Materials Research Express

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The dependence of fractal figures formed in irradiated germanium on

temperature and composition
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Page 1 of 25 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - MRX-117185.R2

1
2
3 The dependence of fractal figures formed in irradiated germanium on temperature
4

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5 and composition
6
7
Samy A. El-Sayed
8
New materials and renewable energy Lab., Phys. Dept., Faculty of Science, Beni-Suef
9

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10 University, Beni Suef, 62514, Egypt, samy.abdelhameed@science.bsu.edu.eg
11
12
Abstract
13
14
D. C. conductivity () measured in the temperature (T) range (300 K- 1.7K) for p-Type
15 Ge irradiated with  quanta and /or large fluencies of reactor neutrons. The obtained
16

us
17 conductivity results reveal that, the activation energies of different conductivity
18
19 mechanisms are found E1> E2 > E3 and o> 1> 2. Also, Meyer- Neldel Rule (MNR) is
20
21 applicable in different conduction mechanisms. As well as, in hopping conduction
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
mechanisms with different values of Meyer- Neldel Energy (HMNR) for each conductivity
mechanism. Mott variable range hopping (VRH)  = f (T-0.25), and Efros Sholovskii
Percolation mechanism of conduction (ESPMC)  = f (T-0.5) of hopping conduction.
Observed a crossover between these two mechanisms of hopping conduction. The scaling
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29
30
theory is applicable in the most temperature ranges of conduction mechanisms. and in the
31 hopping conduction mechanisms as well. The obtained critical exponent for Mott (VRH)
32
33 is equal to 3.6. For Efros-Shkolovskii (ES) percolation mechanism of conduction (PMC)
34
35 the critical exponent is equal to 1.74. The Mandelbrot fractal systems formed in the
36
present samples are temperature and compositional dependent. The Scanning electron
37
38 microscope (SEM) result confirms the dependent the fractal figures formed in irradiated
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39
40 germanium on composition and irradiation fluency.
41
42
43
44 1. Introduction
45
46 According to scaling theory [1,2] the critical exponent occurs in all second order phase
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47
48 transitions. In literature many experimental work in different systems confirms the
49
50
universality of scaling theory [3-7]. But in the last two decades The critical exponent value
51 as predicted by scaling theory, questioned by theoreticians [8] and experimentalist [1].
52
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53 Scaling theory predicted that, the conductivity  (0)→0 as the charge carrier concentration
54
55 (n) reaches to critical value (nc). And the critical exponent   2 [9]. In literature recorded
56
57
58 1
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 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - MRX-117185.R2 Page 2 of 25

1
2
3 some experimental values of the critical exponent in vicinity of Insulator metal transition.
4

pt
5 Itoh et.al. [6], by investigating the conductivity of uncompensated semiconductors like Si,
6
7 Si doped with P, As, Bi and amorphous alloy of GaxAr(1-x). They found that the electrical
8
9 exponent  =0.5. Also Itoh et.al.[6] by measuring conductivity of compensated

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10 semiconductors Ge doped with Sb, and Si doped with P, or B determined the critical
11
12 exponent equal to 1. Also, Rosenbaumy et.al. [10] by measuring the electrical
13
14 conductivity of metallic amorphous NixSi(1-x) found that the electrical exponent is varies
15
16
between 0.79: 0.34 depends in temperature range. By investigation the magnetic

us
17 susceptibility of xenon Guttinger et. al. obtained the critical exponent which equal to
18
19 1.241 [11]. Generally different values of the critical exponents greater than 2 are reported
20
21 in various systems for many measured parameters are reported [ 1, 5, 8, 12, and 13].
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
Germanium doped by radiation defects has many applications such as cryogenic
temperature controller, milli-kelvin phonon detectors and dark matter searches, neutrino
physics and radiation sensors for astrophysics observations [14]. The advantages of
doping by irradiation, neutron transmutation doping (NTD), are extremely homogenous
dM
29 doping, and accurate controlling both majority and minority impurity concentration [15].
30
31 Co60 is the source of  quanta [16]. The effect of interaction of  quanta with solids are
32
33 three fundamental interactions depend on energy range of  quanta, which are:
34
35 (1) The photoelectric effect (low energy: E < 200 keV) in which the photon transfers all of
36
its energy to an orbital electron, which is ejected with kinetic energy equal to the incident
37
38 photon energy less the binding energy (BE) needed to remove the electron (Ee = Eγ − BE).
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39
40 The bottom line is that all the photon energy is absorbed into the incident material.
41
42 (2) Compton scattering (intermediate energies: 200 keV– 1.5 MeV), which is an elastic
43 scattering of the photon by an atomic electron, which is excited in the process. Here the
44
45 photon is reduced in energy and deflected from its original direction.
46
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47 (3) Pair production (high energy: E > 1.5 MeV) in which the photon disappears and an
48
49
electron -–positron pair is formed. Since the rest mass energy of an electron/positron is
50 0.511MeV, pair production requires a photon of at least 1.02MeV to occur. The remainder
51
52 of the photon energy is received as kinetic energy by the negatron–positron pair (KE = Eγ
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53
54 −2mec2). Eventually the positron combines with an electron, and two photons (annihilation
55
radiation) are produced, each having an energy of 0.511MeV.
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58 2
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Page 3 of 25 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - MRX-117185.R2

1
2
3 The aim of the present work is to investigate the correlation of scaling theory and the
4

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5 MNR in different hopping conduction mechanisms in vicinity of Insulator – metal
6
7 transition, with the fractal figures formed in a solid and the dependence these fractal
8
9
figures on temperature and composition.

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10 2. Literature survey
11
12 Since the publication of Meyer- Neldel rule (MNR) [17], which is famous as Meyer-
13
14 Neldel Rule (MNR), investigators found it applicable in many disorder materials for
15
16

us
17 various physical properties, like electrical conductivity, diffusion, Crystallization process
18
19 of amorphous ChGS. solids or any physical property has Arrhenius like behavior as a
20
21 function of temperature, namely.
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
X = X oe
(
− E
KT
)

an (1)

Where X is the absolute rate of the thermally activated process, Xo is the pre-exponential
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29 factor and K is the Boltzmann constant. Moreover, the pre-exponential factor and the
30
31
32 activation energy E is related by the relation:
33
34 E
35
36 X o = X ooe EMN
(2)
37
38
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39 Here Xoo, EMN, are positive constants, and EMN is assigned for Meyer-Neldel energy.
40
41 The possible simplest definition of fractal is an object which appears self-similar under
42
43
44
varying degrees of magnification [18]. Some disordered materials possess fractal structure
45
46 over a certain range of length scales. Introduction of the fractal concept has been
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47
48 successful in the identification of many of the physical properties in disordered systems
49
50
[19]. Jean-Philippe et al [20], investigated the morphological and fractal characteristics of
51
52
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53 silicon nanoaggregates structure by thermal activated reaction. Even in the x-ray powder
54
55 diffraction (XRD) pattern of amorphous materials, which is characterized by absence of
56
57
58 3
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 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - MRX-117185.R2 Page 4 of 25

1
2
3 any sharp peak and presence of broad background subjected to fractal analysis of noise
4

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5
6 signals. Ortiz - Cruz et al [21], found that XRD pattern with broad background are not
7
8 random at all but contains information on regularities. Also, Vashishta et al [22], using A
9

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10 highly efficient space time multiresolution algorithm, developed to carry out large-scale
11
12
13
molecular dynamics simulations for systems with long range Coulomb and three-body
14
15 covalent interaction. Algorithms have been implemented on emerging concurrent
16

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17 architectures. This study [22], has many applications in microporous silica, enhancement
18
19
of vibrational density of states due to low energy floppy modes in crystalline and glassy
20
21
22 states of high-temperature ceramic Si3N4 and crack propagation in amorphous silicon
23
24
25
26
27
28
nitride films.
an
Fractal structures are found everywhere in nature [23]. Recently Elsayed [24], shows that
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29 there is a relation between Mayer- Neldel rule and fractal. The EMN is postulated as the
30
31 loss of energy dissipated in formation certain fractal system in a disorder solid [24]. "The
32
33 MNR is observed in numerous thermally activated phenomena, e. g. kinetics (hopping)
34
35
36
and the thermodynamics, in crystalline, amorphous, liquid S.C. Innumerable different
37
38 models have been suggested to explain the NMR in S.C., amorphous and polycrystalline
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39
40 S.C. [25]". the MNR is found to be applicable in range of hopping conduction namely
41
42
Mott's variable range hopping (VRH), in amorphous and disordered S.C. [26]. In
43
44
45 literature, there is no specific definition for EMN, except the name “Meyer- Neldel energy”.
46
ce

47 But there is no specific definition energy for which process.

48
49 Since the discovery of impurity conduction in silicon carbide by G. Busch and H. Labhart
50
51
52 [27], many theoretical models suggested for explanation this phenomenon. Mott based on
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55
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58 4
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Page 5 of 25 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - MRX-117185.R2

1
2
3 thermal assist hopping, “variable rang hopping (VRH)”, deduce the following formula for
4

pt
5
6 (VRH) electrical conductivity () at law temperatures [27],
7
8 1
T 
9 − M  4
 =  oe M 

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10 (3),
11
12 where o is the pre-exponential factor TM is constant called Mott Characteristic
13
14
15 temperature (MCT) [1]. Where,
16

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17 o
18 TM = (4),
19 N ( EF )a 3
20
21 Where o is constant, N(EF) is the density of states at Fermi level, a is the Bohr radius of
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
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localization. But Sholovskii and Efros (ES) [28] taking in consideration the electron-

electron interaction, proposed percolation theory of conduction with the existence of

dM
Coulomb gap in density of states near Fermi-Level. According the percolation model of
29
30
31 conduction conductivity at low temperatures behaves as follows
32
1
33 T 
− ES  2
34
 =  oe  T 
(5),
35
36
37 where o is the pre-exponential factor of Sholovskii- Efros percolation theory of
38
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39
conduction where, TES is constant called the Shkolovskii- Efros characteristic temperature,
40
41
42 e 2
43 TES = (6),
a
44
45
46 where  is constant, e is the electronic charge, k is the dielectric constant, a is the
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47
48 localization radius. Shlimak et al [29] observed crossover between various low
49
50
temperature mechanisms of conduction by applying magnetic field. But other authors
51
52
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53 [30,31] observed the transition from ES Percolation Mechanism of conduction (PMC) to

54
55 Mott VRH by changing temperature with or without applying magnetic field [30, 31].
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58 5
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 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - MRX-117185.R2 Page 6 of 25

1
2
3 Agrinskaya et.al.[32], proposed a formula to describe the sweeping between various low
4

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5
6 temperature <10K conduction mechanisms. Efros [33] explained the sweeping between
7
8 conduction mechanisms to the smearing of Coulomb gap, as a result of electrostatic
9

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10 interaction between the metallic electrode and the electrons. The electrostatic electron-
11
12
13
electron [31] interaction causes a reduction of density of states at Fermi level. This gap
14
15 called Coulomb gap. But Shlimak et.al. [34] proved that the Coulomb’s gap smears at low
16

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17 temperature. Smearing of Coulomb’s gap lead to Crossover from ES PMC to Mott VRH
18
19
mechanism of conduction. Delvi et.al.[26], found in literature the MNR at hopping
20
21
22 conduction in different amorphous materials with electronic and non-electronic
23
24
25
26
27
28
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conduction. They [26] attributed the existence of MNR at Mott VRH conduction to the

constancy of density of states at the hopping level.

dM
29 3. Experimental Procedure
30
31 In this work five crystalline p-type germanium samples with Ga concentration 2x1015
32
33 atom.cm-3 and resistivity 1 (.cm) at 300K, irradiated with Co60  with doses 2x1018,
34
35
36 4x1018 and 6x1018 Photon cm-2 respectively. The γ -cell-220 manufactured by the Russian
37
38 atomic energy is used for γ irradiation. The dose rate of the 60Co source of this cell was, at
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39
40 the time of the experiment 34 rad/s. The 60Co average gamma-ray energy is 1.25MeV, and
41
42
43 its half time life is 3.5 years. Also, in addition to the  quanta irradiation, two other
44
45 samples irradiated neutron irradiation one with irradiation dose 5x1015 n cm-2 and the
46
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47
48 other one irradiated with fluency 1.1x1017 n cm-2. Another one Ge sample doped with
49
50 Arsenics is added to the germanium samples. The Arsenic atom concentration is 2.5x1015
51
52 Atom.cm-3, irradiated with neutron fluency 1020 n.cm-2. This compensated sample
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53
54
55 assigned as sample No.6. To reduce the transmutation doping effect all samples were
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58 6
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Page 7 of 25 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - MRX-117185.R2

1
2
3 placed in 1mm thick cadmium containers. During irradiation in the reactor the ratio
4

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5
6 between thermal neutrons fluency and the fluency of fast neutrons was about ten. So, it
7
8 was possible to obtain samples of germanium "doped" with acceptor-like radiation defects
9

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10 {Ge radiation defected) (RD)}. Samples used in this work assigned as in table (1)
11
12
13
Table (1)
14
15 Sample No. Radiation fluency
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17 1 2x1018quanta cm-2
18
19 2 4x1018quanta cm-2
20
21
3 6x1018quanta cm-2
22 2x1018quanta cm-2+5x1015n.cm-2
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24
25
26
27
28
4
5
6
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2x1018quanta cm-2+1.1x1017n.cm-2
1x1020 n.cm-2
To ensure that the electrical properties were controlled by the transmutation doping, a
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29
30 complete annealing at 450 ◦C for 24 h was performed. For electrical conductivity
31
32
measurements a special double wall glassy cryostat is designed. This cryostat is attached
33
34
35 with vacuum pump its evacuation rate is faster than the evaporation rate of He4 gas, thus
36
37 the pressure inside the cryostat is decreases and hence the temperature. The conventional
38
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39 four probe method is used for electrical conductivity measurements. Ni electrode is

40
41
42 participated in the desired position on the samples using electrochemical deposition
43
44 technique (cold method). Thin Cu wires are fixed above the Ni electrodes using In. The
45
46 samples were in parallelepiped shape with length about 8-12mm, thickness about 1 - 2
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47
48
49 mm, width about 2-3 mm and the electrode apart about 3-4 mm. Conductivity of Ge (RD)
50
51 was measured in the temperature range from 1.7 K up to 300 K. The temperature was
52
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53 determined with a semiconductor thermistor in the interval 77.4 - 4.2K, from saturated
54
55
vapor pressure of He4 in the interval 4.2-1.5 K. The voltage across samples always less
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58 7
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1
2
3
than 1 volt and the current across the sample decreases from A to nA order as the
4

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5
6 temperature lowered. The type of charge carriers and their concentrations are measured by
7
8 hall effect at temperature 77K with magnetic field perpendicular on the current direction,
9

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10
the value of magnetic field about 650 Gauss. The electrical properties of Ge (RD) are
11
12
13 determined solely by acceptor-like radiation defects [35, 36]. SEM analysis was
14
15 performed using JSM-6510A Scanning electron microscope (JOEL, Japan). The least
16

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17 square method fitting, using a computer program Excel 2016, is used to analysis the data
18
19
20 extracted and to calculate the uncertainty in the experimental results.
21
22 4. Results and discussion
23
24
25
26
27
28
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Figure (1) shows the temperature dependence of electrical conductivity  of Germanium

irradiated samples, the figure shows that the ln() = f(1/T) has three different slopes.
dM
29 The regions A, B and C satisfying the conductivity Fritzche empirical equation (7), [36]:
30
31 − E1 − E2 − E3
32  =  0e KT
+  1e KT
+  2e KT
(7)
33
34
35 Where 0, 1, and 2 are the pre-exponential factor, and E1, E2, and E3 are the
36
37 activation energies of conductivity at different conductivity mechanism of conduction.
38
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39
40 The first term in Eq. No. (7) is related to the carrier transportation beyond the mobility
41
42 edges into non-localized states (region A in Fig. No.1). A plot of ln () versus 1/T will
43
44
yield a straight line whose slope will be E1/K. The second term represents the transport
45
46
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47 by carriers into localized states at band edges, with hopping energy equal to w1(region B
48
49
50 in Fig. No. (1)). If the density of states at Fermi level EF is finite, then there will be
51
52 contribution from charge carriers with energies near EF with hopping energy W2, the third
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53
54 term, (region C in Fig. No (1). The details of the three conductivity regions are given in
55
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58 8
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Page 9 of 25 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - MRX-117185.R2

1
2
3 the references numbers (1, 5, 11 and 18). Table (2) gives the values of pre-exponential
4

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5
6 and the activation energies related to each conduction mechanism.
7
8 Table (2)
9

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10 B C D
11 Region
12 ln0 E1,0.2 ln1, E2,0.2 ln2, E3,0.02
13 ( .cm)-1 meV ( .cm)-1 meV ( .cm)-1 meV
14 Sample
15 No.
16

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17 1 8.4 14 -8.1 1 -9.3 0.8
18
19 2 14.6 5.1 -3.2 4 -9.72 0.3
20 3 7.66 0.32 -9.28 0.4 -9.7 .32
21
22 4 4.9 10.8 -8.73 1.6 -9.44 0.86
23
24
25
26
27
28
5
6
6.21
3.56
14.8
8
-10.6
-- an 1.45
----
-10.93
------
1.30
------
Table (2) summarize the conductivity characteristics data obtained from figure (1). Sample
dM
29
30 6 which is n-type germanium with electron concentration 6x1013 n.cm-2 irradiated with
31
32 reactor neutron fluency 1x1020 n.cm-2 [4, 18]. This sample becomes P-type after
33
34
35 irradiation [15]. The critical conductivity occurs at this sample, the metallic conduction c
36
37 began for this group of samples. Figure (2) shows the fitting of conductivity dependent on
38
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39
temperature in range (1.7K: 4.75K) in this range of temperature the metallic conductivity
40
41
42 of 3 dimensions fit with the empirical relation [45].
43
44  (T ) =  (0) + cT p (8),
45
46
where  (T) is the conductivity at temperature T,  (0) s the residual conductivity at zero
ce

47
48
49 temperature, c is constant , P is the power. The fitting parameter obtained by using
50
51
computer program Origin 9. The fitting parameters are  (0) =0.43  0.02, c=1.27  0.01,
52
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53
54 P = 0.55 . 02. This value of the power P indicates that sample 6 is in metallic side of
55
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57
58 9
59
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 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - MRX-117185.R2 Page 10 of 25

1
2
3 conductivity [40]. So, the conductivity of this sample is the critical conductivity to which
4

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5
6 the conductivity of other 5 samples scaled. Figure (3) shows the dependence of ln (0)
7
8 ln(1-0/c). the critical exponent is obtained from Eq. No. (9) [45].
9

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10 
11  (0) =   (1 −
P
) (9)
12 PC
13
14
15
where N is the doping concentration of different samples, NC is the critical doping
16

us
17 concentration,  is the critical exponent. Table (3) shows the critical exponent  obtained
18
19
from figure (3) at different temperature ranges related to different conduction mechanisms
20
21
22 Table (3)
23
24
25
26
27
28
Temperature range


an
10K-50K

0.940.1
6.3K-9.1K

3.70.1
4.2K-5.7K

0.130.1
dM
29
30
31 The critical exponent values in temperature ranges 10K-50K and 4.2K-5.7K are consistent
32
33
34
with the scaling theory which predicted the critical exponent value   2. But in the range
35
36 6.3 K-9.1K, the critical exponent > 2. Such values of critical exponent > 2 is reported in
37
38 literature, as mentioned literature survey section and expected.
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39
40
41 Figure (4) shows the dependence of ln (o) on the activation energy of conductivity,
42
43 according to (MNR) Eq. No. (2). Table (4) shows the fitting parameters of Eq. No. 2 and
44
45 ENM for the five samples, where R2 is the correlation coefficient.
46
ce

47
48 Table (4)
49
50 No. Slope, eV-1 Ln  (.cm)-1 ENM, meV R2
51
52 1 1392 -8.9 0.7 1
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54
2 1079 -8.9 0.9 1
55 3 1301 -10.63 0.8 0.99
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58 10
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1
2
3 4 1361 -10.9 0.7 1
4

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5 5 5598 -18.8 0.2 1
6
7
8
9 The data extracted from figure No.4 is plotted in figure No.5 where the dependence of 00

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10
11
12 on energy calculated from the slopes of lines in figure (4). From the slope of this line the
13
14 EMN is calculated from EMN = 1/slope = .072 eV. Figure (6) show the sweeping between
15
16

us
17 ES PCM and Mott VRH by lowering temperature. Efros [33] explained the sweeping
18
19 between conduction mechanisms to the smearing of Coulomb gap, as a result of
20
21 electrostatic interaction between the metallic electrode and the electrons. The electrostatic
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
electron-electron [31] interaction causes a reduction of density of states at Fermi level.

This gap called Coulomb gap for application the MNR in hopping conduction range of

conductivity, Naneshev et. al. [38] investigated the VRH conduction mechanism via
dM
29
30
31 considering spheres with different size and obtained the critical exponent  equals to
32
33 0.875 in three dimensions case. The connection between the conduction mechanisms in
34
35 germanium disordered by irradiation and the critical exponent theory is discussed in
36
37
38
literature [38-46]. Mandelbrot [47-49] connects between fractal, percolation, critical
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39
40 exponent. Recently Elsayed [50] using very simple mathematical method connect between
41
42 Meyer-Neldel Energy EMN and Mandelbrot Figures. Dalvi et. al. [26], attributed the
43
44
existence of MNR at Mott VRH conduction to the constancy of density of states at the
45
46
hopping level. The density of states N(E) and degree of disorder are related by the relation
ce

47
48
49 N(E) = No exp.(E/Eo), where 1/E0 is the measure of disorder degree. But in the present
50
51 work the MNR is observed in p-germanium disordered by irradiation at Both Mott VRH
52
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53
54 mechanism of conduction   T-0.25 and ES percolation hopping mechanism of
55
56 conduction   T-0.5. Figure (7) shows the dependence of oo on both T-0.25 and T-0.5 the
57
58 11
59
60
 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - MRX-117185.R2 Page 12 of 25

1
2
3 data obtained from this figure is summarized in table No.(5) which shows the MNR
4

pt
5
6 parameters as obtained from figure (7) Where R2 is correlation coefficient.
7
8 Elsayed [24] proved that the EMN is the energy dissipated in formation certain fractal
9

cri
10
11
system in a medium and the obtained critical exponent as shown in figure (8) confirms the
12
13 formation of fractal system in disordered P-type germanium samples. For obtaining MNR
14
15 parameters the procedure of Dalvi et. al. [26] used. Where for Mott VRH:
16

us
17 0.25
 T 
18 − M 

19  oo =  e
'
oo
 THMNR 
(10)
20
21 And, For ES PMC
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Table (5)
 oo =  e
'
oo
 T
− ES
 THMNR



0.5

an (11)
dM
29
30
HMNR Parameters Scaling Parameters
31
32
33
34 Slope TMNRH Intersection R2 Critical exponent Intersection R2
35
36 Mott (VRH) 0.270.01 14.1 -9.37 0.93 3.6 0.1 -3.19 0.999
37
38
ES (PCM) 0.520.01 13.3 -9.63 0.99 1.740.01 -4.72 0.93
pte

39
40
41
42
43
44
Table No. (5) explores the obtained values of critical exponents which are 3.6 for Mott
45
46 VRH, and 1.74 for ES PMC. These values declare that the critical exponent of Mott
ce

47
48 (VRH) is almost double critical exponent of ES PCM. Is there a relation between the
49
50 critical exponent of hopping conduction mechanisms and the hopping conduction of
51
52
Ac

53 different mechanisms exponents? Where the exponent of Mott VRH is 0.25 and for ES
54
55 PCM is 0.5. In table 5 THMNR is the hopping EMN, and (1/THMNR )0.25 is the slope of Eq. No.
56
57
58 12
59
60
Page 13 of 25 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - MRX-117185.R2

1
2
3 (10) and (1/THMNR )0.5 is slope of Eq. No. (11) as seen from table No. (5). That is THMNR
4

pt
5
6 for Mott VRH and THMNR for ES percolation hopping. As the best of my knowledge there
7
8 is no established explanation for MNR in hopping conduction. But the fractal explanation
9

cri
10 of MNR [24] formed an acceptable frame for understanding the Hopping MNR. Figure (8)
11
12
13 shows the relation between (1-TM/TM metallic) and log00, where TM is the MCT
14
15 temperature of VRH, and TM metallic is the Mott. characteristic temperature in the sample at
16

us
17 which starts metallic conductivity. Also the same figure shows the relation between (1-
18
19
20 TES/TES metallic) and log00, where TES is the ES characteristic temperature of PMC, and
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
conductivity. Eq. No .(12) :

 oo =  1 −
' TM
an
TES metallic is the ES characteristic temperature in the sample at which starts metallic

For Mott VRH

dM
oo
29 TM −Metallic
30
31  (12)
32 TES
 oo =  1 −
'
for ES PMC
33 oo
TES −Metallic
34
35
36 Table No. (5) explore the obtained values of critical exponents which are 3.6 for Mott VRH,
37
38 and 1.74 for ES PMC. The values of the obtained critical exponents either for non-hopping
pte

39
40
conduction or hopping conduction is predicted by theoretical calculations. Schrenk et.al.
41
42
43 used Monte Carlo simulation method, “obtained several static and dynamic critical
44
45 exponents as a function the Hurst (H) exponent. This (H) exponent describes the degree of
46
ce

47 spatial correlation among the occupation sites.” By this technique they [51] calculate for
48
49
50 uncorrelated percolation conduction critical exponent = 1.8958. This value is near the
51
52 experimentally obtained critical exponent value for ES percolation conduction mechanism.
Ac

53
54 Also Zhang et. al. [52] using Ising model for statistical mechanics proposed a relation
55
56
57
58 13
59
60
 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - MRX-117185.R2 Page 14 of 25

1
2
3 between fractal dimension and critical exponent. Zhang et al [52] predicted the values of
4

pt
5
6 critical exponents to vary from 1 to 4. These calculations make the present experimental
7
8 obtained critical exponents values are reasonable. Moreover, the presence of critical value
9

cri
10 indicates the existence of fractal figure with dimension related to critical value [52-53].
11
12
13 Phase transition is a phenomenon deeply related to critical exponents [40]. Taking in
14
15 consideration the results reported by Suzuki [40], Schrenk et. al. [52], Zhang et. al. [52],
16

us
17
18 Efros [49], and Shlimak et. al. [50]. One can say that Insulator metal transition and the
19
20 crossover from ES PMC to Mott VRH mechanism of conduction are related to a change of
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
samples internal energy. This change of internal energy leads to change of Mandelbrot

figures formed in the samples. The phase of conductivity changes at critical a certain fractal

length. Recently Batterman [53] published a report in which relate the thermodynamics of
dM
29 phase change with critical exponents and fractals. Also Ataland and Simon [54] report the
30
31
32 relation between Landau theory of phase change, critical exponents and fractal. Figure (9)
33
34 Shows SEM images of four different irradiated germanium samples. The Nubers on the
35
36 images is the number of samples as assigned in table (1). It is clear that there is a
37
38
morphological difference in shape and size of structural clusters in SEM images. The image
pte

39
40
41 of sample No. (1) shows ripples of average width 8m. Meanwhile the image of sample No.
42
43 (2) shows amorphous like structure, the amorphization by irradiation is reported [56]. But
44
45
46 the sample No.(3) image declares the existence of deformed hexagonal clusters with
ce

47
48 average size 4m. But the sample No. (4) image shows amorphous lie structure embedded
49
50
51
with some grains of average size 2m. Since These samples irradiated with different
52
Ac

53 irradiation doses. The irradiation dose cause transmutation doping. The composition
54
55 changed by irradiation. These morphological difference between the images of the four
56
57
58 14
59
60
Page 15 of 25 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - MRX-117185.R2

1
2
3 samples reveals that the fractal figures formed in irradiated germanium are composition
4

pt
5
6 and irradiation fluency dependent. A Similar results reported by Ridgway et. al. [55]., in
7
8 germanium irradiated Heavy ions.
9

cri
10 5. Conclusions
11
12
13 The electrical conductivity of uncompensated P-type germanium samples irradiated with 
14
15 quanta and /or reactor neutrons was measured in temperature range (300K-1.7K). The
16

us
17 obtained experimental results reveal that, there is crossover from Mott VRH to ES PMC.
18
19
20 MNR is applicable in all conduction mechanisms at each temperature range related to
21
22 different conductivity mechanisms. The MNR is Also applicable in different hopping
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
conduction mechanisms, include Mott (VRH) and ES(PMC). The scaling theory is also

applicable in insulator metal transition with critical exponent value changes from
dM
29 conduction mechanism to another. Also the scaling theory applicable in both Mott (VRH)
30
31 and ES (PMC). And all observed critical exponents are within the theoretical predicted
32
33
and/or experimentally reported values. The SEM pictures confirms the obtained results of
34
35
36 dependent fractal figures formed in irradiated germanium on composition and irradiation
37
38 fluency.
pte

39
40 References
41
42 [1] N. Khan, P. Sarkar, A. Midya, P. Mandal and P. Mohanty, Continuously varying
43 critical exponents beyond weak universality, Scientific reports, 7 (2017) 45004,
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45
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ce

47 [2] H. E. Stanley, Introduction to Phase transitions and critical phenomena, Clarendon

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50 [3] S.A. El-Hakim, an experimental determination of the fractal dimension at the metal-
51
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53
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3 [4] S. A. El-Hakim, An Experimental Determination of the Critical Exponents at the
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an
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5
6 annealing-induced insulator–metal transition in a-As4Se4Te2 chalcogenide composition,
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17 [19] S. A. El-Hakim & M. A. Morsy, Synchronous  (Co60) photons and thermal
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1
2
3 [56] N. A. Sobolev, Radiation effects in Si–Ge quantum size structures (review), Fizika et
4

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5 Technika Polyprovodniki, 47 2 (2013) 182-191
6
7
8 Figures
9

cri
10
11 Sample (1) Sample (2) Sample (3) Sample (4) Sample(5) Sample (6)
12 5
13 A
14 B C
15 0
16

us
17
18
ln(.cm)-1

-5
19
20
21 -10
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
-15

-20
an
dM
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
29 T-1, K-1
30
31 Figure (1)
32
33 B

34 Power0 Fit of Sheet1 B

2.2
35
36 2.0
conductivity, () (cm)-1

37
38 1.8
pte

39 1.6
40
41 1.4

42 1.2
43
44 1.0
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
45 Temperature, K
46
ce

47
48 Figure (2)
49
50
51
52
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53
54
55
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58 20
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1
2
3
4 4.2K-5.7K 6.25K - 9.1K 10K-50K

pt
4
5
6 3
7
2
8
Log( 0), (.cm)-1

9 1 y = 0.9426x + 3.1196

cri
10 R² = 0.971
0
11
12 -1 y = 3.708x - 4.9919
13 R² = 0.9962
-2
14
15 -3
16 y = 0.1369x - 4.1697

us
-4
17 R² = 0.7761
18 -5
19 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
20 Log(1-P/Pc )
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Figure (3)

0
sampe 1

0.002
sample 2

0.004 0.006
an sample 3
E, eV
0.008
sample 4

0.01 0.012
Series5

0.014
dM
29 20 20
30

ln(o),(.cm)-1, samples No.4&3

31 15 15
32 10 10
ln(.cm)-1

33
34 5 5
35
0 0
36
37 -5 -5
38
-10 -10
pte

39
40 -15 -15
41 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
42
E,eV
43
44
45
46
ce

47 Figure (4)
48
49
50
51
52
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53
54
55
56
57
58 21
59
60
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1
2
3
4

pt
5 0
6
7 -4 y = 13.917x - 20.886
8 R² = 0.9234
ln (.cm)-1

cri
-8
10
11
12 -12
13
14 -16
15
16 -20

us
17 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
18 EMN, meV
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Figure (5)

4E18 ES 2E18 Es
an
2E18+5E15n ES 2E18+1.1E17 ES 2E18 Mott
dM
4E18 Mott 6E18Es 6.00E+18 Mott 2E18+5E15n Mott 2E18+ 1.1E17 Mott
29
30
T-0.25, K-0.25
31
32 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
33 -8 -8
34
35 -10 -10
36
37 -12 -12
ln (.cm)-1

ln (.cm)-1
38
pte

39 -14 -14
40
41
42 -16 -16
43
44 -18 -18
45
46 -20 -20
ce

47 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7

48 T-0.5, K-0.5
49
50 Figure (6)
51
52
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53
54
55
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1
2
3
4 TM TES

pt
5
TES-0.5
6
7 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
4 0
8
9

cri
10
-2
11 0 y = 0.5164x - 9.6321
12 R² = 0.9902

ln(.cm)-1
ln00(.cm)-1

13 -4
14
15 -4
16 -6

us
17
18 y = 0.2742x - 9.3717
-8
19 R² = 0.9276 -8
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22 -12 -10
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TM(-0.25)
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Figure (7)
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31 ES Mott
32 Log(1-TM/TM mettalic)
33 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
34 0 1
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-0.5 0.5
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37 -1 y = 3.6091x - 3.1872 0
Log()(.cm)-1

R² = 0.9996
log(00)(.cm)-1

38 -1.5 -0.5
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39
-2 -1
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41 -2.5 y = 1.735x - 4.7163 -1.5
42 -3 R² = 0.9289 -2
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-3.5 -2.5
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45 -4 -3
46 -4.5 -3.5
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47 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

48 log(1-(TES/TESmetallic)
49
50 Figure (8)
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12 Figure (9)
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19 Figure captions
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21 Figure (1): Shows ln() = f(1/T)
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Figure (2) Show = f(T) for sample has metallic-like conductivity
Figure (3) Shows the dependence of Log () on Log(1-P/PC) for germanium irradiated
samples, where P is the hole concentrations, Pc is the critical hole concentrations. At
different temperature ranges related to the various conduction mechanisms
dM
29
30 Figure (4) shows ln(o) as a function of activation energies of the three mechanisms of
31
32 conduction for the five irradiated germanium samples.
33 Figure (5): Shows the dependence of lnoo on Meyer – Neldel energy as obtained from
34
35 equation No. (2).
36
37 Figure (6) Show dependence of ln() on T-0.25 (Mott VRH, Secondary axes) and T-0.5
38
primary axes.
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39
40
41
Figure (7) Shows the dependence of conductivity in hopping range of conduction 2 on
42
MCT temperature TM−0.25 (secondary axes) and Efros- Shkolovskii characteristic
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44
temperature TES−0.5 ( primary axes).
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46
Figure (8) shows the scaling behavior of dependence of Log () on Log (1-
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47
48 TM1/4/TMMettllic), secondary axes and (1-TES/TESMetallic) Primary axes.
49
50 Figure (9) SEM pictures for different samples where x= 3000 for all images.
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52 Table Captions:
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54 Table (1) Assignment of samples used in this work
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Table (2): Values of pre-exponential ln 0, ln1, and ln2 factors and activation energies
4

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5 related to each mechanism of conduction as obtained from figure (1)
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7
8 Table (3) Shows the fitting parameters of MNR and the obtained EMN for different
9

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10
samples.
11 Table (4) summarize the MNR fitting data of Eq. Nos. 10 and 11, and scaling data as
12
13 obtained from Fig. No. (8),
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