Chem Review

Atomic Theory
 Copper ions are coloured because the d orbitals are split. The electrons move between orbitals
and absorb light and energy, and complementary colour is transmitted when energy is absorbed
by d electrons moving.
 uv series goes from higher energy levels to n=1 in hydrogen. Visible series goes from higher
energy levels to n=2 in hydrogen.
 In Cr and Cu, there is only one electron in 4s sublevel, where the missing one goes to 3d.

Periodicity
 Reasons why electronegativity increases across period 3: there are increasing number of protons
in the nucleus and thus there is a larger charge on the nucleus, which attracts more electrons;
also, the radius and size of the atom decreases across period 3, and the electrons would go to
the same energy level, so therefore it would be more attracted.
 Noble gases don’t have electronegativity values since they have a full octet and can’t attract
more electrons.
 Sodium ion has smaller radius than sodium atom since the atom has 3 energy levels and ion has
2, and also, the ion has a greater net positive charge – same number of protons pulling smaller
number of electrons.
 Generally, ionic radius is larger because one ion has more filled energy levels, and one has more
electrons, and thus more repulsion.
 Al has lower first ionization energy than Mg since the outer electron of Al is in the 3p orbital,
and since it’s in a higher orbital, it’s further from nucleus and easier to remove.
 S has lower first ionization energy than P since in S, there is an electron paired in the 3p orbital,
and thus will be easier to remove.
 Reason for colored d-block ions: when ion is around other charged ions/polar molecules, the
electric field from these have different effects on different d orbitals, so they are split. There is a
slight difference in energy between orbitals so when white light is passed through, some
frequencies are absorbed and electrons move between the d-orbitals.
 Melting point increases from Na to Al since the atomic radius decreases and charge density
increases, and attraction for mobile electrons increases.
 S8 has higher melting point than P4 since sulphur is a larger molecule and has more van der
Waals.
 Si has highest melting point since it is a large molecule with macromolecular 3D covalent
bonding.
 Ar has lowest melting point since it is a simple atomic, and only has weak van der Waals.

Bonding
 0<∆EN<0.2: Non-polar covalent
  0.2<∆EN<1.7: Polar covalent
 ∆EN>1.7: Ionic
 Dative bond: a bond that is created where the electrons are not shared, they are simply
attracted to one another.
 Ligand: one of the side molecules attracted to a central atom through a dative bond.
 Coordination Number: number of dative bonds.
 Electronegativity: A measure of how strongly the atom attracts the electrons in a covalent bond.
 Dative Covalent Bond – When both electrons in a bond come from one atom.
 Pi bonds formed by sideways overlap.
 For transition metals, they can form complex ions through covalent dative bonds. The transition
metal acts as the Lewis acid, and the ligand acts as the Lewis base. The ligand donates a pair of
non-bonding electrons to central metal ion. The new ligand replaces the previous ligand (which
may be H2O if its in aqueous solution).

Energetics
 Standard Enthalpy Change = (Bonds Broken) – (Bonds Formed)
 Neutralization reactions are always exothermic
 ∆Hf0= Standard enthalpy change of formation: the enthalpy change resulting from one mol of a
molecule being formed by its elements in standard state.
 Lattice enthalpy: the enthalpy change resulting from one mol of a solid salt dissociating into its
ions in gaseous form.
 Standard Enthalpy of Combustion: The enthalpy change when one mole of a substance
combusts (reacts with oxygen).
 Maxwell-Boltzmann energy distribution curve: Number of Particles vs. Energy. It shows the
distribution of number of particles at various energies. If activation energy is specified on the x-
axis, the particles that have energy larger than it will react, and those under it won’t.
 Economic importance of catalyst in Haber Process: catalyst reduces the overall temperature
(since process is exothermic), and will increase ammonia yield, and also the catalyst increases
the rate of reaction so that the equilibrium is reached in less time.
 When the temperature of a liquid in a closed container increases, its vapour pressure increases
and when the pressure on a liquid increases, its boiling point increases.

Organics
 Functional groups with dipole-dipole forces: aldehydes, ketones, and presence of halogens.
 Functional groups with hydrogen bonding: alcohol, carboxylic acid, amine, and amide.
 As chain length increases, boiling point increases.
 Tertiary: when the carbon has no H bonds; Primary: when carbon has 2 H bonds.
 To name esters: it is the alcohol first (with a –yl) and then the carboxylic acid (with an –oate)
 Esters are used as flavouring agents, perfumes, and solvents.
 Plastics are a very large industry, have many uses, and are cheap, but disposal is problematic
because they are not biodegradable, and take up a lot of space in landfills.
  To make ethanoic acid from ethanol, you need H 2SO4 and Cr2O7-2 and you need to heat the
alcohol under reflux.
 Stereoisomers: compounds with the same structural formula but different arrangement of
atoms in space. (Ex. cis/trans, enantiomers).
 Cis-isomers have higher boiling point than trans isomers since they are more polar and will
experience more dipole-dipole interactions.
 Ethane can go through a substitution reaction to get chloroethane, requires uv light.
 Structural Isomers: Atoms are joined in a different order so that they have different structural
formulae.
o Positional Isomer: same hydrocarbon skeleton and same functional group.
o Hydrocarbon Chain Isomer: Different hc chain, same functional groups.
o Functional Group Isomers: different functional groups.
 Stereoisomers: order in which atoms are joined are the same (same structural formula)
o Geometric: cis/trans; optical isomers: enantiomers

Kinetics
 If the rate law is given, the rate determining step is can be deduced from it. The rate law shows
how the rate depends on its reactants, if its squared, then the rate determining step involves
two of those molecules in its reactants. If the rate law depends on more than one molecule,
then its rate determining step will involve both molecules. It could also include a reaction
intermediate that was created by the two molecules.
 Water is added to a reaction rate experiment involving concentrations to control volume.
 Remember to perform dilution calculations on mixtures before calculating rate law.

Equilibrium
 Characteristics of a system at equilibrium: macroscopic properties remain constant,
concentrations remain constant, no change to copper solution seen, and rate of reverse reaction
= rate of forward reaction.
 If a catalyst is added to a chemical process in equilibrium, it speeds up the forward and reverse
rates by an equal amount, so it stays at equilibrium.
 If pressure is changed, look at how many molecules there are in the reactants and products.
Reaction will shift to counteract the change. Ex. If pressure is increased, reaction will shift to the
side with less molecules.
 In Haber process, extremely high pressures aren’t used because it is very expensive, and a
temperature is chosen to be sufficiently high to give a quick reaction rate, but not too high to
reduce yield.

Acids and Bases

 If there is an indicator and more base is added to it, the side with the Indicator base will be
favoured.
  To show that a solution can be a buffer, show what happens when an acid or a base is added.
(They both just react to create one of the acid-base conjugates; strong acid turns into weak acid)
 Fe3+ and H2O undergo a Lewis acid-base reaction where H2O is the e-pair donor, and Fe3+ is the e-
pair acceptor.

Electrochem
 In an electrochemical cell, the cathode is the positive electrode, and anode is the negative.
 In an electrolytic cell, the cathode is the negative electrode and the anode is the positive.
 Negative ions move towards anode, positive ions move towards cathode.
o Cations to cathode, anions to anode. (Same rule for electrolytic cells.)
 Higher E0 means better oxidizing agent, and lower (negative) E0 means better reducing agent.
 Measuring potentials using standard hydrogen electrode requires: Pt (chemically inert)
electrode, [H+]=1M, H2 gas to be at 1 atm, and at 298K.
 In an NaCl crystal, ions are in a rigid lattice and can’t move. Once melted, ions are free to move,
and will move if voltage is applied.

Chemistry in Industry and Technology

 Nanotechnology – Involves research and technology developments at the 1nm to 100nm range.
 Concerns of nanotechnology: health concerns (immune system may be defenceless against
particles on nano-scale), potential toxicity, possible explosive nature of large scale manufacture,
political issues.
 Hydrogen Half cells:
−¿¿
−¿ →2 H 2 O +2 e ¿
o Anode: H 2 +2OH
1 −¿→ 2OH −¿ ¿ ¿
o Cathode: H 2 O+ O2 +2 e
2
 Material used for membrane in a chlor-alkali electrolysis cell: polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
o Material used for positive electrode: titanium (chemically inert electrode)
 Reasons for membrane cell: cheaper to construct, cheaper to operate, purer NaOH produced,
less health effects (mercury leakage, asbestos).
 Uses of NaOH: feedstock for chemical industry, paper manufacture, production of aluminum,
manufacture of soap, cleaning drains.

Environmental Chemistry
 Effect of VOCs: smog and it forms toxic PANs (peroxyacylnitrates)
 Effect on soil when pH is decreased: CEC decreases, H + and Al3+ released, and Mg2+ lost (no
longer available to ions)