by Dr. Antonella Capalbi and Professor Mauro
Salvador, we can see how the concept of „collaboration” is rethought both from the point of view of the
user experience itself, as in some online games, and from the point of view of the production of different
types of content, as in platforms, arriving at a collective experience. So, the dynamics change, the
platform model reasons and moves horizontally, responding to an information architecture that is no
longer top-down: creators and users of content are connected, so that the same user can be both author
and recipient of the digital object, therefore a „prosumer” (Toffler, 1980), whose role within the platform
is active.
The main reason why we continue to insist on creating a platform and not just a website lies in
the fact that the platform, by its very nature, lives thanks to data, data that can be processed in real time
(www.intesa.it), which allows the user experience to be personalized. In this way, thanks to the

3
Currently research fellow at the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia
4
Group composed of A. Capalbi, N. Dusi, M. D. Mareggini and M. Salvador, who wrote an article of theoretical reasoning on the
still ongoing digitization project of the Cesare Zavattini Archive. The article is currently under revision and will be published by
the end of the year in the Italian journal Cinergie. Il cinema e le arti (https://cinergie.unibo.it/)
5
What reported wants to be a think with different terms what the authors have, of own hand, written and studied for the realization
of the article

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information that describes and accompanies the online navigation of each user - think of the recent and
famous cookies - it is possible to ensure that the experience is as personal as possible, that it reflects the
interests and actions of the real person behind the string of code that represents it.
It is plausible to think that different people would behave differently inside a museum or an
archive: those who decide to explore one work rather than another; those who follow the classic route;
those who jump from one point to another; those who enter because they are interested in a single
installation; those who want to enjoy the experience as such. Let's now imagine that the museum, or
archive itself, already has this information and is aware of each visitor's preferences before they even
enter the space. From the point of view of the consumer of this experience, the highest pleasure would
be achieved, because he would only find in front of him what interests him. However, this situation can
be achieved in digital format, online, with a platform, organizing the user's „visit” on the metadata that
represent and narrate him.
In this way, we arrive at the construction of a dynamic environment within which an archive
communicates, transmits and allows the creation of knowledge that continues to increase as time goes
on, through the manipulation of its own documents thanks to the III F technology, an „innovative
standard for the description and distribution of images and metadata through the Web”
(www.culturadigitale.it) that allows the addition of modification levels to existing files by means of
notes or comments. This technology is very useful for those complex and interesting documents that for
research reasons need to be displayed on multiple levels. Very interesting is the possibility of retracing
the history of annotations, going back as far as the scanned original, stripped of any notes made digitally
by those who worked on those papers.
On the one hand, this method of work allows the user who is interested and motivated to study
and carry out research on archival materials, to leave a trace of his work. On the other hand, it allows
the accidental user to move more consciously among papers that, even if they are not self-explanatory,
are studded with notes and comments that help contextualize the individual object. We arrive at the
paradigm of collaborative individualism, understood as the strategy of individuals to „work together
with others towards a common vision and mission” that at the same time manage to express „their
emancipation, their freedom from groups, organizations and social institutions” (Limerick D., 1993).
If it is deemed appropriate, it is possible to imagine different paths for as many different types
of users. A specific proposal, the one that in the realization of our platform we would like to realize, is
the hypothesis of three uses: a navigation through metadata; a second more precise one for the school
system, with educational objectives; a last navigation that is suggested starting from how other users,
usually, move within the digital environment.

HOW TO ACHIEVE DOCUMENT DIGITIZATION

What is reported in this paragraph is the working method that the team composed of Dusi, Salvador and
Mareggini is currently following to get closer to the implementation of the digitized materials of the
Zavattini Archive on a platform. Although the examples given are specifically related to this work, it is
the theoretical background proposed that should be taken into consideration and treated as potentially
applicable to the papers preserved in the museum dedicated to George Enescu. The reading is to be done
in a critical and provocative key, to understand how much of what here is proposed is practicable in
another reality.
In the perspective of transmedia convergence, as Jenkins says, we are learning „to accelerate
the flow of content through the channels of reception in order to increase opportunities for revenue,
expand markets and strengthen consumer loyalty” (Jenkins, 2007). Of course, in our case, it's not a
question of economic revenue, but of gain in terms of new lines of research that can be pursued thanks
to the diffusion and the availability of access to the archives to an exponentially higher number of
scholars.
To get to the publication of the archives in digital format, it is best to first clarify which contents
are to be digitized, that they have been studied and catalogued. In fact, an in-depth study of the film
subjects has already been carried out, a critical reading of each folder that allowed us to create a technical,
summary sheet that contains the main characteristics of each subject, individual peculiarities and
possible criticalities, location, title, the description of the folder, the year of production, the author, the
possible name of the person who commissioned the work, the division that was made of the single papers
as well as their numbering, the presence or not of handwritten notes and/or revisions, the presence of
variants of the subject, the possible publication and/or citation of that subject.
At the end of this first reading, the entire analysis was translated into a database. The
organization of the database is done by attempting to collect and systematize, then in a sense translate,
the information as metadata, „filed in accordance with international archiving standards ISAD-G”
(Simone), amplifying the „traditional practices of bibliographic cataloging in an electronic environment”
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From a semiotic point of view, it is very important for us to talk about «translation» because,
as argued by Dusi, we can think of database metadata as „fragments [...] built from invariants, a set of
figural elements, as well as singularly value, narrative, thematic, figurative, discursive or enunciational
elements that derived texts will have to put back into play in order to keep recognizable their intermedial
relationship and their translation operation” (Nicola, 2015, pg. 207-208). This is exactly what we are
doing: constituent elements of a text, not mutable, that translated semiotically change their format, or
„material support” (Nicola, 2015, p. 255). While remaining consistent in their meaning, and therefore
recognizable regardless of the medium, the information transforms and adapts to the characteristics of
the medium that hosts it. A translation of information occurs when:
- the support changes, from paper to digital;
- the form changes, from archive to platform;
- the structure changes, from cardboard folders containing sheets of paper to metadata, which is
imperceptible by nature.
Starting from this database, which has become the point of reference for the theoretical
reasoning around the archives, the work of digitalization begins. Following the chronological order in
which the original subjects were written, each paper is being scanned, respecting the subdivision of the
materials that was previously made by the archivists of the library. As previously mentioned, our work
does not consider the historical-cultural organization of the materials and does not want to affect this.
The last step of the work is to get to the computer implementation of the narrative-experiential
design that we imagine the user should experience when he arrives on the platform and navigates it.
Respecting the indications given in the database, we are proceeding with the scanning. Even though at
the beginning we took the path of a digitization carried out thanks to tools that were already at our
disposal, we soon decided to invest in the purchase of a professional scanner that would allow an
acceleration of the work, making everything smoother and more efficient, also drastically increasing the
quality of the digital version.
In this phase, we had the support and the constant confrontation with the DHMoRe
(www.dhmore.unimore.it) center, that is the Interdepartmental Center on Digital Humanities of the
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary model that links the
humanistic and technological competences within the university with the cultural institutes of the
territory, enhancing the archival patrimony from the point of view of development (www.youtube.com)
and research, making cultural assets more open, diffuse and accessible.
Scanning does not transform the text into an image but produces an OCR 6 version of the
original; no matter how advanced the tool used is, the operation is neither immediate nor automatic.
Take, for example, the case of a text containing images, some unrecognized symbols, or simply the
author's handwritten notes: the machine will recognize shapes rather than letters or numbers, because
the original is not clean. The digital version is not definitive, it needs the intervention of man who
performs a work of „re-digitation, through the keyboard by an operator, with the original or a copy in
hand” (Ridi, 2004, pg. 273-344).
In order to respect the constraints and the agreements made with the Panizzi Library and the
Cesare Zavattini Archives, there are three steps to be taken to preserve the ownership of the papers:
- from a visual point of view, everything that will be translated into digital format will have the
watermarked logos of the institutions that are responsible for their preservation;
- from a structural point of view, it will not be possible to download materials, as it is forbidden
to privately possess these documents locally on one's own computer;
from a content point of view, especially if there are more than one variant of the same object in
the archives, the decision of which variant is best made public online is up to the researchers. A choise
based on theoretical studies regarding the author, possibly even going so far as to compare the archival
materials with works made in the same historical period.

WHY THE SEMIOTIC APPROACH?

What we are going to explain in this paragraph comes from one research that was done on the digital
archives of people currently available online. Three were the ones that caught our attention: CristaldiFilm
(www.cristaldifilm.com); the Michelangelo Antonioni Archives (archivioantonioni.it); the Chaplin
Archives (charliechaplinarchive.org). Of these web spaces, we appreciated the organization of the
documents, the chronological criteria respected, the consideration of the archives as an integral and
cohesive unit, the preservation of the physical archives, the design choices, the thematic paths and much

6
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is also known as text recognition and is a technology that allows you to convert different
types of documents, such as scanned documents, PDF files or digital photos, into editable and searchable data. -
https://pdf.abbyy.com/it/learning-center/what-is-ocr/

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more. Starting from these and from our own expertise, we asked ourselves how and to what extent we
could use semiotics, evaluating which of its instruments could be useful to us and for which purposes.
Why, then, is the OCR version of the scan important? Because in this way, every scanned paper
is interrogable. By studying archival materials, in fact, it is possible to summarize them through
keywords, tags that describe the folder that contains the entire object. This technique of content
condensation is also applicable to the single paper. To give an example, using the tag „love”, it is possible
to search inside the archives for all the documents in which that topic is dealt with, but also to ask in
which pages of a single film subject that same topic is discussed. Therefore, coherent and discordant
traits that, at the same time, keep together both the single work and the work in relation to the archives.
It is not obvious to move within a semiotically understood text, that is, „a chain of utterances
linked by coherence constraints, groups of utterances issued simultaneously on the basis of several
semiotic systems” (Eco, 1984, p. 64). Especially in cases where a text is substantial, such as an orchestral
work composed by Enescu, one can structure the search not by keywords but by rhythmic figures,
cadences, changes of key, speed, intention, etc. This is a ploy that can be used in the context of a semiotic
text. This is a useful trick in the field of research that works by thematic isotopies (Greimas, 1966), a
term that derives from physical chemistry and indicates the existence of elementary substances, within
a body, that „are identical to each other for all chemical and physical properties but differ in the value
of atomic weight”7. In the semiotic discipline it means to search for recurrences of semic categories that,
inside a text, assure cohesion and coherence of the statements, homogeneous inside and heterogeneous
from the rest of the text. Returning to the previous example, searching within a musical composition for
a specific element (rhythmic, melodic or harmonic), it is clear that from a structural point of view,
therefore of «content», the figure that we encounter is the same, but its declination, therefore its
„expression”8, can also occur in very different ways (think of the changes in pitch, notes, speed, etc.).
This allows us to interrogate an archive intra-work and inter-work, looking for the same isotopy
within a single object, text, and/or within the entire archives, thus having an overall vision that alternates
with a focus and attention to details, two points of view that can be compared and in dialogue with each
other.
We often return complex concepts to a seed pair, a term whose meaning is exhausted by its
opposite, in order to use the tools of structural semiotics, including the semiotic square (Traini, 2006), a
logical representation of the relationships of a semantic category. With an example, using the term
„man”, you can build a square that rotates around the poles „man”, „woman”, „not-man”, „not-woman”
that shows the relationships of contrariety, contradiction and implication around which you can
semantically assemble an entire narrative universe. With an overall view, the whole presented research
is working on the „online” and „offline” articulation, organizing the narration of the experience that the
user lives by navigating the digital platform rather than the physical archive.
In semiotic terms, the user is understood as an „attante” (Greimas A. J., 1974) as a „structural
function” (Rondolino & Tomasi, 2018) that can take on a different value depending on where it is in the
attentional model that provides six functions: „an addressee assigns to a hero subject the task of
conquering a certain object from which a recipient will benefit. During his action, the subject will
encounter elements that will facilitate the task, adjuvants, and others that will hinder it, opponents”
(Rondolino & Tomasi, 2018). The interesting aspect is that these functions at the structural level do not
necessarily correspond to a single actor or to six different physical persons. In a way, the process of a
user can be explained in different terms by crossing the guidelines of user experience design: a subject,
the user, thanks to the addressee, the reason that instructs the subject to carry out the action, wants to
connect with its object of value, to leaf through the papers of an archive, unable to physically go to the
place of interest, opponent, has the digital platform as an adjuvant.
Also from a UXD point of view must be clear what are the reasons why a user arrives on the
platform and what virtual spaces he will explore. These are thought of semiotically, imagining as many
narrative paths as there are attitudinal models. Recalling the studies of Eco, a world-renowned Italian
semiologist, in this case it is a matter of planning what kind of „Model Reader” (Eco, Lector in fabula.
La cooperazione interpretativa nei testi narrativi, 1983) we expect to arrive. Let's transfer his definition
to the online world, assuming a model-user, which its concept does not change. We have a text, a text
that by its definition does not exist until there is an addressee to actualize it; it is the author's task to put
in place textual strategies that allow the text to come to life when it is used by a reader, but it is not
certain that the latter has the appropriate skills to decode the text correctly. Here is that the Model Reader
can interpret the text as the author has thought, the text, in fact, activates in the readers mental
representations collectively shared, which Eco calls „encyclopedias”. It is for this reason that we have
opted for the III F technology: on the one hand it expects the model user to be a researcher, who works

7
Definition taken from https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/isotopismo-o-isotopia_%28Enciclopedia-Italiana%29/
8
In linguistics, language is divided into plan of expression and plan of content. Hjelmslev, Louis. (2018). La stratificazione del
linguaggio, a cura di Cosimo Caputo, Pensa Multimedia

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and studies the materials, whose decoding of the contents will be correct because the reference
encyclopedia for reader and author is the same. On the other hand, in the case where the user is an
ordinary subject, it expects the user to avoid the occurrence of an „aberrant decoding” (Eco, Trattato di
semiotica generale, 1975) by semi-guiding the paths of the platform.
It is interesting to note how the distinction of users' competence and the differentiation of
navigation does not make us fall into one of the most problematic and controversial aspects of the web
as we know it in recent years: its hyper-personalization, which goes against its pretended quality of
democratic environment. The web design is trapping the user inside a „bubble” (Pariser, 2011) of an
invisible nature, that the user does not even see because the boundaries of this bubble-filter are the
„preferences” (Lorusso, 2018) and interests of the individual. As Pariser rightly criticizes, the web has
created a space that has given rise to an increasingly critical individuality to the point where each user
is surrounded by his own bubble and lives his online experience in a unique way, in fact „new generation
filters establish the things we like – based on what we do or what interests people like us – and then
extrapolate the information. They can make predictions, to continually create and refine a theory about
who we are, what we will do, and what we would like. Taken together, they create a universe of
information specific to each of us, a filter bubble, that alters the way we meet ideas and information”
(Pariser, 2011). Lorusso also insists on paying close attention to the keyword „preference”. In fact, „what
corresponds to my preferences is right for me, adequate to my personality. But this has nothing to do
with relevance, correctness, social significance. And when facts, news, relevant events begin to be
defined on «preferences», the distortion of reality becomes a highly probable risk” (Lorusso, 2018, pg.
14-15).
To put toghert everything that has been exposed so far, the architecture of the contents will
follow the rhizomatic form, a term originated in botany, whose meaning has been metaphorically
translated into various fields, including semiotics. „The rhizome itself has very different forms, from the
branched surface extension in all senses to the solidifications in bulbs and tubers”. The single work is a
conceptual node around which knowledge can be constructed, knowledge that is enriched the moment a
knot connects to at least one other node of the same rhizome, with which it shares isotopies of some
kind, which therefore respect a certain coherence.
It should be observed that knowledge does not only increase with the increase of relationships
between conceptual nodes, but it is also generated within the single conceptual node, of which it is
possible to identify characteristics and details that can be exploited as real links, allowing to build as
many narrative paths. A narrative ecosystem is born, within which coexist plots, narrative threads and
heterogeneous attitudinal paths, a rhizomatic system of references, a semantic cloud.

CONCLUSIONS

With this work, we have tried to expose some of the difficulties that can be encountered in trying to get
out of a static archive and imagine it as dynamic, giving an account of a process that we have decided to
undertake, not by solving problems, but by posing theoretical problems to open towards a semantic
discourse, first, that will become pragmatic later. Whether it is the Zavattini archive or the Enescu fund,
it is correct to think of the future, of how information becomes talkable among itself, translating and
adapting itself as syncretic texts9, how it can be linked independently of the supports of the information
itself, of the limits linked to space-time access and of the in-depth knowledge of the individual.

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www.fmb.unimore.it. (fără an). Preluat de pe https://www.fmb.unimore.it/dottorato/dottorandi-e-
tutor/?seleziona=maria-doina-mareggini
www.georgeenescu.ro. (fără an). Preluat de pe https://www.georgeenescu.ro/en/
www.intesa.it. (fără an). Preluat de pe https://www.intesa.it/piattaforme-digitali-cosa-sono-e-a-cosa-servono/
www.naxos.com. (fără an). Preluat de pe https://www.naxos.com/person/George_Enescu_26030/26030.htm
www.youtube.com. (fără an). Preluat de pe https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ddjiYcj0uxs

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 SYMBOLISM AND THE PRESENCE OF
THE SPHINX IN ART
SARAH RIZESCU

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MUSIC, BUCHAREST

ABSTRACT: In the present study I set out to detail how the Sphinx is
perceived in other cultures and how it was included in the arts. I want
to bring to the fore both the legends that were created with the
appearance of this mysterious character, and the imagination of the
artists who dedicated certain works to the myth of Oedipus. I will also
talk about his presence in the opera “Oedipus” by George Enescu,
explaining the connotations given to him by the composer of this being,
and at the end I will focus on some of the most famous performers who
played the role of the Sphinx.

KEYWORDS: SPHINX, ARTS, ANTIQUITY

IN THE MYTHOLOGY of ancient peoples, the sphinx is known as a fabulous monster with the
head of a man or various animals (aries, bird etc.), with the body of a lion and the wings of an eagle
(Gellner, 2021). As etymology, the word “sphinx” comes from the Greek “sphíngō” (σφíνγō), meaning
“to squeeze” or “to strangle”. On the other hand, in Egyptian culture it is known as “shepsepankh”,
which would translate as “living image”, referring to the wonderful Statue of Giza (Rodriguez, 2019).
There are several types of sphinxes, each with a legend with a certain symbolism:
In ancient Egypt, the famous statue of the Great Sphinx was built at Giza near the royal tombs.
It has the appearance of a seated lion with a human head and a royal helmet above its head. The Egyptian
Sphinx symbolises the power and supremacy of the ancient pharaohs who ruled throughout history.
Returning to the statue itself, it dates back to the time of Pharaoh Khafre and there are several theories
as to why it was built: the first is that it was built by the king’s older brother to commemorate their father,
Khufu. Certain aspects (the fact that the statue looks more like their father than Khafre) have led to
speculation that Khufu himself built the Great Sphinx (Tikkanen, 2017).
Mark Lehner, professor of Oriental languages at the University of Chicago, floats another
theory that the miraculous statue was built during Khafre’s reign. Lehner says that the syllable “Khaf”
is carved between the Sphin’x front legs, proving the pharaoh’s contribution in bulding it. However, this
argument is not very tangible, as the names of the pharaoh’s were written in closed cartouches and the
inscription is not quite clear. At the same time, there are scholars who date the Great Sphinx to before
the reign of this pharaoh. For example, John Anthony West claims that the statue is much older than it
is said to be. Egypt’s climate is known to be arid and yet the american scientist has found evidence of
erosion caused by water. He concluded that they were not caused by a flood, but by rain, as the lower
part of the Sphinx shows no sign of erosion, only on the body. According to West, 12 000 years ago it
rained on the great statue (oocities, 2009).
In Greek mythology the Sphinx is not perceived as a fantastic creature (they generally had
eagle wings and claws). The Greek Sphinx had the body of a lion, the head of a woman and a tail
resembling a snake. Unlike the Egyptian Sphinx, the Grekk Sphinx signifies a destructive vanity, as it
has murderous thoughts (Enigmatica, 2021). This is the origin of the famous legend of the creature from
Thebes, who was summoned by a deity to Boeotia to bring terror upon the residents of the city. So the
Sphinx moved in a cave on Mount Phicium and asked passers-by to answer a riddle: “What animal walks
on four legs in the morning, two at noon, and three in the evening?” Many tried to solve the mistery, but
failed. Even worse, those who gave a wrong answer were immediately killed, as the creature devoured
them (Greek Legends and Myths, fără an). The hero of this story is Oedipus, who uncovers the mistery
and gives a very simple answer: man. “He is the one who crawls on all fours in infancy, walks on two
feet when grown, and leans on a staff in old age.” (Rodriguez, 2019). In rage, the Sphinx threw himself
off the side of the mountain and collapsed, taking his own life (Greek Legends and Myths, fără an).
Perhaps due to Egyptian influence the Sphinx became known in Asia, but it was not given a
clear enough meaning. In terms of construction, it had wings attached to its body. In the 15th century
BC. the Sphinx began to appear on seals, ivories or on metal objects, but as a female figure, often
associated with a lion (Rodriguez, 2019). For example, Tibetan sculptors made a Sphinx with a bizzare

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appearance: half of its body was feline that was signifying strength and the other half was female. The
head was representing the face of a man that was symbolising intelligence and knowledge. In addition
to these things, the Tibetan Sphinx was also an emblem of fatality (Enigmatica, 2021).
In Romania we also have a Sphinx that formed in a long time to its actual shape. The Sphinx
of Bucegi is a cause of a wind erosion and represents a block of stone roughly similar in size to the statue
of Giza. It is associated with a spiritual being who protects the surroundings with his powers (Descoperă
locuri, fără an). People were so fascinated by this wonder of nature, that in 1900 someone even thought
to take a photo of the megalith, back in the days when photography was in its infancy and buying a
camera was quite expensive. Apart from the one in Bucegi Plateau, there are other megalith formations
in our country which, over time, acquired the appearance of sphinxes: the Sphinx of Stânișoara in Vâlcea
county, the Sphinx of Topleț in Banat, the Sphinx of the Măcinului Mountains in Tulcea, the Sphinx of
“Solomon’s Stones” in Brașov (Turist de Romania, 2012).
Below I have compiled a list of statues that have survived through the time:
Statue of the Great Sphinx of Tanis at the Louvre Museum in Paris (Figure 1)
Statues of the Sphinxes in the Belvedere Palace Garden in Vienna (Figure 2)
The Sphinx Statue of the Embankment of London
The Sphinx of August statue at the National Museum of Archaeology in Madrid
Statue of the Sphinx in Piazza del Popolo, Rome
Statue of the Sphinx on the Island of Capri, Italy
Sphinx on the building of Colței Street (Bucharest)
The two Sphinxes on Iulia Hașdeu’s grave (Figure 3)
Statue of Sphinx of Naxos at the Archaeological Museum of Delphi, Greece
The Quai with Sphinxes in Sankt-Petersburg, Russia
Sphinx statue in Zadar, Croatia – the largest Sphinx statue in Europe (Ancient Code Team,
2016)
Sphinx statue in front of the Hungarian State Opera in Budapest

Figure 1 Figure 2

Figure 3

The Sphinx appears in many paintings from different eras (Cosma M. , Oedip and the Arts, 2011):
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres: Œdipe explique l’énigme du Sphinx (Figure 4)

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Gustave Moreau: Œdipe et le Sphinx

Gustave Moreau: Œdipe voyageur
Francis Bacon: Oedipe and the Sphinx – after Ingres (Figure 5)
Annie Cassez: Oedipe and the sphinx
Alfred Courmes: Oedipe and the Sphinx (Figure 6)
Francois Xavier Fabre: Oedipe and Sphinx

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6
In literature and theatre:
Edgar Allan Poe: “The Sphinx” – a short horror story (Biblioklept, 2015)
Ralph Waldo Emerson: “The Sphinx” – poem (Library of America, n.d.)
Anna Garréta: “Sphinx” – novel (Ramadan, 2015)

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Constantin Obadă: “The Sphinx Whistles in the Wilderness! “ – poetry (Right Words, 2021)
Sophocles: Oedipus Rex (Storr, n.d.)
Eugenio Deriada: The Riddle of the Sphinx (Lunes, 2015)

We should not be surprised of the fact that the Sphinx has also interfered with the seven art,
since the character appeared in different movies:
The Sphinx, directed by Phil Rosen, 1933 (IMDb, 2004)
The Dacians, directed by Sergiu Nicolaescu, 1967 (***, Dacii, 2005)
Șaptecai’s Outlaws, directed by Dinu Cocea, 1971 (IMDb, 2016)
Sphinx Genesis, short film directed by Christian Pichler (Pichler, n.d.)
The Misteries of the Sphinx in the Carpathians, a documentary film by Oana Ghiocel and
Robert Schoch, 2020 (Ghiocel, 2019)

Because of its wealth of mysteries and meanings, we can also find him in music, in various
operas such as Oedipus à Colonne by Antonio Sacchini (1786), Edipo Re by Ruggiero Leoncavallo
(1920), the opera-oratorio Oedipus Rex by Igor Stravinsky (1927), the one-act musical-choreographic
drama Oedipus by Harry Partch (1952) and even an opera-parody by Peter Schickle under the
pseudonym “P. D. Q. Bach” (Cosma M. , Oedipe - Libret , 2007).
Another example is the opera by Mark-Anthony Turnage, Greek, which is in fact an update of
the Oedipus myth. The confrontation with the Sphinx is an interesting part of he opera because no one
can imagine how such a creature can sing, so the composers must be quite creative here. In this case,
Turnage represented the Sphinx by two women who often sang together, but it’s very interesting how
he managed to do this part: one of them had to be the echo of the other. In the staging I’m reffering to,
the actresses held cardboard cutouts in their hand like masks in order to show how the Sphinx might
have been seen through the eyes of Oedipus (Stearns, 2018).
In Romania we had a rock band back in the 70’s called “Sphinx” and it was one of the most
famous rock bands – besides Phoenix – of that period. Octav Zemlicka, the band’s guitarist and lead
singer, was the one who came up with the idea, so the band formed in 1963. They were first heard on
the radio three years later with the song I Love Music and the eponymous song, Sphinx. Basically, they
played covers of various songs by The Beattles, Jimi Hendrix, The Doors and in 1972 they recorded
their first single disc – Șir de cocori – that is said to be inspired by an arrangement of a lied by George
Enescu (***, Sfinx (band), 2020). In the 90’s a band split off from the original grup and called
themselves “Sphinx experience”, whose album Sfixtambul was successful at that time (***, Sfinx
Experience, 2021).
George Enescu was fascinated not so much by the appearance of the Sphinx, but by the meaning
of this character. The myth of Oedipus was a challenge for him, because he wanted to have an “Oedipus
of his own” after watching Sofocles’ Oedipus Rex, starring Mounet-Sully, which impressed George
Enescu with her delightful performance (Falcan, n.d.).
On the one hand, the Sphinx itself has no particular symbol because it is a monster and
eventually the hero of the story defeats him (how every villain in a legend ends up). On the other hand,
his riddle is full of meaning: it describes something almost impossible, an animal whose limbs change
in number, this thing depending of the time of day, but metaphorically, it makes sense. The riddle is a
good example of “the part equals the whole”, Oedipus being both king and tyran, but also saviour and
scapegoat. Thus, he becomes with no intention his mother’s husband and his children’s brother (Turner,
2020).
According to Edmont Fleg’s libretto, the Sphinx asks the question “What is stronger than
destiny?”. The answer remaines the same, man, but the context and the weight of the statement changes.
This philosophical approach underlines the humanist values promoted by Fleg, back in the time when
philosophy was strongly influenced by the French sages of the previous generation. At this point we can
talk about Descartes and Rousseau, who highlighted the importance of man and the control he has over
his own life (Ponder, 2009).
From a musical point of view, we can consider that the scene in which the Sphinx appears is an
essence of the whole score. To highlight the creature’s dominance over the city of Thebes, the composer
uses exotic compositional techniques and approaches – for example, the Turkish-influenced percussion
and orchestration of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony. Moreover, these features of Oedipus’ music play an
important role in the connection with Romanian folklore (Ponder, 2009).
I have further searched the long list of performances of Enescu’s Oedipus for the names of the
performers who played this role. I discovered the following (Cosma V. , 2004):
Jeanne Montfort – Opera Garnier in Paris, 1936 (opera premiere)
Micheline Cortois – La Monnaie Theatre in Brussels, 1956
Zenaida Pally – Bucharest National Opera, 1958 (national premiere)
Zenaida Pally – Saarbrücken Opera, 1971

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Zenaida Pally – Stockholm Philharmonic

Mihaela Botez – Iași Romanian Opera, 1975
Irena Slifarska – Warsaw Grand Theatre, 1978
Adina Iurașcu – Cluj-Napoca Philharmonic Choir and Orchestra
Galina Pandowa – Weimar Opera, 1984
Ecaterina Țuțu – Bucharest National Opera, 1991
Lia Kahler – Kassel Opera, 1992
Helga Wagner – Vienna Opera Theatre (Wiener Operbühne Orchestra and Budapest
Philharmonic Choir), 1993
Ana Oros – Cluj-Napoca Romanian Opera, 1995
Lucia Cicoară – Bucharest National Opera, 1995
Kaja Borris – Deutsche Oper Berlin, 1996
Jane Hanschel – Concert in Amsterdam (Philharmonic Orchestra of the Dutch Broadcasting
Corporation and Choir of the Romanian Opera of Cluj-Napoca), 1996
Marjana Lipovsek – Vienna State Opera, 1997
Marjana Lipovsek – Bucharest National Opera, 2001
Catherine Wyn-Rogers – Edinburgh Festival Concert with the BBC Scottish Symphony
Orchestra, 2002
Laura Nykänen – Concert in Barcelona (Orquesta Simfonica de Barcelona, Cor del Gran Teatre
del Liceu, Madrigal Choir), 2003
Daniela Denschlag – Bucharest National Opera, 2003
Cinzia De Mola – Teatro Lirico of Cagliari, 2005
Stephanie Chigas – Concert at the University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign, 2005
Elena Rosca – Iași Romanian Opera, 2005
Sonja Borowski-Tudor – Bielefeld Opera Theatre, 2006
Marie-Nicole Lemieux – Théâtre National du Capitole, Toulouse, 2008
Marie-Nicole Lemieux and Natascha Petrinsky – La Monnaie Theatre, Brussels, 2011
Sorana Negrea – Bucharest National Opera, 2011
Marie-Nicole Lemieux and Natascha Petrinsky – Teatro Colon, Buenos Aires, 2012
Katharina Magiera – Frankfurt Opera, 2013
Andrada Rosu – Bucharest National Opera, 2015
Marie-Nicole Lemieux – London Opera House, 2016
Christel Lötzsch – Gera Theatre, Thuringia/Germany, 2018
Violeta Urmana – Danish National Opera, Amsterdam, 2018
Julian Stephan – Altenburger Theatre, Thuringia, 2019
Ève-Maud Hubeaux – Salzburg Festival, 2019
Katarina Bradić – Berlin Komische Oper, 2021
Clémentine Margaine – Paris Bastille Opera, 2021

I have chosen as examples some of the names above, belonging to well-known musicians, three
from Romania and three from abroad, who have relevant international careers.
Zenaida Pally
Lucia Cicoară
Sorana Negrea
Marjana Lipovsek
Daniela Denschlag
Katarina Bradić
About Zenaida Pally we can retain the following biographical and career data: she was born
in the Republic of Moldavia and studied painting at the Academy of Fine Arts in Bucharest. When she
enrolled at the Conservatory, she began her musical studies in the singing department with Elena Saghin.
In 1945 the mezzo-soprano became a soloist of the Bucharest National Opera, where she achieved great
success with the roles of Amneris (Aida), Carmen (Carmen), Dalila (Samson and Dalila), Eboli (Don
Carlo), Sphinx (Oedipus), etc. She was also a permanent collaborator of the George Enescu
Philharmonic, being invited to give concerts and performances with several opera houses (Ichim, 2019).

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Wherever she sang, she represented with honour the name of the Romanian country, achieving
remarkable successes in important cultural centres. Thanks to her undeniable talent, she conquered even
the most demanding audience, always astonishing with her impeccable performance. In addition to a
rich opera repertoire, the mezzo-soprano has also performed vocal-symphonic works, such as Giovanni
Battista Pergolesi’s Stabat Mater, Ludwig van Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, Giuseppe Verdi’s
Requiem, as well as Lieder by pre-classical and contemporary composers (S., 2009). The artist was also
known abroad, being requested by different important cultural institutions such as Théâtre Royale de la
Monnaie (Belgium), Belgrade National Opera, Paris Opera, Teatro Politeama Greco (Italy), etc. (Ichim,
2019). She remains to this day one of the most appreciated Romanian artists who performed at the
Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow.
The series of performers who played the role of the Sphinx continues with mezzo-soprano
Lucia Cicoară. She has been passionate about music since childhood, when as a soloist in the church
of Buziaș, her hometown, she was accompanied by her father on the organ. A few years later she attended
the Faculty of Music in Brasov and the Academy of Music in Cluj-Napoca, at the directing department.
In 1978 she debuted with the role of Azucena in Verdi's Il trovatore (The troubadour) at the Nae Leonard
Music Theatre in Galați. She collaborated with various conductors such as Cornel Trăilescu, Leonard
Dumitriu, Constantin Petrovici etc. For 20 years she was a soloist of the Bucharest National Opera,
during which time she excelled in her career. The awards she received during these years are the proof
of her brilliant career: Golden Trophy, Phenian 1997, “Role of the Year” Award offered by “Actualitatea
Muzicală” magazine in 1999, National Order of Merit in the rank of Knight in 2002, 2nd Prize at
Caltaniseta in 1994 (Bucovu, 2013).

Sorana Negrea was born in Ploiești, where she studied piano and classical canto, and after
completing her master’s degree at the National University of Music in Bucharest she became a soloist
at the Bucharest National Opera. Throughout her career she has performed numerous concerts and
recitals and has also received various awards through participation in competitions. She has collaborated
with several philharmonics in the country (Pitești, Ploiești, Bacău, Bucharest) and with conductors such
as Adrian Morar, Christian Badea, Tiberiu Soare, Iurie Florea etc. Among the roles she has played are
Maddalena in Rigoletto and Fenena in Nabucco by Verdi, Olga in Tchaikovsky’s Eugene Onegin, Tisbe
in Rossini’s La Cenerentola (Cinderella), Suzuki in Puccini’s Madama Butterfly, Carmen and Mercédès
in Bizet's Carmen (George Enescu Festival, n.d.).

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Contralta Marjana Lipovsek was born in Slovenia and initially studied piano in Ljubljana. She
continued her musical studies at the Graz Conservatory, this time at the singing department, and after
finishing them she was called to the Vienna State Opera. In this city she began her stage experience by
playing small roles in various performances. At the Hamburg State Opera she defined herself as an alto
in roles such as Oktavian in Der Rosenkavalier by Richard Strauss, Dorabella in Così fan tutte by
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Marina in Boris Godunov by Modest Mussorgsky and Ulrica in Un ballo
in maschera by Giuseppe Verdi (Oron, Marjana Lipovšek (Contralto), 2004).

At the Bregenz Festival in Austria, she gave her first performance as Dalila in Camille Saint-
Saëns’ Samson and Delilah. The performance brought her remarkable success, so much that she was
called to play the same role at the Vienna State Opera and the Paris Opera. She soon went on to perform
on the stages of major cultural institutions – Chicago Lyric Opera, Zurich Opera House, Bavarian State
Opera in Munich, La Scala Opera House in Milan etc. – each time impressing with her dedication to
each role and her impeccable performance. Marjana Lipovsek has also paid particular attention to
concerts and recordings, with a vast repertoire (from pre-classical to contemporary pieces). She has
collaborated with significant orchestral ensembles such as the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, the New
York Philharmonic, the Dresden State Orchestra (Germany), the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra in
Amsterdam and with outstanding conductors such as Daniel Barenboim, Sir Andrew Davis, Bernard
Haitink, etc. She wanted to pass on her love of singing to the younger generation, so she organised
masterclasses in Austria and abroad, and in the summer of 2010 she was the artistic director of the Young
Singers Project at the Salzburg Festival (Hughes, 2012).
Mezzo-soprano Daniela Denschlag was born in Worms, Germany and initially studied biology
but eventually she chosed the path of music. She began her studies at the University of Music and Arts
in Mannheim and, in order to define her vocal technique, attended masterclasses organised by Anna
Reynolds, Christa Ludwig and Daniel Ferro. She made her debut at the 1997 Heidelberg Castle Festival
as the third fairy in Antonín Dvořák’s opera Rusalka, and subsequently performed at the Mannheim
National Theatre and the Baden-Baden Theatre in Germany in Maurice Ravel’s opera L'enfant et les
sortilèges (Oron, Daniela Denschlag , 2006).

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Between 2002 and 2008 she was a member of the Vienna State Opera, making her stage debut
in roles such as Page (Salome, Richard Strauss), Annina (Der Rosenkavalier, Richard Strauss), Sphinx
(Oedipus, George Enescu), Brangäne (Tristan and Isolde, Richard Wagner) etc. Her talent has also been
noticed by other cultural houses, so she has been invited to sing at the Lyon National Opera, in
Philadephia, the Stuttgart State Opera, the Hamburg State Opera and the Baden-Baden Opera Festival
(Oron, Daniela Denschlag , 2006).
She has also used her vocal technique in solo moments, singing several Mahler symphonies in
Berlin, Vienna, Darmstadt, even at the Salzburg Festival. In a concert with the Vienna Philharmonic,
she appears as Brigitte in Erich Wolfgang Korngold’s Die tote Stadt (The Dead City). The mezzo-
soprano also performed with the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra in Arnold Schönberg’s Gurre-Lieder
with Zubin Mehta as conductor (George Enescu Festival, n.d.).
Katarina Bradić is a Serbian-born mezzo-soprano who has enjoyed an international reputation
since 2009, when she became a member of the Flemish Opera in Belgium. Here she debuted with roles
such as Olga in Tchaikovsky’s Eugene Onegin, Suzuki in Puccin’'s Madama Butterfly and Medea in
Francesco Cavalli’s Jason. It wasn't long before she became one of the most requested mezzo-sopranos
by major opera houses, for example, Berlin State Opera, Teatro Real in Madrid, Oslo Opera, Deutsche
Oper am Rhein. She has also made her debut at festivals: the Glyndebourne Festival as Ursula in Béatrice
et Bénédict (Hector Berlioz), the Aix-en-Provence Festival where she played Bradamante in Alcina
(Handel), and even at the BBC Awards where she sang Richard Strauss’ Elektra (Helmut Fischer Artists
International, 2017).

The mezzo-soprano also excels on the concert stage, with a flourishing career as a soloist. She
has performed Mozart’s Requiem in various cities in Russia, as well as at the Berlin Philharmonic,
Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony in Tbilisi, Georgia and, recently, Bach’s Christmas Oratorio, Mahler’s
Kindertotenlieder in Lisbon (Oron, Katarina Bradić, 2015).
In conclusion, we may say that the Sphinx is a character full of symbols and has inspired many
artists - from sculptors, to musicians, painters and so on. In his work, George Enescu gives it profound
meanings, which can be seen in the special music and ingenious solutions given to the role of the Sphinx.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

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