ARTICLE IN PRESS

Journal of Environmental Management 83 (2007) 409–415

www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Performance of a stratified sand filter in removal of chemical oxygen

demand, total suspended solids and ammonia nitrogen from
high-strength wastewaters
M.G. Healy, M. Rodgers, J. Mulqueen
Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
Received 23 June 2005; received in revised form 21 January 2006; accepted 15 March 2006
Available online 30 June 2006

Abstract

A stratified sand filter column, operated in recirculation mode and treating synthetic effluent resembling high-strength dairy
wastewaters was studied over a 342-d duration. The aim of this paper was to examine the organic, total suspended solids (TSS) and
nutrient removal rates of the sand filter, operated in recirculation mode, under incrementally increasing hydraulic and organic loading
rates and to propose a field filter-sizing criterion. Best performance was obtained at a system hydraulic loading rate of 10 L m2 d1; a
higher system hydraulic loading rate (of 13.4 L m2 d1) caused surface ponding. The system hydraulic loading rate of 10 L m2 d1 gave
a filter chemical oxygen demand (COD), TSS, and total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) loading rate of 14, 3.7, and 2.1 g m2 d1, respectively,
and produced consistent COD and TSS removals of greater than 99%, and an effluent NO3-N concentration of 42 mg L1 (accounting
for an 86% reduction in total nitrogen (Tot-N)). As the proportional surface area requirement for the sand filter described in this study is
less than the recommended surface area requirement of a free-water surface (FWS) wetland treating an effluent of similar quality, it could
provide an economic and sustainable alternative to conventional wetland treatment.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Recirculating sand filters; Dairy parlor wastewaters; Forward flow; Organic loading rate

1. Introduction 3000 mg BOD L1, this would mean that an area of up to

The disposal of dairy parlor washings is laborious and
time-consuming and can lead to environmental problems
such as eutrophication. Recently, natural treatment meth-
odologies such as constructed wetlands have been used to
treat farmyard effluent (Geary and Moore, 1999; Sun et al.,
1999; Nguyen, 2000); however, their use is limited by the
large amount of area required for treatment, as an organic
loading rate of between 0.6 and 6 g biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) m2 d1 is recommended for free-water
surface (FWS) wetlands treating dairy parlor wastewaters
(Tanner and Kloosterman, 1997). Considering a farm with
100 dairy cows, with each cow producing approximately
50 L d1 (Department of the Environment and Department
of Agriculture, and Food, and Forestry, 1996) at
Corresponding author. Tel.: +353 91 495364; fax: +353 91 750507.
E-mail address: mark.healy@nuigalway.ie (M.G. Healy).
about 15,000 m2 would be required for adequate treatment.
Intermittently loaded sand filters are proposed as an efficient
and economic alternative to this treatment process and,
when operated in recirculation mode, can produce an
effluent, which is low in organic and nutrient concentration.
To date, research has mainly focused on the use of
intermittent sand filters for the treatment of domestic-
strength wastewater (Schudel and Boller, 1990; Gross and
Mitchell, 1985; Gold et al., 1992; Nichols et al., 1997).
Generally, these filters are designed and operated in
accordance with the US Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) (1980) guidelines and have provided good organic
carbon, TSS and nutrient removal rates. Research on the
use of intermittent sand filters in the treatment of high-
strength wastewaters is more limited. Liu et al. (1998, 2000,
2003) used sand filter columns to treat high-strength,
synthetic wastewater containing detergent and milk fat. Liu
et al. (2003) examined the performance of 3 laboratory

0301-4797/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.03.005
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
410 M.G. Healy et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 83 (2007) 409–415

Nitrification incomplete in

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1980). Calculations based on a forward flow of 160 L m2 d1 at a recirculation ratio of 5:1, and with COD, TSS, and TKN concentrations in the
Domestic effluent. Effluent

Domestic effluent. Effluent

sand filters, comprising either a 30.5 cm-deep fine sand
(Column 1), a 30.5 cm-deep coarse sand overlying a 30.5 cm-

unable to meet BOD5/

treated to discharge
deep fine sand (Column 2) or a 3-layer sand filter comprising

TSS/fecal coliform

Domestic effluent.
pea gravel (30.5 cm) overlying 30.5 cm deep coarse sand over
a 30.5 cm-deep fine sand (Column 3). With an average

Comments

standards.
influent organic concentration of 2382 mg COD L1, the

standard.
build-up of organic matter and suspended solids caused the

filter.
filters to fail after 253 d of operation under an organic
loading rate of 106 g COD m2 d1.

d10 ¼ 1.5–2.5 mm; UCo2

The organic, TSS, and nitrogen loading rates have a

d10 ¼ 1.0–1.5; UCo4

significant effect on the clogging and performance of a

d10 ¼ 3 mm; UCo2

d10 ¼ 0.3; UC ¼ 4
Single-layer filter

Single-layer filter

Single-layer filter

Single-layer filter
filter. A number of studies have investigated the filter
performance under varying loading rates in an attempt to

Filter mediab
quantify the maximum organic, TSS, and nitrogen loading
rates which can safely be applied to a filter (Darby et al.,
1996). In a study of 12 shallow single-pass sand filters
(0.38 m deep) treating domestic effluent, with four sets
having the same effective grain size (d10) and uniformity

(g m2 d1)
coefficient (Cu), Darby et al. (1996) found that an organic
loading rate in excess of 47 g COD m2 d1 (based on filter

TKN

o3
surface area) caused ponding on a sand filter with d10 of

1.2

0.3

7.7
0.29 mm. Although, US EPA guidelines (US Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA), 1980) recommend an
organic loading rate of approximately 34 g COD m2 d1 TSS (g m2 d1)
on the plan filter surface area for domestic wastewater
treatment by recirculating sand filters, Loudon et al.

o1
3.6

5.8
(1985) and Christopherson et al. (2001) found that

2
recirculating single layer sand filters receiving a filter
COD loading rate of approximately 4–7 g COD m2 d1
appeared to be unable to adequately treat domestic
Filter loading rates

Filters comprise media with different uniformity coefficients (UC) and effective sizes (d10).
COD (g m2 d1)

effluents to acceptable standards (Table 1).

Recirculating sand filters usually can operate with a
recirculation ratio of up to 5:1, with no reduction in
performance (Lamb et al., 1990; Crites et al., 1997).

The forward flow is the hydraulic loading rate on the sand filtration system.
However, the C:N ratio in the recirculation tank appears
4

~2

~7

34
to be the main factor in the system performance (Henze et

recirculation tank of 35, 6 and 8 mg L1 (data from Leverenz et al., 2000).
al., 1997). Lamb et al. (1990) showed that, although a sand
Recirculation ratio

filter received a low organic loading rate (approximately

3 g COD m2 d1), only a 25% reduction in Tot-N
occurred when the system was operated in recirculation
Filter design and loading rates for recirculating sand filters

3:1–5:1

mode. This was due to a low C:N ratio in the recirculation

tank. Similar results were obtained by Gold et al. (1992).
5:1

5:1

4:1

This paper examines the performance of a 0.9 m deep

intermittent recirculating sand filter column treating
influent synthetic wastewater resembling dairy parlor
Forward flowa
(L m2 d1)

washings from a dairy farm in County Cork, Ireland

120–200

(Table 2). The impact of cleaning agents and sanitizers,

contained in dairy parlor wastewater, was not considered
9.6
41

42

in this study. The hydraulic loading rate was increased by

an initial factor of 1.5 and later 2.0 the original system
loading rate, i.e., 6.67, 10.0 and 13.4 L m2 d1. The aim
Christopherson, et al.

Loudon et al. (1985)

of this paper was to examine the organic, TSS and

Crites et al. (1997)

EPA guidelinesc

nutrient removal rates of the sand filter, operated in

recirculation mode, under incrementally increasing hy-
Reference

draulic and organic loading rates and to propose a field

Table 1

(2001)

filter sizing criterion. The average water retention time

b
a

within the columns for each of the modes of operation

 ARTICLE IN PRESS
M.G. Healy et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 83 (2007) 409–415 411

Table 2
Characteristics of wastewater from a dairy farm in Co. Cork, Ireland (mg L1)

na CODTb Tot-N NH4-N NO3-N PO4-P TSS

Concentration 53 2921 175.7 84.8 8.5 23.0 352.9

7 Std. deviation 1395 66.3 62.3 12.5 6.8 457.4
a
Number of samples.
b
CODT ¼ Total unfiltered COD.

Q 4Q
Sand filter

100 mm dist. gravel

250 mm c. sand

Feed
tank 75 mm p. gravel
Anoxic tank
(recirculating 150 mm f. sand
tank) 75 mm p. gravel
150 mm f. sand

100 mm p. gravel

3Q
Effluent sump

Fig. 1. Layout of recirculating sand filter system. Single-pass operation excludes anoxic tank.

(excluding the loading rate at which surface ponding
occurred) was also measured. Using a series of ceramic
suction cups located at various depths throughout the
column, NO3-N and NH4-N concentration profiles were
measured during normal system operation and immedi-
ately prior to system failure.
2. Materials and methods
The column used in this study was 0.9 m deep and 0.3 m
in diameter and contained layers of stratified sand media,
after Gross and Mitchell (1985), who obtained good
removal efficiency with this design. Prior to operation,
the column was seeded with 1 L of mixed liquor from the
return flow of an activated sludge plant used for BOD
removal and nitrification. The mixed liquor was applied in
a single dose to the top of the filter column. In the column,
a 100 mm layer of distribution gravel (10–20 mm in size)
overlaid a 250 mm layer of coarse sand media
(d10 ¼ 0.45 mm) and two 150 mm layers of fine sand
(d10 ¼ 0.11 mm), which were separated from each other
by 75 mm layers of pea gravel (10–20 mm in size). The
bottom layer of sand was underlain by a 100 mm layer of
pea gravel (10–20 mm in size). The column design and
layout is illustrated in Fig. 1.
In previous laboratory studies, due to the small diameter
of the columns tested, replication was carried out (Gross
and Mitchell, 1985, Pell and Nyberg, 1989a, b). However,
due to the relatively large area of the sand filter used in
this study (diameter ¼ 0.3 m) replication was not em-
ployed; this is consistent with other studies using filters of
similar dimensions (diameter ¼ 0.185 m; Castillo et al.,
2001).
The synthetic dairy wastewater was prepared daily with
a composition as shown in Table 3 (Odegaard and Rusten,
1980). The synthetic wastewater was made up daily and
was pumped in 4 doses each day to a recirculation tank.
The wastewater temperature ranged from 10–12 1C. A total
of 75% of the sand filter effluent, collected in a sump, was
pumped back to the recirculation tank, and the mixed
effluent was then applied to the sand filter via a spiral
distribution manifold. This gave a recirculation ratio of
3:1. The peristaltic pump was operational for a period of
5 min per dose. Almost daily testing of the water quality
parameters was carried out throughout the period of
operation. Analysis was carried out on samples from the
feed and recirculation tanks, and on the effluent water from
the column. The water quality parameters measured were:
COD (closed reflux, titrimetric method), Tot-N (persulfate
method), ammonium-N (NH4-N) (ammonia-selective elec-
trode method; NH 500/2, WTW, Weilheim, Germany),
NO3-N (nitrate electrode method; WTW, Weilheim,
Germany), and total suspended solids (TSS, dried at
103–105 1C). All water quality parameters were tested in
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
412 M.G. Healy et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 83 (2007) 409–415

Table 3 modes 1, 2, and 3) was 117 mg L1 (representing a 63%

Composition of synthetic wastewatera reduction in Tot-N from the feed tank), of which
Component Amount (mg)
inorganic-N composed 54% of the influent Tot-N entering
into the recirculation tank. NO3-N comprised between
Glucose 14,400 42% and 58% of the influent inorganic N into the
Yeast 2160 recirculation tank during the three recirculation rates and
Dried Milk 8640
influent NH4-N averaged 3078 mg L1 and increased by
Urea 1620
NH4Cl 3500 33% in the recirculation tank. This was consistent with a
Na2PO412H2O 5400 study by Piluk and Hao (1989).
KHCO3 3600 Due to the processes of cell synthesis, biological
NaHCO3 9360 conversion and denitrification, Tot-N was reduced by
MgSO4  7H2O 3600
FeSO4  7H2O 144
between 48% and 52% in the recirculation tank, with N
MnSO4  H2O 144 going to cell synthesis and denitrification. This may have
CaCl2  6H2O 216 resulted from the increased growth of microbial biomass in
Bentonite 2880 the recirculation tank. In the recirculation tank, mixed
a liquor TSS averaged 14157536 mg L1 during Rec. 1,
Dissolved in 6 L, respectively, to give an organic concentration of
approximately 3000 mg chemical oxygen demand (COD) L1. increasing to 25487574 and 36757433 mg L1, respec-
tively, for Rec. 2 and Rec. 3. Organic-N conversion within
the recirculation tank was more pronounced at the higher
accordance with the Standard Methods (APHA-AWWA- loading rates than at the lower loading rates: a 65%
WEF, 1995). organic-N conversion was measured during Rec. 1, versus
The average water retention time within the column was a conversion of 82% for the higher hydraulic loading rates.
determined using sodium bromide (NaBr) as a tracer Little variation was noted in the effluent inorganic N
(Levenspiel, 1999). The tracer was made up to 10 g L1 from the recirculation tank. An average effluent concen-
concentration and applied as a pulse in one hydraulic tration of 4576 mg L1 was observed over the duration of
loading interval to the sand filter using the peristaltic the recirculation phase of the study and it was mainly
pump. A fraction collector (REDIFRAC, Amersham composed of NH4-N. During Rec. 3, NO3-N was reduced
Pharmacia Biotech, Bucks, UK), positioned under the from a combined average influent concentration of
column, collected samples in timed increments. 2372 mg L1 entering the recirculation tank to 1 mg L1
Fully saturated suction cups, positioned along the side of exiting the recirculation tank, with a co-existent dissolved
the filter column, were emptied of all de-aired water, and a oxygen (DO) reduction from a combined average of
suction of approximately 200 cm was applied to each cup 871 mg L1.
using a syringe to allow the pore water to drain into the Nitrogen concentration profile measurements (Fig. 2)
cups. This allowed NO3-N and NH4-N concentrations and taken in the sand filter column during Rec. 3 (25 d before
the extent of nitrification along the depth of the filter surface ponding) indicated that nitrification was almost
column to be determined in each sand layer during a 6 h complete by the bottom of the coarse sand layer (350 mm
period between wastewater applications under normal from the surface of the column). Eight days before surface
loading conditions and immediately prior to surface ponding, the development of anoxic conditions within the
ponding. column meant that nitrification rates were attenuated, and
full nitrification took longer to be completed (Fig. 2).
3. Results and discussion
3.2. Chemical oxygen demand removal
Analysis of steady-state data was performed during
system hydraulic loading rates of 6.67 (Recirculation (Rec.) Over the duration of operation in recirculation mode,
1), 10 (Rec. 2) and 13.4 L m2 d1 (Rec. 3). During the final average total chemical oxygen demand (CODT) in the feed
loading period (13.4 L m2 d1) surface ponding developed tank was 32617322 mg L1 (24457206 mg filtered COD
within 42 d of start-up and the analysis was terminated. (CODF) L1). Using flow averaged concentrations, total
and filtered COD entering the recirculation tank remained
3.1. Nitrogen conversion and removal constant at 835758 mg CODT L1 and 641754 mg
CODF L1 throughout the entire operation in recircula-
Throughout the entire period of operation in recircula- tion. During the 3 hydraulic loading rates, wastewater
tion mode, the average Tot-N concentration in the feed effluent COD from the recirculation tank was 2427
tank was 332 mg L1 (Table 4). This was greater than the 62 mg CODT L1 (72% removal) during Rec. 1,3587
measured Tot-N concentration (Table 2) as it was difficult 106 mg CODT L1 (54% removal) during Rec. 2, and
to approximate all water quality parameters fully. Using 339759 mg CODT L1 (58% removal) during Rec. 3.
flow-averaged concentrations, the combined average Tot- The filter achieved a CODT reduction in excess of 90%
N entering the recirculation tank (during recirculation under all loading rates, producing an average total and
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
M.G. Healy et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 83 (2007) 409–415 413

Table 4
Water quality parameter concentrations (7 SD) from the feed tank (FT), entering and exiting the recirculation tank (RT), and effluent from the sand filter
(SF) for recirculation modes

Treatmenta Location System hy. CODTb CODFc Tot-N NH4-N NO3-N TSS DO
Loading rate (mg L1) (mg L1) (mg L1) (mg L1) (mg L1) (mg L1)
(L m2 d1)

Rec. 1 FT 6.67 3510 (200) 2711 (181) 375 (25) 134 (15) 2 (1) 780 (154) 5 (2)
Entering RTd 895 (50) 680 (55) 141 (12) 34 (4) 45 (5) 195 (38) 7 (1)
Exiting RT 242 (62) 198 (49) 68 (5) 43 (5) 2 (1) 120(47) 0 (0)
SF 23 (13) 17 (11) 60 (12) 0 (0) 60 (6) 0 (0) 8 (2)
Rec. 2 FT 10 3045 (281) 2477 (270) 297(20) 122(25) 1 (1) 884(137) 3 (3)
Entering RT 785 (68) 619 (67) 106 (5) 28 (10) 32 (5) 221 (34) 8 (1)
Exiting RT 358 284 (92) 54 (8) 43 (10) 1 (1) 92 (38) 0 (0)
SF 34 (25) 24 (18) 42 (4) 0 (0) 42 (6) 0 (0) 9 (1)
Rec. 3e FT 13.4 3228 (222) 2446 (167) 324 (15) 127(6) 1 (0) 902(108) 0 (0)
Entering RT 826 (57) 623 (41) 104 (4) 29 (9) 23 (2) 225 (27) 8 (1)
Exiting RT 339 (59) 283 (76) 53 (5) 44 (3) 1 (0) 57 (12) 0 (0)
SF 27 (8) 22 (7) 30 (3) 0 (0) 30 (2) 0 (0) 9 (1)
Average FT 3261 (322) 2545 (206) 332 (20) 127(15) 1 (1) 855(133) 3 (2)
Entering RT 835 641 (54) 117(7) 30 (8) 33 (4) 214 (33) 7 (1)
Exiting RT 313 255 (72) 58 (7) 43 (6) 1 (1) 90 (33) 0 (0)
SF 28 (15) 21 (12) 44 (6) 0 (0) 44 (5) 0 (0) 9 (1)
a
Rec. 1 ¼ Recirculation 1; Rec. 2 ¼ Recirculation 2; Rec. 3 ¼ Recirculation 3.
b,c
CODT ¼ total unfiltered COD; CODF ¼ filtered COD.
d
Flow-averaged concentrations.
e
Ponding occurred 42 days after loading commenced.

NH4-N / NO3-N +/- standard deviation (mg L-1)

0 10 20 30 40 50
0
Pea gravel
100

200
Coarse sand layer
Depth below surface (mm)

300

400 Pea gravel

500 Fine sand layer

600 25 days before ponding:NH4-N Pea gravel

(mg L-1)
700 25 days before ponding:NO3-N
Fine sand layer
(mg L-1)
800 8 days before ponding: NO3-N
(mg L-1)
Pea gravel
8 days before ponding: NH4-N
900 (mg L-1)

Fig. 2. NH4-N and NO3-N concentration profiles in the 0.9 m filter column during Rec. 3.

filtered COD effluent concentration of 28715 mg
CODT L1 and 21712 mg CODF L1, respectively. The
decreasing average water retention time in the column from
6.7 d during Rec. 1–4.4 d during Rec. 2 did not appear to
have a major effect on the performance of the column.
3.3. System performance and sizing
The best performance of the sand filter system used in
this study occurred under system hydraulic and organic
loading rates of 10 L m2 d1 and 30.4 g CODT m2 d1,
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
414 M.G. Healy et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 83 (2007) 409–415

Sizing of pilot field-scale intermittent sand filter is based on a 100 cow farm, with each cow producing 50 L per day (Department of Environment and Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry,
respectively, with a recirculation ratio of 3 times the
Sizingd
influent hydraulic loading rate (Table 5). This gave filter
(m2)

641
493
349
COD, TSS, and TKN loading rates of 14, 3.7, and
2.1 g m2 d1, respectively, for this wastewater and pro-
(g m2 d1) duced an 86% reduction in effluent Tot-N. Considering a
farm with 100 cows, with each cow producing 50 L d1 at,
TSS

100
100
100
say, an organic concentration of 3000 mg COD L1, this
means that a sand filter with a surface area of 493 m2 would
(g m2 d1)

be required for the adequate treatment of dairy parlor

NH4-N

washings.
100
100
100

4. Conclusions
For operation in recirculation mode, the filter hydraulic loading rate equals 4 times the system hydraulic loading rate, based on a 3:1 recirculation ratio.
(g m2 d1
Tot-N

Analyses of a stratified sand filter column, operated in

83
86
91

recirculation mode, over a period of 342 d show that it is

% Removals

capable of removing over 99% of COD, and 100% of TSS.

(g m2 d1)

By increasing the hydraulic loading on the column in

CODT

gradual increments, the best performance occurred at a

99
99
99

forward flow of 10 L m2 d1 with a 3:1 recirculation. This

gave a Tot-N reduction of 86%. On the basis of
(g m2 d1)

measurements taken during Rec. 3, nitrification was

complete by a depth of 350 mm from the filter surface.
Filter loading rateb

TSS

3.2
3.7
3.0

During this period of operation, the filter COD, TSS, and

TKN loading rates were 14, 3.7, and 2.1 g m2 d1 and,
(g m2 d1)

although the average water retention time in the filter

CODT

reduced from a maximum of 6.7 d (Rec. 1, Table 5) to 4.4 d

6.5

(Rec. 2, Table 5), no adverse effect on removal perfor-

14
18

mance was noted. A further increase in the forward flow

Summary of loading conditions and treatment performance of the stratified intermittent sand filter

(g m2 d1) (g m2 d1)

hydraulic loading rate to 13.4 L m2 d1 produced surface

ponding. A study using an intermediate hydraulic loading
Organic conc. in System hy. loading System loading rate

TSS

5.2
8.8

rate between 10 and 13.4 L m2 d1 to better individuate

12

the optimum loading conditions is recommended.

CODTc

Acknowledgments
23.4
30.4
43

The authors are grateful to Teagasc for the award of a

ratea (L m2 d1)

Walsh fellowship to the first author and for financial

support for the work. The authors acknowledge the
technical help of M. Reidy (Teagasc, Moorepark), M.
Rathaille, M.O’Brien and G. Hynes (NUI, Galway).
1996) at an organic concentration of 3000 mg CODT L1.
6.67
10.0
13.4

Ponding occurred 42 days after loading commenced.

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