Q2: Briefly describe the three goals of linguistic theory.

Ans: Linguistic Theory:

In general, the scientific study of language is regarded as ‘linguistics’. This study includes the
analysis of language form, meaning and context. While, the term theory refers to the set of
principles which explains an idea. For instance, the Newton’s theory of gravitational force
elaborated the reason of an apple falling from the tree. Similarly, all provided theories present a
fixed ground for the researchers. In the field of linguistics, linguistics theory tends to explain the
human language nature and th
e fundamental principles of language. In more specific terms, linguistic theories provide the lens
through which language can be analyzed and researched. Moreover, linguistics theories identify,
formulate and elaborates a framework with the help of which the structure and formulation of
language and its use in the world can be studied in dept.

Goals of Linguistic Theories

While applying the linguistics theories and studying them in dept, it is essential to understand the
goals of these theories. Although, this domain is very vast and it is nearly impossible to provide
definite stance however, the three goals are proposed as below upon which all the linguist tend to
agree:
1) Describing the phenomena of linguistics.
2) Explaining the phenomena of linguistics.
3) Understanding the language and its cognitive basis.

Describing the Phenomena of Linguistics

The very main goal of any linguist, studying the language, would be to describe the language
with the aid of the basic principles, terms and terminology provided by the theories of linguistics.
To describe a language is the basic aim of every researcher of language, for example, this may
include describing each language individually, and then, studying the similarities present in all of
the languages in order to provide a detailed description. Such type of description will be
considered as the description of languages on universal level. On the other hand, the researcher
can also provide an insight description over the present difference among all the languages which
can be said as language typology.
The description of language is essential because, firstly, all human beings tend to communicate
with one another through language and, therefore, share a language heritage but with the passing
of time, some languages usually die out as the speaker of the particular language decrease in
number due to various reasons such as shifting to another language or social-economical strains
and pressure. The linguistic description would allow to have a detailed document of language
diversity of the human languages which is, indeed, an important part of linguistics. Secondly, the
other two goals of linguistics theory are interdepended upon the description of linguistics
phenomena. It is impossible to provide an explanation and understanding about the cognition or
definition of language without having a proper description of it. thus, it is vital to describe and
elaborate the linguistics phenomena.
Moreover, the works carried out in the earlier part of twentieth century focuses upon the
discovery and renovation of the description tools of linguistics. In the domain of Phonology, the
research works of Sapir, Swadesh, Jakobson, and Bloomfield analyze and describe the phoneme
on proper grounds. Likewise, paramount contributions were made in the study of syntax by the
works of Prague School and Jespersen’s theorizing which is derived from his study of English.
All of the linguist goal was to provide a detail and extended descriptions of all the aspects of
language.

Explanation of Linguistic Phenomena

The linguist, Noam Chomsky, formulated the idea of explanation of linguistic phenomena. He
stated that the primary goal of the linguistic theory should be to provide an explanatory criterion
for grammar. As he argues that there is a Language Acquisition Device inside the brain of every
human which consist of innate grammar of any language. Thus, it is important to know the basic
grounds upon which the language explanation can be carried out which is as follow:
Major Things which a Linguistic Theory should Explain
1) The use of language by the speaker in a social context.
2) Why languages have structures
3) The similarities present in the human language
4) Why human languages differ structurally
5) Change occurring in language with the passage of time
6) Production of language and comprehension in real life situation
7) The nature of knowledge possessed by a native speaker of a language
8) Acquisition of language by children
According to researchers, the theories can be categorized into two general types; inductive theory
and deductive theory. In the light of inductive theory, the present relationship between the date
and theory is regarded as data  hypothesis. While in deductive theory, are the explanatory
theory and the relationship is based upon hypothesis  date. The debate arises over here is that
among the two which is the best for study. This can be done by considering the criterion of
‘Theory-internal explanatory”.
1) Economy
2) Motivation
3) Predictiveness
The above would play a vital role in providing internal explanation of the linguistic phenomena,
whilst, in terms of studying syntactic patterns under semantics, one would need to take aid of
external explanation whose criteria tend to revolve around Phonology, semantics, Pragmatics,
Reasoning, Perception and Categorization.
Understanding the language and its cognitive basis.
The study of a language is based upon the cognitive abilities of the humans. As stated by
Chomsky, the cogitative issues related to the language are the major concerns which are needed
to be discussed and explained by the linguists. This may come under the stem of psychology and
can be referred as the psychology of language. The aims of the linguistic theories are to answer
the raised question regarding the cognitive process of language inside the mind of the speakers.
The three main question which are the driving force behind the study of linguist today are as
follows:
1) Processing: the question is that what are the various mental processes which are involved
in the production and comprehension of language when it is used by the humans in real
life situations
2) Knowledge: human beings attain a cognitive knowledge of the language in their brains.
The question which bothers the linguists is that what is the nature of this knowledge and
how functions.
3) Acquisition: the acquisition of language is a unique ability of humans which is the main
concern of the linguist. Where did this informative come from and how the humans
acquire the language and on what basis it is different and similar to acquiring another
knowledge.

Conclusion
In a nutshell, the linguistic theory helps in providing theoretical grounds on the basis of which
every linguist aims to study language. The goal of the linguistic theory allows the researcher to
study language for the purpose of
Q1: Name and explain the salient features of Saussure’s’ theory of structuralism?

Ans: Structuralism

The Swiss linguistics, Ferdinand da Saussure, in 1920 marked a revolutionary break in the study of
language when he introduced Structuralism in linguistics. The concept of structuralism existed back in
the times of Aristotle as well. Aristotle talked about structuralism in his work, Poetics, where he
discussed the structure of the tragedy. However, in poetics, structuralism was used for literary criticism.
Structuralism presents the concept that every system consists of a definite structure that suggests the
position and place of each element within it. in linguistics, this structuralism collects the corpus of
utterances and then tries to classify the present elements at an individual level. Likewise, structuralism
can be defined as follows:

The study about the findings of the basic fundamental units and elements that create any system and
the discovery of the basic rules that govern the units and how these rules and units can be joint together.

A structure must have the following three properties which were proposed by Saussure that are as
follows:

Wholeness: the system tends to operate as a whole and is not a mere collection of individual parts
Transformation: the system is not static in nature rather is changeable.

Self-regulation: the system can add up more things but the basic structure will remain constant

Ferdinand de Saussure is regarded as the father of structuralism. In Saussure’s book, Course in General
Linguistics, Saussure argued that in order to learn something, it is essential to have the language
knowledge which cannot be gained without proper understanding of that language. He also states that
linguistic determinism is the main key as it determines our thought, therefore, language is an essential
component.

Salient Feature of Saussure’s Theory

In the book, it is noted that the focus of analysis is not on the use of language (Parole) but instead on the
underlying system of language which is known as “langue”. Additionally, in his theory of structuralism, it
is examined how the elements of the language tend to relate to one another synchronically rather than
diachronically. There are four major salient features of structuralism presented by Saussure which are as
follows:

1) Langue and Parole

2) Sign, Signified and Arbitrariness
3) PARADIGM AND SYNTAGM
4) Synchronic and diachronic

Langue and Parole

The human language has two parts which are mainly known as Langue and Parole. Langue and Parole
are essential component of a language and without the two the communication may not be possible.
Langue is the system of language which has signs, rules and patterns assigned by a particular social
group for the sake of communication. Whereas, Parole is the meaning of the utterances of the langue.
For de Saussure, langue is structurally abstract system which conveys the meaning while on the other
hand, Parole, Speech, is the use of language. Saussure gave the example of the game of Chess. This
game has set of rules which can be noted as the langue of the Chess. While, the endless ways of playing
the game are the Parole.

Saussure’s structuralist view discusses language as self-contained system of significance and it is

therefore essential to understand the present difference between the both. He suggests the goal of the
linguistic research should not be what is done to the language by the speaker which is noted as the
Parole. Rather, Saussure emphasis on the study of Langue which is the structure of the system of
language.

Sign and Signified

The basic unit of linguistics is sign. The use of semiotics in linguistics was propelled by Ferdinand de
Saussure and according to him, in semiotics or semiology, the nature and laws governing the signs are
thoroughly investigated and explored. The term sign is commonly defined as a symbol used instead of
something else. For instance, the red light is a sign which conveys a message to the drivers that they
have to stop and wait till it changes. Saussure argues that language has two distinct features which are
the sign and the signified. The signs are best understood and meaningful on the basis of the signified. In
addition, a word gains its meaning through signs and their functions. This connection is named as
arbitrary by him.

For example: the word ‘Rose’ has no logical connection with the object it refers to so there can be
different names for the object in different language.

Rose: The Signifier

The red flower that gives a beautiful scent and has thorns: Signified

PARADIGM AND SYNTAGM

The value of signs is dependent upon the culture. Saussure argues that a sign gains its worth and value
from its relation to other similar values. This is what he calls as the linguistic values. The syntagmatic
relation and paradigmatic relation were introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure into structuralism. A
syntagmatic relation is the one where the appearance of sign is in a proper sequence and functions
collectively to create meaning. While, paradigmatic relationships are the ones in which an individual sign
is replaced by another one. For instance, in a hotel menu, the items have a paradigm relationship
because they belong to same group such as, starters, sweet, main course etc.

Synchrony and Diachrony

According to Saussure the nature of language can be analyzed through two different and opposing
views: one that is known as synchronic and other, diachronic. In synchronic study the language exists in
a particular point of time whereas, the diachronic study of language concerns with the historic
development of the language.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it can be said that the structuralist prefers to study the langue more than the Parole and
the analysis is commonly synchronic in nature as the founder of structuralism, de Saussure did.
Moreover, the structuralism tends to study the binary relationships between the words.

Q 3: Compare and contrast the digital and analog signs

Ans: Introduction

Sign and its study has become the main interest of the linguists after the theory of structuralism
proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure. While studying the formation of language and its use among
the interlocutor it is essential to study the sign system. The term sign is commonly defined as a
symbol used instead of something else. For instance, the red light is a sign which conveys a
message to the drivers that they have to stop and wait till it changes. This study of sign system is
widely known as “Semiotics” and the study of semiotics is often regarded as “Semiology”.
Semiology is derived from the Greek word, “se¯meîon, which means ‘sign’. According to
Ferdinand de Saussure, in semiotics or semiology, the nature and laws governing the signs are
thoroughly investigated and explored. Moreover, along with Saussure, Charles Peirce is known
as the cofounder of the modern time semiotics.
Signs

Signs, according to Peirce, sign is a representative of someone or something. He stated that it is

not necessary for a sign to have a single definite meaning. He divided signs into three main
categories which are as follows:
 An icon
 An index
 A Symbol
An icon is defined as the physical resembles of what it stands for- it is the actual object.
Whereas, the index is the sign that shows that object and it can be said to be the implied sign.
Whilst, symbol is the utterance and holds a relation with the signified
Digital and Analog Signs
When studying linguistics, there has been an on going debate regarding the digital and analog
signs. To understand the digital and analog signs, it is needed to take in consideration the two
watches that have been invented over the period of time. The digital watch is the one that has
computerized number and tends to show the exact time. The digital watch is also present in
today’s cell phones. On the other hand, analog watch is the traditional watch which shows the
time through numbers which start from 12 and ar arranged in a circular order. The time is
indicated through the needles which are called the hands. Anthony Wilden, a Canadian
communication theorist, argues that there are no two kinds of experiences or categories more
fundamental in human life than continuity and discontinuity. Most of the time, the analog is
associated with natural representation while the digital is presented as artificial in nature.
Keeping the above view in mind, in general life, it has been observed that humans tend to
communicate through their body movements and facial expression which is known as gestures.
These gestures also include visual images, textures, tests and smell as they also convey meaning
and are therefore regarded as the Analog signs in linguistics. These signs can subtleties meanings
beyond the level of words.
For example:
A crying baby is a sign to the mother that the baby is hungry and is in need of food.
Moreover, analog signs can be digitally produced too, by recording them digitally or
representing them digitally. Mostly, emotions and feelings are considered to be signified
analogically. To some linguist, analog signs can be smiles and laughs too.
After the invention of the modern technology, digital signs are often associated with the
computers but if we peek into history the presences of digital signs were even then. The digital
order is also imposed by the signifying systems which are experienced by humans as dynamic.
These digital signs tend to include the discrete unites which are, for instance, the words or the
whole numbers depending upon what is been signified.
Umberto Eco, the Italian semiotician, has greatly argued against the term digital. As he states
that the pairing of digital and analog sign is misleading. According to him, a photograph is
though digital but it is perceived as analog as it lacks the connection between what is signifier
and signified.
Moreover, in the human world, the difference between digital and analog communication is not
well recognized as normally, analog signs are considered as the physical ones while the digital
are known to be logical ones. This study of signs is now referred as the digital linguistics.
Conclusion
In the study of semiotics, signs play a domain role as according to Saussure the words allow us to convey
our meaning by signifying to an entity to which they refer to and it has become essential to study the
role of sign, signified and signifier. However, the body gestures are known to be a language too and it is
regarded as the analog signs. The difference between the digital and analog is some what debatable and
researches are conducted on the given topic. In the book of semiotics the difference vividly allows the
linguists to understand analog and digital signs.