Peep in To Indian Mathematics

Chapter-1
Vedas
The Vedas are the sacred literature of Hinduism. They are a paean to the Gods and consist of a
collection of verses, hymns and the procedural guidelines for conduct of a variety of religious
ceremonies and rituals. They are, in fact, the oldest surviving scriptures that are still in use.
The word Veda signifies “wisdom” or “knowledge” and in the context of the Hindu religion,
generally refers to “sacred knowledge or wisdom of the Hindu religious scriptures”. The word
Veda derives from the root vid- in Sanskrit meaning “to know”.
Briefly, there are four Vedas, collectively known as ‘Samhita’, which comprise the main body of
the Hindu scriptures; the Rig-Veda; the Yajur -Veda; the Sama-Veda; and the Atharva-Veda.
These, along with other related texts, are discussed further below.
Hinduism, as it is known today, appears to have its roots in the Aryan religion of the Vedic age
(though a differing school of thought attributes the origin to be the earlier Indus civilization).
Hence a brief discussion on the early history of the Indian sub-continent is necessary for a proper
appreciation of the evolution of the Hindu religion and the genesis of the Vedas.
Indian civilization is one of the earliest civilizations in the world. Starting with the earliest
recorded Indus Valley civilization (variously dated to be from 2250 BCE to 2500 BCE) of which
very little is known, the sub-continent has been subjected to repeated migration or invasion by
people of diverse cultures. One such influx was that of the Indo-Europeans who are believed to
have arrived sometime between 2000 BCE and 1600 BCE. They were nomadic warlike tribes from
Euro-Asia who overran Persia and eventually entered northern India and brought their own
social mores and religion with them. They considered themselves superior to the conquered
indigenous peoples and called themselves the ‘noble ones’ or ‘Aryans’ (or ‘Aryas’ in Sanskrit)
derived from the Indo-European root word ‘ar’ meaning ‘noble’.
The Aryan religion had many warlike Gods and had a major focus on various sacrifices to these
Gods. This reflected in the Vedic religion that developed in India with the advent of these Indo-
European conquerors. The Rig Veda (the oldest of the Vedas), for instance, is a collection of
hymns praising the Gods, of whom the God Indra is portrayed as a warlike conquering God. The
Yajur-Veda on the other hand relates to sacrificial rites and comprises of verses containing
Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 1

specific sacrificial formulas. The Vedas are derived from the collective beliefs of various ancient
Aryan tribes and form, along with other Vedic texts, the very foundations of Hinduism.
Another notable aspect of the Vedic Age, which affected the way the Vedas were interpreted
and implemented, was the early Aryan social structure. During the early Rig-Vedic period there
was a simple two-class structure of nobles and commoners. By the end of the era this had
evolved into a rigid system of four ‘castes’ called the Chaturvarnas, or ‘Four colors’.
Hierarchically the ‘Brahman’ (priest) was at the top, followed by the ‘Kshatria’ (noble or warrior),
‘Vashiya’ (Merchant and trades-people) and lastly the vast majority, the ‘Sudra’ (servants). This
aspect deserves mention because of the later day controversies and social strains arising from
the perceived superiority of the Brahmans. This led to a gradual reformation of the Vedic
philosophies by enlightened thinkers and, in extreme cases, even led to repudiation of the
Vedas-based Hindu value system and formation of new religions such as Buddhism and Jainism.
The dating of the Vedas is a controversial issue. As per the noted Indologist, Max Mueller, the
earliest parts of the texts were probably written between c. 1500 BCE to c. 1200 BCE. However,
it is believed that the Vedas were composed millenniums earlier and passed on orally, through
generations of Brahmin priests till being finally written down in Sanskrit.
The Vedas, according to strict Hindu interpretation, have not been composed by man but have
been revealed. Hence they are described as apaurusheya (not man made). Further, since the
hymns have either been revealed or heard, they are considered to be the shrüti (heard)
literature of Hinduism. As per the Hindu tradition, the knowledge of the Vedas was received by
the seven ancient Rishis (Sages) known as the Saptarishis (Sanskrit ‘sapta’: seven).
While the Vedas, par se, are four: the Rig-Veda; the Yajur-Veda; the Sama-Veda; and the
Atharva-Veda, they have to be studied along with certain other related Vedic texts, for their full
meaning to be appreciated. The study of the Vedic texts, explained below, have traditionally
been through different theological schools or branches (Sanskrit: Śākhās) and multiple
recensions (critical revisions) are available for each of the Vedas. Thus, Vedic texts comprise of
the four Vedas, each consisting of four related parts: The Samhitas (along with recensions); the
Brahmanas; the Aranyakas; and the Upanishads.
The Vedic texts are organized in two parts; the ceremonial aspect of performing rituals
(Karmakanda) and the philosophical content (Gnyankanda). The Karmakanda comprise the
Samhitas (hymns) and the Brahmanas (commentaries), while the Gnyankanda incorporates the

knowledge embodied in the Aranykas and the Upanishads. A brief explanation of the four parts
of the Vedas is given below:
Samhitas
The word Samhita means ‘collection’ in Sanskrit. These are primarily hymns, chants and mantras
and are the main textual portion of the Vedas. The four Vedic Samhitas are the Rig-Veda; the
Yajur-Veda; the Sama-Veda; and the Atharva-Veda. Quite often, the Samhita portion is referred
to as the Veda i.e. the Rig-Veda Samhita is called the Rig-Veda (as in the paragraph above). Each
of the Samhitas has several recensions.
Brahmanas
These are explanatory text in prose for the rituals embodied in the hymns and poems in the
Samhitas, particularly the sacrificial rituals. They serve as guides for the Brahman priests to
understand and carry out the rituals properly. The text may either be partly incorporated in the
Samhita (and partly separate) or may be totally separate. Each of the Samhitas or its recensions
may have one or more corresponding Brahmanas. In effect, they are ritualistic teachings related
to the Samhitas.
Aranyakas
The word ‘Aranyaka’ literally translates to ‘forest text’ in Sanskrit. They incorporate theological
discussions on the ritualistic aspects of the Vedas. They deal not with the rituals par se, but with
the philosophical aspects of important rites and are effectively the concluding portion of the
Brahmanas. The Aranyakas were not meant for the lay people but for ascetics who, having
practiced meditation and self-control in the forests, had achieved higher levels of knowledge.
Upanishads
These are philosophical works and deal with spiritual and mystical aspects of the Vedas, such as
the Brahman (the absolute reality), the Atman (the soul), the meaning of true knowledge etc.
There are as many Upanishads related to each of the Vedas as there are recensions, though
some are more authoritative than others. Some of them are mere disjointed meta-physical
truths; some are narratives while others are in a conversational form. The Upanishads

collectively constitute the final or end part of the Vedas and are also known as Vedanta (Sanskrit
‘anta’: end). They form the basis of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy.
There are conflicting opinions on the sequential order of the Veda Samhitas. While it is accepted
that the Rig-Veda was the first Samhita, it is believed that the Atharva-Veda was not originally a
part of the Samhitas, but was eventually adopted at a later stage. The generally accepted view
is that the Yajur –Veda and the Sama-Veda are the second and third Samhitas, respectively, with
the later adopted Atharva-Veda being the fourth and last.
Rig Veda
The Rig-Veda is the oldest of the Samhitas and all the other Vedas, to a greater or lesser extent,
are based on it. The Rig-Veda is a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns or ‘sūktas’, dedicated to the
praise of Rig-Vedic Gods and deities. The hymns were recited aloud (to the Gods) by a special
Rig-Vedic priest called a Hotri. There are 1028 hymns in the Rig-Veda comprising 10,600 verses
organized into 10 books or ‘mandalas’. The verses and books were composed by different Rishis
(Sages), based on revelation of the divine truths, over a period of more than 500 years.
Accordingly, the verses in the Rig-Veda are traditionally attributed to particular Rishis. The 10
mandalas are neither equal in length or age, nor have they been written in chronological
sequence. The 6 mandals from the 2nd to the 7th are short and each are thought to have been
written by the family of a specific Rishi. They are considered to be the oldest. The 1st and the
10th mandals, on the other hand, are the latest and the longest. The Rig-Veda is believed to have
had a number of versions 21 according to some scholars) of which only two, from the Shakala
and the Bhaskala Shakas, have survived."
Yajur Veda
The Yajur-Veda is the second of the Veda Samhitas and contains liturgical texts describing the
rites and sacrifices supporting the chants and hymns of the Rig-Veda. The focus of the Yajur-
Veda is ritualistic. The chanting of the Yajur-Veda mantras and implementation of its sacrificial
rituals were done by special Adhvaryu priests. There are two major Samhitas of the Yajur-Veda;
the Shukla (White) Yajur-Veda and the Krishna (Black) Yajur-Veda, the latter being the older of
the two. The focus of the Shukla Yajur-Veda is more on the form and arrangement of worship
(yajna). The Krishna Yajur-Veda, while including the verses necessary for worship, includes more
of explanatory commentary in prose on the ritualistic aspects.

Sama Veda
The Sama-Veda Samhita consists of hymns, which are to be chanted in musical tones or sung
and not merely recited. The chanting of the Sama-Veda hymns were done by special Vedic
Udgatri priests (Sanskrit ‘udgai’: ‘to sing’ or ‘to chant’). The hymns are mostly from the Rig-Veda,
either whole or in part, but with a rearranged sequence to suit the particular religious rituals at
which they were meant to be used (only a very small proportion of the hymns are its own). The
chanting (singing) was as per melodies based on the seven musical notes (swaras) and the songs
were called Samaganas (Sanskrit ‘gana’: song). Only one recension of the Sama-Veda; the
Kauthuma Shakha has survived intact (a second Jaiminiya Shakha is available only partially). The
Sama-Veda is generally considered to be the most important Samhita after the Rig-Veda.
Atharva Veda
The Atharva-Veda Samhita is believed to be named after a Rishi named ‘Atharvan’. It has 760
hymns, a small number of which are in prose. A few of the hymns (about one seventh) are
common with the Rig-Veda. The hymns and incantations in the Atharva-Veda Samhita are
oriented more towards spells for good health and long life, protection against demons and
diseases etc and unlike the other Samhitas, less towards sacrifice. The seed mantra ‘Om’ first
appears in this Samhita.
The Atharva-Veda is believed to have been composed during the early Vedic period and some
of the hymns appear to be older than the Rig-Veda. In spite of this, the Atherva-Veda was not
accepted initially by the Vedic Brahmans (though eventually assimilated as the fourth Samhita)
since it deviated from the other Vedas. The reason may be that the Atharva-Veda scriptures may
have originated from the pre-Aryan culture of the indigenous peoples. The Atharva-Veda is
believed to have had a number of recensions (nine according to some scholars) of which only
two survive; the Paippalāda Shakha and the Śaunaka Shakha.
The Vedic shrüti literature, as explained, comprises the four components Samhitas, Brahmanas,
Aranakyas and the Upanishads. There is also a mass of other Vedic texts of human origin (as
opposed to the revealed shrüti literature) known as‘smriti’ (Sanskrit ‘smriti’: ‘the remembered’)
literature. The Vedanga (Sanskrit ‘anga’: ‘limb’) literature, literally meaning ‘Limbs of the Vedas”,
is one such example. These are six Veda-related technical subjects who help in the correct
implementation of the Vedic mantras and rituals. These are Shiksha (Phonetics); Chhanda
(Meter); Vyakarana (Grammar); Nirukta (Etymology); Jyotisha (Astrology); and Kalpa (Ritual).

Vedic literature also had the term ‘Upaveda’ (literally ‘subordinate Vedas’) for certain technical
literature. The Upavedas are not directly related to the Vedas but were recommended study.
Examples of Upavedas are Āyurveda (the study of medicine), Sthāpthyaveda (Architecture and
mechanics) etc.
A notable aspect of the Vedic period is the advancement in mathematics. There are references
in early Vedic literature (believed to date from 3500 BCE to 500 BCE) of individual Sanskrit names
for the powers of 10 up to a trillion and even more. Examples are: Kankara (10¹³), Kotippakoti
(10²¹) etc. The Yajur-Veda even discusses the concept of ‘Infinity’ (purna) in mathematics and, in
effect, states that “When purna is subtracted from purna, the remainder is still purna.

Chapter-2
Existence of Vedas
This is like asking when did man come into existence, or when did the universe come into
existence? To determine its exact origin is difficult, as it’s difficult to determine who discovered
or made the Vedas. Many thousands of years ago, humans inhabited certain pockets on earth.
While today, our children are handed down information from elders, peers, books and of course
the internet, our ancestors were spoon-fed with nothing. They experimented with life and learnt
one truth-that it was run by some other power and that power although seems elusive, can be
accessible and that there is some order, some rule that governs lives on earth!
Vedas however, have a mention in the Bhagavatha Puranas, it is stated that the Vedas came into
existence from the origin of Shakti or female Goddess, encompassing all wisdom. It is said that
when Lord Brahma or the creator was resting in the lotus on the navel of Lord Vishnu, he got
the seed of the Vedas was sown. The hidden meanings of the Vedas are found in the Bhagavata
Purana. Studying the Bhagavata texts alone is equivalent to studying the Vedas.
When the British ruled India, they had burnt many of our manuscripts. Although, many
translations have been made by English authors of the Vedas, certain words and passages have
been misconstrued and thus what exists of the Vedas today is the filtered form, with many of its
true meanings and essence still missing.
As it happened with the Egyptians and the people of the Middle East, where the Roman Catholic
rulers destroyed their manuscripts, as it happened with the Chinese, where the emperor
destroyed valuable and priceless information, in India too, with several invasions, priceless
wisdom was lost and with it the fate of the people too was subject to upheavals.
Some unscrupulous Indian scholars too are to be blamed for selling the texts to foreigners. These
self-claimed scholars pretended to understand the complex meanings contained in the Vedas,
wherein in reality, they had misinterpreted the texts. The irony is that Muller and other Germans
translated the Vedas and Indians without the knowledge of Sanskrit; depend heavily on these
German and English translations to understand our own teachings! Perhaps it has to do with the
fact that we are more open to the teachings of the western world, although today, many retired
men and some young enthusiasts are delving deep into the Vedas for insights.

Nevertheless, the answer is that the Vedas do not have a textual origin. They were conveyed by
the Gods to the sages of yore to help mankind during the different stages of life, as well as during
the different epochs.
However, what we are left with of the Vedas is only a miniscule part of the texts, as with
repeated invasions and plundering, the cream of the Vedas has been lost. The rest of what was
left during the British rule was misinterpreted by unscrupulous people, who sold it to the
foreigners. However, whatever is still left is sufficient to guide mankind even in this chaotic
stage.
If you ask yourself, you will be amazed to know that the essence of the Vedas can be found in
your mind. The whole universe is contained within you and the answers to the most difficult
queries are also contained within you. When a baby is born, it is nourished and when he enters
school, his mind is nourished with what is good and what is bad. After this basic training of the
good and the evil, an adult has to simply delve deep and bring forth the answers from the
repertoire of his basic understanding of his elder’s wisdom. Upon further delving, and separating
the grain from the chaff, the seeker almost always finds the right answer, devoid of any external
influence. However, a wise seeker knows how to apply this truth to any problem.
Most of what we know is not the truth. It is what others, society, our ancestors and guides have
told us that make us work. The real truth is buried deep into your own psyche and is the
reflection of the Vedas, as Vedas in Sanskrit means wisdom, divine wisdom. In reality, what we
have been taught by elders, books and society is only knowledge. Only the wise mind can discern
the truth or the wisdom! Knowledge can be found everywhere, but what to pick and how to
apply is wisdom-the essence of the Vedas. Action and consequence; reaping and sowing; how
to avoid the harsh consequences are all born out of some order. This order saves one from chaos
and this essentially is the Vedas. Perhaps this is how the Vedas originated, with a purpose to
help mankind attain bliss and liberation, to find the Divine in himself and in others.

Chapter-3
Vedic Way of Life
Veda which essentially means knowledge or wisdom is a term that takes the reader, the listener
as well as the writer to the ancient land of India and her way of life. While for the world,
Hinduism is an ancient religion, for the spiritually elevated Hindu, Hinduism is not a religion, but
a way of life. Sanatana Dharma is what Hinduism is all about. ‘Dharma’, as explained by a
Westerner Stephen Knap, is that which upholds or sustains. He explains that Dharma is a not
only a force that sustains but also that which is sustained. We are born into this world to fulfill
certain obligations-both personal and spiritual. Thus, every life has a mission, a purpose. The
achievement of this purpose and the means by which ‘this purpose’ is achieved is what is called
‘Dharma’.
Psychologist Abraham Maslow has propounded the theory of Self-actualization and has proved
that sustenance is the basic need of any living being on earth, quite akin to Darwin’s theory of
‘Survival of the Fittest’. However, Maslow’s Self-actualization theory is exclusively applicable to
humans, whose needs go beyond the need to just survive! As mentioned earlier, the basic
survival need of any living creature is food, but man is the only living being, who after satisfying
hunger goes onto think of protection-protection from the elements through proper clothing and
shelter. Once this need too is taken care of, man finds ways and means of finding channels for
creative expression of his talents. In the days of yore, the cavemen hunted for their food,
invented tools, stitched layers of leaves together to cover and protect themselves and built
shelters with whatever was available in nature. The early man always found others like himself
and preferred to cohabit with other humans. Once a village or colony was developed, he realized
the power of sound and thus arose music; realized the combination of sound vibration and
rhythm and from there was born dance! He realized that his hands were a powerful tool, as his
other sense organs and thus he began to paint natural themes, and he soon became ‘house
proud’ and began to exhibit his talents in his abode.
Even today, for children as well a fully grown adult, creative expression of an inherent talent
gives man a unique pleasure. Humans have realized that their unique talents earn them the
respect of fellow humans and so each is compelled to answer a higher call. Appreciation draws
others to man, and giving praise maintains people closer to him, strengthening bonds. When
man became aware of his own emotions and through that awareness was born the sensitivity
to other’s emotions. He started loving others and wanted to be loved in return. In short, he

carved for a sense of belongingness. No man through eons has ever lived in isolation! Today,
corporate companies have clubs that encourage employees to interact and compete in a healthy
way.
The last need of man is Self-actualization. After all other needs are met; man finds ways of being
centered. Today, in corporate companies, we often find the head honcho mentoring his
followers. He collects his followers only through his deeds and by motivating others, just as a
mother guides her daughter into a new home and just like a father mentors his sons about
investments, a trade etc.
Maslow talks about Homeostatis or equilibrium that is crucial to humankind. The Hindu
philosophy of Sanatana Dharma essentially talks about man, his true nature and about this
equilibrium.
Happiness and bliss is actually the ultimate goal of mankind. Even a family that mourns
eventually either shifts to another locality where the memories of their loved ones do not linger
or they seek solace in a group, in their jobs, in religion, in service or sometimes through self-
destructive means. The ultimate goal of mankind is not the fulfillment of all his desires, but the
maintenance of bliss.
To achieve a goal, there are many methods. When man very earnestly wants something, he
attempts to attain it by hook or by crook! But, how far will he go by adopting a crooked path is
questionable. A fully functioning human will never be at peace with himself in a crooked path.
This is where the profound insight of the Vedas comes!
As mentioned earlier, Hinduism means a way of life-the practice of Sanatana Dharma, which is
found in nothing but the Vedas. Right from proper conduct to duties towards self and
community, to channelizing emotions and desires in socially befitting ways, the Vedas has a
prescription for everything under the sun!
Following the Vedic path obliterates disharmony in one’s personality, thereby annihilating
disharmony in society. Quoting Lao Tzu, “When there’s peace in the heart, there’s peace at
home, in society and ultimately in the world!” And what better way than to lead a life prescribed
in the Vedas!

The Vedas are a treasured treatise, which encompass everything from branches of medicine,
surgery, quantum Physics, Economics, Vastu Shastra, Astrology, Yoga, Politics to Music and
Mathematics. The Vedas spell order, in an otherwise chaotic life. Following the dictates of this
order alone is sufficient in harmonizing life, harnessing creative energy and achieving complete
bliss. Nature works in order of seasons. The sun has been rising each morning and setting every
evening without fail and the moon appears full every month unflinchingly. Even in Norway-the
land of the midnight sun, the sun does appear every 6 months and disappears the next 6 months.
Understanding the nature of change and constancy and adjusting our needs accordingly is what
is advised in the Vedas. To get along with a person, one needs to understand his true nature.
If only present politicians and world leaders take time to read and understand the priceless
insights of the Vedas, the world will never be plagued by poverty and war!
In ancient India, Brahmins were given the onerous responsibility of guiding society, guiding even
the kings and ministers. Children at age five were sent to a Gurukul (school), where under the
tutelage of able teachers, they would learn the art of living and the sciences of life.
Brahmacharya or celibacy was observed during the student life and upon returning to their
parents, a marriage was conducted, whereupon the couple led an austere life, devoid of
confusion, varied opinions etc. One rule prevailed and people followed the rule of the Vedas.
The Vedas being divided into 4 groups, contains hymns praising nature-the Fire God, the Sun,
the water God or rain, forest God, rituals done to propitiate nature, to harness energies etc.
The oldest Veda-Rig Veda contains verses in praise of Nature Gods, the Sama Veda is famous for
poetry, music and sound vibrations and how these impact sensations and ultimately our deeds.
Yajur Veda is more ritualistic; talking about sacrifices to be offered and rituals to be conducted
to achieve various means, without harming any life and Atharva Veda is full of incantations,
summoning nature to act in accordance to human will, akin to magic and spells! It is more
materialistic and caters to individual desires like how to attract one’s lover, how to enhance
wealth etc.
Unlike dictates of other faiths, Hinduism never shuns materialism. ‘Artha’ or the right to earn
one’s livelihood is certainly favored, but avarice and craving for comforts are discouraged, for
greed leads to unrest, corruption, the fall of the ego and ultimately to destruction of the self and
society.

‘Kama’ or the gratification of legitimate desires is not discouraged, but lusting after the object
of love leads to obsession and loss of self-esteem and the seeker never achieves self-
actualization. The ultimate human goal is being in a state of bliss, for this alone is God realization.
Ever seen a passionate musician rendering a number? She renders with utmost passion, having
mastered the tune and finding joy in rendering it to the world, she realizes God. This is true
liberation! And the Vedas help mankind to achieve this bliss and remain in a state of bliss.
Finding the God within, and not just seeking a God outside, recognizing and honoring the God
in every other soul, fulfilling obligations of life dutifully, without any regard for the results,
revering everything in nature is in reality a Vedic way of life. By studying the Vedas, man learnt
to be in control of himself. A disciplined man leads not only others, but even natural forces are
to his bidding! While other world faiths maintain that man is a base being, a helpless sinner,
Hinduism upholds the belief that man is essentially divine, he has the power to elevate himself
to higher purposes, but for this he got to understand his true nature, annihilate his ego,
recognize the divine in all living things and in nature, accept that there are others and other
forces stronger than him and take the help of forces present in the Universe.
Another distinct feature of the Vedas is that even women-Sulbha, Gargi and others had
composed the Vedas, which shows that in ancient India, women were seated in a high pedestal
and were learned! Although, the status of women in the post-Vedic period has been tumultuous,
women were treated as equals and there was no such thing as ‘male dominated bastion’.
Women certainly had a say in everything and were accorded great respect. Thus, the knowledge
of the Vedas, will open many eyes and the world will start treating women with due respect.

Chapter-4
Mathematics in Vedas
If we trace the ancient history of India, one will marvel at the magnificent accomplishments of
ancient Indians at a very early period, in the arts as well as in the sciences. The discoveries at
Mohenjo Daro and Harappa excavations in Indus Valley reveal advanced and cultured civilization
as early as 3000 BCE. The ancient Indians dwelled a highly organized life in brick houses in well-
planned towns and cities. They were far ahead of any other people on any nation during that
period.
“Vedas” are the scriptures of Hindus in India. The derived meaning of the very word “Veda” is
that it is the fountain head and illimitable repository of all knowledge. Vedic scripture sets down
the wholesome dictum:
i.e., whatever is coherent with proper reasoning should be accepted even if it comes from a
young boy or a parrot and whatever is incoherent should be rejected even if it comes from an
old man or the great learned sage Sri Sukla himself. The Vedas are widely known as four in
numbers: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda. “Vedas” are also appended by four
upavedas, namely, “Ayurveda” (Medical Science including anatomy, physiology, hygiene,
surgery, etc.), “Dhanurveda” (Archery and other military Sciences), “Gandharvaveda” (the
science and art of Music), and “Sthapatyaveda” (Engineering and Architecture), and six ancillary
branches of knowledge called Sad-vedangas. These six “Sadvedangas” are “Siksa” (Phonetics),
“Vyakarana” (Grammar), “Chandas” (metrics), “Nik-ruta” (Etymology), “Jyotisa” (the science of
luminaries like Astronomy, Astrology, etc.), and “Kalpa” (ritual). All these subjects are inherent
parts of “Vedas.”
“Ganita” literally means “the science of calculation” and an ancient Hindu name for
mathematics. “Sad-vedanga Jyotisa” (about 1200 BCE) gives mathematics the highest place of
honor among all the sciences which form “Vedas.”

i.e., as the crests on the head of peacocks and as the gems on the head of cobras, “Ganita” is at
the top of all sciences known as “Vedangas.”
In the early works, “Vedas” (probably much earlier than 3000 BCE) and “Brahmana literature”
(about 2000 BCE), we find the beginning of Mathematics (Arithmetic, Geometry, Algebra, etc.)
and Astronomy. These two periods were followed by more than 20 centuries of perpetual
progress and marvelous accomplishments.
Even though the age of the Vedas is a subject of continuous research even today, it is undisputed
that the Vedas are the earliest records of human wisdom which are being handed down to
humanity through oral tradition of knowledge transmission. Whatever may be the thinking of
the historians in 19th and early 20th century, new researches which peeped into the internal
evidence of the Vedas firmly establish the age of Vedas to be 6000 BCE – 19000 BCE, basing on
the astronomical references available in the literature.
Surprisingly, such a prehistoric bulk of records carries intricate scientific statements pertaining
to several branches of science such as mathematics, medicine, astronomy, cosmology, botany
etc. The purpose of the present article is to bring out the mathematical acumen, branch wise
that can be evidently inferred from the outer meaning of the Vedic sentences, without touching
those complicated implications that can be derived through philosophical inquiry.
Arithmatic and Vedas
We know that mathematical knowledge initiates its progress through the mechanism of
counting and numbering. In the annals of history of mathematics, the process of counting and
numbering had its first leap forward with the famous book “Calculus of Sand” written by
Archimedes of 3rd century BCE. This could not progress well and expand its wings into bigger
multiplications until the concept of zero entered into Europe, through the Arabic channels. It is
now an accepted fact that the marvelous concept of zero was invented by Indians and from
there it migrated to the Arabs. We shall take up this concept a bit latter in this article and we
shall now focus on the other digits of the number system, and then pass on to fractions, series,
zero and infinity, available in the Vedas.

Digits and Number System
The concept of digits, to the extent of several millions, can be clearly seen in all the Vedas.2
We shall take one quote from each Veda, except SamaVeda, since Sama Veda is almost a musical
modulation of Rig Veda.
Rig Veda
This hymn clearly mentions
Vimsatya which means 20

Trimsata which means 30
Caturvimsata which means 40
Pancasata which means 50
Sastya which means 60
Saptatya which means 70
Asitya which means 80
Navatya which means 90
Satena which means 100
This is not an occasion for the hymn to mention the number system as it is. The occasion
demands the series to start from 20. The point which deserves our attention is the word
‘trimsata’ which is the combination of two words ’tri’ and ’imsat’, which means 3 multiplied by
10.

Similarly ‘chatvari’ ‘imsat’ implies multiplication of ‘chatvari (4)’ and ‘imsat (10)’
‘pancasat’ implies 5 x10

‘sasti’ implies 6 x10
‘saptati’ implies 7 x10
‘asiti’ implies 8 x10
‘navati’ implies 9 x10
‘sata (100) is a new name. The above observation implies that the Vedic people had the
knowledge of multiplication as well as the number system, with 10 as its base.
Yajur Veda
The existence of bigger numbers in series can be seen in Yajur Veda.
This hymn indicates a series of numbers which starts with 1, the next numbers being 10, 100,
1000, … up to 1017.
This series runs in multiples of 10 and is in the form of a geometric progression of the type – a,
a2, a3… etc. The concept of power to 10 does not appear, but the series is given perfectly with
individual names to each of the multiples. This again establishes that the Vedic people had a
number system, with 10 as its base.
Atharva Veda
The following hymn from Atharvan Veda supports the above concept.

The specialty of this hymn is that it gives digit - linkage between 1and 10, 2 and 20, 3and 30, 4
and 40, 5 and 50, 6 and 60, 7 and 70, 8 and 80, 9 and 90, 10and 100 and it jumps to 100 and
1000.
From this it can be re confirmed that 10 was used as base for the number system. Moreover,
the internal consistency with respect to number system of the Vedic hymns can be well
established by this.
Series
This hymn of Yajur Veda gives a series of numbers (a) 1, 3,5, 7,9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25,
27, 29, 31, 33 and (b) 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 48 which is of the form a, a+d, a+2d
…. etc.

We can see that these two series are in arithmetic progression. We can not proclaim their
knowledge about the formula to find the nth term of the series and the sum of n terms. The
same is true in the case of the numbers in geometric progression.
Fractions
The above facts, quoted so far, will establish the presence of natural numbers, that too very big
numbers, in the Vedic literature. Now we shall have a look at the fractions. In the available
literature (since a lot of Vedic literature was lost), not many direct references pertaining to
fractional numbers are available. However, the concept of division and fractions can be clearly
understood in the following Rig Vedic hymn.
The hymn speaks of dividing a glass of drink in to two, three, four parts, however, whether they
had a system of representing the fractions in the form of a numerator and a denominator is
uncertain. Still, we cannot totally deny that, since the concept of infinitely big and infinitesimal
entities were mentioned in the Vedas, at different contexts.
Special Digit Zero
The above mentioned mathematical exercise cannot be imagined if the concept of zero and the
place value system of numbers were not available with them. Even though direct statements in
this regard are not available, we can not deny their presence because of the consequent
progress in other branches of mathematics, such as geometry and astronomy which we shall
study a bit latter. Zero as a member of the numerical system and zero as a symbol of emptiness,
both can be inferred in the philosophical context of the Vedic literature, but that is beyond the
scope of this book.
Infinity
As mentioned already, the concept of infinitely big (Ananta) and infinitesimal (Paramanu)
entities are very much available in the Vedas and this can be clearly understood in the context

of philosophy. Taittiriya Upanishad says anoran iyam mahato mahiyan’ which means that
pervading Almighty is as big as ‘Ananta’ (infinity) and as small as Paramanu (atom). The same
concepts were adopted in mathematics as infinity and zero. Out of the two, the mathematical
implications of infinity can clearly be seen in the following hymn of Yajur Veda.
This hymn means: Infinity comes out of infinity and when infinity is subtracted from infinity, the
result remains as infinity. This, clearly, is similar to the modern concept of infinity.
Similar concepts on zero are seen in the Tantric and Puranic literature of India, which belong to
the succeeding periods of Vedas. Since the scope of this article does not cover those literatures,
let us stop at this juncture and proceed to have glimpses at the other mathematical branches of
Vedic literature.
Geometry In Vedas
While arithmetic deals with mathematics of numbers, geometry deals with mathematics of
space, which precipitates itself in the form of lines and curves. The simplest form of polygon can
be taken as triangle, since 3 is the minimum number of sides with which a polygon can be drawn.
The name of the triangle (Tribhuja) can be seen in the following lines from Atharvan Veda, in a
non mathematical context.
The Almighty made a triangle (Tribhuja) with earth, the intermediate space and the heaven as
its sides and the generated multiple forms of beings, in a mystic way.
The Decimal System of Numeration
The most important mathematical contribution of ancient India is the invention of the decimal
system of numeration, including the number zero. The unique feature of this system is the use

of nine digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and a symbol 0 to represent all the integral numbers by
assigning a place value to the digits.
In 1912, in his book “On the Foundations and Technique of Arithmetic,” Professor E.B. Halstead
remarks that “The importance of the creation of the zero mark can never be exaggerated. This
giving to airy nothing not merely a local habitation and a name, picture, a symbol but helpful
power is the characteristic of the Hindu race whence it Sprang. It is like coining the Nirvana into
Dynamics. No Single mathematical creation has been more potent for the general on-go of
intelligence and power.” A few years later (1926), he showed that zero existed in India at the
time of Pingala’s work “Chandra Sutra”—work on Prosody before 200 BCE.
Pierre Simon Laplace (1749-1827), the celebrated French mathematician and astronomer,
regarded as one of the greatest mathematicians of all time wrote that “The idea of expressing
all numbers by the ten digits whereby is imparted to them both an absolute and a positional
value is so simple that very simplicity is the reason for our not being sufficiently aware how much
admiration it deserves. It is India that gave us this ingenious method.”
B.B. Dutta said that “The Hindus adopted decimal system very early. The numerical language of
no other notation is so scientific and attained as high a state of perfection as that of Ancient
Indians. In symbolism they succeeded with ten digits to express any number most elegantly and
simply. It is the beauty of Hindu numerical notation which attracted the attention of all civilized
people of the world and charmed them to adopt it.”
The ancient Hindus used at least 18 denominations.

Even in modern times, the numeral language of no
other nation is as scientific and perfect as that of
ancient Indians.
In the “Yajurveda Samhita” XIV 2, the following list
of numeral is given:
The same list occurs at two places (IV 40 11.4) and

(VII 2 20 1) in “Taittiriya Samhita.” The “Maitrayani,
ii 8.14” and the “Kathaka Samhita XVII 10” have the
same list with slight alterations. The “Pancavimsa
Brahmana” has Yajurveda Samhita list up to
“nyarbuda” inclusive and then follow “Nikharva,”

“Vadava,” “aksiti,” etc. The “Sankhayana Sranta
Sutra” contains the series after “nyarbuda” with
“nikharva,” “Samudra,” “Salila,” and “Ayuta” (10
billions).
It is during this great period, sage Valmiki known

as the father of Sanskrit poetry composed the
great epic “Ramayana.” In Valmiki “Ramayana,” vi
28, a spy of the evil King Ravana narrates to his
King the exact strength of the army of his enemy
Sri Rama. Five persons from Ravana’s side have left
Ravana and joined Sri Rama’s Camp. The spy marks
the following statement:
In the above stanza, we have the following enumeration:
The spy estimated the strength of Sri Rama to be
In view of the above discussions, which are confined to limited quotations containing only
outlines of the subject, we can estimate the depth of mathematical expertise of the Vedic
period.

Chapter-5
Ancient Indian Mathematicians

Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinent from 1200 BCE until the end of the 18th
century. In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 CE to 1200 CE), important
contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahma gupta, and Bhaskara II. The decimal
number system in use today were first recorded in Indian mathematics. Indian mathematicians
made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number, negative numbers,
arithmetic, and algebra. In addition, trigonometry was further advanced in India, and, in
particular, the modern definitions of sine and cosine were developed there. These mathematical
concepts were transmitted to the Middle East, China, and Europe and led to further
developments that now form the foundations of many areas of mathematics.
Ancient and medieval Indian mathematical works, all composed in Sanskrit, usually consisted of
a section of sutras in which a set of rules or problems were stated with great economy in verse
in order to aid memorization by a student. This was followed by a second section consisting of a
prose commentary (sometimes multiple commentaries by different scholars) that explained the
problem in more detail and provided justification for the solution. In the prose section, the form
(and therefore its memorization) was not considered as important as the ideas involved. All
mathematical works were orally transmitted until approximately 500 BCE; thereafter, they were
transmitted both orally and in manuscript form.
Sl.No. Name Period Script

1 Baudhāyana 800 BCE Baudhāyana Śulbasûtra
2 Aryabhata (I) 499 CE Aryabhtiyam
3 Varahmihira 505 CE Panchasidhantika, Bruhatsamhita
4 Jinabhadra Gani 575 CE Vaisheshikabhashya

5 Brahmagupta 628 CE Brahmasphutasidhanta
6 Bhaskara (I) 629 CE Mahabhaskariya, Aryabhatiyabhashya
7 Shridhara 750 CE Patiganita, Trishatika
8 Virasena 816 CE Dhavalatika
9 Mahaviracharya 850 CE Ganitasarasamgraha
10 Govindaswamin 850 CE Mahabhaskariya Bhashya
11 Pruthudakswami 864 CE Brahmasiddanta vacanabhasya
12 Vateshvara 904 CE Vateshvara siddhanta
13 Munjala 932 CE Laghumansa
14 Aryabhata (II) 978 CE Mahasidhanta
15 Nemichandra 980 CE Gomatasara
16 Shripati 1039 CE Ganita tilaka
17 Bhaskara (II) 1150 CE Sidhantashriomani, Lilavati Bijaganitam
18 Madhava 1340-1425 CE Madhyamanayanaprakara, Venvaroha
19 Narayana Pandita 1356 CE Ganita Kaumudi
20 Parameshvara 1430 CE Lilavati vyakhya
21 Nilakantha 1444-1545 CE Tantrasamgraha, Aryabhatiya Bhashya
22 Jyeshthadeo 1475 CE Yuktibhasha
23 Shankara Variyavara 1500-1560 CE Kriyakramakari
24 Ganesh Daivadnya 1545 CE Buddhivalasani
25 Putumana Somayaji 1660-1740 CE Karanapaddhati
26 Shankar Varman 1823 CE Sadratnamala

Chapter-6
Mathematical Invention
Introduction: This collection is meant to exhibit various mathematical results, in a comparison

form. Many of the results, which we use, are attributed to foreign mathematicians. But looking
through the pages of history of Mathematics, it observed that Indian mathematicians already
obtained these results few hundred years earlier.
There is no intention to show which result is stronger or weaker, or any sense of superiority or
inferiority.
In the following, the first part of result is Indian invention, and immediate part is a foreigner’s
claim.
The period of each invention is also mentioned.
1 Explanation
Indian Invention Bodhayan: Diagonal square theorem (BCE 800).
The altars constructed for the worship are in rectangle / square shape,
where the square of diagonal is equal to sum of squares of adjoining
sides.
Foreigner’s Claim Pythagoras theorem ; (BCE 540)
2 Explanation
Indian Invention Aryabhat‘s Kuttak by-ax = c (499 CE), where kuttak means algebraic
equation Brahmagupta (6th century) claimed that this equation will
have an integer solution provided greatest common divisor of a and
b divides c.
Foreigner’s Claim Diophantine Eq.(500 CE)

3 Explanation
Indian Invention Varahamihir ; Tri-Lostaka (488-587CE)
Foreigner’s Claim Pascal: Pascal triangle (1623-1662 CE)
4 Explanation
Indian Invention Brahmagupta (N x 2)+ 1 = y 2 (628 CE )
Foreigner’s Claim John Pell :: Pell‘s equation (1610-1685 CE)
5 Explanation
Indian Invention Brahmagupta ‘s formula for area of cyclic quadrilateral
A=√ [(s - a)(s - b)(s - c)(s - d)] (628 CE )
Foreigner’s Claim Heron‘s formula for area of a triangle

A =√ [(s - a)(s - b)(s - c)(s - d)] (100-50 BCE)
6 Explanation
Indian Invention Virahank‘s series: 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21........., ( 600CE)
Foreigner’s Claim Fibonacci series 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21...., (1170-1250 CE)
7 Explanation
Indian Invention Mahavira formula(850 CE) for combinations
n
cr = (n)! / ( r!) (n-r)! ( ! stands for factorial)
Foreigner’s Claim Herigone‘s formula(1634 CE)

8 Explanation
Indian Invention Bhaskaracharya (1114-1193 CE) Formula for relative difference
(retrograde motion)
Foreigner’s Claim Rolle‘s theorem (1652-1719 CE)
9 Explanation
Indian Invention Madhav‘s theorem (1340-1425 CE)
tan x tan 3 x tan 5 x

x    .........
1 3 5
Foreigner’s Claim Gregory Series(1638-1675)
10 Explanation
Indian Invention 1 1 1
Madhav‘s series II (pie) = 1     .............. (1340-1425 CE)
3 5 7
Foreigner’s Claim Leibnitz ‘s expansion (1646-1716)
11 Explanation
Indian Invention Narayan Pandit (1356 CE) , factorization method
Foreigner’s Claim Fermat‘s result (1601-65): divisiors of a number
12 Explanation
Indian Invention Bhaskaracharya (1114-1193 CE) method of finding greatest
common divisor
Foreigner’s Claim Euler’s division algorithm (1707 - 83 )
13 Explanation
Indian Invention Permeshwara‘s formula for finding circum-radius of a cyclic
quadrilateral (1360 CE)
Foreigner’s Claim Huiler‘s similar formula (1782 CE)

14 Explanation
Indian Invention Nilkanth Somyaji (1444-1545 CE), Summations “n, “n2 and” n3
Foreigner’s Claim Euler‘s similar results (1707-1783 CE)
15 Explanation
Indian Invention Nilkanth Somyaji (1444-1545),
sine rule: a / sin A =b / sin B = c / sin C
Foreigner’s Claim Euler‘s results 2R = a / sin A =b / sin B = c / sin C,

where R is the circum-radius of a triangle ABC
16 Explanation
Indian Invention Brahmagupta(628 CE ), volumes of frustum of cone and of pyramid
Foreigner’s Claim Kepler (1571-1630, German)
17 Explanation
Indian Invention Jyeshtha Deo (1500 CE)
formulae for sin (x + y) and cos (x + y)in the text ‘Yuktibhasha‘
Foreigner’s Claim Euler (1707-1783 CE)
18 Explanation
Indian Invention Jyeshtha Deo (1500 CE), Linear equations
Foreigner’s Claim Liebnitz similar results (1646-1716)
19 Explanation
Indian Invention Jyeshtha Deo (1500 CE) volume and surface area of a sphere
Foreigner’s Claim Liebnitz similar results by method of integration, (1646-1716)

20 Explanation
Indian Invention Shankar Variar (1500-60), Values of ∂ / 4, ∂ /16 in series
Foreigner’s Claim Gauss similar results (1777-1855)
COMMENTS
1. This list is not all inclusive. More such results can be found out. This list in not aimed at
showing whose contribution is of higher intellect. It is an attempt to show that many of the
results were obtained in India earlier.
2. Most of the ancient Indian literature in mathematics is in Sanskrit language or in Modi
manuscript. Hence it was difficult to decode these inventions, and hence did not cross the
Indian boundaries.
3. Foreign missionaries entered India through Kerala, where school of mathematics was
academically rich. It is presumed that this knowledge of mathematics went from Kerala to
Western countries and then were published there, hence their inventions were coined more
than those of Indians.
4. It must be accepted that the results of the Western mathematicians are more stronger than
those of Indians.
5. Lastly, the western mathematicians gave a ‘written‘ proof of every result they invented;
Indian mathematicians simply stated the results,( mostly without any proof), that too in
story form , or in form of verses ( for ex. ‘Leelavati‘ of Bhaskaracharya).

Chapter-7
Indian Mathematical Discoveries

Discovery and Use of Zero
Gaayathre shadsankhyaamardhe apaneethe dvayanke avasishtasthrayastheshu

roopamapaneeya dvayankaadha: soonyam sthaapyam
In gayatri chandas, one pada has six letters. When this number is made half, it becomes three
(i.e the pada can be divided into two). Remove one from three and make it half to get one.
Remove one from it, thus gets the zero (Soonya).
PINGALACHARYA IN CHANDA SASTRA 200 BCE
Calculations with Zero
Vikaaramaayaanthi dhanarunakhaani na soonya samyoga viyogathasthu soonyaaddhi

suddham swamrunam kshayam swam vadhaadinaa kham khaharam vibhakthaa:
Nothing happens (to the number) when a positive or negative number is added with 0. When
+ve and -ve numbers are subtracted from 0, the +ve number becomes negative and -ve number
becomes +ve. When multiplied with 0, the values of both +ve and -ve numbers become 0, when
divided by 0, it becomes infinity (khahara).
SRIPATI IN SIDDHANTHA SEKHARA 1039 CE
Yathaa ekarekhaa sathasthaane satham dasasthane dasaiam chaikasthaane yathaa cha

ekathvepi sthree mathaa cha uchyathe duhithaa svasaa cha ithi
In the unit place the digit has the same value, in 10th place, 10 times the value and in 100th
place 100 times the value, is given.
VYASA BHASHAYA TO YOGA SUTRA 650 CE
Discovery Of Place Values
Yathaachaikaapi rekha sthaananyathvena nivisamaanaika dasa satha sahasraadi sabda

prathyaya bhedhamanubhavathi

One and the same numerical sign when occupying different places is conceived as measuring 1,
10, 100, 1000 etc.
SANKARACHARYA VEDANTA SUTRA BHASHAYA
Knowledge on Infinity
Asmin vikara khahare na raasaavapi praveshteshvapi ni: srutheshu bahushvapi syaallaya

srushtikaalenanthe chyuthe bhoothaganeshu yaddhath
Nothing happens to the (huge number) infinity, when any number enters (added) or leaves
(subtrated) the infinity. During pralaya many things get dissolved in Mahavishnu and after
pralaya, during srushti all those things get out of him. This happens without affecting the lord
himself. Like that, whatever number is added to infinity or whatever is subtracted from it, the
infinity remains unchanged.
BRAHMAGUPTHA IN BRAHMASPHUTA SIDDHANTA 600 CE
BHAKARACHARYA II - BEEJAGANITA 1148 CE
Use of Average Values
Ganayithva visthaaram bahushusthaneshu thadyuthirbhaayyaa sthaanakamithyaa

samamithirevam dairgye cha vedhe cha
(For length, breadth and depth) the measurements should be taken at many places and the sum
should be divided by the number of times (places) the measurement is taken.
BHASKARACHARYA II IN LILAVATI 1150 CE
Use of Fractions
Drammaardha thrilavadvayasya sumathe paadathrayam yadbhaveth that panchaamsaka

shoda saamsa charana: sampraarthithenaa- rthinaa datto yenavaraatakaa: kathi
kadaryenarpithastena me broohithvam yadi vetsi vatsaganitha jaathim prabhagaabhidhaam
One man has given to a beggar fraction of 1 dramma (a unit of money). That fraction is one
fourth of the one sixth of one fifth of the three fourth of the two third of the half of a dramma.
Then tell how much kowdi (a unit fraction of the amount dramma) was given to the beggar?
BHASKARACHARYA I - ARYABHATEEYA BHASHAYA 628 CE

Use of Ratio and Proportion
Ashtow daanthaa sthryo damyaa ithi gaava: prakeerthi thaa: ekaagrasya sahasrasya kathi
daanthaa: katheetharai:
(Out of 11 cattle) Eight are tamed and 3 are to be tamed and (how many are) to be tamed) if the
number of cows is 1001?
BHASKARACHARYA I - ARYABHATEEYA BHASHAYA 628 CE
Permutations and Combination - I
Katukathiktha kashaayaamla lavana madhurai: sakhe rasai: shadbhi: vidadhaathi soopakaaro

vyanchanamaachakshva kathibhedam
Friend, a cook prepared varieties of food with 6 savours: pungent, bitter, astringent, acid, saline
and sweet. Say what is the possible number of varieties of food that can be made with these
savours.
SRIDHARACHARYA IN PATIGANITA 990 CE
Permutations and Combination – II
Paasankusaahi damarooka kapaala soolai: khadvangasakthi sara chaapayuthairbhavanthi

anyonya hastha kalithai: kathi moorthibhedaa: sambho haririva gadaari saroja sankachakrai:
Pasa, ankusa, serpant, damaru, kapala, soola, khatvanga, sakti, chapa, sara with these (ten)
items how many permutations and combinations are possible for Lord Siva. Similarly with the
four items, sanku, chakra, gadha and padma holding in the hands, how many combinations are
possible for Lord Vishnu?
BHASKARACHARYA II IN LILAVATI 1114 CE
Partnership and Shares
Samavaayakaasthu vanija: panchaikaikottharaadhi mooladhanaa: laabha: sahasra sankhyo

vada kasmai thathra kim deyam

Five partners collaborate in a business. The capital invested by them are (in the ratio) one and
the same number increasing successively by one (i.e 1,2,3,4, & 5) respectively. Profit that
accrued amounts to 1000. Say what should be given to whom.
BHASKARACHARYA I - IN ARYABHATEEYA BHASHYA 628 CE
Loans and Interests
Kutumbaarthamasakthena gruheetham vyaadhithena vaa upaplava nimittham cha

vidyaathaapalkrutham thath kanyaavaivahikam chaiva prethakaaryeshu yathkrutham ethath
sarvam pradaathavyam kutumbena krutham prabho
Loans are taken for meeting the expenditure connected with economic problems due to family
burden, health problems, treatment, education, expenditure during accident, marriage of
daughter, for performing rituals connected with the demise of the family members, etc.
VISHNUSMRUTHI 100 BCE
Interest Calculation
Maasena sathasya phalam panchaiko bhavyakerdhamaya vruttho lekhakapaado varshe

panchaadika navasatheemisram
The rate of interest being 5% per month, the commission of surety 1% per month, fee for
accountant ½% and charges of the scribe 1/4% per month, certain sum amounts to 905 a year.
Find the capital, the interest and the shares of the surety?
SRIDHARACHARYA IN PATIGANITA 990 CE
Rules of Charging Interest
Atha utthamarna: adhamarnaadyathaa datthamartham gruhneeyaath dvikam thrikam

chathushkam panchakam cha satham prathimaasam
The loans can be given and taken between borrower and lender. Generally charged interest
rates are 2, 3, 4, or 5% per month.
Sa paadapanaa dharmyaa maasavruddhi: panassathasya panchapanaa vyaavaharikee

Reasonable (dharmic) rate of interest is 1.25% per month (i.e 15% per annum) on the
transactions with common man for non commercial purposes. But for commercial purposes (for
making profit out of it) interest rate can be 5% per month.
VISHNU SMRUTHI 100 BCE
Rules of Bodies In Motion
Bhakthe vilomavivare gathiyogenaanulomavivare dvow gathyantharena labdow

dviyogakaalaavatheethaishyow
Whenever two bodies are travelling in the opposite directions, the distance between them is to
be divided by the sum of their speeds. If they move in the same direction, the distance is to be
divided by the difference of their speeds. This gives the time required for meeting of the bodies
or the time elapsed after meeting of the moving bodies.
ARYABHATA I - ARYABHATEEYA 499 CE
Ekow naa yojananyashtow yaathyanyo yojanadvayam yojanaanaan satham panthaa:

sangama: kva gamaagame
One man travels at 8 yojana speed per day. Another travels at 2 yojana per day, starting
simultaneously from the same place. After reaching the destination, the first man comes back.
If the length of the track is 100 yojana. Say where is the meeting place of the two? (One going
forward and the other traveller returning).
SREEDHARACHARYA PATIGANITHA 990 CE
Progression of the Type: 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + ....
Sapthaanaam ashtaanaam saptadasaanaam chathurbhu jaaschithaya: ekavidyaanaam

vaachyam padastharaasthaa hi vargaakhyaa:
There are (three pyramidal) piles on square bases having 7, 8 and 17 layers which are also
squares. Say the number of units there in.
BHASKARACHARYA I - ARYABHATEEYA BHASHYA 628 CE
Progression of the type: 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 +
Chathurasraghanaschithaya: panchachathurnavastharaa vinirdesyaa: ekaavaghatithaasthaa:

samachathura sreshtakaa: kramasa:
There are three pyramidal piles having 5, 4 and 9 cuboidal layers. They are cuboidal bricks (of
unit dimension) with one brick in the topmost layer. Find the number of bricks used in them.
BHASKARACHARYA I - ARYABHATEEYA BHASHYA 628 CE
Progression of the Type : n + n2 + n3 + n 4
Sankalithakruthighanaanaam sankalithasamaasamaanaam me kathaya shannaam sakhe

padaanaam ganayithvaa yadivijaanaasi
Friend, if you know, then say after calculation (i) the sum of successive sum of 6 natural numbers
(ii) the sum of the squares of the first 6 natural numbers and (iii) the sum of the cubes of first 6
natural numbers.
SREEDHARACHARYA - IN PATIGANITHA 900 CE
First Degree Indeterminate Equation
Mudgaanaam kudavaa: saptha labhyanthe navabhi: pane: panena kudavasyaardham

thandulaanaamavaapyathe thatha: panathrayam saardham gruheethvaaasu vaningmama
thandulaanaam prayacchaamsa mudgaanaam cha dvisangunam
7 kudavas (unit of measurement) of mudga are obtained for 9 panas and ½ kudava of rice is
obtained for one pana. Then O! merchant take 3½ panas and quickly give me one part of rice
and two parts of mudga.
SREEDHARACHARYA - IN PATIGANITHA 900 CE
First Order Equation – I
Ye nirjaraa dinadinaardha thrutheeya shashtai: sampoorayanthi pruthak pruthakeva mukthaa:

vaapeem yadaa yugapadeva sakhe vimukthaasthe kenavaasaralavena thadaa vadaasu
By opening 4 inlets separately, one pond gets filled respectively within 1, ½, 1/3, and 1/6 days.
If all the four inlets are opened together, how much time (in fraction of the day) is required to
fill the pond ?
BHASKARACHARYA II - IN LILAVATI 1114 CE

First Order Equation – II
Nava gulikaa saptha (cha) roopakasamaasthrayaanaam (thu) gulikaanaam thrayodasaanaam

cha roopakaanaam thadaa kim gulikaa moolyam
If 9 gulika and 7 rupaka are equal to 3 gulika and 13 rupaka, what is the price of one gulika? (the
answer can be determined through the same method followed above)
SREEDHARACHARYA PATIGANITHA 990 CE
Equations of Higher Order- I
Vaanarakulathribhaga: svathryamsa samanvi1tha: sara: prayayow moolam cha pipaasathi

dvow choothathale sthithow seshow
One third of a troop of monkey with one third of itself has gone to the tank; the square root of
the whole troop is afflicted with thirst, and the remaining 2 monkeys are sitting under the mango
tree. What is the total number of monkeys? 1/3 a + 1/9 a + a + 2 = a.
SREEDHARACHARYA - PATIGANITHA 990 CE
Equations of Higher Order- II
Bale maralakula mooladalaani saptha theere vilaasabhara manthara gaanyapasyam

kurvancha keleekalaham kalahamsayugmam sesham jale vada maraalakula pramaanam
I saw that one half of 7 times of the square root of the total number of swans were slowly moving
away in the river. Remaining 2 are playing in water. What is the number of total swans?
(equation: 7/2 a+2=a)
BHASKARACHARYA - LILAVATI 1114 CE
Pythagorus Theorem-Discovered By Boudhayana
Samachathurasrasyakshnayaa rajju dvishtavathim bhoomim karothi
The diagonal of a square produces double the area of the square.

Deerghachathurasrasyakshnayaarajju: paarsvamaani thiryanmaani cha yatpruthakbhoothe
kuruthasthadubhayam karoti
Areas produced separately by the length and breadth of rectangle together equal to the area of
the (square) produced by the diagonal.
BOUDHAYANA BOUDHAYANA SULBASUTRA 700 BCE
Explanation of Binomial Theorem
If a three syllablic Madhya Chanda based on guru and lakhu sounds were followed, then
variation of guru and lakhu sound will be on the following pattern: 3 guru sound occur once, 2
guru and 1 lakhu occur thrice, 1 guru and 2 lakhu sounds occur thrice, 3 lakhu occur once. The
equation can be derived easily. If guru is g and lakhu is 1 then,
(g+1)3 = g3+3g21+3g12+13. This equation is the same as (x+y)3.
Similarly for finding the pratishta Chanda, in the Chanda sastra of Pingalacharya, the following
equation can be indirectly applied in this form:
(g+1)4 which is expanded as g4+4g31+4g212+4g13+14
i.e 4 guru sound occur once, 3 guru and 1 lakhu occur four times, 2 guru and 2 lakhu occur four
times, 1 guru and 3 lakhu occur four times and 4 lakhu occur once.
PINGALACHARYA - CHANDASASTRA 200 BCE
Geometry In Sulbasutra-II
Thaasaam trika chathushkayordvaadasikapanchikayo: panchadasikaashti kayo:

saaptikachathurimsathikayo: dvaadasika panchathrimsathikayo: panchadasikashad-
thrimsikayo: ithyethaasoopalabdhi:
Hypotenuse in rectangles having sides 3 and 4 (= 5), 12 and 5 (= 13), 15 and 8 (= 17), 7 and 24 (=
25), 12 and 35 (= 37) and 15 and 36 (= 39) (I.49).
BOUDHAYANA BOUDHAYANA SULBASUTRA 700 BCE

Angular Dimensions
Angagunavedahuthaasaa: kalikaa vikalaa: samudrajaladhaya: svalpajalakhaashtasasi

dhruthisasina: kalikaa: saraagnayo vikalaa: thrijyaakruthivarashta navathribhuvo visve
jinaamsajyaa.
Thribhujasya phalasareeram samadalakoti bhujaardha samvarga:
The area of a triangle is the product of the prependicular and half the base.
ARYABHATTA I ARYABHATEEYA 499 CE
Karnasthrayodasa syaath panchadasaanyo mahee drisapthaiva vishamasthri bhujasya sakhe

phalasankhyaa kaa bhavedasya
What is the area of a scalene traingle in which one lateral side is 13 units, other 15 unit and the
base is 14 units.
Ashtaadasakocchrayovamso vaathena paathithomoolaath shadgathvaavasow

pathithaasthribhujam kruthvaa kva bhaghna: syaath
A bamboo of beight 18 cubits fell by the wind, it falls at a distance of 6 cubits from the root, thus
forming a right triangle, where is the break?
BHASKARA I COMMENTARY TO ARYABHATEEYA 628 CE
POLYGONAL
Thribdhyankaagninabha schandraisthri bhaanaa shtayugaashtabhi: vedaagni

baanakhaaschaicha khakhaabhraa bhrarasai: kramaath baaneshu nakha baanai schadvidvi
nandeshu saagarai: kuraamadasavedaischa vruthhavyaase samaahathe khakhakhaabhraarka
sambhakthe labhyanthe kramasobhujaa: vrutthaantha sthraya poorvaanaam navaasraantham
pruthak pruthak
For cyclic equilateral triangle, cyclic square, cyclic equilateral pentagon,.... to cyclic equilateral
nonagon, (cyclic figures having 3 to 9 sides with equal side measurements) their sides can be
calculated respectively when diameter is multiplied separetely with 103923 (triangle) 84854
(quadrilateral) 70534 (pentagon), 60000 (hexagon) 52055 (septagon) 45922 (octagon) and

41031 (nonagon) and divided by 120000, the value will be the measurements of the sides of
cyclic equilateral triangles to cyclic equilateral nonagon. Bhaskaracharya has given the example:
If 2000 is the diameter of circle, equilateral geometrical figures inscribed inside that circle will
have sides as follows:
Geometrical figure Bhaskara's value Modern value
Triangle 1732 + .05 1732.043
Square 1414 + .021 1414.211
Pentagon 1175 + .056 1175.5619
Hexagon 1000 + .00 999.996
Septagon 867 + .58 867.5799
Octagon 765 + .36 765.3636
Nonagon 683 + .85 683.85
BHASKARA II - LILAVATI 1114 CE
Circle - value of π
Chathuradhikam sathatmashtagunam dvaashashtisthathaa sahasraanaam ayuthadvya

vishkambasyaasannoo vruthhaparinaaha:
When 100 increased by 4 multiplied by 8 and added to 62,000 gives an approximate value for
the circumference of a circle having diameter 20,000 units.
ARYABHATA I ARYABHATEEYA 499 CE
Ashtadvaadasa shadkaa: vishkambhasthathvatho mayaa drushtaa: theshaam

samavrutthaanaam parithiphalam me pruthak broohi
Diameter of 3 circles are correctly seen by me to be 8, 12 and 6 units respectively. Tell me

separately the circumference and areas of the circles.
BHASKARACHARYA I - 628 CE
Somayaji’s Theorems
Vyaasaath vanasangunithaath pruthagaaptam thryaadyayugvimoola ghanai: thrigunavygaase

svamrunam kramasa: kruthvaapi paridhiraaneyu:

Multiply the diameter of a circle with 4 and keep it at different places and divide each with the
odd numbers beginning from 3, 5, 7,... as their cubes subtracted by the same value. Repeat this
and add/subtract alternatively the results to three times the diameter of the circle to get the
circumference with the highest degree of accuracy. This theorem can be mathematically
represented as follows:
Circumference = 3D+4D/(33-3)-4D/(53-5)+4D/73 -7)…
Vargairyujaam vaa dvigunairnirekair vargeekruthair varji thayugma vargai: vyaasam cha

chadghnam vibhajeth phalam svam vyaase thrinighne paridhi sthadaasyaath
Six times the diameter is divided separetely by the square of twice the square of even integers
2,4,6.... minus one, diminished by the squares of even integers themselves. The sum of the
resulting quotient by thrice the diameter is the circumference.
This can be mathematically written as follows:Circumference =
3D+6D([1/2x22-1]2-22) + ([1/2x42-1]2-42)+[(1/2x62-1)2-62])+....
PUTHUMANA SOMAYAJI - KARANAPADDHATI 1450 CE
Area of Circle and Sphere
Vrutthakshethre paridhigunitha vyaasapaada: phalam thath kshunnam vedairupari

paritha:kandukasyeva jaalam golasyaivam thadapi cha phalam prushtajam vyaasanighnam
shadbhirbhaktham bhavathi niyatham golagarbhe ghanaakhyam
When circumference is multiplied with diameter and that result divided by 4, that will give the
area of a circle. This when multiplied with 4 gives the surface area of the globe which is like
surface of a ball. This when multiplied with diameter and divided by 6 gives the volume of the
sphere of globe.
Mathematically it can be written as 2r x 2r/4 =r2
BHASKARACHARYA II - LILAVATI - 1114 CE
Newton Gauss (1670 CE) Backward

Interpolation Discovered By Vateswaracharya
Dhanushaaptha bhuktha jeevaghaathe labdham saroopakam dalitham labdaghna

vivarahatham cha samsodhya niyogya vikalajyaa

In modern mathematical form this interpolation formula can be written as
f(x) = f(xi)+ (x-xi)1/h Df(xi-h) + (x-xi)1/h. (x-xi+h)1/h. D2f(xi-h)½.
VATESWARA VATESWARA SIDDHANTA 904 CE
Arc and Chord
Svalpachaapaacchaghanashashta bhaagatho vistaraardhakruthir- bhaktha varjitham

sishtachaapamihasinjanee bhaveth thadyuth oalpaka gunoasakruthdhanu:
The chord of an arc of a circle is obtained from the result of the cube of the length of the arc
divided by six times the cube of radius and subtracted from the arc. This can be mathematically
presented as follows: Chord (R Sine ) = s - (s3 / 6r3). Here length of the arc s is in angular
dimensions, r is the radius and is the angle of the arc.
PUTHUMANA SOMAYAJI - KARANA PADDHATHI - 1450 CE
Paridhe: shadbhaagajyaa vishkambhaardhena saa thulyaa
The chord of one sixth of circumference is equal to the radius of that circle.
ARYABHATTA I - ARYABHATEEYA 499 CE
Length of Arc – Chord
Vyaasaabdhighaathayuthamourvikayaa vibhaktho jeevangghri panchagunitha:

paridhesthuvarga: labdhonithaath paridhivarga chathurtha bhaagaadaapte pade
vruthidalaath pathithedhanu: syaath.
One fourth of five times the chord multiplied with square of circumference divided by four times
the diameter added with the chord. This value is subtracted from one fourth of the square of
circumference. Square root of this is taken and subtracted from half of the circumference to get
the arc.
Arc and Arrow

Jyaavyaasayogaanthara ghaathamoolam vyaasasthadoono dalitha: sara: syaath
vyaasaaccharonaacchara sangunaa cha moolam dvinighnam bhavatheeha geevaa
yeevaardhavarge sarabhaktha yukthe vyaasapramaanam pravadanthi vrutthe

When the sum and differences of diameter and the chord are multiplied, and their square root
is taken and if half of that is subtracted from the diameter, the arrow is obtained. The difference
of diameter and the arrow multiplied with the arrow, twice the square root of that value gives
the chord. The square of half the chord divided by arrow and added with arrow gives the
diameter of the circle.
Newton’s Infinite GP Convergent Series-Discovered By Nilakanta Somayaji
Evam yasthuthya ccheda paramabhaaga paramaparyayaa ananthaayaa api samyoga: thasya

ananthaanaam api kalpyamaanasya
yogasyaaddhyaavayavina: parasparama cchedaad ekonacchedaa mamsa saadhyam
sarvathraapi samaanam eva...
Thus the sum of an infinite series, whose later terms (after the first) are got by diminishing the
preceding or by the same divisor, is always equal to the first term divided by one less than the
common mutual divisor.
NILKANTA ARYABHATEEYA BHASHAYA 1444
Sine, Cosine, Radius and Arc
Anyonya kotihathayorabhimatha gunayosthrijeejavayaa hathayo: yogaviyogow

syaathaamabhimathagunachaapa yogavivaragunow
The sum of the products of Sin A and Cos B and when angles are exchanged, Sin B and Cos A,
gives the Sin of the sum of the angles. Similarly the difference of the above gives the value of
the sin of angular difference.
Sin (A+B) = Sin A Cos B+Cos A Sin B And Sin (A-B) = Sin A Cos B - Cos A Sin B.
Yadveshta chaapagunatha ccharavargayoga moolaardhamishta dhanurardhaguna: pradishta:

jyaanaam nijathriguna vargaviseshamoolam kotisthadoona sahithow thrigunow svabhaanow
Square root, of the square of a chord (R sin ) diminished from squares of radius gives the koti (R
cos ). This subtracted from radius gives the (small) arrow of arc. This added to radius is big arrow
of the arc.....
PUTHUMANA SOMAYAJI - KARANA PADDHATI 1450

Taylor (1685 CE) Series of Sine and Cosine Discovered By Nilakanta
ista-dohkotidhanushoh svasamipasamirate jye dve saavayave nyasya kuryaad unaadhikam

dhanuh dvighna talliptikaptaikasarasailasikhindavah nyasyacchedaaya cha
mithastatsamskaaravidhitsaya anyasyam atha taam dvighnaam tathaa syam iti samskriti:
santha te krtasamskare svagunau dhanusas tayo:
Placing the sine and cosine chords nearest to the arc, whose sine and cosine chords are required,
get the arc difference to be subtracted or added. For making the correction, 13,751 should be
divided by twice the arc difference in minutes and the quotient is to be placed as the divisor,
divide the one (sine or cosine) by this divisor and add to or subtract from the other (cosine or
sine) according as the arc difference is to be added or subtracted. Double this result and do as
before. Add or subtract the result to or from the first sine or cosine to get the desired sine or
cosine chords.
NILAKANTA - TANTRA SANGRAHA 1444 CE
Newton Gauss (1670) Interpolation Formula Discovered By Govindaswami
gacchad-yata-gunantharavapuryathaishya-disvasanaa cchedaabhyaasa-samuha-
kaarmukakrti-praapthath tribhisthaadithah vedaihi sadbhir avaaptam antyagunaje rasyo:
kramad antyabhe ganthavaahata-varthamaana-gunajaaccha paatham ekaadibhi:antyad
utkramatah kramena vishamai: sankhyaviseshai: khsipedbhankthvaptam, yadi maurvikavidhir
ayam makhyah kramad vartate sodhyam vyutkramathaa stathakrthaphlam.....
Mathematicaly this formula is summarised as follows: F(x+nh)=f(x)+nf(x)+½n(n-1)(f(x)-f(x-h)

Multiply the difference of the last and the current sine differences by the square of the
elemental arc and further mutiply by three. Now divide the result so obtained by four in the first
rasi, or by six in the second rasi. The final result thus obtained should be added to the portion of
the current sine difference (got by linear proportion). In the last rasi, multiply the linearly
promotional part of the current sine differences by the remaining part of the elemental arc and
divide by the elemental arc. Now, divide the result by the odd numbers according to the current
sine difference, when counted from the end in the reverse order. Add the final result thus
obtained to the portion of the current sine difference. These are the rules for computing true
sine differences for sines. In the case of versed sines, apply the rules in the reverse order and
the above corrections are to be subtracted from the respective differences.
GOVINDASWAMI - COMMENTARY FOR MAHABHASKAREEYA 800 CE

Newton’s (1660 CE) Power Series - Discovered By Somayaji
nihatya chapavargena chapam tatthathphalani cha haret samulayugvargaistrijyavargahatai:

kramaat chapam phlani chadhodhonyasyoparyupari tyajet jivaptyai, sangraho syaiva vidvan-
ityadina krtha: nihathya chapavargena rupam tattatphalani cha hared
vimulayugvargaistrijyavargahatai: kramat kintu vyasadalenaiva dvighnenadyam vibhajyataam
phalanyadhodha: kramaso nyasyoparyupari tyajet saraptyai, sangraho asyaiva stenastri-
tyadinaa krta:
Multiply repeatedly the arc by its square and divide by the square of even numbers increased
by that number and then multiplied by the square of radius. Place the arc and result one below
the other and subtract each from what is above it. To derive the arc, which are collected,
beginning with the expression Vidvan (katapayadi number). Multiply repeatedly, the unit
measurement which is the radius, by the square of the arc and divide by the square of even
numbers decreased by that number and then multiplied by the square of radius; the first is,
however, to be divided by twice the radius. Place the results one below the other and subtract
each from the one above it. That is the method to derive the saras, which are collected in the
beginning with stena. (This equation is now known as Newton power series.)
PUTHUMANA SOMAYAJI - KARANAPADDHATI (1450 CE)
Volumes of Cones
Samakhaatha phalathryamasai: soochikhathe phalam bhavathi
The one third of the volume of the uniform cylinder is the volume of the cone.
Pardhirbhitthilagrasya raasesthrimsathkara: kila anthakonasthithasyaapi thithithulyakara:

sakhe bahishkona sthithasyaapi panchaghnanava sammitha: theshaa ma chakshva me
kshipram ghanahasthaath pruthak pruthak
Friend, the food grains are kept at a circumference of 30 cubit in the floor, outside corner of the
room, inside corner and side of the wall. Find out the volume of the grain if the height is 45 cube
it.
BHASKARA II LILAVATI 1114 CE

Lhuiler’s (1782 CE) Formula Discovered By Somayaji
Doshnamdvayordvayor ghaatayutaanaam tisraanaam vadhaat ekaikonetarattraikyam

catushkavadhabhajitam Iabdha mulena yadvrttam vishkambhaardhena nirmitam sarvam
caturbhujakshetram tasminneva tisthtahathe
The three sums of the product of sides, taken two at a time are to be multiplied together and
divided by the product of the sums of the sides taken three at a time and diminished by the
fourth. If a circle is drawn with the square root of this quantity as radius, the whole quadrilateral
will be situated inside it.
PARAMESWARA COMMENTARY FOR LILAVATI (1360 CE)
Gregory’s (1632 CE) Series For Inverse Tangent Discovered By Madhava Charya
istajya-trijyayorghathath kotyaptam prathamam phalam jyavargam gunakam kritva

kotivargam cha haarakam pratha maadiphalebhyo atha neya phalakrtir muhu: eka-tryaady-
ojasankhyabhirabhakteshveteshv anukramaat ojanam samyutesthyaktva
yugmayogam dhanur bhavet doh-kotyor alpameveha kalpaniyam iha smrtam labdhinam
avasanam syanna thathaapi muhu: krte
Obtain the first result of multiplying the jya (R sine ) by the trijya (radius) and dividing the product
by koti (R cos ). Multiply this result by the square of the jya and divide the square by the koti.
Thus we obtain a second result a sequence of the further results by repeatedly multiply by the
square of the jya and dividing by the square of the koti. Divide the terms of the sequence in
order by the odd numbers 1,3,5,...; after this, add all the odd terms and subtract from them all
the even terms (without disturbing the order of the terms). Thus is obtained the dhanus whose
two elements are the given jya and koti. (Here the smaller of the two elements should be taken
as the jya, since other wise the series obtained will be non finite) (use of Tangent)
MADHAVA YUKTI BHASHA? (1350 CE)
De Moivre’s (1650 CE) Approximation Discovered By Madhava Charya
Asmat sukshmataroanyo vilikhyate kashcanapi samskara: ante samasankhyadalavarga saiko

guna:, sa eva puna: yugagunito rupayuta: samasankhyadalahato bhaved haara: trisaradivisa
mashankhyaharanat param etad eve va karyam

A correction for cirumference still more precise is being stated here. The multiplier is the square
of half the even integer increased by unity. This multiplier multiplied by 4, then increased by
unity and then multiplied by half the even integer is the divisor. This correction may be applied
after the division by odd integers,3, 5, etc. i.e Circumference = 4D (1-1/3+1/5-1/7..... + ..-
1/n(½(n+1)2+1((½(n+1)2 x 4 +1) (½(n+1))
MADHAVA KRIYA KRAMAKARI (1350 CE)
De Moivre’s (1650 CE) Approximation
yatsankhyaaatra harane krte nivrtta hrtis tu jamitaya tasya urdhvagatasyas samasankhya

taddalam guno ante syat tadvargai rupahato haaro vyasabdhighatata: pragvat tasyam aptam
svamrne krte dhane sodhanan cha karaniyam sukhma: paridhi: sa syat bahukrtvo haranato
atisukshmas cha
.......... Let the process stop at a certain stage, giving rise to a finite sum, multiply four times the
diameter by half the even integer subsequent to the last odd integer used as divisor and then
divide by the square of the integer increased by unity. The result is the correction to be added
to or subtracted from finite sum. The choice of addition or subtraction is depending on sign of
the last term in the sum. The final result is the circumference determined more accurately
than by taking a large number of terms:
MADHAVA YUKTIBHASHA? (1350 CE)
Horizon
Aaveshtamaanamatha thaani dalapravruthyaa yadvrutthamathra harijam kshithijam

thadaahu: yasmin bhaveth samudayasthamayo akhilaanaam praachyaam
kramaadaparadisyudu khecharaanaam
The great circle which goes round them, dividing each of them into two equal parts, is called
harija or kshitija. This in modern astronomy is horizon. This is the circle on which rising and
setting of stars and planets take place towards east and west respectively.
VATESWARA SIDDHANTA 880 CE
Astronomical Definitions
Urdhvamadho apara poorvamihaadyam praahuridam samamandala manyath

thadvadihotthara dakshinadikstham vrutthayugam vidisorapi thadvath
Vertical circle passing through the west and east cardinal points is the first circle: this is called
the samamandala. (This circle is the prime vertical. Another similar vertical circle (called the
yaamyottara-vrutta) which passes through the north and south cardinal points is called the
meridian.
VATESWARA - VATESWARA SIDDHANTA 880 CE
Tycho Brahe Reduction of Ecliptic - Discovered By Achyuta Pisharoti
Patonasya vidhostu kotibhujayorjive mithastadayet antyakshepasarahatam vadhamamum

vikshepakotyaharet labdham vyasadaloddhrtam himakare svarnam, vipate vidhau
yugmaayugmapadopage; vidhurayam spashto bhagole bhavet
Multiply the tabular cosine and sine of the moon minus node and the product by the tabular
versine of the maximum latitude of the moon. Divide this by the tabular cosine of the latitude
at the particular moment and the quotient is to be divided again by the tabular radius. The result
is to be added to or subtracted from the moon's longitude, as the moon minus node is in an
even or an odd quadrant, respectively. The true moon measured on the ecliptic is thus obtained.
ACHYUTA PISHAROTI SPHUTANIRNAYA
Equator
Khasvasthikaad dakshinatho akshabhaagow paathaa (la) samjnachha thathottharena

naadyankitham vaishuvatham thaduktham vruttham bhagolasya khagolamadhye
The sphere of the asterisms lie within the sphere of the sky. Great circle of the sphere of
asterisms which lies towoards the south of the zenith by an amount equal to the degrees of local
latitude and towards the north of nadir by the same amount and which is graduated with the
division of nadis is the vishuvathvrutta. This circle is called the equator.
6 O’ Clock Circle
Poorvaaparakshithija sangamayorgathamcha yaamyaadadha: palalavai:

kshithijaadvi lagnam soumyaadathopari samadruvamarga samstham unmandalam dinaniso:
kshayavruddhikruthaath.
Passing through the two points of intersection of prime vertical and horizon, lying below the
south cardinal point by the degrees of local latitude, fastened to the horizon, and lying above
the north cardinal point, passing through the north celestial pole, is the Unmandala, the cause
of decrease and increase of the day and night. (This in modern astronomy is known as the 6’o
clock circle.)
Circle of Diurnal Motion
Harije parapoorva mandala dyujaavruthha visesha sinjinee udayaagraguno dyumandale

bhoojyothavruttha kujaan tharaamsajeevaa:
R sine of the arc of the horizon lying between the prime vertical and the diurnal circle of the
planet is the R sine of agra (now known as the rising point of the planet) and the R sine of the
degrees of diurnal circle lying between six o’ clock circle and the horizon is bhoojya (bhujya)
which is termed as Earthsine.
Day Radius
Kraanthijyaa vargonaath thrijyaavargaath padam dyujeevaa syaath thrijyaakraanthi

yaanthara samaasa ghaathasya moolam vaa
Day radius is equal to the square root of the difference obtained by subtracting the squares of
R sine of the declination from the square of the radius or the square root of the product of the
difference and the sum of the radius and the R sine of the declination.
Ecliptic
Naaddyaahvavrutthaajathulaadilagnam jinaamsakairadakshinatho mrugaadow soumye

seetha mandiraadaav apakramaakhyam thadusanthi vruttham

Fastened to the so called nadivrutta or the equator at the points of Aries and Libra and lying 24
degrees of the south (of equator) at the first point of Capricon and 24 degrees to the north (of
equator) at the first point of Cancer, there is a great circle called the apakrama vrutta (now
known as the ecliptic)
Day Diameter
Vishuvajyaa aayaa mardha varga vislesha moolamavalambaka: kranthithrijyaakruthyo

rantharapadam dvigunam dinavyaasa
Square the sine of latitude and deduct from the square of the radius. Its square root is the sine
of the co-latitude (its arc being the co-latitude). Square the sine of the declination deduct from
the square of the radius and find its root. Twice the result is the day diameter.
PANCHASIDDHANTIKA 4-23 - VARAHA MIHIRA 505 CE
Setting Point of Ecliptic
Praachyaam kuja apakrama vrutthasanga praaglagnamaahu (paritho asthalagnam)

(lagnaadbhaveth) sa (pta) ma (raa) si (ra) stha thasyaa (stha) kaalo abhyudayosya bhooyath
Point of intersection of horoizon and the ecliptic in the eastern half of the celestial sphere is
called praglagna. I.e. the rising point of ecliptic; the same in the western half is called astalagna,
known as setting point of ecliptic.
Rising - Setting Line
Vyaasaardha vrutthe antharam ethayo: syaaccharaardha jeevaa parapoorvayosthath

agraagrayoryad harijenibaddham soothram grahaanaam udayaastha samjnam
The arcual distance between the six o’clock circle and the horizon measure, along the R circle
trijyavrutta known as great circle of the celestial sphere, supposed to be of radius 3438’ (minute
of angle) is the charardhajya. It is called the R sine of the Ascensional difference. A thread tied
to the extremities of the agra on the eastern and western halves of the horizon is called the
udayaastasutra. (In moderen astronomy it is known as the rising - setting line of planets).

Day Radius and Earthsine
Kraanti thribhaantharajyaa dyujyaa vaa charadalajeevayaa hruthaa thrijyaa kshithi

jeevaghnaa svaahoraathraardhajeevaa vaa
Rsine of the difference between the three signs and the declination is also equal to the day
radius. Day radius multiplied by earthsine and divided by the R sine of the Ascensional difference
gives the day radius.
VATESWARA SIDDHANTA 3(4)-3) - 880 CE
Sun’s Prime Vertical
Urdhvamadho aparapoorvamihaadyam praahuridam samamandala manyath

thadvathihottharadakshina dikstham vrutthayugam vidisorapi thadvath.
Vertical circle passing through the west and east cardinal points is the first circle called
samamandala or the prime vertical.
VATESWARA SIDDHANTA- GOLA. 3-1, 2 - 880 CE
Parallax-I
Thithernathasya kramasinjanee hathaa khamadhya lagnaprabhavena sankunaa

kshamaashadangkaabhi saraankanethrahrud vilambane syaad ghatikaadi vaa phalam.
R sine of the hour angle at the amavasya multiplied by R sine of the altitude of the meridian
ecliptic point and divided by 2954961 gives the parallax in ghatikas at mid eclipse (Sishyadhi
vruddhi Tantra 6-8)
LALLACHARYA SISHYADHI VRUDDHI TANTRA
Parallax-II
Thriraasijeevaa valanajyakaa hruthaa sileemukhai rankulathaam vrajanthi thaa: dvisankunaa

drushtigathi: saraachalairvibhaajithaa lambana naadikaa phalam
Radius and the valanajya when divided by 5, are converted into angulas. The R sine of driggati
multiplied by 2 and divided by 75 gives ghatika of the parallax in longitude.
LALLACHARYA SISHYADHI VRUDDHI TANTRA 700 CE

Parallax-III
Nathakramajyaambara sankunighnaa syaallambanam thathvarase shuhrudvaa

drukshepabhukthyanthara yoscha ghaatha: khabaanayugmaa kshihrutho nathi: syaath
R sine of the hour angle multiplied by Rsine of altitude of the merdian ecliptic point and divided
by 5625 gives parallax in longitude. The Difference of true motions of the Sun and the moon
multiplied by the Rsine of drikshepa and divided by 2250 gives the parallax in latitude.
Apogee, Perigee and Orbit of Earth
Svochhaath shadbhaagaadhyadhiko yadaa thadaa bhavathi svaneechastha: doorenochhaga

urvyaa: karnavasaannochhago nikate
When a planet is at a distance of 6 signs from its apogee, it is said to be at the perigee or neecha.
When a planet is at the apogee, it is farthest from the earth when at the perigee, it is nearest to
the earth. This is so because of the length of the hypotenuse in each case.
Velocity of Planets Per Day
Sun 59’ 8” 10’’’ 13’’’’ (gopaajnayaa dinadhaama)

34” 51’’’ 36’’’’ (Chandikeso bharga snigdhosow)
Mars 31’ 26” 29’’’ 42’’’’ (Prabhurdharaachakra paala)
Mercury 245’ 32” 36’’’ 32’’’’ (Rageethumbururganeswara)
Jupiter 4’ 59” 7’’’ 2’’’’ (Prajnaasanoo dharmavaan)
Venus 96’ 7” 37’’’ 51’’’’ (Kasi saambasanna chola:)
Saturn 2’ 0” 23’’’ 32’’’’ (Prabhalapraajno nara:)
The modern values of angular motions are:
Earth/Sun 59.14’,
Mars 31.45’,
Mercury 245.7’,
Jupiter 4.99’
Venus 96.13’,
and Saturn 2’.
PUTHUMANA SOMAYAJI KARANAPADHATI (1450 CE)

Shape of Earth
Gaganamarudaagni jalamrunmayo mahaabhootha gunayutha:khastha: kakshaabhiraavrutho

ayam bhapan charaanthascha bhoogola
Spherical earth, made of ether, fire, air, water and clay (Panchabhoothas) and thus have all the
properties of the five elements, surrounded by the orbits and extending upto the sphere of stars,
remain in the space (Sishyadhi vruddhi Tantra 17-1)
Praguna paridhe: sathaamsako ganithajnaa: kathayanthi drusyathe prathi bhaathi thadaa

samaa mahee vishaye yanthra thathaiva gamyathe
Mathematicians say that one hundredth of the cirucumference of the earth appears to be plane.
So, that portion of the earth appears to be plane to an observer (Sishyadhi vruddhi Tantra 20-
35)
Rotation of Earth – I
Pranenaithi kalaam bhooryadi tharhi kutho vrajeth kamadhyaanam aavarthana murvyaa

schenna pathanthi samucchrayaa: kasmath
If earth rotates at a speed of 1’ of an angle in 4 seconds, will not the things on the loft fall? Where
does the earth go in this speed? (Brahmasphuta siddhanta 11-17).
BRAHMAGUPTA BRAHMASPHUTA SIDDHANTA 629 CE
Four Quadrants of Earth
Udayo yo lankaayaam soasthamayo: savithureva siddhapure madhyahno yavakotyaam

romake vishaye ardharaathramsyaath
When it is Sunrise in Lanka, the same Sun sets in Siddhapura. (Gautimaala). It is noon in Yavakoti
(Korea) and midnight in Romaka (Rome) (Aryabhateeyam 4-13).
ARYABHATA -I ARYABHATEEYA (499 CE)

Globe
Samavrutthaprushtamaanam sookshmam golam prasaadhya daarumayam sthagithaarka

samaankitha kaala bhogarekaadvaye paridhov
Perfectly circular throughout and spherical, made of wood, marked with degrees and minutes,
incorporated with lines both longitude and latitude at ends, is the golayantra.
(Panchasiddhantika 14-23)
VARAHAMIHIRA PANCHASIDDHANTIKA (505 CE)
Kaashtamayam samavruthham samanthatha: samagurum laghum golam paaradathaila

jalaistham bhramayeth svadhiyaa cha kaalasamam
Made of wood, fully circular, uniform, equally dense throughout and spherical shaped
golayantra, which rotates at a fixed rate of time as the earth does by the help of mercury, oil
and water, by the application of our intelligent calculation, is the golayantra-Globe.
..........
Nrushiyojanam, njilaa bhoovyaaso
8000 Nr units is equal to one yojana. The diameter of earth is 1050 yojana.
ARYABHATA-I ARYABHATEEYA (499 CE)
Rotation of Earth – II
Ku ngi si bu nlru shru khru praak
Eastward rotations of the earth in one Yuga is 1582237500
Anuulomagathirnoustha: pasyathyachalam vilomagam yadvath achalaani bhaani thadvath

samapaschimagaani lankaayaam
Just as a man in a boat moving forward sees the stationary objects as moving backward, so are
the stationary stars and celestial bodies seen by the people at equator (Lanka) as moving exactly
towards west.
Ku aavarthaaschaapi naakshathraa:
The rotation of the earth is the cause of days (Aryabhateeyam 3-5).
ARYABHATA-I ARYABHATEEYA (499 CE)

Meridian
Lankaayaamekam sankukeelam prathishtaapya thenaikam soothraagram baddhvaa

punarmerorupari thadagramanyath baddhvaa yathaayathaa drusyatha..... thadvath
bhoomaavapi kaachidrekha lankaatha: kharapuratha..... merumasthakaanavagaahya sthithaa
saa punarathra desaanthara vidhaayini syaath
Fix a pole in Lanka, tie thread on that, take the other end to the North pole, tie it there also, then
one can see the line of the thread passing through Lanka, Kharapuri, Arctic point and so many
other countries upto the top of Meru. This is international meridian line (Sankaranarayana on
Laghubhaskareeya I-23)
SANKARANARAYANA I LAGHUBHASKAREEYA (950 CE)
Gravity
Aakrushti sakthischa mahee thayaa yath khastham guru svaabhimukham svasakthyaa

aakrushyathe thathpathatheeva bhaathi same samanthaath kva pathathyayam khe:
This earth attracts whatever solid materials are in the space, by her own force of attraction
towards her (earth). All those subjected to this attractional force fall, to the earth. Due to equal
force of attraction among the celestial bodies, where can each among them fall? (Siddhanta
siromani Bhuvanakosham 6)
BHASKARA II SIDDHANTA SIROMANY (1114 CE)
Meridian and Time
Desaanthara ghatee kshunnah madhyaa bhukthir dyuchaarinaam shashtyaa bhaktham runam

praachyaam rekhaayaa: paschime dhanam.
The time is calculated based on the meridian. Divide the time by 60... and the longitude is
calculated. Towards the east subtract and towards the west add the number
(Laghubhaskareeyam 1-31)
BHASKARA I LAGHUBHASKAREEYA (628 CE)
Panchaasathaa thribhisthryamsaamyuthairyojanaischa naaddyekaa samapoorva

paschimasthairnithyam sodhyaa cha deyaa cha

One nadi for every 53 1/3yojanas has to be deducted or added (to Ujjaini) by the people in places
east and west, respectively of the Ujjaini meridian. (Panchasiddhantika 9-10)
VARAHAMIHIRA - PANCHASIDDHANTIKA (605 CE)
Eclipse-I
Kimartham asura: kaschidraahurnaama saimhikeyoarkam chandram cha grasatha ithi

srooyathe sraapi pouraanika sruthireva! ka: punariha raahurithyuchyathe
What does it mean that Asura is responsible for the eclipse? Others say that a snake Rahu
swallows the Sun and the Moon! Those are puranic stories! Then what is called the Rahu?
SANKARANARAYANA COMMENTRAY TO LAGHUBHASKAREEYA 950 CE
Cchadayathi sasi sooryam sasinam mahathee cha bhoocchaayaa
Moon covers (shadows) the Sun and the great shadow of the earth covers the moon (which
causes the eclipse)
ARYABHATAI ARYABHATEEYA (499 CE)
Eclipse-II
Atha eva bhoocchayaa chandragrahanasya kaaranam
That is why it is said that the shadow of the earth is the cause for the lunar eclipse.
SANKARANARAYANA COMMENTRAY TO LAGHUBHASKAREEYA
Asuro yadi maayayaa yutho niyatho athigrastheethi they mantham ganithena katham sa
labhyathe grahakrutha parva vinaa kathanchana
If you are of the opinion that an artifical demon is always the cause of an eclipse by swallowing,
then how is it that an eclipse can be determined by means of calculations. Moreover why is then
not an eclipse occur on a day other than the day of new or full moon .

Chapter-8
Vedic Maths-Overview
The astonishing system of calculation, which was originally born in the Vedic Age and was
deciphered during the start of the 20th century, is what we know as Vedic Maths. It is the ancient
system of Indian Mathematics which was rediscovered from the Vedas between 1911 and 1918
by Sri Bharati Krishna Tirthaji (1884-1960). According to his research all of mathematics is based
on sixteen sutras, or word-formulae. These formulae describe the way the mind naturally works
and are therefore a great help in directing the student to the appropriate method of solution.
The general multiplication method, for example, is easily reversed to allow one-line divisions
and the simple squaring method can be reversed to give one-line square roots. And these are all
easily understood. This unifying quality is very satisfying, it makes mathematics easy and
enjoyable and encourages innovation.
In the Vedic system 'difficult' problems or huge sums can often be solved immediately by the
Vedic method. These striking and beautiful methods are just a part of a complete system of
mathematics which is far more systematic than the modern 'system'. Vedic Mathsmanifests the
coherent and unified structure of mathematics and the methods are complementary, direct and
easy.
The simplicity of Vedic Mathsmeans that calculations can be carried out mentally (though the
methods can also be written down). There are many advantages in using a flexible, mental
system. Pupils can invent their own methods, they are not limited to the one 'correct' method.
This leads to more creative, interested and intelligent pupils.
Research is being carried out in many areas including the effects of learning Vedic Maths on
children; developing new, powerful but easy applications of the Vedic Sutras in geometry,
calculus, computing etc.
But the real beauty and effectiveness of Vedic Maths cannot be fully appreciated without
actually practicing the system. One can then see that it is perhaps the most refined and efficient
mathematical system possible.

Advantages of Vedic Maths are:
 It reduces the burden of remembering large amount of stuff because it requires you to
learn tables up to 9 only.
 It enables faster calculations when compared to the conventional method. Thus, the
time that gets saved in the process can be used to answer more questions
 It acts as a tool for reducing finger counting and scratch work.
 It plays an important role in increasing concentration as well as improving confidence.
 It is very simple, direct, totally unconventional, original and straight forward.
 It encourages mental calculations.
 It enriches our understanding of maths and enables us to see links and continuity
between different branches of maths.
 Vedic Maths system also gives us a set of checking procedures for independent
crosschecking of whatever we do.
 It keeps the mind alert and lively because of the element of choice and flexibility at each.
 Holistic development of the human brain takes place through Vedic Mathsalong with
multidimensional thinking.
 Vedic Mathssystem to quite an extent also helps us in developing our spiritual part of
personality.
 It can introduce creativity in intelligent and smart students, while helping the slow-
learners grasp the basic concepts of mathematics. More and more use of Vedic math
can without any doubts generate interest in a subject that is generally dreaded by
children.
Thus, Vedic maths is considered to be more than the blessing of the Veda for the entire
humanity.
How it Works:
It is all based mainly on 16 sutras and 14 sub sutras. There are many features of the Vedic
system which contrast significantly with conventional mathematics.
 Coherence - Perhaps the most striking feature of the Vedic system is its coherence
(consistency and logic).
 Flexibility - In modern teaching you usually have one way of doing a calculation. This is
rigid and boring, and intelligent and creative students rebel against it. Once you allow

variations you get all sorts of benefits. Children become more creative. The teacher is
encouraging innovation and the children respond. In the Vedic system there are general
methods, that always work,
 Having only one method of, say, multiplying is like a carpenter who uses a screwdriver
for every job. The skilled craftsman selects the tool most appropriate for the job and
gets it done quicker, better and with more satisfaction. Calculations can often be
carried out from right to left or from left to right.
 You can represent numbers in more than one way; we can work 2 or more figures at a
time if we wish.
 In this rapidly changing world adaptability and flexibility are absolutely essential for
success. For the future we can expect more change and perhaps at a more rapid pace.
 Mental, improves memory - The ease and simplicity of Vedic Maths means that
calculations can be carried out mentally (though the methods can also be written
down). There are many advantages in using a flexible, mental system.
 Promotes creativity - All these features of Vedic math encourage students to be
creative in doing their math. Being naturally creative students like to devise their own
methods of solution.
 Appeals to everyone - The Vedic system appears to be effective over all ability ranges:
the able child loves the choice and freedom to experiment and the less able may prefer
to stick to the general methods but loves the simple patterns they can use.
 Increases mental Agility - Because the Vedic system uses these ultra-easy methods
mental calculation is preferred and leads naturally to develop mental agility. And this
in turn leads to growth in other subjects.
 Efficient and fast - In the Vedic system 'difficult' problems or huge sums can often be
solved immediately. These striking and beautiful methods are just a part of a complete
system of mathematics which is far more systematic than the modern 'system'
 Easy, fun - The experience of the joy of mathematics is an immediate and natural
consequence of practicing Vedic Maths. And this is the true nature of maths - not the
rigid and boring 'system' that is currently widespread.
 Methods apply in algebra - Another important feature of the Vedic system is that once
an arithmetic method has been mastered the same method can be applied to algebraic
cases of that type - the beautiful coherence between arithmetic and algebra is clearly
manifest in the Vedic system.

Father of Vedic Maths
The richness of cultural tradition of a country or a race leans heavily upon the development of
science and technology in the country and this development depends upon the treasure of
mathematical knowledge and its application in various spheres of public and personal life.
When we think about the contribution of India towards the world

particularly regarding mathematics we notice that the natural
numbers which the world know today are the boon of the Indian
sages. The striking fact to note here is that the Hindu genius gave its
perfection at the very beginning.
This heritage was maintained or rather given thrust by H.H. Swami

Bhartikrishna Thirtha Ji. The purpose of this chapter writing is to give
a brief life sketch of Swamiji and his one of the gifts to the world
known as ‘Vedic Maths’.
Swami Bhartikrishna Tirtha Ji was the Shankaracharya of the Govardhan Math, Jaganath Puri as
well as Dwarka Gujrat. Swami Ji was born in 1884 and shed his mortal frame on 2nd Feb. 1960.
His family background was very rich. His father P. Narsimha Shastri was then in service as a
Tehsildar at Tinnivelly (Madras). His uncle Shri Chandra Shekhar Shastri was principal of
Maharaja’s College Vizianagaram, grandfather C. Ranganathan Shastri was Justice of Madrass
High Court.
Swamiji named as Venkatraman in his early days was an exceptionally brilliant student and
proved the same by excelling in every subject/Stream throughout his educational career. He
passed his matriculation examination from the Madras University in January 1899 and topped
the list with vibrant colors. He was extraordinary proficient in Sanskrit and oratory and on
account of this he was awarded with the title ‘Saraswati’ by the Madras Sanskrit Association in
July, 1899. At the young age of twenty one he passed M.A. in seven subjects including Science,
Mathematics, English, History, Philosophy simultaneous by securing the highest honours in all.
When he was studying in the university. He used to write articles related to philosophy,
sociology, religion etc. He was much interested in the latest researches and development in
modern science, tempermanently he was interested in Adhyatma Vidya. This interest led him to
Sringeri Math in Mysore in 1908 to lay himself at the feet of the renowned late Jagadguru

Shankaracharya Sri Satcidananda Sivabhinava Narsimha Bharti Swami. After devoting sufficient
time there he assumed the post of principal of National College. For him this assignment was a
national duty. But his natural spiritual instinct drove him again to Swami Satcidananda at
Shringeri in 1911. The next 8 year he spent in the profound study of the most advanced Vedanta
philosophy and practice of Brahma Sadhana. The scholars working in the field used to invite him
to deliver lectures at different places like Amelner, Pune, and Bombay.
After most advanced studies, the deepest mediation and the highest-spiritual attainments Prof.
Venkatraman Saraswati was initiated into the holy order of Samnyas at Varansi (Banaras) by the
holiness Jagadguru Shankaracharya Sri Trivikram Tirtha Ji Maharaj of Sharda Peeth on 4th July
1919. This was also the occasion when he was given the new name “Swami Bharti Krishna
Tirtha”.
He prove by his performance for being installed on the pontifical throne of Shardha Peeth
Shankaracharya. Despite his reluctance and active resistance he was installed as Jagadguru of
Shardapeeth with formal ceremonies.
Jagadguru of Govardhan Peeth was also highly impressed by Swami ji. Due to ill health he
requested Swami ji to accept the Gadi of Govarhdan Math. Swami ji couldn’t afford to deny. In
the capacity of Jagad guru he continued the spiritual teachings of Sanatan Dharma for almost 4
decades. He was against escapism from duties under the grab of spirituality. His great emphasis
was on the necessity of harmonizing the spiritual and the material spheres of daily life.
He was of the view that the progress must be simultaneously of both the individual and society
towards speedy realization of India’s spiritual and cultural ideals.With these ideas in mind he
tried to develop a system which helps in total construction first of India and through it the
world.For this he founded Vishwa Punarnirman Sangha (World Reconstruction Association),
many prominent figures of the society came together to work for it.But due to ill health the
Sangh couldn’t work effectively.
For the cause of world peace and to spread the spiritual ideals even outside India Swami ji, for
the first time, went on tour to America in Feb 1958. The tour was sponsored by self-realization
fellowship of Los Angeles he was invited to give talks and mathematical demonstration on the
television. Swamiji also gave some lectures in U.K. during this tour. He came back to India in May
1958.

He was having a winning personality, charming innocence, avid thirst for knowledge religious
zeal he never cared for position. People from all walks of life attracted to him due to Bhakti, his
simplicity, impartial behaviour a sharp intellect, a retentive memory and keen zest went to mark
him as the most distinguished scholar of the time. He was also a poet and write a number of
poems in Sanskrit.He was quite active throughout his life. After coming from the tour of U.S.A.
in 1958 his health deteriorated continuously and he took Samadhi in 1960.
Swamiji Discovered Vedic Maths
Swamiji, who was an accomplished Vedic scholar wrote 16 volumes on Vedic Maths,
comprehensively in all branches of mathematics. But it is learnt that all the volumes were lost
mysteriously. Despite his poor health and weak eyesight Swamiji with his untiring capacity,
strong will and determination wrote a comprehensive book on Vedic Maths.
The terms Vedic Mathsrefer to a set of 16 sutras and 13

upsutras. This speaks for its coherence and simplicity in
handling mathematical problems. The sutras not only develop
aptitude and ability but also nurture and develop logical
thinking and intelligence and encourage innovativeness. While
doing arithmatical calculation we deal with numbers 0 to 9.
Each of these has got peculiar properties and ways of behavior.
If they are closely observed, we can have ‘novum’ methods of doing calculation.
Vedic Maths has got both these advantages. It is a good means of performing calculation
mentally, it also keeps before us more than one way of doing particular calculation. This thing is
possible because Vedic maths looks at numbers from different angles. When 89 is looked at as
89 it has some properties. But as soon as we look at it as go 90-1 ( 91) we have altogether new
world opened up for calculation. One more feature of it is that most of the time it looks for
patterns of numbers instead of individual digits. Instead of treating 997 as any three digit
number it looks at the whole number and recognizes it as a number near a base. Once this
property is recognized, easier methods of multiplication, division etc. can be adopted.
Also in this approach we find that in Vedic Mathsinstead of emphasing on individual digit,
attention is laid on interrelation of digits, multiplication and recurring decimals are examples of
this feature.

Also it is equally important to observe that after sufficient practice this develops into outlook
which is becoming more and more desirable these days. Our fragmented approach towards
everything has created all sorts of problems. Through Vedic maths we can develop a holistic
approach we can start looking at the interrelatedness of everything it will make our life better.
Today particle physics tells us about the interconnectedness of everything in the universe. Vedic
maths does the same in its own way. This philosophical quality of Vedic maths will help us to
develop a holistic ecological approach towards life. Because of these qualities Vedic maths has
certain advantages. First the calculation becomes easier. This can be done with less mental
energy and consuming less time, but at the same time there is full involvement. This is very
important calculators to give answers in limited time and with still engaging less mental energy
but our involvement in the process of calculation is nil. This is highly dangerous in the long run
as we lose our ability to calculate. Vedic maths on the contrary helps us to sharpen our
calculating ability, secondly, because of the simplicity and availability of more than one method,
the job of calculating becomes easy and interesting.
In this way if we emphasize on one thing that Vedic maths is not just some tricks of doing
mathematical calculations, it goes far beyond this and becomes science in itself, beneficial in
solving problems related to higher mathematics i.e. solution of simultaneous linear equations
evaluation of determinants, transcendental equations, solution of cubic and higher order
equations, solution of linear and nonlinear differential equation and partial differential equation
etc, putting Vedic maths as a science, and not as a pack of tricks and magic this become
important. There is a vast scope of research in the subject and with the co-ordinate efforts of
scholars in Vedic Maths, Sanskrit and Computer technology, and a lot can be achieved.
The objective of human personality is the realization of true knowledge, in other words it can be
said that true knowledge can be realized if the difference between the objective component of
knowledge generated by intellectual component and subjective component of knowledge
generated by the emotive component of the individual mind is eliminated. It may be mentioned
that the ancient Indian system of thought is a comprehensive system of the realization of true
knowledge. So as to attain a state of non-variable happiness.
The creation of Swamiji has the same spirit – Vedic Mathsgiven by Swamiji not only solves the
problem related to mathematics but also develop the personality by including all possible
dimensions. According to anatomist the left half of the brain systematically collects information
does sequential analysis and arrives at logical conclusions and results. Only the left half of the

brain is activated and developed by the present maths educations being given in the schools and
colleges. The right half of the human brain works with pattern recognition and has the capability
of intuition. This most powerful facet of human personality the intuitive faculty, unfortunately,
remains undeveloped in most of the students. In the Vedic Mathssystem, the very first step is to
recognize the pattern of the problem and pick up the most effective Vedic algorithm. Further at
each subsequent step we recognize the pattern and complete the task by using the appropriate
superfast mental working procedure, because in Vedic maths we have multiple choices available
at each stage of working. This practice systematically develops the right half of the brain as well.
Thus Vedic maths activates the brain.
Swami ji was visionary and his creation also have the same potential. Following his teaching one
can attain the same heights as visualized by him. Seeking the benediction of Swami Bharti
Krishna Tirth, let us come together and put a step forward towards the new and clear vision of
life for the betterment of society.

Chapter-9
Sutras and Upa Sutras

The lexical meaning of the word Sutra is thread, string, a key or a formula. Here of course, the
last two meanings are applicable. The tradition of expressing all types of knowledge in Sutra
form is as old as Vedas.
Panini codified Sanskrit grammar in form of nearly 4000 sutras. Veda Vyasa formulated Vedanta
philosophy in Brahma Sutra.
Vedic Maths is a technique, which is derived from 16 sutras and 16 sub sutras in the Vedas,
which are thousands of years old and among the earliest literature of ancient Hindus in India.
They are an endless source of knowledge and wisdom, providing practical knowledge of wisdom,
providing practical knowledge in all spheres of life.
SUTRAS
Sutra 1 Ekadhkena Purvena

Meaning By one more than the one before.
Use This sutra is used to get a next number to given number.
Sutra 2 Nikhilam Navatas'caramam Dasatah

Meaning All from nine and the last from ten.
Use This sutra is used to get a complement number from its functional
base.
Sutra 3 Urdhva-tiryagbhyam
Meaning Vertically and crosswise.
Use This sutra is used to multiply numbers vertically and crosswise.
Sutra 4 Paravartya Yojayet

Meaning Transpose and apply.
Use This sutra is used to get adhikaya and complement from last
functional base.

Sutra 5 Shunyam Samyasamuchchaye
Meaning If the samuchchaya is the same, it is zero.
Use This sutra is used to determine a number which is common to all,
that must be equal to zero.
Sutra 6 Aanyarupaye Sunyamanyat

Meaning If one is the ratio, the other is zero.
Use This sutra is used to find the value of one variable, if in a system of
linear equations, the ratio of co-efficients of other variable is equal
to the ratio of constant terms.
Sutra 7 Sankalana Vyavakalanabhyam

Meaning By addition and subtraction.
Use This sutra is used to find the value of variables in a system of linear
equations, if the coefficients of variables are found interchanged.
Sutra 8 Purna Puranabhyam

Meaning By the completion or non-completion.
Use This sutra is used to find the value of variable by making equation
perfect square or perfect cube.
Sutra 9 Chalana-kalanabhyam
Meaning Differential Calculus.
Use This sutra is used in the following two cases:
To find the roots of a quadratics
To factorizing expression of 3rd, 4th and 5th degree.
Sutra 10 Yavadunam
Meaning By the deficiency.
To find the complement to the nearest functional
base.
Used to find the direct cube of two digits numbers.
Sutra 11 Vyasti Samastih

Meaning Specific and General.

To find the average.
HCF=Product of common factors.
Sutra 12 Sesanyankena Caramena

Meaning The remainders by the last digit.
Use This sutra is used to express a fraction as a decimal, to all its
decimal places.
Sutra 13 Sopantyadvayamantyam
Meaning The ultimate and twice the penultimate.
Use This sutra is used to find the value of variable which is such that in
equation
and A,B,C,D are in AP, then D+2C=0 is one

solution.
Sutra 14 Ekanyunena Purvena

Meaning By one less than the one before.
Use This sutra is used in the following three cases:
To find the number one less than the given number
To multiply the two numbers in which a number is in
repeating 9’s.
In expressing a fraction into decimal.
Sutra 15 Gunitasamuchchaya
Meaning The product of the sum.
Use This sutra is used to verify the factors of an expression with it’s a
corollary.
Sutra 16 Gunakasamuchchaya
Meaning All the multipliers
To find the number of zeroes in the product.

To find the place of decimal in the product of
numbers.
UPA-SUTRAS
Upa Sutra 1 Anurupyena

Meaning Proportionately
Upa Sutra 2 Sisyate Sesamjnah

Meaning The remainder remains constant.
Upa Sutra 3 Adyamadye Nantyamantyena

Meaning The first by the first and the last by the last.
Upa Sutra 4 Kevalaih Saptakam Gunyat

Meaning For seven, the multiplier is 143
Upa Sutra 5 Vestanam

Meaning By osculation
Upa Sutra 6 Yavadunam Tavadunam

Meaning Less on by the deficiency
Upa Sutra 7 Yavadunam Tavadunikritya Vargancha Yogayet

Meaning Whatever the deficiency, less on by that amount and set up the
square of the deficiency.
Upa Sutra 8 Antyayordashake ‘pi’

Meaning Last totalling ten
Upa Sutra 9 Antyayoreva

Meaning Only the last terms
Upa Sutra 10 Samuchchaya Gunitah

Meaning The sum of the products.

Upa Sutra 11 Lopanasthapanabhayam
Meaning By alternate elimination and retention
Upa Sutra 12 Vilokanam

Meaning Mere observation
Upa Sutra 13 Gunita Samuchchaya Samuchchaya Gunitah

Meaning The product of the sum is the sum of the products.
Upa Sutra 14 Dhvajanka

Meaning On the flag
Upa Sutra 15 Dwandwa Yoga

Meaning Duplex combination process
Upa Sutra 16 Shuddha

Meaning Purification

Chapter-10
Vedic Maths Today

What is Vedic Maths really about? What is it about the subject that an English school should use
it so thoroughly? Is it really Vedic and what was the purpose of Sri Bharati Krishna Tirthaji’s book
on the subject? In this account I attempt to answer some of these questions.
Vedic Maths is based on sixteen sutras together with a similar number of sub-sutras. Each sutra
provides a principle of mental working applicable to many diverse areas of mathematics. There
are several reasons for the title Vedic but before considering these it is worth mentioning that
the word Veda generally has two meanings. The first is the collection of ancient Indian texts
relating to both spiritual and secular knowledge. Due to the once strong oral tradition by which
these texts were passed on it is not possible to accurately place a date when they were first
composed. This meaning of Veda is the most common. The second way that Veda is used is to
describe true knowledge in the present which resides within people’s hearts or minds. This is
the meaning which we have accepted. This is just as well since Sri Tirthaji bequeathed to us no
accurate or definite reference for the sutras. Locating the sutras within ancient texts has so far
proven to be beyond some of the most able scholars in this field. It is quite possible that Sri
Tirthaji intuited the sutras from his deep understanding of the subject, the Vedas and the nature
of the human mind.
Arising from the first of these two meanings of Veda historians of mathematics have tried to
relate the work of Sri Tirthaji to the mathematics of well-known ancient texts. If only this first
meaning is accepted then the question as to whether Tirthaji’s system is or is not Vedic becomes
an almost insurmountable task. In my experience it is better to approach Vedic Maths from the
second meaning relating to natural laws working within the human psyche. This is a practical
approach and certainly most of the work in the UK has followed this line. We have sympathy for
the historians but regard any discovery of reference to the sutras as a bonus rather than a
necessity.
The introduction to Vedic Maths indicates that during the early part of the 20th century Sri
Tirthaji rediscovered or reconstructed Vedic Maths from stray references within the appendix
portions of the Atharvaveda. We do not know whether or not these appendices were published.
He evidently spent a large proportion of his life teaching the system but it was only shortly
before he passed away that he set down an illustrative volume on the subject. This was

published posthumously in 1965 and is the main source of all the serious study on the subject.
His book offers a snapshot of the sutraic system. Some of the sutras are applied to relatively
elementary topics in arithmetic and algebra giving rise to fast and easy methods of calculation.
Some of these methods are developed quite carefully particularly at the beginning of the book.
A few sutras are only mentioned once or twice in rather abstruse and specialised topics. The
really surprising aspect is contained within one of his introductions where he describes these
few sutras as having jurisdiction over the whole of mathematics.
Years ago when I was first involved with various groups studying Vedic Maths we all thought this
statement outrageous and absurd. How could sixteen sutras apply to the whole of mathematics?
Our view was strengthened by the text due to the paucity of explanation of some of the rules.
For example, there is a sutra, Vyashti Samashti, which is mentioned only once in the text and
even then it is given in relation to a very particular type of biquadratic equation. It is the sort of
equation that you are highly unlikely to meet when working in mathematics. Nevertheless he
uses this equation as the means to provide us with a brief glimpse at how the sutra can be
applied. As it turns out this sutra is fundamental to mathematics particularly in statistics and
mechanics. It has countless applications because it describes a common mental process. The
sutra means Individuality and totality or Being many, being one or Specific and general. One of
the simplest applications occurs when finding the mean or average of a set of numbers. The idea
is that an average in some way is a single number representing the whole group. The sutra also
carries a much deeper meaning relating to the individual and universal Self. Expressed as above
- so below, it is recognised as one of the fundamental philosophical tenets of Western culture.
It finds expression within the art and architecture of ancient Egypt, the philosophy of Plato, both
the Judaic and Christian teachings and within the Humanism of the Florentine Renaissance.
Many of the sutras are like this. They go beyond the purely mathematical sphere and deal with
a more fundamental level of human experience.
Going back in time when we first came across Vedic Maths in London we were impressed by the
methods of calculation. They had a different quality to what we were brought up with. Here
were methods that were enjoyable, quick, light, easy and refreshing. They related the numbers
to their source, unity. They brought the mind out of the wrangles of the past and into the
immediacy of the present moment. We found the sutras really brought the subject alive and we
still find that all students feel more alive by practising Tirthaji’s methods.
Once our enthusiasm was kindled we studied and practiced the whole of his book. We worked
through every sum and read and re-read every word to try and make sense of the system. It

became clear that since Sri Tirthaji had only left a specimen we would have to see how the sutras
could be applied to other areas of mathematics. What if his statement about the jurisdiction of
the sutras was true? Could it be possible that so few rules can take account of all mathematics?
We decided to put his statement to the test and see if there were other applications not
mentioned in his book. Initially this was difficult but after a while we discovered a fast method
of calculation based on one of the sutras. Over a period of years this work continued and we
gradually began to see more and more applications to fast methods of calculation, algebraic
manipulations and geometrical theorems. We also discovered the sutras at work within entirely
conventional methods, systems and algorithms. For example, although we had found a fast
method of subtraction of numbers based on one sutra we also found the correct sutra for the
conventional paying and borrowing back method.
This work in turn led to greater understanding of the individual sutras together with a greater
confidence in the system. It appeared that the sutras described the mental processes or laws
that naturally operate within the mind. The implication is that the human mind has only a limited
number of natural processes, channels or principles - each having a myriad of applications.
The next step was to consider topics within mathematics and simply ask, what sutra is working
here? For example, what is the sutra working when you bisect an angle or when simplifying an
irrational number? The elementary topics are fairly straightforward but what about more
sophisticated mathematics? We recently worked through various solutions to the ‘shoe-maker’s
knife’ problem in geometry. This is an ancient problem but which has become quite a popular
area during the last sixty years or so. The mathematics involved is not easy.
You are given two circles drawn inside a larger circle so that they all
touch each other. The area between the circles is the Arbelos or
shoe-maker’s knife. The problem is to construct further circles
within the Arbelos as shown in the diagram. We worked through
some of the conventional solutions to this. There was one
particularly elegant solution that seemed the quickest and easiest
method. It required transformations of a series of circles.
Whilst looking at this solution it dawned on us that the sutra

involved was none other than Transpose and adjust, one of the
most common sutras in this Vedic system. This is by way of example

and illustrates the way in which a simple principle can have an overriding influence over the
specific details of the problem.
These anecdotal instances help describe the nature of what we see as Vedic Maths. On the one
hand you have a series of fast, interesting and delightful algorithms and on the other the sutras
supply us with a universal approach by which any mathematical process can be perceived as an
integral part of a larger whole.
By looking at Tirthaji’s system from this point of view we have found that the applications of the
sutras are not time dependent. In other words they can be applied and are entirely valid not
only to known mathematics from Indian antiquity as well as the mathematics that the
Shankarcarya himself had to deal with but also modern topics ranging from the theory of
matrices to the theories of chaos and catastrophe. The system Tirthaji described and what has
been developed from his work is Vedic by way of function independently of historical
background. We have found it of immense practical value. It stands as a bona fide system
supported by deep logic. This is why it succeeds in the educational ethos of the United Kingdom
and elsewhere.
Of late there have been a series of academic papers, books and opinions aired by eminent
historians and mathematicians published in the Indian press decrying Vedic Maths either on the
grounds that it is not Vedic or because it is not mathematics. This recent controversy
demonstrates the paucity of genuine enquiry into the merits of Vedic Maths. Of course no one
should base educational policy
On dogma or upon a political agenda which suffers from the fortunes of popularity. Vedic Maths
is no more political or prejudicial than Newton’s three laws of motion. This can be testified by
those outside India who use Vedic Maths freely and without any cultural association.
Nevertheless, it is philosophical since it deals with knowledge and natural law.
Those responsible for developments in education must face practical issues. If, in India, there is
a demand for Vedic Maths in schools then this must be met with the tasks of training teachers,
supplying resource materials and altering syllabuses according to a more fundamental and
unified system of logic. I hope that that every effort can be made to pursue the study of Vedic
Maths in a practical and openhearted spirit.
Vedic math was immediately hailed as a new alternative system of mathematics, when a copy
of the book reached London in the late 1960s. Some British mathematicians, including Kenneth

Williams, Andrew Nicholas and Jeremy Pickles took interest in this new system. They extended
the introductory material of Bharati Krishna's book, and delivered lectures on it in London. In
1981, this was collated into a book entitled Introductory Lectures on Vedic Maths. A few
successive trips to India by Andrew Nicholas between 1981 and 1987, renewed the interest on
Vedic math, and scholars and teachers in India started taking it seriously.
The Sutras (aphorisms) apply to and cover each and every part of each and every chapter of each
and every branch of mathematics (including arithmetic, algebra, geometry - plane and solid,
trigonometry - plane and spherical, conics- geometrical and analytical, astronomy, calculus -
differential and integral etc., etc. In fact, there is no part of mathematics, pure or applied, which
is beyond their jurisdiction;
The Sutras are easy to understand, easy to apply and easy to remember; and the whole work
can be truthfully summarized in one word "mental"!]
Dr L M Singhvi, the former High Commissioner of India in the UK, also an avid endorser of the
system says: "A single sutra would generally encompass a varied and wide range of particular
applications and may be likened to a programmed chip of our computer age".
Another Vedic maths enthusiast, Clive Middleton feels, "These formulae describe the way the
mind naturally works, and are therefore a great help in directing the student to the appropriate
method of solution."
THE SUB SUTRAS
Together with the sixteen Sutras, Sri Bharati Krishna Tirthaji lists thirteen sub-Sutras. For
example Proportionately, By Alternate Elimination and Retention and By Mere Observation are
three of them. Two of the sixteen Sutras (By One More than the One Before and By Addition and
By Subtraction) are indicated to be sub-Sutras also. However it is believed that although there
are exactly sixteen Sutras, the sub-Sutras are not fixed in number.
The Growing Interest in Vedic Maths
Quite a few years ago, a few schools in Europe started teaching Vedic Maths on experimental
basis. Today this remarkable system is taught in many schools and institutes in India and abroad,
and even to MBA and economics students. Interest in Vedic maths is growing in the field of
education where mathematics students are looking for a new and better approach to the

subject. Even students at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) are said to be using this ancient
technique for quick calculations. No wonder, in a Convocation speech addressed to the students
of IIT, Delhi, by Dr. Murli Manohar Joshi, former Union Minister for Science & Technology,
stressed the significance of Vedic maths, while pointing out the important contributions of India
in the realm of Mathematics, such as Aryabhatta, who laid the foundations of algebra,
Baudhayan, the great geometer, and Medhatithi and Madhyatithi, the saint duo, who
formulated the basic framework for numerals.
Researches are being undertaken in many areas, including the effects of learning Vedic maths
on children. A great deal of research is also being done on how to develop more powerful and
easy applications of the Vedic sutras in geometry, calculus, and computing.

Chapter-11
Vedic Maths Examples
Squares of Numbers Ending in 5

To find the square of any number ending in five we use the sutra “Ekadhikena Purvena”.
Multiply one more than the tens digit by the original tens digit and affix 25 to the result.
Example 1: 252
Step 1 First add 1 to the tens digit. 2+1=3
Step 2 Next, multiply by the original tens digit. 2x3=6
Step 3 To this affix 25. 625
Example 2: 752
Step 1 First add 1 to the tens digit. 7+1=8
Step 2 Next, multiply by the original tens digit. 7 x 8 = 56
Example 3: 1152
Step 1 First add 1 to the tens digit. 11 + 1 = 12
Step 2 Next, multiply by the original tens digit. 11 x 12 = 132

Multiplying by 11
1. The first digit of the given number is the first digit of the answer.
2. Add the first digit to the second digit of the given number to obtain the second digit of
the answer.
3. Next add the second digit of the given number to obtain the third digit of the answer.
4. Continue adding adjacent digits unit the tens digit of the given number to obtain the
tens digit of the given number to obtain the tens digit of the answer.
5. The unit digit of the answer will be the units digit of the given number.
If any of the sums are two-digit numbers, record only the units digit and add the tens
digit to the preceding answer digit.
Example 1: 12434 x 11
Step 1 Keep 4 as it is, 4
Step 2 Add first digit and second digit, here 4 + 3 = 7 74
Step 2 Add second digit and third digit 774

3+ 4 = 7
Step 3 Now, similarly 4 + 2= 6 6774
Step 4 2+1=3 36774
Step 5 Keep first digit as it is. 136774
Example 2: 356124 x 11
Step 1 Keep 4 as it is. 4

Step 2 Keep adding the last two digits. 64
4 +2 =6
Step 2 Similarly 2 + 1 = 3 364
Step 3 1+6=7 7364
Step 4 Now, 6 becomes the last digit, and 5 becomes 17364

the second last digit. So we add 6 + 5 = 11
We place 1 as the next digit of the answer and
take the other 1 as carry over to the next step.
Step 5 Now, 5 becomes the last digit, and 3 becomes 917364

the second last digit. So we add 5 + 3 = 8
8 + 1 (carry over) = 9
Step 6 Keep the last digit 3, as it is. 3917364

So, the answer is 3917364
Multiplicaton by 9,99,999...
In the whole number series 9 is the most interesting number therefore the multiplication of 9 is
also very interesting.
If we have a number to be multiplied by a number consisting of only 9’s we use the sutra
“Ekanyunena Purvena” (By one less than the one before)

And
“Nikhilam Navatas Caramam Dasatah” (All from nine and last from ten)
There are three different cases, Let us understand with examples:
First Case:
The number of digits in the multiplicand and the multiplier are the same and all the digits of the
multiplier are 9.

Example 1: 64 x 99
Step 1 We divide the answer in two parts i.e., Left part (LP) and Right
part (RP).
63 | Using the sutra by one less than the previous one
64 -1 = 63
Place 63 as the Left Part of the answer.
Step 2 Now, write the complement of the multiplicand using “All from
nine and last from ten”
63 | 36 Complement of 64 (9 - 6 =3 and 10 - 4 = 6)
Place 36 as the Right Part of the answer.

The answer is 6336
Example 2: 683 x 999
part (RP).
683 -1 = 682
682 | 317 Complement of 683
9-6=3
9–8=1
10 - 3 = 7

The answer is 682317
Example 3: 786384 x 999999
part (RP).
786384-1 = 786383
786383| 213616 Complement of 786384
9-7=2
9–8=1
9-6=3
9–3=6
9-8=1
10 - 4 = 6

Example 4: 1389745990 x 9999999999
part (RP).
1389745989| Using the sutra by one less than the previous one
1389745990-1 = 1389745989
Step 2 You need to be careful here, while finding the complement,

the number is ending with 0, Now, write the complement of
1389745989| the multiplicand using “All from nine and last from ten”
8610254010 leaving the last digit i.e., 0.
Complement of 1389745990

9-1=8
9–3=6
9-8=1
9-9=0
9–7=2
9–4=5
9-5=4
9-9=0
10 -9 = 1
0

The answer is 13897459899610254010
BASE MULTIPLICATION
We have different methods of multiplication for different types of numbers. We know that bases
are the numbers which have 1 followed by zeros, like 10,100,1000,10000,…
For this type of multiplication we use the sutra

“Nikhilam Navatas Caramam Dasatah” (All from nine and last from ten)
If the numbers to be multiplied are close to any one base, either more or less, then our
multiplication becomes very easy.
There are three different cases, Let us understand with examples:
First Case: Both the Numbers are less than the Base
Example 1: 88 X 97
Step 1 Here both the numbers are close to the base 100.
100 Write down as shown.
88
97

Step 2 Find the complement of the numbers.
100 88 – complement is 12
88 -12 97 – complement is 03
97 -03
Step 3 We will get the answer in two parts.

100 Right Part and Left Part
88 -11 For right part of the answer, multiply the two complements of
97 -03 both numbers.
36 i.e., 12 x 3 = 36
Since we have a base as 100 and 100 has two zeros, so the right
part of the answer must have only two digits.
Step 4 We can get answer of left part in four different ways:

100 1→ Cross Subtraction : 88 – 03 = 85
88 -12 2 → Cross Subtraction : 97 – 12 = 85
97 -03 3 → Add the two given numbers and subtract the base from it :
86 36 (89 + 97) – 100 = 186 – 100 = 85
4 → Subtract both the complements from the base :
100 – (11 – 03) = 100 -14 =85
The answer is 8536
Example 2: 83 X 88
83
88

83 -17 88 – complement is 12
88 -12
Step – 3 We will get the answer in two parts.

204 i.e., 17 x12 = 204
Since we have a base as 100 and 100 has two zeros, so the right
part of the answer must have only two digits.
The right part of the answer is 04 and carry 2.

73 04 (83 + 88) – 100 = 171 – 100 = 71
100 – (17 + 12) = 100 -29 =71
So, the right part of the answer is 71 + 2 (carryover) = 73
The answer is 7304
Example 3: 996 x 992
996
992

996 -004 992 – complement is 008
992 -008
Step 3 We will get the answer in two parts.

032 i.e., 4 x8 = 32
Since we have a base as 1000 and 1000 has three zeros, so the
right part of the answer must have only three digits.
The right part of the answer is 032.

988 032 (996 + 992) – 1000 = 1988 – 1000 = 988
1000 – (4 + 8) = 1000 -12 =988
So, the right part of the answer is 988

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Chapter-1

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 1

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 2

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 3

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 4

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 5

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 6

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 7

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 8

Vedic Way of Life

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 9

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 10

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 11

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 12

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 13

Arithmatic and Vedas

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 14

This hymn clearly mentions

Vimsatya which means 20

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 15

‘pancasat’ implies 5 x10

The existence of bigger numbers in series can be seen in Yajur Veda.

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 16

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 17

Special Digit Zero

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 18

The Decimal System of Numeration

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 19

The ancient Hindus used at least 18 denominations.

The same list occurs at two places (IV 40 11.4) and

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 20

It is during this great period, sage Valmiki known

In the above stanza, we have the following enumeration:

The spy estimated the strength of Sri Rama to be

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 21

Ancient Indian Mathematicians

Sl.No. Name Period Script

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 22

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 23

Introduction: This collection is meant to exhibit various mathematical results, in a comparison

The period of each invention is also mentioned.

Foreigner’s Claim Pythagoras theorem ; (BCE 540)

Foreigner’s Claim Diophantine Eq.(500 CE)

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 24

Foreigner’s Claim Pascal: Pascal triangle (1623-1662 CE)

Foreigner’s Claim John Pell :: Pell‘s equation (1610-1685 CE)

Foreigner’s Claim Heron‘s formula for area of a triangle

Foreigner’s Claim Fibonacci series 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21...., (1170-1250 CE)

Foreigner’s Claim Herigone‘s formula(1634 CE)

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 25

Foreigner’s Claim Rolle‘s theorem (1652-1719 CE)

tan x tan 3 x tan 5 x

Foreigner’s Claim Gregory Series(1638-1675)

Foreigner’s Claim Leibnitz ‘s expansion (1646-1716)

Foreigner’s Claim Fermat‘s result (1601-65): divisiors of a number

Foreigner’s Claim Euler’s division algorithm (1707 - 83 )

Foreigner’s Claim Huiler‘s similar formula (1782 CE)

Peep in to Indian Mathematics VASISTA Eduventures 26

Foreigner’s Claim Euler‘s similar results (1707-1783 CE)

Foreigner’s Claim Euler‘s results 2R = a / sin A =b / sin B = c / sin C,

Foreigner’s Claim Kepler (1571-1630, German)

Foreigner’s Claim Euler (1707-1783 CE)

Foreigner’s Claim Liebnitz similar results (1646-1716)