CHAPTER 6

IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

6.2 Calculate the number of vacancies per cubic meter in iron at 855C. The energy for vacancy
formation is 1.08 eV/atom. Furthermore, the density and atomic weight for Fe are 7.65 g/cm 3
and 55.85 g/mol, respectively.

Solution

Determination of the number of vacancies per cubic meter in iron at 855C (1128 K) requires
the utilization of Equations 6.1 and 6.2 as follows:

æ Q ö N r æ Q ö
N v = N exp ç - v ÷ = A Fe exp ç - v ÷
è kT ø AFe è kT ø

And incorporation of values of the parameters provided in the problem statement into the above
equation leads to

Nv =
(6.022 ´ 1023 atoms / mol)(7.65 g / cm3 ) exp é- 1.08 eV / atom ù
ê ú
55.85 g / mol ë (8.62 ´ 10-5 eV / atom × K) (1128 K) û

= 1.2  1018 cm-3 = 1.2  1024 m-3

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6.10 For both FCC and BCC crystal structures, there are two different types of interstitial sites. In
each case, one site is larger than the other, and is normally occupied by impurity atoms. For
FCC, this larger one is located at the center of each edge of the unit cell; it is termed an
octahedral interstitial site. On the other hand, with BCC the larger site type is found at 0 1
2
1
4

positions—that is, lying on {100} faces, and situated midway between two unit cell edges on this
face and one-quarter of the distance between the other two unit cell edges; it is termed a
tetrahedral interstitial site. For both FCC and BCC crystal structures, compute the radius r of an
impurity atom that will just fit into one of these sites in terms of the atomic radius R of the host
atom.

Solution

In the drawing below is shown the atoms on the (100) face of an FCC unit cell; the interstitial
site is at the center of the edge.

The diameter of an atom that will just fit into this site (2r) is just the difference between that unit cell
edge length (a) and the radii of the two host atoms that are located on either side of the site (R); that is

2r = a – 2R

However, for FCC a is related to R according to Equation 4.1 as a = 2R 2 ; therefore, solving for r
from the above equation gives

a-2R 2R 2 -2R
r = = = 0.41R
2 2

A (100) face of a BCC unit cell is shown below.

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The interstitial atom that just fits into this interstitial site is shown by the small circle. It is situated in
the plane of this (100) face, midway between the two vertical unit cell edges, and one quarter of the
distance between the bottom and top cell edges. From the right triangle that is defined by the three
arrows we may write

æaö æaö
2 2

ç ÷ + ç ÷ = (R + r )
2

è2ø è4ø

4R
However, from Equation 4.4, a = , and, therefore, making this substitution, the above equation
3
takes the form

æ 4R ö æ 4R ö
2 2

ç ÷ +ç ÷ = R + 2Rr + r
2 2

è2 3ø è4 3ø

After rearrangement the following quadratic equation results:

r 2 + 2Rr - 0.667R 2 = 0

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And upon solving for r:

-(2R) ± (2R)2 - (4)(1)(-0.667R2 )

r=
2

-2R ± 2.582R
=
2

And, finally

-2R + 2.582R
r(+) = = 0.291R
2
-2R - 2.582R
r(-) = = - 2.291R
2
Of course, only the r(+) root is possible, and, therefore, r = 0.291R.
Thus, for a host atom of radius R, the size of an interstitial site for FCC is approximately 1.4
times that for BCC.

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6.19 What is the composition, in atom percent, of an alloy that contains 45.2 kg copper, 46.3 kg zinc,
and 0.95 kg lead?

Solution

In this problem we are asked to determine the concentrations, in atom percent, of the Cu–Zn–
Pb alloy. It is first necessary to convert the amounts of Cu, Zn, and Pb into grams.

m C u  4 5 ,2 0 0 g

m Z n  4 6 ,3 0 0 g

m P b  950 g

These masses must next be converted into moles (Equation 6.7), as

m C u 45, 200 g
nm = = = 7 1 1 .3 m o l
Cu
AC u 6 3 .5 5 g / m o l

46,300 g
nm =  7 0 7 .8 m o l
Zn 6 5 .4 1 g / m o l

950 g
nm   4 .6 m o l
Pb
2 0 7 .2 g / m o l

Now, employment of a modified form of Equation 6.8, gives

nm
Cu
C C u   100
nm  nm  nm
Cu Zn Pb

7 1 1 .3 m o l
=  1 0 0 = 5 0 .0 a t%
7 1 1 .3 m o l  7 0 7 .8 m o l  4 .6 m o l

7 0 7 .8 m o l
C Z n   1 0 0  4 9 .7 a t%
7 1 1 .3 m o l  7 0 7 .8 m o l  4 .6 m o l

4 .6 m o l
C P b   1 0 0 = 0 .3 a t%
7 1 1 .3 m o l  7 0 7 .8 m o l  4 .6 m o l

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6.26 Some hypothetical alloy is composed of 12.5 wt% of metal A and 87.5 wt% of metal B. If the
densities of metals A and B are 4.25 and 6.35 g/cm3, respectively, whereas their respective
atomic weights are 61.5 and 125.7 g/mol, determine whether the crystal structure for this alloy is
simple cubic, face-centered cubic, or body-centered cubic. Assume a unit cell edge length of
0.395 nm.

Solution

In order to solve this problem it is necessary to employ Equation 4.8; in this expression density
and atomic weight will be averages for the alloy—that is

n A ave
 ave 
V C NA

Inasmuch as for each of the possible crystal structures, the unit cell is cubic, then VC = a3, or

n A ave
 ave  3
a NA

And, in order to determine the crystal structure it is necessary to solve for n, the number of
atoms per unit cell. For n =1, the crystal structure is simple cubic, whereas for n values of 2 and 4, the
crystal structure will be either BCC or FCC, respectively. When we solve the above expression for n
the result is as follows:

 ave a NA
3

n 
A ave

Expressions for Aave and aveare found in Equations 6.14a and 6.13a, respectively, which, when
incorporated into the above expression yields

æ ö
ç ÷
ç 100 ÷ a 3 N
çC C ÷ A
ç A+ B÷
è rA rB ø
n =
æ ö
ç ÷
ç 100 ÷
çC C ÷
ç A+ B÷
è AA AB ø

Substitution of the concentration values (i.e., CA = 12.5 wt% and CB = 87.5 wt%) as well as
values for the other parameters given in the problem statement, into the above equation gives
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 æ ö
ç ÷
ç 100 ÷ (3.95 ´ 10-8 nm)3 (6.022 ´ 1023 atoms/mol)
ç 12.5 wt% 87.5 wt% ÷
ç + 3 ÷
è 4.25 g/cm 6.35 g/cm ø
3
n =
æ ö
ç ÷
ç 100 ÷
ç 12.5 wt% 87.5 wt% ÷
ç + ÷
è 61.5 g/mol 125.7 g/mol ø

= 2.00 atoms / unit cell

Therefore, on the basis of this value, the crystal structure is body-centered cubic.

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6.29 Germanium forms a substitutional solid solution with silicon. Compute the number of
germanium atoms per cubic centimeter for a germanium–silicon alloy that contains 15 wt% Ge
and 85 wt% Si. The densities of pure germanium and silicon are 5.32 and 2.33 g/cm3,
respectively.

Solution

To solve this problem, employment of Equation 6.24 is necessary, using the following values:

C1 = CGe = 15 wt%
1 = Ge = 5.32 g/cm3
2 = Si = 2.33 g/cm3
A1 = AGe = 72.64 g/mol
Thus

N ACGe
N Ge =
CGe AGe AGe
+ (100 - CGe )
rGe rSi

=
(6.022 ´ 1023 atoms/mol) (15 wt%)
(15 wt%)(72.64 g/mol) 72.64 g/mol
+ (100 - 15 wt%)
5.32 g/cm3 2.33 g/cm3

= 3.16  1021 atoms/cm3

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6.33 Silver and palladium both have the FCC crystal structure, and Pd forms a substitutional solid
solution for all concentrations at room temperature. Compute the unit cell edge length for a 75
wt% Ag–25 wt% Pd alloy. The room-temperature density of Pd is 12.02 g/cm3, and its atomic
weight and atomic radius are 106.4 g/mol and 0.138 nm, respectively.

Solution

First of all, the atomic radii for Ag (using the table inside the front section of the book) and Pd
are 0.144 and 0.138 nm, respectively. Also, using Equation 4.8 it is possible to compute the unit cell
volume, and inasmuch as the unit cell is cubic, the unit cell edge length is just the cube root of the
volume. However, it is first necessary to calculate the density and average atomic weight of this alloy
using Equations 6.13a and 6.14a. Inasmuch as the densities of silver and palladium are 10.49 g/cm3 (as
taken from inside the front section of the book) and 12.02 g/cm3, respectively, the average density is
just

100
 ave 
C Ag C

Pd

 Ag  Pd

100

75 w t% 25 w t%
3
 3
1 0 .4 9 g /c m 1 2 .0 2 g /c m

= 10.83 g/cm3

And for the average atomic weight

100
A ave 
C Ag C

Pd

AAg APd

100

75 w t% 2 5 w t%

1 0 7 .9 g /m o l 1 0 6 .4 g /m o l

= 107.5 g/mol

Now, VC is determined from Equation 4.8 as

n A ave
VC 
 ave NA

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 ( 4 a t o m s / u n i t c e ll ) (1 0 7 . 5 g / m o l )

3 23
(1 0 . 8 3 g /c m ) ( 6 .0 2 2  10 a to m s /m o l)

= 6.59  10-23 cm3/unit cell

And, finally

a = (VC )1/3

= (6.59 ´ 10 -23 cm3/unit cell)1/3

= 4.04  10-8 cm = 0.404 nm

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6.39 For each of the following stacking sequences found in FCC metals, cite the type of
planar defect that exists:
(a) . . . A B C A B C B A C B A . . .
(b) . . . A B C A B C B C A B C . . .
Now, copy the stacking sequences and indicate the position(s) of planar defect(s) with a
vertical dashed line.

Solution

(a) The interfacial defect that exists for this stacking sequence is a twin boundary, which occurs at the
indicated position.

The stacking sequence on one side of this position is mirrored on the other side.

(b) The interfacial defect that exists within this FCC stacking sequence is a stacking fault, which occurs
between the two lines.

Within this region, the stacking sequence is HCP.

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 Grain Size Determination

6.40 (a) Using the intercept method, determine the average grain size, in millimeters, of the specimen
whose microstructure is shown in Figure 6.20b; use at least seven straight-line segments.
(b) Estimate the ASTM grain size number for this material.

Solution

(a) Below is shown the photomicrograph of Figure 6.20b, on which seven straight line segments, each
of which is 60 mm long has been constructed; these lines are labeled “1” through “7”.

In order to determine the average grain diameter, it is necessary to count the number of grains
intersected by each of these line segments. These data are tabulated below.

Line Number No. Grains Intersected

1 11
2 10
3 9
4 8.5
5 7
6 10
7 8

The average number of grain boundary intersections for these lines was 9.1. Therefore, the average line
length intersected is just

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 60 mm
= 6.59 mm
9.1

Hence, the average grain diameter, d, is

ave. line length intersected 6.59 mm

d = = = 6.59 ´ 10-2 mm
magnification 100

(b) This portion of the problem calls for us to estimate the ASTM grain size number for this same
material. The average grain size number, n, is related to the number of grains per square inch, n, at a
magnification of 100 according to Equation 6.20. Inasmuch as the magnification is 100, the value of
n is measured directly from the micrograph. The photomicrograph on which has been constructed a
square 1 in. on a side is shown below.

The total number of complete grains within this square is approximately 10 (taking into account grain
fractions). Now, in order to solve for g in Equation 6.20, it is first necessary to take logarithms as

log n = (g - 1) log 2

From which g equals

log n
g= +1
log 2

log 10
= + 1 = 4.3
log 2

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 DESIGN PROBLEMS

Specification of Composition

6.D1 Aluminum–lithium alloys have been developed by the aircraft industry to reduce the weight and
improve the performance of its aircraft. A commercial aircraft skin material having a density of
2.50 g/cm3 is desired. Compute the concentration of Li (in wt%) that is required.

Solution

Solution of this problem requires the use of Equation 6.13a, which takes the form

100
 ave 
C 100  C

Li Li

 Li  Al

inasmuch as CLi + CAl = 100. According to the table inside the front section of the book, the respective
densities of Li and Al are 0.534 and 2.71 g/cm3. Upon solving for CLi from the above equation, we get

1 0 0  L i (  A l   ave )
C Li

 ave (  A l   L i )

And incorporating specified values into the above equation leads to

3 3 3
(1 0 0 ) ( 0 . 5 3 4 g / c m ) ( 2 . 7 1 g / c m  2 .5 0 g / c m )
C Li = 3 3 3
( 2 .5 0 g / c m ) ( 2 .7 1 g / c m  0 .5 3 4 g / c m )

 2 .0 6 w t%

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6.D2 Iron and vanadium both have the BCC crystal structure and V forms a substitutional
solid solution in Fe for concentrations up to approximately 20 wt% V at room temperature. Determine
the concentration in weight percent of V that must be added to iron to yield a unit cell edge length of
0.290 nm.

Solution

To begin, it is necessary to employ Equation 4.8, and solve for the unit cell volume, VC, as

n A ave
VC 
 ave NA

where Aave and ave are the atomic weight and density, respectively, of the Fe–V alloy. Inasmuch as
both of these materials have the BCC crystal structure, which has cubic symmetry, VC is just the cube of
the unit cell length, a. That is

3 3
VC = a = (0 .2 9 0 n m )

8 23
 ( 2 .9  1 0
3 3
cm )  2 .4 3  1 0 cm

It is now necessary to construct expressions for Aave and ave in terms of the concentration of vanadium,
CV, using Equations 6.14a and 6.13a. For Aave we have

100
Aave =
CV (100 - CV )
+
AV AFe

100
=
CV (100 - CV )
+
50.94 g/mol 55.85 g/mol

whereas for ave

100
rave =
CV (100 - CV )
+
rV r Fe

100
=
CV (100 - CV )
+
6.10 g/cm 7.87 g/cm3
3

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Within the BCC unit cell there are 2 equivalent atoms, and thus, the value of n in Equation 4.8 is 2;
hence, this expression may be written in terms of the concentration of V in weight percent as follows:

23 3
V C  2 .4 3  1 0 cm

n A ave

 ave N A

é ù
ê ú
(2 atoms/unit cell) ê ú
100
ê CV (100 - CV ) ú
ê + ú
ë 50.94 g/mol 55.85 g/mol û
=
é ù
ê ú
ê 100 ú(6.022 ´ 1023 atoms/mol)
ê CV (100 - CV ) ú
ê + 3ú
ë 6.10 g/cm 7.87 g/cm û
3

And solving this expression for CV leads to CV = 16.2 wt%.

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