GCSE Sociology

Sociological Enquiry and Research Methods

Sociological enquiry and research methods
Background
Data is the information that sociologists use in their research reports.
Primary data is the research information that sociologists have collected
themselves. There is a wide variety of research methods that sociologists
use to collect their primary data. Some of these are quantitative and some
of these are qualitative. All methods for primary data, however, have in
common the fact that the researcher collects the data themselves.
Sometimes sociologists use experiments which are like scientific
experiments. You cannot put humans into test tubes, but there are ways of
copying the features of an experiment! A sociologist might try and see the
effect of changing things in society. For instance, in school they could see
whether buying students textbooks improved exam results. Sociologists do
not use experiments often, but there are some examples.
The Hawthorne Effect
Example
A famous example was the experiment carried out at the Western Electric
Company in Hawthorne, near Chicago, in the 1930s by Elton Mayo, a
researcher who wanted to see the effect of changing working conditions.
Mayo and his team made changes to the factory working conditions, such
as the heating and the lighting. They discovered that, whatever change they
made, the workers worked harder. In fact, the factor that made most
difference was the fact that someone was watching them and taking an
interest. This has become known as the Hawthorne Effect. Due to the
study, all sociologists collecting primary data are aware that studying
people may itself change the subjects behaviour.
Primary Data
Other methods of collecting primary data include surveys. Surveys are a
general term used to describe studies that gather information about a
certain topic. Surveys might include questionnaires, observation and
interviews. Surveys may also make use of secondary data.
Secondary Data
Secondary data is information that has been collected for another purpose
by someone else. There is a wide range of different types of data. Some of
these are quantitative and provide sociologists with a large amount of
statistics. This often includes official statistics, such as the census, which
is a Government survey of the population collected every ten years.
However, secondary data also includes qualitative data, such as diaries,
books, newspaper articles and many other items.
Primary or Secondary?
The choice of whether to use primary or secondary data is down to the
researcher. The advantages of primary data are that the researcher has
more control over the data collected and can make questions or
observations focus on exactly what they want. On the other hand, collecting
primary data can be expensive and time consuming. Secondary data may
be cheap to use as it has already been collected. The data collected,
however, might not be in exactly the form the researcher wants. Official
statistics or records may not have been collected in exactly the same way
in different areas or parts of the country.
How useful are questionnaires in social research?
A questionnaire is a question or series of questions either on paper or
online, which a researcher uses to find out about a social issue.
Questionnaires are probably the most widely used research tool in
sociology and in many other subjects.
Quantitative Data
Questionnaires are mainly used to collect quantitative data and have the
advantage of being a useful way to collect a large amount of data.
Questionnaires are a popular research method as they are usually a quick
and cheap way of collecting data, compared with other methods. The
respondents to a questionnaire usually complete the questionnaire
themselves, which means there is no need for a team of interviewers,
saving money and time. Interviewers require training, which costs money,
in addition to their wages, and takes more time. Lots of people can
complete the same questionnaire at the same time, meanwhile, making
research quicker. There can be a problem, however, if questionnaires have
a very low response rate.
Response Rates
Postal questionnaires are one way of handing out questionnaires. This
method might gain a particularly low response rate as people might not
bother to complete and return the questionnaire. Including a pre-paid,
addressed envelope might improve the response rate, but might have
significant cost implications for a large sample. An alternative is to attempt
door to door questionnaires or to ask people to complete them at work or
school. Modern technology has provided even cheaper, quicker and easier
ways of using questionnaires with readily available survey software.
Nonetheless, all these methods of distributing questionnaires will meet the
same problem. Only a certain type of person is likely to fill out
questionnaires. Many people do not feel that they have the time or the
inclination to complete a questionnaire. It is likely that those who do will
have strong views on a topic. This would make the sample
unrepresentative, meaning that those who reply to the questionnaire are
not typical of the people that received the questionnaire.
Open and closed questions
The biggest advantage of questionnaires is the facility to repeat them
indifferent places and at different times, but being able to compare the
results, as the data has all been collected in the same way. Questions can
be standardized and therefore answers can be easily compared.
There are problems with the use of questionnaires however. Respondents
might interpret questions in different ways, the meanings of questions might
be different for different people. Closed questions might not allow
respondents to explain what they mean, making questionnaires low in
validity. This means the questions might not get at the truth of what is
happening and what people think. Open questions are a way of increasing
the validity of questionnaires, but are not easy to use for generating
statistics. In addition, responses to open questions might be difficult to
classify, group and compare.
Advice about questionnaires
The following advice should help when writing a questionnaire.
Questionnaires should avoid loaded or leading questions. For instance,
asking people where they enjoy drinking alcohol is a loaded question which
does not take account of those that do not enjoy drinking alcohol. Clear and
uncomplicated language that can be understood by all respondents should
always be used. Another common mistake is the use of double-barreled
questions which have two parts to them and are confusing for respondents.
A further problem is when a questionnaire forces people into giving an
absolute answer of yes or no. these mistakes will all damage the validity of
responses.
Evaluation
Questionnaires have the advantage of being cheap, quick and very useful
for creating statistics. This makes them high in reliability and very useful to
sociologists. It is also easy for people completing them to remain
anonymous. This means that identities can be kept secret and therefore
people might be more likely to answer sensitive questions.
Despite this, it is difficult to be sure about the honesty of respondents in
questionnaires. This can make them low in validity. The different meanings
attached to questions by respondents also adds to this. Low response rates
might also mean that samples for questionnaires are not representative.
Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
Other differences in data collection are to do with the timescale of data
collection. Research that is taken at one point shows a ‘snapshot’ of what
society is like at a certain time. This is known as a cross-sectional study.
Most research tends to be like this, although such studies are sometimes
repeated to identify and measure changes. Some studies follow a group
over a long period of time and are known as longitudinal studies. An
example of this is the Seven-Up series made by Granada TV, which
followed a group of children from the age of 7 and revisited them every
seven years to see how their attitudes and lives were changing over time.
A similar one follows children born in the year 2000.

Summary
Sociologists have developed a range of ways of collecting data about society. They take advantage of data that has already been collected by other
people; secondary data. Sociology has also made a huge contribution to the development of research methods to collect primary data. These include
questionnaires, interviews and observation, which we will go on to consider in more depth.

Questionnaires are a very useful tool for sociologists. They allow the collection of reliable data on a large scale at a low cost. However, care needs to
be taken in the design of questions and the way that they are distributed.
How useful are interviews in social research?
In an interview, the interviewer asks questions and the respondent replies.
Answers must be recorded, either in writing or electronically. This fact might
affect the responses and respondents may find it distracting. The only
alternative involves relying on memory and writing notes afterwards.
Important information may be lost and the researcher’s own views could
influence what is recorded.
Structured and unstructured interviews.
There are two main types of interview. In structured interviews there is a
prepared list of questions. The questions are standardized so that all the
interviews are the same. Even if several different interviewers are carrying
out the interviews, responses should be able to be compared. To an extent,
this is just like a questionnaire with an interviewer present. There are
advantages in having an interviewer present as they can assist in
answering the questions. Questions in structured interviews can be both
open and closed. Some might have complex questions, however, which
require more in-depth answers. Interviewers need to be well trained and be
able to explain misunderstood questions. They might also need to interpret
the respondents’ answers and decide how to record them quickly.
Some sociologists prefer a more flexible style of interview. Unstructured
interviews are like conversations and do not have strictly planned
questions. The researcher adapts the questions as the interview develops.
They can probe further if respondents say things that capture their interest.
The respondents explain things in their own words. This makes the
researcher gain a more accurate picture of what is going on. If trust is built
up, respondents are more likely to be honest than in some sociological
methods. Researchers call this ‘trust rapport’.
Despite the unstructured nature of these conversations, sociologists still
plan the interviews carefully and will have a list of topics for discussion. The
interviews still have a format and are not a random conversation.
Researchers might have a list of topics they aim to cover or even specific
questions they intend to ask. Another plus is that respondents might say
unexpected things, providing ideas for further questions.
Dobash and Dobash and unstructured interviews
Dobash and Dobash investigated family life and the topic of violence
against wives. They interviewed women themselves, but also workers from
the police, charities and social services who had worked with them. This
was a very sensitive topic and the interviewers built up rapport with the
respondents. The approach allowed Dobash and Dobash to form an in-
depth view of the experiences and meanings of events for the women.
Unstructured interviews allowed an honest picture to be developed in a way
not possible with questionnaires or more structured interviews.
Oakley and unstructured interviews
Some sociologists would prefer to use the unstructured approach as it gives
access to the meanings of events for individuals. They would see the
statistics provided by questionnaires as failing to capture a real picture of
what is happening. Ann Oakley, a feminist, believes that unstructured
interviews are the best way to collect data. Oakley sees traditional research
methods as forming an unequal male-style relationship. Unstructured
interviews are more equal, allowing respondents to be more open, and
questions can be asked by both interviewer and respondent.
Advantages and disadvantages of interviews
Evaluation
There are many advantages of interviews. Interviews collect people’s views
first hand and can discover the meanings of things for individuals.
Unstructured interviews are very flexible and allow the interviewer to
change direction during the interview and ask extra questions. They can
have greater validity, as respondents are more likely to be truthful and give
detailed explanations.
There are problems though. Interviews are time-consuming and costly.
Interviewers need to be very skilled and a significant problem is that of
interviewer bias. Respondents might give different answers due to the
interviewer’s personal characteristics. For instance, a black respondent
might give different answers to a white interviewer compared with a black
one, especially if being interviewed about racism. Interviews with little
structure are more difficult to repeat exactly, so will be less reliable

Summary
Interviews are one of the most important methods for sociologists. There are two main styles, which range from closed questions in a structured
interview to open and flexible questions in an unstructured interview. Many sociologists, like Oakley and Dobash and Dobash, have made significant
findings through interviews.
Different types of sociological observation
Observation means observing social life as it happens in its natural (usual)
setting. This could mean a classroom, workplace, street or playground. It is
a naturalistic method because humans are in real-life settings. There are
several different types of observation, all of which can be useful.
Ways of observing society
When observing social life, the observer must decide whether they will tell
the people being observed that it is happening. If the observe r does tell
them, this is overt observation. A problem with this is that most people
are likely to change their behavior when they know they are being
observed. For this reason, most sociologists prefer to carry out covert
observation. This means the observation is kept secret in the hope that
people will behave naturally. The other decision an observer must make is
whether to join in with the group they are observing, in what is called
participant observation. Of course if they do join in with the group, the
observer’s presence and actions may affect behavior of the group. Non-
participant observation could include the use of tally charts or other
quantitative methods. There are several classic studies using covert
participant observation which are some of the most fascinating sociological
work.
A Glasgow gang observed
James Patrick was a teacher at an approved school in Scotland in the
1960s. At the time, gang violence among young people had been
highlighted by the media as a huge problem in Glasgow. Patrick posed as
a friend of Tim, a gang leader. Tim acted as a gatekeeper for Patrick and
allowed him to spend time with the gang. Tim had to coach Patrick on how
to dress and how to talk appropriately. Patrick was older than the gang
members, who were about 15, but could pass himself off as a suitable
person to hand around with. Patrick had a very honest and sometimes
frightening experience. He discovered gang members’ attitudes towards
weapons, violence and drugs. Patrick discovered the answers to questions
he would never have been able or even thought to ask in a questionnaire.
Why use participant observation?
Some sociologists would strongly support the use of participant observation
as a means of discovering the meanings and motives for behavior.
Questionnaires could never reveal this Covert observation is especially
useful for investigating deviant groups living on the edges of or outside
society. These groups are not likely to respond to a straightforward
research methods such as a questionnaire. Covert observation has led to
some commentators criticising sociologists for taking the side of the
criminal or the outsider. Sociologists would defend themselves with the
argument that someone must understand and see the world through the
eyes of outsider groups.
Observation is a very valuable tool for researchers as it notes behavior in
its natural setting. It is detailed and respects the point of view and meanings
that a certain behavior has for people themselves. Covert observation is
useful to investigate hard-to-reach groups that might be criminal or deviant.
It can also help to describe a part of social life in detail. It might also be a
useful investigative tool before conducting a survey.
There are concerns about observation, however, particularly participant
observation. Researchers might become too involved in the life of the study
group and might be unable to remove themselves enough to see what is
happening clearly. The sample size is often so small that the groups studied
are not representative. Studies are so individual that they cannot be
repeated, which makes them low in reliability.
Recording can be difficult, relying on memory and hastily written notes. A
researcher might also change the behavior of the people studied. With
participant observation, there might be issues of danger and ethics, which
we will discuss further in this chapter. The time and cost of such studies
tends to be significant. Studies might last for months, and there are
numerous practical problems involved in joining the study group and in
leaving it.
Summary
Observation is very useful and is the only way that behaviour is seen first-hand. Several classic studies of observational sociology raise many issues
about ethics: whether the research can be seen as acceptable. The viewpoint of the researcher might have a great effect on the research, but
observation is very useful for discovering the meanings and motives behind events and situations.
Secondary data
Primary data is data collected by sociologists themselves. The previous
pages have covered the main research methods used for this. The other
type of data sociologists use is secondary data.
What is secondary data in sociology?
Secondary data is information that has been put together by other people.
It could in the form of newspaper reports, diaries, journals or novels which
are all qualitative data. These sources of data have lots of detail and are
good for describing society.
Secondary data can also come in the form of official and unofficial statistics
collected by the government or other organisations. The census, which is
collected every ten years by the UK government, is a good example of
official statistics. This type of data is quantitative.
If you study history, make sure you understand that primary and secondary
data mean something different in sociology.
There are other ways that sociologists collect quantitative data.
There are many sources of official statistics for researchers. The police,
courts, prisons, hospitals and social services all record wealth of detailed
statistics on a wide range of topics. School and parish records are also rich
sources of data.
Unofficial statistics might be collected by charities or other private
organisations. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation, which collects
information on poverty, is an example of this. Sociologists need to be
mindful that private organisations, such as charities, might be biased and
collect facts to suit their purpose. This is of course true of official statistics
as well nonetheless, official statistics have been very useful in sociological
research.
There are also many sources of qualitative data available to sociologists.
Generally, these methods have been less popular as sociology has aimed
to be scientific. However, autobiographies, diaries, journals and novels
have all been used by sociologists. Philippe Aries used paintings and other
personal documents in his study Centuries of Childhood in 1962. These
sources can be very insightful to understanding society in the past.
Evaluation
Official and unofficial statistics are a cheap and easy source of data that
can help sociologists to find patterns and look for causes. There is a wealth
of statistics on many areas including unemployment, health, marriage and
the family, poverty and many other things. Changes in the way that
statistics are calculated, however, can make it difficult to compare changes
over time. The way that unemployment is calculated has been changed
many times since the 1980s, so it is difficult to make comparisons. It is also
difficult to check the biases of information.
Quantitative secondary data has been used much less by sociologists. It
does have many uses, however, and is again cheap and accessible. It can
help sociologists understand the meanings behind more statistical data.
Like quantitative data, it is difficult to know whether the data in diaries and
journals is accurate, and it is only one option.
Content analysis
Sociologists use a method called content analysis to investigate the media.
For instance, a researcher would use a tally chart to measure the number
and type of gender roles found in television adverts. The result would be
statistical, showing the numbers of adverts featuring particular gender
roles. The statistics can then be extrapolated to discuss gender
stereotyping.
Content analysis is also very useful for noticing and measuring key themes
shown in the media. The Glasgow University Media Group carried out a
great deal of research in the 1980s and showed the bias in British reporting
on the Falklands War in 1982. BBC and ITV news showed almost total
support for the conflict and very few stories that questioned the
government’s decision to go to war.
What are ethics in sociological research?
Ethics are the principles around whether a piece of research is morally right
or wrong. This could be to do with the area of research or the way that the
research is being carried out. There are much stricter ethical guidelines for
sociologists today than there have been in the past. Many studies done in
the past would not be acceptable today. Researchers have a duty to protect
the reputation and welfare of the subject being studied and should follow
the guidelines of the British Sociological Association (BSA).
Ethical issues
All people who are subjects of research should have given their informed
consent when they are taking part in research. The research aims and
process should be explained and made clear. Covert research should only
happen when there is no other way. Once the research has begun, the
subjects have the right of withdrawal: they can end their involvement at any
time.
Sociologists need to be very wary when trying to gain informed consent
from participants. This is because some groups of people, such as
prisoners, children and college students, might not feel that they can refuse
to take part in research. They are in a weaker position than the researcher,
who might be seen to have authority over them.
Example
Paul Willis studied boys in a school situation. An ethical issue for him would
have been that the boys, who were behaving naturally, might have revealed
things about themselves that they would later regret that anyone knew. This
is an issue of privacy.
Debriefing participants
An alternative view of ethical issues is that some research is so important
that it just should be done. Sociologists must, however, take care that they
do their best to ensure that no harm is done by the research. Participants
should receive a debrief afterwards to ensure that they are feeling
comfortable with their part in the research and with what happens next.
BSA guidelines state that participants in research should not be put at risk
of physical or psychological harm. This means that they should be safe and
not distressed, stressed or unbalanced by the process. The participants
should not feel bad about themselves because of anything they did or said
during research. There should be a debrief process after the research has
finished. Sociological research that does not follow ethical guidelines is
likely to make people reluctant to take part in research.
Example
There are other important protections for people. Subjects should be
anonymous and what they say or do should be confidential and private.
Names and details should be changed so that subjects cannot be identified.
In his study of Glasgow gangs, James Patrick made sure that no one could
be identified from the gang he had spent time with. Patrick was also
concerned that his study would make headlines and cause a greater moral
panic about gangs. For this reason, he delayed publishing the report until
some of the fuss about gangs had died down. This was important, as the
sociologist should not have a harmful effect on the people studied.
Evaluation
James Patrick’s study raises many ethical issues about research. It is
difficult to gain entry to a group like the gang he studied, yet it is also hard
to leave. Patrick had to think carefully. The gang members might feel bad
and that they had been used or wonder what had happened to their ‘mate’.
Is it reasonable for sociologists to ‘use’ people this way?
Summary
Ethics is an area that researchers need to consider carefully. Researchers who do not follow ethical guidelines might cause harm to the participants
of research. Moreover, sociologists have a responsibility to think about what the purpose of their research is. Would it have been reasonable for
sociologists to help Hitler work out how to carry out the persecution of the Jews? Sociology has a responsibility to conduct research that aims to make
society better. It is to help us to understand how we live and work together and improve our lives. Any research that does not do this is unethical:
Sociologists need to take care.
How do sociologists choose a sampling technique?
Samples
Sociologists aim to study certain people, which could mean everyone in
Britain, but often focus on a particular age, gender, social class, religion or
ethnic groups. The people they wish to study are called the target
population.
Taking a sample is a way of finding out about the target population, by
studying a small, manageable number of the group. Sociologists use
samples because of the time and cost involved in studying the whole
population.
Samples need to be representative and fair to work. Representativeness
means that a sample should include all parts of the population being
studied, for example, the right amount of males and females. Sociologists
call this quality the representativeness of a sample. A representative
sample enables justifiable statements about the whole population to be
made. However, sociologists require a sampling frame to gather their
sample. A sampling frame is a list from which the researcher would gain
the sample.
Access to a sample might require permission, and some groups are hard
to reach. A sampling frame is a list of all the people a researcher could
study. The telephone dictionary or electoral (voting) register are examples
of this. They are not perfect, as some people will not be listed on these.
The largest survey in the UK is the census which is taken every ten years.
The census gathers information from every household in the UK. There will
still be people who are homeless or who evade completing the
questionnaire. Most samples chosen for study are much smaller.
Random Samples
Some sociologists prefer scientific methods of sampling. These
sociologists like to gather a sample of randomly chosen subjects. This is
unbiased and the researcher has no influence on choosing the sample.
These random samples are selected by chance by pulling names ‘out of
a hat’ or using computer-generated lists. To be random, every person in
the target population must have an equal chance of being selected.
Random samples are unbiased and fair.
A more complex method is used by some to ensure all groups are
represented in the sample. This is called a stratified random sampling.
The target population is split into groups based on class, gender, ethnicity,
or whatever groups of interest. The random selection is then made from
these groups. This might be more useful than a random sample which could
leave out certain groups by chance.
Systematic Samples
If a random sample is not possible, systematic samples are an alternative.
Systematic sampling could mean, for example, taking every third, fifth or
tenth name on a list. This is not truly random, but is a simple alternative.
Taking a quota sample is when the researcher males sure that they study
a certain number of different sorts of people. For instance, they might want
to interview 25 men and women between 18 and 35. The researcher
checks that the person they are interviewing is the correct age or gender.
The problem is that researchers might have a tendency to choose people
who are cooperative and look ‘nice’. This method does save time, however,
and is low cost.
Other sampling techniques
Some sociologists aim for groups that are non-representative. John
Goldthorpe and David Lockwood, for instance, were looking particularly for
well-paid employees in their study of Luton car workers. Most of the
methods mentioned above are used by sociologists aiming for quantitative
data which features a large representative sample.
Some studies require smaller groups and need qualitative data.
Snowballing is very useful for gathering information on ‘outsider’ groups,
such as criminals. The researcher uses one contact to introduce them to a
second contact and so on. This might be the only method available for hard-
to-reach groups. Finally, even less random is the sampling method often
used by students. A convenience or opportunity sample is used, which
basically means involving anyone who is available and willing to take part!
Summary
There are several sampling techniques sociologists can use. The accessibility of a sample, the cost and the tome available might affect their choice.
Whether the research is aiming to provide an exploration of an unknown area or a wider picture of a more familiar area will also influence this. In
addition, the type of data preferred by the sociologist, or most appropriate to the report, might be important.
How do sociologists plan successful research?
The process of research design is complex, and many factors affect it.
Researchers must choose a suitable research are, create a research
question and choose a research method. They also need to overcome
practical problems, such as gaining permission to carry out the research
and selecting a sampling technique.
Researchers need to turn their ideas into something they can measure
through questions or observations. Whether you are a Year 10 student or
a professional sociologist, all this thinking and planning can be frustrating
when all you want to do is get on with the research itself! However, there
are things you need to do, before beginning to ask questions or observe
people.
Pilot studies
Example
Pilot studies are essential in quantitative research to make sure questions
are understood and that the right information is being gained. Costs and
timings can be checked carefully. Pilot studies are less common in
qualitative research, but might still be useful. Some sociological studies
cost thousands of pounds and mistakes, or wasted studies, are expensive.
Hannah Gavron carried out informal conversations with the housebound
mothers in her study before she conducted unstructured interviews with
them. She made sure that she could build rapport with the women. So, a
pilot study might help the researcher practice their skills and make sure that
research is possible.
The year 10 student planning their study might not be very happy about the
extra work of a pilot study, but might find their work is eventually much more
difficult without one.
Problems with questions
A pilot study might show that respondents have not understood the
questions properly. Some questions might be unclear or ambiguous, so
possible to answer more than one way. There might be words or phrases
that respondents do not understand. Worse still, the replies might not give
the information that the researcher was hoping to get.
Knowledge
A pilot study is a pre-test for the research. This gives the advantage of the
researcher being able to practice the research method. Questions can be
changed as necessary, and problems resolved. Professional sociologists
might be employing several interviewers. A pilot study enables the
interviewers to be trained and their techniques made consistent.
Pilot studies are used by sociologists usually when they are collecting
quantitative data. Practicing unstructured interviews, for example, is just as
important as trying out a questionnaire.
Why carry out a pilot study?
Pilot studies clearly have many advantages. For instance, the success of
the pilot study can be used to secure the funding for the study. Practical
problems relating to time or cost might be discovered. This might change
their responses.
A pilot study might reveal many problems, but questions can be discarded
or reworded. The pilot study could help a researcher recognize when warm-
up questions are needed to establish rapport with a subject. Checks can
be made that responses do help to answer the questions the researcher is
interested in. A useful final question in some research is to ask the
respondent whether they can think of other things they want to be asked
about. These could be included in new questions for the full study.
Summary
Sociologists need to plan their research carefully. A pilot study is a useful tool for this. It can reveal practical and technical problems or successes, as
well as an opportunity to reword questions.
Sociological enquiry and research methods
Why do sociologists sometimes use mixed methods?
Quantitative and qualitative methods
For a long time, sociology was divided into two different ways of conducting
research. Some sociologists preferred to collect numbers and use these for
graphs and statistics. They wanted to collect quantitative data to show
patterns and work out the causes of things in society.
Other researchers wanted to collect qualitative data. They wanted to
capture a more detailed, rounded and accurate view of social life. This
would give data that was highly valid. The debate between these two
groups was quite furious at times.
Since then, sociologists have begun to realise the advantages to both types
of data. They have begun to use mixed methods to gain the best of both
worlds. In fact, many sociologists were already using both types of method,
and there are many successful studies that combine both methods.
Studies using mixed methods
Mac an Ghaill studied African-Caribbean boys in schools and youth
organisations. He used interviews and observation to collect qualitative
data. However, he backed this up with statistical data that he collected from
the organisations. He could check that the boys’ stories matched the data
from the institutions. The two methods supported each other.
Another famous study was Eileen Barker’s examination of a religious group
called the ‘Moonies.’ Her studies lasted for six years. Her unstructured
interviews of the group’s followers lasted for up to eight hours each. After
two years of observing the group first-hand, Barker felt that she knew
enough about them to design a questionnaire and be confident that she
Summary
Mixed methods are an increasingly popular way of conducting research. It is costly, but there are many advantages and some very good examples of
research have come from it. The use of mixed methods gives the advantages of both qualitative and quantitative data.
was asking the right questions. Her study us a clear example of how
methods can be combined successfully.
Reasons for using mixed methods
There are number of reasons for using mixed methods. One of these is to
gain the different insights of quantitative and qualitative data. This will
increase the reliability and validity of the research. The ability to see
patterns in the quantitative data is backed up by the detail and
understanding of qualitative data.
It is also useful as a form of cross checking. If both methods find the same
things, the results of the study are strengthened.
Finally, as in Eileen Barker’s study, using one method can help to use
another. Her qualitive data from observations helped her design a
questionnaire to collect quantitative data.
Some sociologists use the word triangulation to describe using more than
one method. Triangulation includes using mixed methods to cross check
the finding, and usually helps to add validity and reliability to a study.
Evaluation
There are many benefits to using mixed methods in research. These
include being able to gain a true picture of society and being able to see
patterns and connections between different areas of society. However,
using two or more methods can be time consuming and costly. Sometimes
the data from one method, for instance the statistics, might dominate the
research. Nonetheless, many sociologists would agree that using more
than one method often complements the other.
Answer the following questions in full sentences and with clear explanations.

1. What is the difference between primary and secondary data?

2. What is the Hawthorne effect?

3. What is the difference between qualitative data and quantitative data?

4. What is the difference between a cross-sectional study and a longitudinal study?

5. What is a questionnaire?

6. What sort of data do questionnaires usually collect?

7. What is meant by the response rate? Why might questionnaires have a low response rate?
8. What is the difference between open and closed questions?

9. What are the advantages of using questionnaires?

10. What are the disadvantages of using questionnaires?

11. What does the term representative mean?

12. What is the difference between a structured and an unstructured interview?

13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of structured interviews?

14. What are the advantages and disadvantages of unstructured interviews?

15. What is the difference between overt and covert observation?

16. What is the difference between participant and non-participant observation?

17. Why would a sociologist use participant observation?

18. What would a sociologist need to be careful of when using participant observation?

19. What is secondary data? List examples.

20. What is content analysis? What sort of data does it produce? What is it useful for noticing?
21. Which agencies collect secondary data?

22. What are the advantages of using official statistics?

23. What are the limitations of using official statistics?

24. Which agencies may collect official statistics?

25. What are ethics?

26. What do researchers have a duty to protect?

27. What is informed consent?

28. What ethical issues might Paul Willis have experienced?

29. What do BSA guidelines state about participants in the research?

30. What other factors must also be considered/protected during research?

31. What are the people who sociologists want to study called?

32. What is a sample and why do sociologists use them?

33. What does representativeness mean?

34. What is a sampling frame? List examples of sampling frames?

35. How would a random sample be collected?

36. How would a stratified random sample be collected?

37. How would a systematic sample be collected?

38. What is a quota sample?

39. What is a snowball sample? When might this sampling method be used?
40. Which sampling method would students probably use when carrying out a sociological enquiry? Explain why.

41.What is a pilot study?

42. Why is it important to carry out a pilot study? (In your answer consider the questions asked and who is asking them).

43. What do sociologists mean by the term mixed methods?

44. Why would sociologists use mixed methods for their research?