Topic 1: oxidation#s: a +ve or -ve whole # assigned to an element in a molecule or ions indicating an apparent charge on that atom; elements

in their elemental form have oxidation # of 0. The oxidation # of a monatomic ion is the same as its charge. Nonmetals tend to have negative oxidation #s, although some are positive in certain compounds or ions. Fluorine has an oxidation# of-1. The sum of the oxidation #s in a neutral compound is 0. The sum of the oxidation #s in a polyatomic ion is the charge on the ion. Concentration: a measure of the amount of solute in a given quantity of solution. Boyles Law: The volume of a fixed amount of gas @ constant temp is inversely proportional to the pressure. Charles Law: the volume of a fixed amount of gas @ a constant pressure is directly proportional to its absolute temp.. Avogadros Hypothesis/Law: equal volumes of gases at the same temp and pressure contain equal #s of molecules; the volume of a gas @constant temp and pressure is directly proportional to the # of moles of the gas. Gas Densities: density = mass/volume; for a gas @ STP density= molar mass/22.4L. Daltons Law of Partial Pressures: the total pressure of a mixture of gases equals the sum of the pressures that ea. would exert if it were present alone. Kinetic-Molecular Theory: gases of many molecules in continuous, random motion; combined volume of molecules of a gas is negligible relative to total volume; forces b/w molecules of a gas are negligible; @constant T, the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a gas doesnt change; kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to absolute temp. Thermochemistry: the study of heat change in chemical and physical change. Units of Energy: 1J=1Kgm2/s2; 1cal=4.184J; 1J=.2390cal. First Law of Thermodynamics: energy is neither created nor destroyed. Thermodynamics-the study of interconversion of heat and other forms of energy. Open system-can exchange mass and energy w its surroundings; Closed System-allows the exchange of heat but not mass; Isolated System-no exchange of mass or heat. State Functions: are properties determined by the state of the system regardless of how that condition was achieved; work and heat are not state functions. Energy Transfers: +q=energy flows into a system; -q=energy flows out of a system; -w=work is done by the system; +w=work is done on the system. Topic 3: enthalpy is the internal energy plus the product of pressure and volume. H=q so + H: system has gained heat from its surroundings (endo). -H: system has lost heat to surroundings (exo). Heat Capacity and Specific Heat: specific heat capacity (Cs)- amount of energy required to raise the temp of 1 g of substance by 1k. Hesss Law: change in enthalpy for any rxn is a constant, whether the rxn takes place in 1 step or several.Topic 4: Interpreting Eq Constants: K1=prod favored; K1=react. Favored; K=1=equal prod and react. Applications of Eq Constants: Q=K-system is @ eq; QK-rxn move to react side; QK-rxn move to prod side. Topic 5: Kw=1.7x10-14. pH: Rxns of Anions w H2O: anioins are bases. They can react w water in hydrolysis rxn to form OH- and the conjugate acid. Rxns of Cations w H2O: cations w acidic protons will lower the pH of a soln; most metal cations that are hydrated in soln also lower the pH of the soln; attraction b/w nonbonding e-s onoxygen ad the metal causes a shift of the e- density in H2O; this makes the O-H bond more polar and the H2O more acidic; greater charge and smaller size make a cation more acidic. Effect of Cations and Anions: an anion that is the conjugate base of a SA will not affect pH; an anion that is the conjugate base of a WA will increase pH; a cation that is the conjugate acid of a WB will decrease the pH; cations of the strong Arrhenius bases will not affect pH; other metal ions will cause a decrease in pH; when a soln contains both the conjugate base of a WA and the conjugate acid of a WB, the effect on pH depends on the Ka and Kb values. Acid-Base Titrations: titration-acid slowly added to base or base slowly added to an acid. Equivalence point-point @ which stoichiometrically equivalent amounts of acid and base have been brought together. pH titration curve- pH as a function of the

volume of added titrant. Topic 6: The common ion effect: the shift in eq caused by the addition of a compound having an ion in common w the dissolved substance whenever a weak electrolyte and a strong electrolyte contain a common ion, the WE ionizes less that it would if it were alone in a soln. Buffer Soln: a soln of 1)a WB or WA, and 2) its salt the soln has the ability to resist changes in pH on the addition of small amounts of either acid or base. Calculating the pH of a Buffer system: the pH of a buffer system depends on the Ka of the acid and the relative conc of the acid and its conjugate base. Buffer Capacity: the amount of acid or base that a buffer can neutralize before the pH begins to change appreciably- depends on the quantities of acid and base used in the buffer; the greater the [] the larger the capacity of the buffer; the buffer is more effective when the [] of the WA and salt are equal. pH range of a buffer: the pH range over which the buffer acts effectively. Solubility product constant (Ksp): indicates how soluble a solid is in H2O-the magnitude of Ksp is a measure of how much a solid dissolves to form a saturated soln. Factors that Affect Solubility: common-ion effect- the solubility of a slightly soluble salt is decreased by the presence of a 2nd solute that contains a common ion; pH of a soln- if a compound contains a basic anion, its solubility will increase as the soln b/c more acidic; formation of complex ions- the solubility of metal salts increases in the presence of some Lewis bases if the metal forms a complex w the base. Topic 7: Chemical Thermodynamics: energy relationships in chem rxns used to predict thespontaneity of rxns, but not the rate @ which rxns occur; for spont processes H=-ve(exo); non spont H=+ve(endo). Spont Processes: are those that can proceed without any outside interventions; has a direction;a process that is spont in one direction is non-spont in the opposite direction; pressure&temp ca affect the spont of a process. Reversible Processes: in a reversible process the system changes in such a way that the system and surroundings can be put back in their original state by exactly reversing the process. Irreversible Processes: cant be undone by exactly reversing the change to the system; spont processes are irreversible. Entropy: entropy (S)- a measure of the randomness of disorder of a system; the more disordered the system the larger the value of S; entropy is a state function; S0,randomness increases; 0, order increases. the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics: in any spont process the entropy of the universe increases; entropy of the universe doesnt change for reversible processes. Factors affecting entropy: physical state- randomness of particles; greater freedom of movement of particles, greater the entropy of the system; slg. Degrees of freedom- individual molecules have degrees of freedom associated w motions within the moleculetranslation; vibration; rotational- # of microstates. . . the entropy tends to increase w increase in-temp; vol;# independently moving molecules. Soln Process: when substances dissolve in a solvent, entropy increases.entropy increases when- gases are formed from l and s; liquids of solns are formed from solids; # of gas molecules increase; # of moles increases. 3rd Law of Thermodynamics: entropy of a pure crystalline substance @ absolute zero=0. Gibbs Free Energy: the spontaneity of a rxn depends on both enthalpy & entropy- rxns w lrg ve H values tend to be spont; rxns w +ve S values tend to be spont. If G is ve: forward rxn is spont.; G is 0: system is @eq; G is +ve: forward rxn is not spont, but reverse rxn is spont. Standard Free Energy Changes: analogous to standard enthalpies of formation are standard free energies of formation. Topic 8: Balancing Redox rxs using Half-Rxn Method: assign oxidation #s and determine the oxidation and reduction half-rxn; balancing ea half rxnelementoxygen-hydrogen-e-s; check that e-loss = e-gainmultiply half-rxn as necessary; add the half-rxn and cancel e-s and species if they appear on both sides of equation. Voltaic Cells: the energy released in a spont REDOX rxn may be sued to perform electrical work; oxidation occurs @ the anode; reduction

occurs @ the cathode; e-s flow from anode to cathode along external circuit; cations move to cathode; anions move to anode. Electromotive Force (emf): e-s spont flow one way in a REDOX rxn from higher to lower pot energy, from anode to cathode in volt cell; pot differences b/w anode and cathode in a cell is called the emf; aka cell potential, designated Ecell;measured in V; for a spont rxn Ecell0; the half-rxn w the more +ve value occurs as a reduction; half-rxn w the less +ve value occurs as oxidation; greater the diff b/c the 2, the greater the voltage of the cell. Topic 9: Kinetics: the study of the rate @ which a chemical process occurs; also involves the rxn mechanism; involves study of particle interaction. Rxn Rate: measured s the rate @which product is formed or reacted is used up; measured using properties such as mass/vol/conductivity/pH; expressed terms of change in property over time (M/s) Factors that Affect Rxn Rates: physical state of reactants;[] of reactants; temp; presence of a catalyst; the average rate decreases as the rxn proceeds b/c as the rxn goes forward there are fewer collisions b/w reactant molecules. Rate Law: shows the relationship b/w the rxn rate and the [] of reactants; exponents tell the order of the rxn w respect to ea reactant. How Rx Orders Affect Rxn Rules: if rxn order is 0 for a reactant- changing[] will have no effect; rxn is 1st order doubling *+ results in doubling rate; rxn is 2nd order doubling *+ 2nd increase in rate;therefore if rxn is nth order. . . 2n in rate.