Programming in The Teaching and Learning Cycle

Exemplary Stage 1 Mathematics Program
Programming in the teaching and learning cycle

It is fundamental that all teaching is undertaken within the framework of the teaching and
learning cycle.
The following diagram demonstrates the teaching and learning cycle
The Teaching and Learning Cycle
Assessing: Where are the students now?
It is essential to determine where on the learning continuum the student is placed. Determining
the location of the student against the learning continuum provides the teacher with information
for developing an appropriate teaching program based on the needs of the students. There are
a number of different types of assessments that can be used to determine the baseline level
against the learning outcomes. The Schedule of Early Number of Assessment (SENA) from the
Count Me In Too program or the Starting with Assessment (SWA) materials can be useful.
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Planning and programming: Where are the students going?
Outcome, Knowledge and Skills

The mathematics outcomes plus knowledge and skills provide information for teachers on the
types of skills and knowledge that is expected from the student at the appropriate stage.
Outcomes
Are statements of the knowledge, skills and understandings expected to be gained, by the
student at the end of the appropriate stage as a result of effective teaching and learning.
Knowledge and skills

A set of statements related to the knowledge and skills students need to understand and apply
in order to achieve the outcome.
The following is an example of an outcome and its knowledge and skills. The stage outcomes are
also given, as the student should be making a progression between them.
Strand: SPACE AND GEOMETRY
Outcome: Position
SGS1.3 SGS2.3 SGS3.3
Represents the position of Uses simple maps and grids Uses a variety of mapping
objects using models and to represent position and skills
drawings and describes follow routes
using everyday language
• making simple models from • describing the location of an • finding a place on a map or in a
memory, photographs, drawings or object using more than one directory, given its coordinates
descriptions descriptor eg ‘The book is on the • using a given map to plan or
• describing the position of objects third shelf and second from the show a route
in models, photographs and left.’ eg route taken to get to the local
drawings • using a key or legend to locate park
• drawing a sketch of a simple specific objects • drawing and labelling a grid on a
model • constructing simple maps and map
• using the terms ‘left’ and ‘right’ to plans eg map of their bedroom • recognising that the same
describe the position of objects in • using given directions to follow a location can be represented by
relation to themselves eg ‘The tree route on a simple map maps or plans using different
is on my right.’ • drawing and describing a path or scales
• describing the path from one route on a simple map or plan • using scale to calculate the
location to another on a drawing • using coordinates on simple distance between two points on a
• using drawings to represent the maps to describe position eg ‘The map
position of objects along a path lion’s cage is at B3.’ • locating a place on a map which
• plotting points at given is a given direction from a town or
coordinates landmark eg locating a town that is
• using a compass to find North north-east of Broken Hill
and hence East, South and West • drawing maps and plans from an
• using an arrow to represent North aerial view
on a map
• determining the directions N, S, E
and W, given one of the directions
• using N, S, E and W to describe
the location of an object on a
simple map, given an arrow that
represents North eg ‘The treasure
is east of the cave.’
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When has a student reached an outcome?
When determining if a student is reaching an outcome there needs to be sufficient evidence

achieving the knowledge and skills. There are three measures of indicating student
achievement against a specific outcome. These three measures are:
A student:
Has achieved the outcome.
Is still working towards the outcome. (Or progressing towards the outcome)
Is achieving beyond the outcome (Student should be undertaking higher stage outcome)
Outcome achieved
Student can show proficiency with the specified knowledge and skills for the stage outcome.
All knowledge and skills are met for stage outcome.
Working towards the outcome (Or progressing towards the outcome)

Student cannot show proficiency with the specified knowledge and skills for the stage outcome.
Student can complete some of the knowledge and skills for stage outcome.
Working beyond the outcome

Student can show proficiency with the specified knowledge and skills for the stage outcome.
All knowledge and skills are met for stage outcome.
Student should be working on higher stage outcome knowledge and skills than their current
stage.
When planning and programming to achieve the outcome it is important that a number of factors
are considered.
For students with high support needs in numeracy it is necessary to:
 break the content relevant to the outcome into a sequence of manageable skills or
teaching steps
 ensure the steps are carefully sequenced from easy to difficult or in a logical order.
Some students may require very small steps
 ensure that syllabus content is covered
 clearly identify knowledge and skills that will show student achievement
 identify monitoring procedures to check progress
 determine the specific strategies and resources to be used
 provide teaching and learning experiences to ensure that the students achieve the
outcomes and move on.
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Factors in assessment diagram taken from Board of Studies Mathematics K-6 Sample Units of
Work. Published 2003
In the programming process the teacher should ensure that the working mathematically strand
is incorporated into the teaching of the other strands
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Teaching and learning experiences: How will the students get there?
Constructivism has played a key role in challenging the traditional view that mathematics is an
external, objective truth that is transmitted by the rote learning of abstract concepts and
symbols.
Constructivism encourages pedagogic approaches in which the individual has the opportunity to
construct concepts and meaning by using concrete objects and other methods and by
interacting with other students through pair or group work.
Lukin, A. and Ross, L.. (1997). The Numeracy handbook, Macquarie University
A mathematics session should embrace this constructivist philosophy to maximise the learning
potential for students. There should be a focus on classroom activities that are stimulating and
engaging for the student. The easiest way of destroying a child’s appreciation of mathematics is
for the child to be forced to learn mathematics from a textbook only or endless chalk and talk.
Children should be provided with rich tasks promoting investigation and problem solving. The
structure of a well-planned mathematics session can be broken down into the following
constituent components.
Warm Ups
The start of the session provides an opportunity for the teacher to review previously taught
skills. Errors can be identified and corrected thus providing the teacher with information on
student progress against specified indicators.
Main Body
This part of the session is critical in the development of new skills or concepts.
Modelled
Within this session the teacher models the new skills and concepts.
What is to be learned, how it is to be learned, and what students will be able to do is articulated.
The new concept should be presented in small steps.
Frequent checking of students’ understanding is essential.
Guided Practice:
The teacher leads the student through some examples of the skill or concept.
Independent practice:
The students practise the new skills or learn to use new information with a minimum of direct
assistance from the teacher until the new information is merged with what is already known.
Lesson Review (Reflection):

Students are provided with the opportunity to share their methods/discoveries, to present and
explain.
Teachers draw together what has been learned, reflect on what is important and summarise key
facts.
Teachers discuss next steps with students and make links to other work.
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The Basic Structure of a Maths Session
1. Warm Ups  Concentrate on mental strategies.

 Provide opportunities for Working Mathematically.
 Review and practise previously taught skills and concepts.
 Mental maths could include number facts, number laws
and conventions.
 Games/activities designed to develop/practice WM skills,
use dice and counters.
 Use whole class oral counting activities, multiple/skip
counting, counting forward and backward from a given
number, use of the open number line.
2. Main Activity  New concepts/skills are presented to the whole class.
 What is to be learned, how it is to be learned, and what
Modelling students will be able to do is articulated.
 Skills/concepts/strategies are broken down from global
steps into sub-steps.
 Students are guided through examples, feedback is given

Guided Practice in response to student inputs.
 The process involved is talked about, student to student,
teacher to student, student to teacher.
 New skills are practised with minimum teacher intervention

or direction.
Independent Practice
 Students are used to teach students.
 Opportunities are provided for students to apply
skills/concepts explicitly in a variety of contexts.
 Provide opportunities for students to demonstrate
understandings.
3. Lesson Review  Students are provided with the opportunity to share their
methods/discoveries, to present and explain.
 Teachers draw together what has been learned, reflect on
what is important and summarise key facts.
 Teachers discuss next steps and make links to other work.
Overriding Principles
Acquisition A need for 80% - 100% accuracy
Fluency A need to get better, faster
Maintenance Be able to remember the skill over time
Generalisation Be able to use the skill in other contexts
Session Review
It may take students a number of experiences before they grasp a new skill or concept. A new
skill needs to be repeated in a variety of contexts before mastery may be achieved.
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Outcome unit of work coversheet
Outcome Syllabus unit reference
STAGE 1
Early Stage One Stage One Stage Two
MES1.5 MS1.5 MS2.5
Sequences events and uses Compares the duration of Reads and records time in
everyday language to events using informal one-minute intervals and
describe the duration of methods and reads clocks makes comparisons between
activities on the half-hour time units
Continuum of outcomes for teacher information
Mapping grid allows teacher to see outcomes

Working mathematically outcomes Stage 1 and knowledge and skills addressed in the
lesson
Working Mathematically Outcomes 1 2 3 4 5 6

WMS 1.1 (Questioning) Asks questions that can be explored using mathematics in relation to X X
Stage 1 content
WMS 1.2 (Applying Strategies) Uses objects, diagrams, imagery and technology to explore X X X X X
mathematical problems
WMS 1.3 (Communicating) Describes mathematical situations and methods using everyday X X X X X X
and some mathematical language, actions, materials, diagrams and symbols
WMS 1.4 (Reasoning) Supports conclusions by explaining or demonstrating how answers
were obtained
WMS 1.5 (Reflecting) Links mathematical ideas and makes connections with generalizations X X X X
about, existing knowledge and understanding in relation to Stage 1 content
 estimating and measuring the duration of an event using a repeated informal unit X
e.g. the number of times you can clap your hands while the teacher writes your
name X
 comparing and ordering the duration of events measured using a repeated informal X
unit X
 naming and ordering the months of the year X
 recalling the number of days that there are in each month X
 ordering the seasons and naming the months for each season X
 identifying a day and date using a conventional calendar X
X
 using the terms ‘hour’, ‘minute’ and ‘second’
 using the terms ‘o’clock’ and ‘half-past’
 reading and recording hour and half-hour time on digital and analog clocks
Registration
Literacy Strategies Overview: Glossary

Writing an explanation
Literacy support strategies
Glossary of terms that students may find difficult and are part of the required language
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Outcome lesson
Outcome
St 1 MS1.1 Estimates, measures, compares and records lengths and distances Lesson: 2
using informal units, metres and centimetres
What the teacher is trying to achieve in the lesson Some lessons may start with a problem
Lesson focus: Start Up/ Problem:

Curved and linear lengths can be measured This string is the measure of the distance around
an object in this room. What is the object?
Lesson Timeframe: 45 minutes
Knowledge and skills focused in the lesson are in italics and underlined
 using informal units to measure lengths or distances, placing the units end-to-end
without gaps or overlaps
 counting informal units to measure lengths or distances, and describing the part left over
 comparing and ordering two or more lengths or distances using informal units
 estimating and measuring linear dimensions and curves using informal units
 recording lengths or distances by referring to the number and type of unit used
 describing why the length remains constant when units are rearranged
Materials: string, pop sticks, unifix cubes, match sticks
Materials needed for the lesson This part of the lesson indicates the types of
questions the teacher should be asking the
This part of the lesson indicates the student. It provides directions for the teacher in
time allocated for the step and the the lesson. Where the working mathematically
teaching activity for students. It also outcomes are utilised WM with the outcome
specifies when the students are to be number is written. Eg Working Mathematically
in whole group, pairs or groups. 1.5 is WM 1.5
Activity Questions / Comments / Discussion

Step 1: (Whole class discussion) [5 –10 min]
Discuss the measurement of length and the What are we measuring when we use the words
terminology used. long, short, longer than, shorter than, the same
Discuss how to measure head size (and why we length, shorter than?
would need to, eg hats). How could we measure the length around your
Discuss how to measure straight objects in the head? (wrap a piece of string around and then
room eg desks, blackboards, cupboards (and why find out how many unifix cubes long the string
we would need to measure them). is)
Students may suggest and demonstrate some How could we measure the length of a desk or
alternative methods which could be discussed by blackboard? (place string from one end of
the class. object to other, then find out how many unifix
Teacher emphasises the skills of placing and cubes long the string is)
counting the measuring units when laying the Should we overlap the string where the two
unifix cubes along side the string. ends meet? Why/why not? [WMS1.2]
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How can we record the head measurements?

How can we record the length of the objects (eg
blackboards, desks)? [WMS1.5]
Step 2: (Small group) [20-25 min] This may be an opportunity for individual
Explain that the task is to work with a partner to: assessment to check that students have:
 measure the distance around their heads  chosen one kind of unit
 measure the length of the blackboard  aligned and counted units correctly
using a string and unifix cubes, popsticks etc [WMS1.2]
Students assist each other to:
 measure around heads
 measure the length of the blackboard
Give students a copy of worksheet 2
Students choose, align, count and record the
number of units used to measure.
Which units were good to use and why? Can we
Step 3: ( Whole class discussion / reflection) compare head sizes if Andrew used blocks for
[10 min] units and John used matchsticks? [WMS1.3]
Report back to class
Key assessment points:

1. See assessment worksheet
Specifies if any assessment within the lesson is taking placing
Application problem
Colour the balloon with the longest string.
The teacher should ensure that the students examine the types of strategies used
by other students. It is important that the teacher summarise the key facts.
Some lessons have specific application problems. These problems may be

taken from the Basic Skills Test and indicate the type pf skills the student
should be able demonstrate.
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Monitoring student progress: How do I know when my students get there?

Monitoring involves systematic observation of students in order to observe the indicators identified that
show achievement of syllabus outcomes.
The section in the document on assessment provides teachers with strategies, guidelines and examples
for monitoring student progress.
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Assessment
While paper and pencil tests will continue to be an important method of assessment, teachers
need to use a variety of assessment strategies. In mathematics, as in other curriculum areas,
students learn from each other. Through purposefully talking over ideas together, students
develop their understanding of mathematical concepts and enhance their enjoyment of
mathematics. Teachers need to observe, listen to and collect the products of these learning
experiences. Using a variety of assessment strategies will help to reduce students’ anxiety .
(Mathematics K – 6, 1989 p 18)
Assessment is a critical part of the teaching learning cycle. It is through assessment that we
know what it is that a student knows and can do. This is essential before we teach so that the
lesson design can focus on progressing the student. It is useful to incorporate informal
assessment opportunities during the lesson to observe student understanding. At the end of
teaching a unit of work there needs to be an opportunity for a student to show what it is that s/he
can now do.
In the following pages key questions are offered to help focus on opportunities to listen to
students talking about their mathematical understanding and assessment ideas are provided to
produce a work sample related to the concept addressed in the unit of work.
Assessment in NSW Department of Education and Training schools should be focused around
student achievement of the learning outcomes.
An outcomes–approach acknowledges that students, regardless of their class or grade,

can be working towards syllabus outcomes anywhere along the learning continuum.
An outcomes-approach to assessment will provide information about student achievement to

enable reporting against a standards framework.
(School Assessment and Reporting Directorate (1997). Principles for assessment and reporting
in NSW government schools.)
The NSW Department of Education has developed a variety of assessment tasks to

assist teachers in determining the skills and strategies that students are using. The
Starting with Assessment Materials and the Count Me In Too – Schedule of Early
Number Assessment (SENA) provide teachers with a one-one interview with students.
School Assessment and Reporting Directorate (1997). Principles for assessment and
reporting in NSW government schools.
Training and Developing Directorate (2000) Quality Teaching and Learning Materials
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Principles of effective and informative assessment and reporting
The following table lists attributes and focus questions as specified in the School Assessment
and Reporting Directorate (1997), Principles for assessment and reporting in NSW government
schools. The focus question provide teachers with questions to examine their own and school
assessment practices and whether the principles are being met.
Attribute Focus question

 has clear direct links with Do our assessment strategies directly link to and
outcomes reflect syllabus outcomes?
 is integral to teaching and Are our assessment strategies derived from well-
learning structured teaching and learning activities?
 is valid Are our assessment strategies measuring the
outcomes we intend to measure?
 is fair Are we providing equal opportunities for success
regardless of students’ age, gender, physical or
other disability, culture, background, language,
socio-economic status or geographic location?
 is time efficient and How can we make assessment more time
manageable efficient and manageable?
 is balanced comprehensive and Do our assessment strategies give students
varied multiple opportunities, in varying contexts, to
demonstrate what they know, understand and
can do in relation to the syllabus?
 engages the learner Do our assessment strategies allow students to
actively participate in the negotiation of learning
tasks and actively monitor and reflect upon their
achievements and progress?
 values teacher judgement Are teachers confident to make judgements on
the weight of assessment evidence and well-
defined standards, about student progress
towards achievement of outcomes?
 recognises individual Are we providing students with a wide range of
achievement and progress tasks to ensure all outcomes and learning styles
are catered for?
Examples of good classroom assessment strategies
Teachers need to select strategies appropriate to the outcomes they are teaching. Examples of
the types of assessments that can be used are listed below.
 Portfolio
 Three way assessment and reporting
 Performance assessment
 Observation sheets
 Journals
 Peer and self assessment
 Journals
 Teacher made tests
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The following table indicates how the assessment tasks used in the exemplary programming
units have been written and designed to meet the principles of effective and informative
assessment and reporting.
Exemplary Stage 1 Mathematics Program assessment tasks
Attribute Assessment items in the Exemplary Stage 1

Mathematics Program
 has clear direct links with are linked with the outcomes
outcomes
 is integral to teaching and all tasks are also teaching and learning activities
learning
 is valid measure the specific outcomes of that are being
taught
 is fair provides opportunities for students regardless of
age, gender, physical or other disability, culture,
background, language, socio-economic status or
geographic location.
 is time efficient and are incorporated in the normal lesson structure
manageable as teaching and learning activities
 is balanced comprehensive and provide a wide variety of tasks, from written,
varied modelling, observation, etc
 engages the learner allow the student to monitor and reflect upon their
achievements and progress.
 values teacher judgement help the teacher determine if the student is
achieving the outcome
 recognises individual cater for the differing learning styles of students
achievement and progress and ensure the outcomes are effectively
assessed
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Example of Assessment Task in the exemplary programming units
Student Name: Date
St 1 DS1.1: Gathers and organizes data, displays data using columns and Lesson: 1
picture graphs, and interprets the results.
Knowledge and Skills Record

The student can:
 Display data using concrete materials and pictorial representations
 Uses objects or pictures as symbols to represent data using one-
to-one correspondence
 Displays data using column graphs and picture graphs
 Interprets information presented in picture graphs or column
graphs
Students, in groups, collect data and then represent their data in a visual way.
Students construct a sentence to explain their visual explanation.
Focus knowledge and skills in this assessment.

Student may demonstrate other knowledge and skills
Teacher may record student competency here
Directions for the task. Student may not

understand directions and teacher will have to
explain to the class. Students are usually Word box provides students
required to record in sentences. with words used to make
sentences.
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Word Box
one two three four five more most
less least
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Using Literacy Strategies in Mathematics Lessons
A well-recognised teaching strategy is to begin a mathematics lesson with a contextual word

problem. This requires students to read and comprehend the problem, often leading teachers to
make the comment “I know they could do the maths if only they could read the problem”. It is
quite appropriate for a teacher to allocate time for students to practise their reading and
comprehension skills within a mathematics lesson. There are many literacy resources in
existence to assist teachers improve students’ reading and comprehension skills. Many detailed
descriptions of these are found in the DET State Literacy Book Programming and Strategies
Handbook.
Examples of Contextual Word Problems with Suggested Reading Strategies
Problem: I had one of each of the coins in our currency on my table. I sorted them into
two groups. What might the groups have been?
Stimulus: Problem Poster containing the problem in large print and pictures of several
coins.
Suggested Reading Strategy: Think-aloud Reading (Whole class). This strategy has the
teacher verbally modelling the thinking processes of comprehension (Making Predictions,
Decoding, Describing, Making Analogies, Verbalising, and Monitoring Understanding.)
Making Predictions: ”I think from the pictures of coins and this word coins this problem is about
money.”
Decoding: “How do I say this word?” Curr-en-cy, currency.
Describing: “ I have a picture of some coins in my mind. Some are quite small. One is very big.”
Making Analogies: I sorted them into two groups. “This reminds me of when we sorted the red
and blue beads into two groups.”
Verbalising: “Now, it might be good if we can get some coins to help with this problem.”
Monitoring Understanding: “I wonder if I can work out the meaning of currency from the words
near it?”
Students can now move into groups of four, each group having a worksheet (A4 version of the
poster), where students work cooperatively, again reading the problem and attempting
solutions.
Problem: There are five vehicles in the car park. How many wheels might there be?
Stimulus: A problem card strip for each group (pair) of students. Each group (pair) should have
a competent reader acting as a tutor who could be a class mate, an older student, a mother, a
STLD, etc).
Suggested Reading Strategy: Neurological Impress Method: NIM (Paired reading).
This strategy has the following purposes: to develop reading fluency, to model effective reading,
and to build confidence. The tutor and a student read aloud together from the shared copy of
the word problem.
The tutor explains the process: We are going to read this problem out aloud together.
You don’t have to worry about knowing all the words because I’ll be reading with you.
You just say what I say. Keep your eyes on the words as my finger moves across the
page and read aloud WITH me, not after me.
The tutor must synchronise his/her voice and finger exactly, moving SMOOTHLY across the line
of print and quickly from the end of one line to the beginning of the next.
The text should be read with enjoyment and a discussion should take place at the end about
what has been read.
The tutor is NOT to correct errors or give negative comments. The reading experience must be
a totally positive experience.
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Suggested Vocabulary Strategy: Word Meaning Checklist

The purpose of this strategy is to help students become aware of when they do and do not
understand the meaning of words.
Stimulus: A half A4 sheet containing a prepared Word Meaning Checklist
WORDS I know it well. I know it a I’ve seen it or I’ve never

I use it. bit. heard of it heard of it.
but don’t
know it.
five
vehicles
car park
many
wheels
might
.
The teacher explains how to rate the words by modelling an example, carefully explaining the
column headings using the bold words as key words. Ask the students to rate the words by
ticking in the appropriate column. Use group discussion, synonyms and diagrams to assist
students who place ticks in the last two columns.
The text should then be read.
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Concept of Definition
Purpose
o To help students to develop and refine their knowledge of word meanings
Description
A word map is used to visually display different categories of relationships in a definition.
To make a work map

 Selected word concept (1)
 The class to which the word concept belongs (What is it?) (2)
 The properties that distinguish it from other members of its class (What is it like?) (3)
 Examples or pictures of the concept (4)
 Similar examples of the concept
Preparation
Select a mathematical word from a current unit of work to use for demonstrating the
construction of a word map.
Complete the word map and use it to prepare a reconstruction activity, eg. a jig-saw or a cut and
paste.
Materials
OHT and blank copies of the word map.
A reconstruction activity using a completed word map.
Implementation
1. Explain the purpose of the word map.
2. Model the process of constructing a word map. Provide explicit step by step instruction
using ‘think aloud’ and questioning.
3. Use the completed example and materials provided for students to reconstruct the word
map. This could be completed as a whole class or small group activity with the class teacher
guiding the process.
4. Select another familiar concept word related to the current unit of work and repeat the steps
1 to 3.
Example: Construct a word map based on the word Square.
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Word Map
What is it?
2D Shape
Description
Similar Example 4 straight

sides
A rectangle is like 4 equal sides
a square that has
been stretched
Description
Flat
Description
4 corners
Drawing Drawing Drawing
Description:
A square has 4 straight sides and 4 equal sides. It is a 2D shape, which means it is flat. It
has 4 corners. A square is a bit like a rectangle.
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Word Map
Map
What is it?
Description
Similar
Example
Description
Description
Drawing Drawing Drawing
Description:
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Directed Reading Thinking Activity (D.R.T.A.)
Purpose
o to develop critical reading skills and the ability to predict
o to support the incidental learning of vocabulary.
Description
D.R.T.A. is a silent reading activity during which participants stop and hypothesise about
possible information or events ahead. Different views are discussed, using the text already read
as supporting evidence.
Preparation
Students work in groups of three to six. Divide the problem to be read into suitable sections for
evaluation. Dependent readers may need to have text read in groups or by a partner.
Materials
A contextual word problem containing a title and multiple sentences appropriate to the topic
being studied.
Eg. Adam’s Water Bottle
Adam’s water bottle holds two litres of water.
Colour the number of ½ litre cups Adam could fill using all the water in his water bottle.
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Implementation
1. The groups sit in a circle to facilitate discussion.
2. The students start by reading the title and predict what the problem will be about. If there are
any diagrams or illustrations use these to make more predictions.
3. All students read at the same time to the end of the first sentence (evaluation point).
4. Students set purposes for reading (for example, to find answers to focus questions).
5. The students predict what the next sentence will be about, and consider the accuracy of
earlier predictions.
The Teacher’s role during D.R.T.A.

 ACTIVATE
What do you think? What will happen?
 AGITATE
Why do you think so?
 REQUIRE EVIDENCE
Prove it! Read the part that supports you.
The students role during the D.R.T.A

 PREDICT
Set purposes
 READ
Process ideas silently
Reread to justify predictions
Read orally, to substantiate beliefs or proposals
 QUESTION
Others in the group.
 SUBSTANTIATE
from evidence in the problem or your own experience.
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Reading Graphs
Purpose
 To focus on graphs and interpret the content
 To practise ‘reading’ graphs and linking with associated content
 To link talking and listening vocabulary with reading and mathematics vocabulary
Description
There is a very simple technique during which learners look at the non-print part of a text and
talk about it and record key words on cards. Cards form a databank.
This strategy is used when students know little about the topic to be studied.
This activity is suitable for small group work.
Preparation
Select a suitable graph for reading and interpretation.
This graph shows how much rain fell during December, January and February.
25
20
15
RAINFALL
10
0
December January February
MONTHS
In which month did the most rain fall ?

o December
o January
o February
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Material
1. Graph big enough to allow the group to see the text and information
2. Index cards or similar, marking pens
Implementation
1. Discuss the title and topic of the graph with the group.
2. Appoint a student as recorder or have students take turns [or the teacher may be
recorder].
3. Draw the group’s attention to the names of the axes and discuss them with the students.
It may be useful to read these names to the students.
4. Ask the students to ‘read the graph’ by naming items or ideas it suggests.
5. Teacher may need to guide discussion to bring out particular vocabulary which they
know is associated with ‘reading’ graphs, in particular the language of comparison.
6. Record any vocabulary that emerges. When the graph has been treated have the
students match the recorded words to the graph where they may be used.
7. Display words during the duration of the concept being taught.
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Making Predictions Using Graphs
Purpose
To motivate students, activate content knowledge, increase anticipation and highlight

important concepts. This technique introduces new technical vocabulary and allows
discussion of new concepts.
Description
Predicting requires the students to make a judgment or best guess about what a graph will
contain. This is a process of preparing the mind-set for what is to come.
Material
Careful choice of graph at appropriate level.
Implementation
1. Display the title of the graph, either on OHT or by preparing a copy large enough for the
whole group to see. Reveal the heading only.
2. Students discuss, in pairs, groups or as a class, what the graph may be about. All
suggestions are acceptable. They share their reasons for their prediction, in answer to
questions like ‘What made you think that?’ This helps students to identify and interpret a
wider range of clues.
3. Students predict information that might occur on the graph.
4. Display the graph, students read to verify predictions.
5. After reading and interpreting the graph, students write down what they can remember
and check with their partner.
6. Students discuss what they remembered and why they remembered that part.
Display first NICOLE’S VEGETABLES
Discuss/Predict
Display second NICOLE’S VEGETABLES

Discuss/Predict
carrots
onions
potatoes
beans
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
25
Display Third NICOLE’S VEGETABLES

Discuss/Predict
carrots
onions
potatoes
beans
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Vegetables
Display fourth NICOLE’S VEGETABLES

Discuss/Predict
carrots
onions
potatoes
beans
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Vegetables
Display last
Discuss
The total number of vegetables grown by Nicole was:
o 18
o 24
o 27
o 28
Barrier Games
26
Purpose
 To develop skills in oral description.
Description
Barrier games involve one player giving instructions while a second player receives and acts
upon them. The two players are arranged opposite each other with a barrier between them. One
player gives instructions while the other asks questions to clarify them. After receiving
instructions and clarifying them in this way, the barrier is removed and a comparison of the
material is made.
Preparation
Select an appropriate activity where a process can be articulated.
Example: 1
A barrier is placed between each pair of students.
Give each pair of students eight multilink cubes, two cubes of four different colours.
Student one makes a construction using all eight blocks. This student then instructs student two
to copy the construction. Student two asks questions to clarify the process.
The barrier is then removed and the two constructions are compared.
Related Outcome
S1.1 Describes 3D objects using everyday language, models and sorts them, and
recognises them in drawings and pictures.
B R
Y B B W
A B
Y W
R W
R Y
R Y
R R W
I
B
E
R
Example: 2
A barrier is placed between each pair of students.
Give each pair of students a map. One map has a route marked on it.
27
The student with the route marked instructs the other student to follow the same route. The
second student asks questions to clarify the process.
The barrier is then removed and the two routes are compared.
Variation:
1. No route is marked on the first map. The first student decides upon a route, draws it onto
his/her map, and then gives instructions to the second student.
2. Places are marked on the map. The first student is instructed to plot a route between two
places, and then gives instructions to the second student.
Related Outcome
S1.4 Represents the position of objects using models and sketches, and uses everyday
language to describe their position.
Reciprocal Teaching
Purpose
28
 To improve students’ comprehension of text through practice in previewing, predicting,

self monitoring of understanding, questioning and summarising. It is particularly suitable
for factual texts.
Description
Reciprocal teaching focuses on before, during and after reading. It is a set of procedures to
assist students to learn strategies, to know when to use them and to recognise that they are
using them. They are most appropriate for students who can decode text adequately but who
have difficulty understanding what it means. Four strategies are embedded in reciprocal
teaching.
 Predicting
 Clarifying
 Questioning
 Summarising
Reciprocal teaching is suitable for small groups, not the whole class. This procedure requires a
training period in which the teacher models all roles, then gradually hands over the leader’s role
as members take turns.
The use of group roles helps this strategy: they are teacher, recorder, encourager, timekeeper.
Students will need preparation for working in groups.
Preparation
The students need to be taught the steps in this technique so that they can eventually take turns
being the “teacher” of the group, leading the students through the strategy as it applies to text in
the KLAs.
If it is to work well, students need to use it regularly during a unit of work. Three half hour
lessons using the technique are probably needed each week.
Materials
Appropriate text. If the text is too hard for some students it should be read aloud.
A response sheet for the group (or individuals in the group) to complete.
Implementation
1. predicting Students use their background knowledge along with the title and pictures to
guess and discuss what the text might be about. The teacher directs students to clues,
eg “What does the title suggest?”
2. reading Students read the text silently, or aloud in pairs or as a group.
3. discussing Were our predictions correct? What else happened?
4. clarifying All students are encouraged to note words to be clarified as they read. The
“teacher” asks can anyone help.
5. questioning Students ask three types of questions:
 “right there” questions have answers right there in the text, probably in the same
sentence as the words used to form the question.
 “think and search” questions are inferential. The answers are more difficult to
find but the evidence is in the text.
 “on my own” questions can be answered by the reader only. Whilst the answer
isn’t in the text, questions relate to it and answers should be justified.
Students are taught to identify the question types and to formulate all three types of questions.
What number should be added to 7? Who can tell me what type of question this is and give me
a reasonable answer?
29
6. summarising The “teacher” summarises what has been read so far. Only the main
points are stated. Graphic outlines can assist students in summarising.
7. predicting The cycle starts again until the text has been completed.
Example
A train has some carriages. Each carriage has some people in it. Draw the train so that the
order of the carriages from the front is different from the number of people in it.
 The “teacher” introduces the text with a brief discussion to activate students’ prior
knowledge.
 All students read the text, alone, then aloud in the group.
 The “teacher” summarises, questions, clarifies & predicts.
 The students work through the problem to find a solution.
 Solutions are shared with the group.
Reciprocal Teaching
30
Name: Date:
Predict Clarify
Questions
Summary
Here, Hidden, Head (3H)
31
Purpose
 To teach learners where the answers to questions can be found, using the mnemonic
cue 3H for:
1. HERE the answer is explicit in the text. It is here in one sentence in the text.
2. HIDDEN the answer is implicit in the text. It is found by joining together
information from two or more places in the text, or from information from the text
and what the student already knows.
3. In my HEAD the answer is in the student’s background knowledge: what they
already know.
Description
Students are taught this instructional strategy for answering questions. They apply the strategy
to both asking and answering questions about text. The strategy can be used in individual and
small group interventions as well as in classroom teaching.
Materials
A selection of contextual word problems eg from past BST papers.
Implementation
1. The teacher demonstrates the process, moving from the more basic level of decoding,
self-correcting and rereading to the comprehension level of question reading and
answering.
2. The teacher directly teaches the first mnemonic cue (here), and uses think aloud
strategies to teach reviewing, skimming and scanning techniques to find the answer.
3. The teacher supports the students in guided practice of the first mnemonic cue.
4. The teacher supports the students in guided practice of the hidden mnemonic, and sets
some independent work on easy text in both the here and hidden strategies, and has the
students frame their own here and hidden questions.
5. The teacher adds the in my head strategy in the same manner. The pace and degree of
support will depend on the response of the students to learning the strategy.
6. Once taught, the 3H strategy is used by the students on a variety of word problems. The
teacher at first reminds the students to use the strategy, but lessens the prompt as
students begin to use it automatically.
Problem: A train has six carriages. Each carriage has some people in it. Draw the train so that
the order of the carriages from the front is different from the number of people in it.
Once the 3H method is used regularly the teacher would:

 Read through the word problem, or get students to read it.
 Ask the students to identify the questions they would need to ask in order to find a
solution. eg “How many people could there be in the first carriage?” “How many
carriages are there?” List the questions on the board.
 Identify Here, Hidden or Head questions.
 When students have sufficient information, they begin to solve the problem.
Related Outcome
WM1.2: Answers mathematical questions using objects, pictures, imagery, actions or trial-and-
error.
Fit It
32
Purpose
 To reinforce meaning and definition of vocabulary.
Description
A game based on the cloze technique. Students can develop their own games based on this
model.
Materials
Two packs of cards; a sentence pack and a word pack.
Each card in the sentence pack has a sentence with a word missing. A gap indicates the
position of the missing word.
The word pack has the missing words from the sentences.
Implementation
1. The object of the game is to try to match a sentence and a word card and so accumulate
as many pairs as possible until there are no cards left.
2. The winner is the player with the most pairs.
3. If four people are playing, play in teams of two, thus allowing partners to confer and
decide together.
4. The sentence cards are placed in a pile, face up. Word cards are spread out, face down.
Teams take turns to select the top sentence card and turn over one word card.
5. They read aloud the sentence card, inserting the word from the word card in the
appropriate place.
6. If the sentence makes sense, they keep both cards and have another turn. If the
sentence doesn’t make sense, they place the sentence card on the bottom of the pile
and turn the word card back over.
Related Outcome
N1.3(a) Represents addition and subtraction facts up to twenty using concrete materials and in
symbolic form.
Fit It Sentence Cards (Game: 1)
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7 plus 9 is 8 plus
is 16
4 plus 7 is plus 7
is 15
8 4 is 12 5 plus 5 is
10 plus is 15 3 plus 8 is
20 is 10 plus 14 is
plus 7
9 plus is 9 5 plus 9 is
___ plus 6 is 11
34
2 plus 6 is
Fit It Word Cards
16 8
11 8
10
plus
5 11
10 7
8 14
0 5
35
Fit It Sentence Cards (Game: 2)
nine plus three equals
four plus equals fourteen
plus six is fourteen
nine plus eight seventeen
one plus equals eight
thirteen equals seven plus
36
Fit It Word Cards (Game: 2)
twelve ten
eight equals
six
seven
37
Neurological Impress Method (NIM)
Purposes
o To develop fluency
o To model effective reading
o To build confidence
o To connect the written symbol to the sound
Description
A tutor (peer or parent) or teacher and student read aloud together from one shared copy of the
text.
Preparation
Selection of appropriate students for the program and training of the tutor.
Materials
The text selected should be targeted to the individual child. For example, if a student is having
no difficulty recognising the numerals 0-10 and 20-100, but confuses the teens, the following
text could be used.
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
12 17 10 19 11 16 13 20 15 18 14
Implementation
1. Sit next to your student.
2. Explain the process which will take place like this: We are going to read these numbers
together. You don’t have to worry about knowing all the numbers because I’ll be reading
with you. You just say what I say. Keep your eyes on the numbers as I point to them,
and read aloud with me, not after me.
3. Synchronise your voice and finger exactly, moving smoothly across the line of numbers.
Use your finger above the line.
4. Read naturally. Find a comfortable speed.
5. Stop at the end of each line and give a positive comment.
6. DON’T CORRECT ERRORS and DON’T GIVE NEGATIVE COMMENTS. The program
must be a totally positive experience for the student.
Other Possible Uses

o Number words.
o Multiplication tables.
o Addition / subtraction facts.
38
o Shape names.
Developing Sight Vocabulary: Match-to-Sample
Purpose
o To increase the student’s sight vocabulary using the match-to-sample teaching strategy.
Description
Match-to-sample is a teaching strategy that enables the teacher to control the presentation of
activities in an easy to hard sequence to ensure success. When used for word recognition it
enables the student to focus on the salient features of the word without reference to contextual
clues. Daily practice and monitoring are necessary for progress.
The following is an easy to hard match-to-sample for teaching a single word.

1. Meaning to meaning. Given a picture, find an identical picture.
2. Print-to-print matching. Given a printed word, find or cover the same word from a set
of printed words.
3. Oral to meaning. Given a spoken word, select a picture from a set of pictures.
4. Meaning to oral. Given a picture, name it.
5. Oral to print. Given a spoken word, select the printed word.
6. Meaning to print. Given a picture, selected the printed word.
7. Print to meaning. Given a picture, select or find or frame the printed word.
8. Print to oral. Given a printed word, name it.
Preparation
Make a square grid sheet by dividing a sheet of A4 paper into sections (no more than eight) with
matching word cards.
Implementation
o Ask the student to match the word cards that are the same on the grid sheets by
covering them.
o Tell the student to point to or to pick up the words as you say them.
o Ask students to say the word on each card as you present it.
39
When a word is correct for three consecutive days, a new word can be substituted.
Developing Sight Vocabulary: Games for Word Recognition
Purpose
To increase the student’s automatic recognition of high frequency words, shapes, signs and
symbols using games for daily practice.
Description
Games can be a fun way of providing daily practice for those students who have difficulty
developing automatic recognition of many high frequency words, shapes, signs and symbols.
Preparation
Identify key words, shapes, signs and symbols and match to suitable games. (DENS Stage 1)
Materials
Game boards, dice, counters, teddies, blocks, a laminator etc.
Types of Games
Concentration
Bingo
Board games
Card games
Variations
These strategies can be revisited and used as new and more complex words are required by
the students.
Other Word Recognition Strategies

o Ensure that high frequency words, signs, shapes and symbols taught are repeated often
in context.
o Display a data bank of high frequency words, signs, shapes and symbols in the
classroom for reference.
o Have available a pack of high frequency words, signs, shapes and symbols with the
sight word, sign, shape or symbol on one side, and a simple, easy to read sentence
containing the word, sign, shape or symbol on the other.
o Cut up sentences to focus attention on individual words, signs, shapes or symbols.
o Provide an individual folder for students that can be used to store a set of words, signs,
shapes and symbols for future practice at school and at home.
40
Look, Say, Cover, Write, Check – a strategy to support visual knowledge.
Purpose
o To assist students to learn irregular words. It is not suitable for phonemically regular
words.
Preparation
The words that the student most needs to learn are the high frequency irregular or key words
that he or she misspells. Students should not be required to learn words they already know how
to spell. Select key words for a particular unit and give a pretest.
Materials
Pencil, workbook, paper or whiteboard. A prepared sheet, with four columns, requiring the
student to repeat the process three times with each word.
Implementation
When looking at an outcome, think about the scope and complexity of the language demands
for your students, especially those with weak literacy skills. While the correct spelling of these
words is not vital, it is important for students to recognise these words and understand their
meanings, especially the irregular words. It is also a strategy that can be used by parents at
home to help their children. For example:
Outcome N 1.4(a) A student generates and describes number patterns using a variety of
strategies.
Relevant Syllabus Units N1-11, A1-3, S1-5, M1-3, D1-2
Language: doesn’t belong, short, heavy, light, empty, enough, fewer, too many, fewest, nearly,
fourth, seventh, eighth, ninth, equal, nought, goes, enough, two, four, among.
Say
When saying the word, the student focuses on the parts of the word that are spelt the way it
sounds.
Cover
By covering the word the student is forced to rely on memory. Just copying words is not
effective in helping students to remember them.
Write
The test: how much of the word is remembered correctly?
Check
The student compares his/her word with the original. Encourage the student to tick every correct
letter.
41
Must, Should, Could: which vocabulary should we focus on in a topic?
Purpose
o To assist the teacher to prioritise vocabulary where there are a number of new terms to
be learned.
Implementation
1. List the words you think will cause difficulty for learners.
2. Tick the words you have already taught, they only need revising.
3. Categorise the remaining words as:
MUST
o Essential to learning the topic or concept.
o Need to be systematically taught to enable learners to recognise and understand
them on sight.
SHOULD
o Highly significant to understanding the topic or concept.
o Students should know them.
COULD
o Not essential for basic understanding of the topic or concept.
o Teacher can still teach them but with less emphasis and review.
o Decide how to teach the MUST and SHOULD words.
Example
Vocabulary Sheet: Outcome S 1.1 Describes 3D objects using everyday language; models and
sorts them, and recognises them in drawings and pictures.
Word Revise Must Should Could Examples of Strategies
Smooth √ Questioning
Curved √ Questioning, diagramming
Rounded √ Questioning, matching
Pointed √ Questioning, matching, diagramming
Longer √ Demonstration, questioning
Shorter √ Demonstration, questioning
Flat √ Demonstration, questioning
Balance √ Questioning, diagramming
Roll √ Demonstration, questioning
Slide √ Questioning, diagramming
Twist √ Questioning, diagramming
Turn √ Questioning, diagramming
Squash √ Questioning, diagramming
Flatten √ Questioning, diagramming
Hollow √ Questioning, matching, diagramming
Solid √ Questioning, matching, diagramming
Face √ Questioning, matching, diagramming
Edge √ Questioning, matching, diagramming
42
Corner √ Questioning, matching, diagramming

Square √ Questioning, matching, diagramming
Triangle √ Questioning, matching, diagramming
Mental Computation
Calculating numerical problems mentally was regularly used in classes many years ago where
the emphasis was on producing an answer quickly. These problems were either called mentals
or mental arithmetic. There was no attempt made to analyse the method used. Today students
are being encouraged to use mental computation which emphasises the mental processes used
in working towards an answer. With mental computation students choose their preferred
strategy and are then asked to verbally explain their thinking.
Mental computation, within the teaching of mathematics, has been much undervalued, with
written computation making up almost 100% of the teaching time of many teachers. This has
resulted in some students attacking addition and subtraction problems using the trading method
exclusively, even at inappropriate times. An extreme example of this is
1 15
-7
___________
Teachers are encouraged to promote the use of mental computation in their students by
providing opportunities for students to orally explain their chosen strategy. Ideally, several
strategies will emerge around the same task and each should be discussed in terms of ease
and efficiency. Students, when faced with a problem, are then more able to make a choice of a
strategy appropriate to a particular problem.
Subtraction involving zeros

Subtracting 76 from 100 is quite a messy method using trading whereas a bridging to 10 mental
strategy is much more efficient, i.e. jumping 4 to 80 and then incrementing by 10 to 90 and
another 10 to 100, giving an answer of 24.
This example involves two sub-skills; bridging to 10 and incrementing by 10.
The bridging to 10 strategy involves students being exposed to many examples of the
combinations of 10, sometimes referred to as Friends of 10. These being 8 & 2, 9 & 1, 6 & 4,
etc. Friends of 10 can be found in DENS 1, p. 175. Other activities include using the student’s
10 fingers. Once instant recall of the combinations of 10 has been achieved move onto two digit
numbers where a two-stage question can be posed and practised. eg “46. How many to the
next decade number and what is the decade number?” (Answers: 4, 50).
A slightly different mental strategy involves incrementing off the decade numbers first.
Subtracting 76 from 100 using this strategy becomes: start with 76, then 86, 96 (twenty),
bridging from 96 to 100, 4 (hence, twenty-four).
Doubles, Near Doubles and Compensation

Another mental computation strategy involves number-doubles and near-doubles. Having learnt
the number fact 7 plus 7 is 14 leads onto 7 plus 8 is 15 and 7 plus 6 is 13.
The use of compensation is a useful strategy with awkward numbers, particularly with near
decade numbers of 47 plus 19. “I don’t like 19, but I like 20.” Now 47 plus 20 is 67. But, I need
to compensate for changing the 19 to 20. Because I made the 19 larger by 1 and I was adding it
43
to another number then the total must be larger by 1. Hence, the total of 67 must be larger by 1,
giving an answer of 66.
Mental Computation and Assessment

Teachers may feel an assessment difficulty can arise with the use of mental computation as
there is no written evidence showing the method used compared to students producing written
algorithms. Assessment will need to be individual and care should be taken to both value the
attempts made by the student and to allow sufficient wait time for the student to try to verbally
explain the chosen strategy.
When teachers are modelling particular mental strategies it is often useful to use either an
empty number line or a partitioning diagram to illustrate the steps used in the strategy being
modelled. As students become proficient in the use of these written methods they are then able
to use them in the explanation of their mental method. It should be emphasised that these
written forms are not seen as replacing the standard written algorithm but as a way of either the
teacher or the student demonstrating the mental computation.
The Empty Number Line

This is a powerful tool to keep track of a series of mental steps when combining numbers.
48 + 25 1
10 10 2 3
48 58 68 70 73
One interesting aspect of this method is the point of entry into the addition. The standard written
algorithm beginning is to add together the two units digits. This method begins with the tens and
units digits of one of the numbers, then incorporates the skills of incrementing by ten and
bridging to ten.
A typical explanation by a student could be: “I started with the forty-eight and noticed I needed
to add on twenty, so went fifty-eight, sixty-eight. Then I need to add on the five from the twenty-
five. I took two out of the five to get to seventy and had three from the five left over which makes
seventy-three”.
The Empty Number Line should be used for the period of time that it takes a student to
understand the steps involved in the method then it should be withdrawn, reverting to mental
computation only.
Partitioning/Combining Diagrams
A second useful written procedure for keeping track of mental steps is a diagram showing the
various partitioning and combining of numbers within the calculation.
48 + 25 48 25
Partition 40 8 20 5
Combine 60 13
44
10 3
70 73
Partition
Combine
Combine
Like the Empty Number Line this diagram allows modelling of the mental thought processes
used in the method. A typical explanation by a student might be: “I added the forty and twenty
together to get sixty and the eight and the five to get thirteen. Then I added the ten from the
thirteen to the sixty to get seventy then added the three from the thirteen to the seventy to get
seventy-three. It is worth noting some students begin with adding the tens rather than the units
whereas others will partition, then add units followed by the tens.
45
Teaching rural and Indigenous students

When teaching students in rural setting it is important not to bring preconception about their
abilities or understandings to the classroom. Students in rural settings are no different from
students in urban settings in their learning needs. They need access to the same learning
outcomes as their urban counterparts. They have the same learning needs as their urban
counterparts.
Factors affecting teaching and learning for students in rural settings
Pedagogy
Teachers may use teaching practices that do not sit with the learning styles and learning needs
of their students. Many issues arise with the extensive use of textbooks as a focus by teachers
as learning activities. Students become easily bored and those without sufficient literacy cannot
engage with the learning activity. Few teachers give all students the identical reader. They will
go to great lengths to match the reader with the student and yet teachers of mathematics often
have all students do the same work from a mathematics text book.
Geographic Isolation
Isolated students may have had quite different experiences to those of urban students eg: not
having been to the beach or having travelled on an aeroplane, train etc. This may affect how
students can effectively engage the curriculum as textbook focussed activities assume that all
students have similar backgrounds.
Curriculum Relevance
While this is applicable for any student it becomes particularly relevant for students who can see
no practical purpose or application. This can be of extreme relevance for Indigenous students
where inappropriate context can be a major factor for Indigenous student disengagement from
learning.
Attendance
Preceding factors contribute to very low attendance by Indigenous students. This further
impacts on the learning opportunities of students. As students construct new meanings based
on what they already know and can do, missing whole blocks of work can have ongoing
consequences.
46
Strategies to support rural and Indigenous students
The practices in this section which relate to rural and Indigenous students are equally applicable
to urban students
All children have understandings that can be placed against the syllabus learning continuum.
Rural and Indigenous students are placed against the same framework and teachers should
have the same expectations.
The following statement taken from the Adelaide Declaration on National Goals for Schooling in
the Twenty-First Century states that
“Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students [should] have equitable access to and
opportunities in schooling so that their learning outcomes improve and over time, match
those of other students.”
Learner-centred curriculum
Learning should be directed for the teacher by the teaching and learning cycle. It should be
engaging, relevant and meaningful. The learning in the classroom should emphasize the
acknowledgment of the student’s social and cultural context.
Teachers need to adapt the syllabus in a manner to focus on the needs of the learner. They
should be aware of the different learning styles of their students and recognise that one cap
doesn’t fit all.
The teaching and learning should focus on the achievement of syllabus learning outcomes by
students. Students should be provided with learning activities that will allow them to acquire the
necessary, skills, knowledge and understanding as outlined in the syllabus.
School, home and community

Teaching in a rural community is different to teaching in an urban community. It is likely that the
teacher will be living in the community in which they will be teaching.. It is essential that the
teacher maintain a good relationship with the community in which they are living. Teachers
should try to make themselves aware of the local community culture and try to form links with
the community. Knowing the community well will assist the teacher in developing appropriate
learning experiences. Being aware of the student’s home environment will also be beneficial.
Linguistic matters
Language is of critical importance in the teaching of mathematics. Teachers should be aware
that the teaching of mathematics is not purely based on symbolic notation but is heavily reliant
on literacy constructs.
Student engagement in mathematics should include discussion, problem solving, open-ended

questions where students are encouraged to explain their strategies.
47
Strong literacy skills will enhance student performance in mathematics. Low performance on
external testing measures such as the basic skills test (BST) can often be attributed to poor
literacy skills preventing students accessing the questions.
It is essential that teachers ensure that oral discussion, reading and writing are inbuilt into
mathematics activities.
Equity
Students need to be provided with necessary equipment to enable them to carry out their
education. In particular, technology such as computers and calculators should be accessible.
The high turnover of teaching staff may cause continuity problems or the loss of resources with
teacher movement.
Teaching strategies
Teachers must utilise a variety of teaching strategies that cater for a variety of student learning
styles.
 Students should be provided with teaching activities that allow a gradual progression
along a learning path.
 There should be a wide variety of assessment and teaching tasks that cater for a wide
range of ability.
 Activities should integrate reading, writing, listening and speaking.
 Teaching should be explicit and utilise modelled, guided and independent components
within their lessons.
48
Group work
Small groups help the students to: share and work collaboratively, develop a range of social
skills, share and work cooperatively, use language to refine and consolidate mathematical
understandings, develop mathematical understanding through active involvement, develop
problem solving strategies. The opportunity exists for students to use their own language, to
exchange ideas freely and to help one another understand in a meaningful way.
Small group work assists teachers to: manage concrete materials effectively, teach students
individually, have students work on different tasks or different aspects of a task, encourage
students to develop useful work habits, encourage students to become self-reliant, encourage
students to share and work cooperatively, evaluate student understanding.
Forming groups
The planning of group activities should allow for varied and flexible groupings. Interest groups
are useful when students are working on a project, ability groups are important to allow students
to work at their own level, friendship groups are useful when students need to work
harmoniously such as building a model, structured mixed ability groups are useful to encourage
peer tutoring and at other times a random selection is useful.
Classroom climate
To establish a positive classroom climate for group work students need to experience success
and satisfaction in programmed group activities. It is important to encourage and support
students to foster the development of desirable group skills. Group work can also be used to
encourage equal participation and reduce dominant behaviour.
Group sizes
The size of the group depends on the task. At times it is useful to have students working in
pairs. Think-pair-share is a valuable pre-assessment task where students begin by clarifying in
his/her own mind, then share with a partner to clarify understanding and finally each pair
combines with another and the foursome report on their negotiated understanding of the
question/concept posed by the teacher. For more formal cooperative group work many
experienced educators advocate four as the optimum size. This optimises communication. If
any two members of the group are talking the other two are not isolated.
Group Rules
Once your groups are formed there are three basic rules that should be in operation.
1. You are responsible for your own work and behaviour.
2. You must be willing to help any group member who asks.
3. You may only ask a question of the teacher if everyone in your group has the
same question.
49
There are rules for the teacher too.

1. Do listen.
2. Do interact.
3. Don’t ignore.
4. Don’t interfere.
As caring and sensitive teachers we are used to responding to students directly and offering
help whenever we can. With group work teachers need to step back and answer only if the
whole group agrees they need to ask. Success is not instantaneous. It takes practice,
encouragement and discussion for students to learn to work together successfully.
IMPLEMENTING GROUPS
Teachers have found that working with small groups in the classroom enables them to:
 Vary the learning experiences to suit the needs of students' mathematical understanding
 Involve students more effectively in their own learning
 Divide the class into smaller units to allow the teacher to tailor instruction to individual
needs
 Facilitate interactional skills in students
Activities can be a mixture of instructional and independent; that is the teacher can work with
one group while the others work independently. However the activities are designed and
implemented, it is essential that the independent activities can be completed wholly
unsupervised by the least skilled member of the group.
Group work has the added value of increasing social skills at the same time. Such skills can
include:
 Completion of a task independently
 Co-operation and collaboration
 Problem solving
 Sharing of resources
Designing a Manageable Situation

Activities must be realistically chosen in terms of:
 Preparation time
 Instructional time
 Supervision
 Noise
 Movement
 Resources
 Student independence
Possible problems
Problem Some Solutions
Format of the activity given to independent Teach each format before assigning it as an
groups is unfamiliar or too unstructured independent activity
General disruption by groups who finish early Have extension activities for groups who finish
and are unsure of what to do next early
50
GROUPING
While the formation of the groups will be largely determined by the students' SENA results, it is
important to also take into consideration factors which affect student progress while working in
groups. These can include:
Student progress
 the lower performing students should not feel the failure of coping with instruction geared
to the middle achiever
 the higher performers are not frustrated by being held to the "middle pace" of instruction
Supervision
 If you wish to work closely with one group during a lesson, the other works will have to
work independently without disturbing you or
 Under the supervision of another adult (parent, community helper, more skilled student)
If you have a large number of students with low levels of achievement, you may have problems
in maintaining independent working habits. In this case you may need to consider limiting the
number of groups to the number of other adult helpers you can enlist.
Student participation
 The larger the group, the larger the pool for generating ideas
 The larger the group, the easier it is for the less extroverted/skilled student to avoid
participation
 Noise
 If the group work involves student interaction, you can expect some increased noise
level. Your proximity to other classes will limit the amount of noise you can make and
consequently the number of groups you can have.
 If this is a problem, you could consider negotiating a swap to a room where the noise
level will present less of a problem
Resources
 The familiarity of the students with the format and use of the resources will affect the
degree to which students can work independently and hence the number of workable
groups
 The numbers in the groups do not have to be the same but there will need to be enough
of the resource for the largest group.
Preparation
 Preparation will have to be make for each group so the more groups you have, the more
preparation you will have
 If you intend spending intensive time with one group during a lesson, the other groups
will have to be working independently. Preparation for independent work will have to be
thorough to avoid students disturbing you with questions.
In what circumstances will I regroup?

Different re-grouping situations have positive and negative implications such as the following:
51
Changing membership of skill groups due to incorrect placement and or substantial change in
skill level:
 Facilitates instruction by reducing variability of skill level
 Is very motivating if the movement is to a group with higher skills
 Can be damaging to self-esteem if the movement is to a group with lower skills
Changing membership due to social relations distracting productive working:
 Is a logical move perceived by the teacher
 Runs the risk of student resentment and decreased motivation
 Runs the risk of students continuing the relationship from afar, thus disrupting the class
Changing membership to stimulate interest:

 Is good for when teacher and/or students are becoming complacent
 Change can be as good as a holiday
To help you evaluate progress you will need some type of product from the students, either
individually or from the group as a whole. Feedback can include:
 Demonstration to the group or class as a whole
 Tape recording of the group at work
 Written record of the task by the student
 Feedback from parent or other helper who you may work with
Such feedback can be used to:

 Give you direction on:
 Adjusting objectives for the group
 Adjusting the learning activities to facilitate progress
 Changing the composition of the group
 Give feedback to the student on his/her progress
 Provide feedback to others including parents
SKILLS AND GROUP WORK

What skills are needed?
 Roles
 Leader
 Recorder
 Timekeeper
 Distributor of resources
Independence
Finish task or go on to other work
Ask appropriate questions
Organise time and resource
Ignore distractions
Follow verbal and written instructions
Contribute to the group by:

Contributing ideas
Taking turns
Cooperating with fellow group members
Be positive towards other group members
Be sensitive to other members' needs and feelings
52
Be able to give clear instructions to other group members
How are the skills taught?

One approach to teaching the skills needed.
1. All students are taught skills/routines of working on individual tasks independently for a given
period. For example, schedule a 20 minute period where the students:
 Complete two tasks
 Locate and return resources for the tasks
 Place their work in a given spot when complete
 Locate and use extension material when the two tasks are complete
2. Teacher withdraws a group and trains them to do a task involving group interaction skills. The
remainder of the students work on independent activities.
3. Other groups are formed and trained. While one group is working with the teacher, the other
groups do independent individual tasks or group tasks which they have been previously taught.
In this approach the following procedures are important:

 No group work is attempted until all students can complete individual tasks
unsupervised. This tightens the organisational routines that will be used to an even
greater extent in groupwork.
 Group tasks that are selected initially should be simple
 The approach to establishing groups is a gradual one which relies on establishing firm
foundations.
ADVANTAGES OF GROUPWORK
For the teacher
Classroom climate
 Promotes open communication
 Fosters cooperative attitudes
 Involves more student/student interest
 Makes teacher/pupil interaction more personal
 Provides an avenue for community involvement
Classroom organisation
 Develops student independence
 Gives students greater access to resources
 Spreads teacher time
 Widens participation, lessening need for teacher input
Levels of teaching
Provides teaching and learning at varying levels:
 Intellectual
 Social
 Interest
 Experience
53
For the student

Academic success
 Students are better able to work at their own pace
 Students have greater access to tutors
 Students' speaking skills are enhanced through greater opportunity for interaction
Attitudes to work
 Increased self esteem due to increased academic success
 Increased responsibility and independence
 Recognition of sources of knowledge other than teacher
 Enhances planning ability
 Students become active learners
Social skills
 Increases cooperation
 Increases participation
 Develops negotiation skills
 Sense of ownership of the work increases as students take responsibility in decision-
making
Emotional skills
 Understand others' needs
 Group engenders sense of belonging
 Smaller size of group increases confidence
 More opportunity for students to express themselves
 Increases self-awareness
General learning
 Hear different interpretations
 Experience different ways of expressing ideas
 Develop questioning techniques
 Promotes more 'hands-on' experiences
Adapted from: Using Small Groups in the Classroom. Liverpool Region Inservice Committee
[nd]
54
Language Considerations
Mathematics learning is promoted by appropriate use of language. Language, together with
mathematical symbols and diagrams, plays an important part in the formulation and expression
of mathematical ideas and serves as a bridge between concrete and abstract representations.
The acquisition of mathematical language develops through the use of the four interrelated
processes – talking, listening, reading and writing. (Mathematics K – 6, 1989, p 26)
The language demands of mathematics are not all met within regular literacy lessons. Some
explicit teaching needs to occur around the language of mathematics.
WORDS
Some words are used only in a mathematics lesson and must be taught in this context. Eg.
parallelogram, scalene.
Other words have a different meaning in every day use to the meaning they have in a
mathematics lesson. These need very careful instruction. Eg. Product is something that has
been produced or the result of a multiplication. Volume may mean a book when the student is
in the library, the level of sound when the student is singing and the size of a 3D object when in
a measurement lesson.
Yet other words have a different meaning even within different topics in mathematics. Eg
square; meaning multiplying a number by itself or a regular quadrilateral. A third has two quite
1
distinct meanings; gaining a third place in the race and the fraction . Teachers must be aware
3
of these and be careful not to confuse.
DENSITY
Mathematical word problems are referred to as being lexically dense. Whereas, when reading a
novel the author reminds us in many ways about the setting by describing it with similes,
metaphors and the like, a mathematics problem states the facts once and only once. What is
also confusing, the order of the words can change the resulting problem. Skim reading may be
an inappropriate technique for a mathematical problem.
For example: The simple cloze passage Divide 6 ……. 3.
If this became Divide 6 by 3. The answer would be 2.
If, however it became Divide 6 into 3. The answer would be 1/2.
A subtle change to this again makes Divide 6 into 3 equal groups. The answer reverts to 2
again.
55

Programming in The Teaching and Learning Cycle

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Programming in The Teaching and Learning Cycle

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Exemplary Stage 1 Mathematics Program

Programming in the teaching and learning cycle

The following diagram demonstrates the teaching and learning cycle

The Teaching and Learning Cycle

Assessing: Where are the students now?

Planning and programming: Where are the students going?

Outcome, Knowledge and Skills

Knowledge and skills

When has a student reached an outcome?

When determining if a student is reaching an outcome there needs to be sufficient evidence

Working towards the outcome (Or progressing towards the outcome)

Working beyond the outcome

For students with high support needs in numeracy it is necessary to:

 ensure that syllabus content is covered

 identify monitoring procedures to check progress

 determine the specific strategies and resources to be used

Lesson Review (Reflection):

The Basic Structure of a Maths Session

1. Warm Ups  Concentrate on mental strategies.

 Students are guided through examples, feedback is given

 New skills are practised with minimum teacher intervention

Acquisition A need for 80% - 100% accuracy

Fluency A need to get better, faster

Maintenance Be able to remember the skill over time

Generalisation Be able to use the skill in other contexts

Outcome unit of work coversheet

Outcome Syllabus unit reference

Continuum of outcomes for teacher information

Mapping grid allows teacher to see outcomes

Working Mathematically Outcomes 1 2 3 4 5 6

Literacy Strategies Overview: Glossary

Lesson focus: Start Up/ Problem:

Lesson Timeframe: 45 minutes

Materials: string, pop sticks, unifix cubes, match sticks

Activity Questions / Comments / Discussion

How can we record the head measurements?

Key assessment points:

Specifies if any assessment within the lesson is taking placing

Some lessons have specific application problems. These problems may be

Monitoring student progress: How do I know when my students get there?

An outcomes–approach acknowledges that students, regardless of their class or grade,

An outcomes-approach to assessment will provide information about student achievement to

The NSW Department of Education has developed a variety of assessment tasks to

Principles of effective and informative assessment and reporting

Attribute Focus question

Examples of good classroom assessment strategies

Exemplary Stage 1 Mathematics Program assessment tasks

Attribute Assessment items in the Exemplary Stage 1

Example of Assessment Task in the exemplary programming units

Student Name: Date

Knowledge and Skills Record

Focus knowledge and skills in this assessment.

Teacher may record student competency here

Directions for the task. Student may not

Using Literacy Strategies in Mathematics Lessons

A well-recognised teaching strategy is to begin a mathematics lesson with a contextual word

Examples of Contextual Word Problems with Suggested Reading Strategies

Suggested Vocabulary Strategy: Word Meaning Checklist

WORDS I know it well. I know it a I’ve seen it or I’ve never

To make a work map

Example: Construct a word map based on the word Square.

Similar Example 4 straight