● Akhbār: In Twelver Shia Islam, Akhbar refers to the transmitting of hadith, which are traditions

regarding the actions and teachings of the founder of Islam Muhammad, and his twelve
successors. It is the foundation of Akhbari Twelver Shia Islam, which uses it to give rulings for
fiqh, Islamic religious law.
● Tawātur: By tawatur is meant the multiplicity of the sources of a certain report that leads to
certitude in the listener that the report is indeed true. A mutawatir hadith is one which has been
reported by so many different chains of transmission and such several narrators in every
generation as normally could not agree to fabricate a tradition without the fact of its fabrication
becoming known
● Ijmā ‘: Arabic term referring to the consensus or agreement of the Muslim community basically
on religious issues. It can worry from place to place and can be done on issues confronting the
local community or the Muslim Ummah.
● Ṣaḥiḥ (khabar): Best translated as "authentic". Ibn Hajar defines a hadith that is "ṣaḥīḥ in and
of itself" – as a singular narration conveyed by a trustworthy, completely competent person,
either in his ability to memorize or to preserve what he wrote, with a muttaṣil ("connected")
isnād ("chain of narration") that contains neither a serious concealed flaw (ʻillah) nor irregularity
(shādhdh). He then defines a hadith that is ṣaḥīḥ ligharihi – "ṣaḥīḥ due to external factors" – as
a hadith "with something, such as numerous chains of narration, strengthening it.
● Ḥasan (khabar): Ḥasan (‫ َح َسن‬meaning "good") is used to describe hadith whose authenticity is
not as well-established as that of ṣaḥīḥ hadith, but sufficient for use as (religious) evidence. Ibn
Hajar defines a hadith that is Ḥasan lithatihi – "Ḥasan in and of itself" – with the same definition
a ṣaḥīḥ hadith except that the competence of one of its narrators is less than complete; while a
hadith that is Ḥasan ligharihi ("Ḥasan due to external factors") is determined to be Ḥasan due to
corroborating factors such as numerous chains of narration. He states that it is then comparable
to a ṣaḥīḥ hadith in its religious authority. A Ḥasan hadith may rise to the level of being ṣaḥīḥ if
it is supported by numerous isnād (chains of narration); in this case that hadith would be Ḥasan
lithatihi ("Ḥasan in and of itself") but, once coupled with other supporting chains, becomes
ṣaḥīḥ ligharihi ("ṣaḥīḥ due to external factors")
● Ḍa ‘īf: is the categorization of a hadith as "weak". Ibn Hajar described the cause of a hadith
being classified as weak as "either due to discontinuity in the chain of narrators or due to some
criticism of a narrator."[12] This discontinuity refers to the omission of a narrator occurring at
different positions within the isnād and is referred to using specific terminology accordingly as
discussed below.
● Mawḍū ‘: A hadith that is Mawḍū is one determined to be fabricated and cannot be attributed
to its origin. Al-Dhahabi defines Mawḍū as a hadith the text of which contradicts established
norms of the Prophet's sayings, or its reporters include a liar,
● Mashhūr: A hadith which is reported by more than two reporters is known as Mashhūr
("famous"). According to some scholars, every narrative which comes to be known widely,
whether or not it has an authentic origin, is called Mashhūr.
● Gharīb: A hadith is termed Gharib ("scarce, strange") when only a single reporter is found
relating it at some stage of the isnad
● Historiography : The historiography of early Islam refers to the study of the early origins of Islam
based on a critical analysis, evaluation, and examination of authentic primary source materials
and the organization of these sources into a narrative timeline.
 ● Asbāb al-nuzūl : Asbāb al-nuzūl (‫)أسباب النزول‬, meaning occasions or circumstances of revelation,
refers to the historical context in which Quranic verses were revealed. Though of some use in
reconstructing the Qur'an's historicity, asbāb is by nature an exegetical rather than a
historiographical genre, and as such usually associates the verses it explicates with general
situations rather than specific events.
● Codices a quire of manuscript pages held together by stitching: the earliest form of book,
replacing the scrolls and wax tablets of earlier times.. a manuscript volume, usually of an ancient
classic or the Scriptures.
● Ḥadīth; Muḥaddithūn :transmitter of hadith
● Hermeneutics : The branch of knowledge that deals with interpretation
● Ijtihād : Is an Islamic legal term that means "independent reasoning" or "the utmost effort an
individual can put forth in an activity. Mujtahid is a person qualified to practice ijtihad
● Muṣḥaf :A codex or collection of sheets. The Qur'an, which Muslims believe to have been
revealed at various times and in various ways during the 23-year period at the end of
Muhammad's life, was collected into a codex under the third Caliph, Uthman ibn Affan.

● Ta’wīl : It means, to cause to return, to lead back to the origin,and thus to return to the true and
original meaning of a written text. It is to cause something to arrive at its origin. He who
practises tawil, therefore, makes something revert to its truth, to its haqiqah.
● Tadrīj : It is the principle whereby injunctions are understood to have been revealed gradually ,
best reflects the creative interaction between the will of God , realities on ground and needs of
the community being spoken to . (PAGE 54 progressive revalation session 3)
● Tafsīr bi-al-ma’thūr : received tafsir, transmitted from the early times of Islam, beginning with
the Prophet’s age. Because of it’s relative paucity, it could not become the basis for interpreting
Quran in its entirety.
● Tafsīr bi-al-ra’y : Interpretation based on personal intellect, knowledge or intuition rather than
Quran or Ahadith.
● Tafsīr; Mufassirūn: tafsir scholars.

Al-Wāqidī: Al-Waqidi was an early Muslim historian and biographer of the Islamic prophet Muhammad
specializing in his campaigns. Al-Waqidi served as a judge (qadi) for Harun al-Rashid and Al-Ma'mun. His
history books are the earliest and some of the most detailed history books on Islam. Al-Waqidi
concentrated on history and is acknowledged as a master in history. His books on the early expeditions
and conquests are extremely detailed and predate much of the Sunni and Shia literature of the later
Abbasid period. They illustrate the involvement of the early Muslim women and young boys in
campaigns in distant lands against the huge Roman armies. He is relied upon regarding the battles of
Muhammad and the Companions and history in general by Muslim scholars.[2] Western orientalists who
enjoy his writings include Martin Lings. In regards to Hadith, al-Waqidi has been frequently criticized by
later Muslim writers, who claim that he is unreliable.[4] Al-Shafi'i is reported to have said that al-Waqidi's
books are "lies."[2]One of al-Waqidi's works, Kitab al-Tarikh wa al-Maghazi ("Book of History and
Campaigns"), describes the battles (Arabic "Ghazwat") fought by Muhammad. Another work ascribed to
al-Waqidi is Futuh al-Sham ("Conquests of Syria") .

Ibn Ishāq: An Arab historian, Ibn Isḥaq wrote several works. About his al-Mubtadaʾ wa al-Baʿth wa
al-Maghāzī, the Kitab al-Mubtada and Kitab al-Mab'ath both survive in part, particularly al-Mab'ath, in
ibn Hisham and al-Mubtada otherwise in substantial fragments. He is also credited with the lost works
Kitāb al-kh̲ulafāʾ, which al-Umawwī related to him (Fihrist, 92; Udabāʾ, VI, 401) and a book of Sunan
(Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Ḵh̲alīfa, II, 1008). In hadith studies, ibn Isḥaq's hadith (considered separately from his prophetic
biography) is generally thought to be "good" (ḥasan) (assuming an accurate and trustworthy isnad, or
chain of transmission)[28] and himself having a reputation of being "sincere" or "trustworthy" (ṣadūq).
However, a general analysis of his isnads has given him the negative distinction of being a mudallis,
meaning one who did not name his teacher, claiming instead to narrate directly from his teacher's
teacher.[29] Because of his tadlīs, many scholars including Muhammad al-Bukhari hardly ever used his
narrations in their sahih books.[30] According to al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī, all scholars of ahadith except one
no longer rely on any of his narrations, although truth is not foreign to him.[31] Others, like Ahmad ibn
Hanbal, rejected his narrations on all matters related to fiqh.[3] Al-Dhahabī concluded that despite his
good qualities any narration solely transmitted through him should probably be considered munkar

‘Umar al-Zamakhsharī: Abu al-Qasim "Jarallah" Mahmoud Ibn `Umar Al Zamakhshari was born on
March 8th, 1075 C.E. in al-Jurjaniya, Khwarezm. Zamakhshari is renown for his great scholarship of the
Qur'an and his magnificent mastery of the Arabic language. Scholars of all ranks and schools of thought
have tremendous regard for him even though they may have not agreed with some his ideas. As such, his
works hinted evidence of Mu'tazilite theology, yet his mind clearly steered his concepts and opinions. His
monumental work al-Kashaf `an Haqa'iq al-Tanzil wa `Uyun al-Aqawil fi Wujuh al-Ta'wil, is celebrated for
its genius and linguistic depth. It was completed in 1134 C.E. Before that he wrote al-Mufassal, which
was also highly acclaimed. Though he traveled around a lot he stayed in Makkah for such a long period of
time that earned the nickname "Jarallah" (i.e. neighbor of God).

Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī: One of the most eminent scholars in the history of Islam is Abu `Abd'Allah
Muhammad Ibn Umar Ibn Al-Husayn Fakhr Ad-Din Al-Razi. Born in Rayy, Iran in 1149 (C.E.), he was a
philosopher of the highest caliber and this was evident in his works. His commentary on the Qur'an is
replete with arguments and counter-arguments sometimes without conclusion. This was typical of his
style for he even argued an opinion that opposed his so well that he was practically labeled a heretic for
being such a good devil's advocate. These techniques were part of his passion for debate. Wherever he
traveled he presented argumentation with the most renowned scholars. All this earned him a reputation
both negative and positive, nevertheless highly respected. By some he was considered the Mujadid (i.e.
Reviver) of his era because of his recognized brilliance. In Islamic theology, Razi's major work was the
Tafsir-e Kabir (The Great Commentary), his eight-volume Tafsir (exegesis) on the Qur'an, also named as
Mafatih al-Ghayb (The Keys to the Unknown). This work contains much of philosophical interest. One of
his "major concerns was the self-sufficiency of the intellect." He believed that proofs based on tradition
(hadith) "could never lead to certainty (yaqin) but only to presumption (zann), a key distinction in Islamic
thought." However, his "acknowledgement of the primacy of the Qur'an grew with his years." Al-Razi's
rationalism undoubtedly "holds an important place in the debate in the Islamic tradition on the
harmonization of reason and revelation. Al-Razi had written over a hundred works on a wide variety of
subjects. His major works include: Al-Bayan wa al-Burhan fi al-Radd `ala Ahl al-Zaygh wa al-Tughyan and
Al-Mahsul fi 'Ilm al-Usul

Fazlur Raḥmān: Born in 1919 in Hazara district, Fazlur Rahman studied Arabic at Punjab University, and
went on to Oxford University where he wrote a dissertation on Ibn Sina. Afterwards, he began a teaching
career, first at Durham University where he taught Persian and Islamic philosophy, and then at McGill
University where he taught Islamic studies until 1961. He then returned to teaching, moving to the
United States and teaching at UCLA as a visiting professor for a year. He moved to the University of
Chicago in 1969 and established himself there becoming the Harold H. Swift Distinguished Service
Professor of Islamic Thought. At Chicago he was instrumental for building a strong Near Eastern Studies
program that continues to be among the best in the world. Rahman also became a proponent for a
reform of the Islamic polity and was an advisor to the State Department. Publications include:

● Islam, University of Chicago Press, 2nd edition, 1979.

● Prophecy in Islam: Philosophy and Orthodoxy, University of Chicago Press, 1979.
● Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition, University of Chicago Press,
1982.
● Major Themes of the Qur'an, University of Chicago Press.

Ibn Jarīr al-Ṭabarī: Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Jarīr al-Ṭabarī (839–923 AD) was a prominent and
influential Persian scholar, historian and exegete of the Qur'an from Tabaristan, modern Mazandaran
Province in Iran, who composed all his works in Arabic. He wrote extensively; his voluminous corpus
containing two main titles. The first of the two large works, generally known as the Annals (Arabic Tarikh
al-Tabari). This is a universal history from the time of Qur'anic Creation to 915, and is renowned for its
detail and accuracy concerning Muslim and Middle Eastern history. Tabari's work is one of the major
primary sources for historians. His second great work was the commentary on the Qur'an, (Arabic Tafsir
al-Tabari), which was marked by the same fullness of detail as the Annals. Abul-Qaasim Ibn 'Aqil
Al-Warraq (‫ )رحمه هللا‬says: " Imām Ibn Jarir (‫ )رحمه هللا‬once said to his students: “Are you'll ready to write
down my lesson on the Tafsir (commentary) of the entire Holy Quran?" They enquired as to how lengthy
it would be. "30 000 pages"! he replied. They said: "This would take a long time and cannot be
completed in one lifetime. He therefore made it concise and kept it to 3000 pages. It took him seven
years to finish it from the year 283 until 290. It is said that it is the most voluminous Athari Tafsir (i.e.,
based on hadith not intellect) existent today so well received by the Ummah that it survived to this day
intact due to its popularity and widely printed copies available worldwide. Scholars such as Baghawi and
Suyuti used it largely. It was used in compiling the Tafsir ibn Kathir which is often referred to as
Mukhtasar Tafsir at-Tabari. Tahdhīb al-Athār (‫ )تهذيب اآلثار‬was begun by Tabari. This was on the traditions
transmitted from the Companions of Muhammad. It was not, however, completed.

Moḥammad Arkoun: (1 February 1928 – 14 September 2010) was an Algerian scholar and thinker of
Kabyle descent. He was considered to have been one of the most influential secular scholars in Islamic
studies contributing to contemporary intellectual Islamic reform. He had been a critic of the tensions
embedded in his field of study, advocating Islamic modernism, secularism, and humanism. During his
academic career, he wrote his numerous books mostly in French, and occasionly in English and Arabic,
such as Rethinking Islam: Common Questions, Uncommon Answers and The Concept of Revelation: From
the People of the Book to the Societies of the Book .
Al-Suyūṭī: session 3 page 59

Ibn Kathīr: Ibn Kathir wrote a famous commentary on the Qur'an named Tafsir al-Qur'an al-'Adhim which
linked certain Hadith, or sayings of Muhammad, and sayings of the sahaba to verses of the Qur'an, in
explanation. Tafsir ibn Kathir is famous all over the Muslim world, and among Muslims in the Western
world is one of the most widely used explanations of the Qur'an today. Ibn Kathir was renowned for his
great memory regarding the sayings of Muhammad and the entire Qur'an. Ibn Kathir is known as a qadi,
a master scholar of history, also a muhaddith and a mufassir (Qur'an commentator). Ibn Kathir saw
himself as a Shafi'i scholar. This is indicated by two of his books, one of which was Tabaqaat ah-Shafa'iah,
or The Categories of the Followers of Imam Shafi. His work is also available in English. His 16 written
works are recorded, and 11 are printed and available to the people. Tafsir ibn Kathir, The Beginning and
the End and Al-Sira Al-Nabawiyya.

Muḥammad ibn Idrīs al-Shafi‘ī: Often referred to as 'Shaykh al-Islām' was one of the four great Imams
of which a legacy on juridical matters and teaching eventually led to the Shafi'i school of fiqh (or
Madh'hab) named after him. Hence he is often called Imam al-Shafi‘i. He authored more than 100 books.
Notable ones include Al-Risala,Kitab al-Umm and Musnad ash Shafii. In addition to this, al-Shafi'i was an
eloquent poet, who composed many short poems aimed at addressing morals and behaviour. Al-Shāfi‘ī
developed the science of fiqh unifying 'revealed sources' - the Quran and hadith - with human reasoning
to provide a basis in law. With this systematization of shari'a he provided a legacy of unity for all Muslims
and forestalled the development of independent, regionally based legal systems. The four Sunni legals
schools or madhhabs- keep their traditions within the framework that Shafi'i established. Al-Shāfi‘ī gives
his name to one of these legal schools Shafi'i fiqh - the Shafi'i school - which is followed in many different
places in the Islamic world: Indonesia, Malaysia, Egypt, Somalia, Yemen as well as Sri Lanka and southern
parts of India.

Qurṭubī: A famous mufassir, muhaddith and faqih scholar from Cordoba of maliki origin. Tafsir
al-Qurtubi: the most important and famous of his works, this 20 volume commentary has raised great
interest albeit its volume, and has had many editions. Contrary to what its name implies, the
commentary is not limited to verses dealing with legal issues, but is a general interpretation of the whole
of Quran with a Maliki point of view. Any claims made about a verse are stated and thoroughly
investigated. al-Tadhkirah fī Aḥwāl al-Mawtá wa-Umūr al-Ākhirah (Reminder of the Conditions of the
Dead and the Matters of the Hereafter): a book dealing with the topics of death, the punishments of the
grave, the endtimes and the day of resurrection.

Ibn Ḥazm: He was a leading proponent and codifier of the Zahiri school of Islamic thought, and produced
a reported 400 works of which only 40 still survive, covering a range of topics such as Islamic
jurisprudence, history, ethics, comparative religion, and theology, as well as The Ring of the Dove, on the
art of love. The Encyclopaedia of Islam refers to him as having been one of the leading thinkers of the
Muslim world, and he is widely acknowledged as the father of comparative religious studies. Ibn Hazm
has been described as the second most prolific author in Muslim history, only surpassed by Muhammad
ibn Jarir al-Tabari in terms of works authored. While much of Ibn Hazm's work was burned in Seville by
an alliance of his sectarian and political opponents, a number of his books have survived. His writing
style has been described as repetitive, which was Ibn Hazm's way of emphasizing a point he felt was
important to a given discussion. His method of dialogue was harsh, and he appeared to have little fear or
respect for those who disagreed with him, be they fellow academics or government officials.In addition
to works on law and theology, Ibn Hazm also wrote more than ten books on medicine. He also addressed
the issue of integrating the sciences into a standard curriculum for education; his work Organization of
the sciences divides education of the various fields diachronically into stages of progressive acquisition.
The entire curriculum he suggests spans five years, starting with language and exegesis of the Qur'an,
includes the life and physical sciences and culminates with a sort of rational theology.

Ibn Ṣalāḥ: Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ avoided association with problematic ideologies in regards to creed. He
abstained from interpreting religious texts in a manner inconsistent with their apparent intent, or ta'wil,
as he did the entrapments of those immersed in rhetoric, both issues "distancing one from authenticity
in creed". Ibn al-Salah had a number of works the most notable named below in addition to others on
individual issues. Introduction to the Science of Hadith – perhaps his best known work. Al-Amaali – the
transcription of the hadith he read aloud to his students, complete with the chains of narration; Siyanah
Sahih Muslim – an explanation of Sahih Muslim of which only the beginning segment is published which
al-Nawawi referred to in his own explanation[1][9]

Al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī (d.1071): Another major controversy associated with al-Baghdadi is the validity of
his works. Biographers Yaqut, Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, Ibn Kathir, and Ibn Taghribirdi believe that al-Baghdadi
only finished the work of an author named as-Suri.[2] While Yaqut contends that al-Baghdadi took the
work from as-Suri's sister and claimed them as his own, Ibn Kathir believes that the works in question
were borrowed from as-Suri's wife but he does not give an opinion as to the authenticity of them.[2] He
has also been accused of being dishonest in relation to the hadiths by Abu'l-Faraj ibn al-Jawzi. Ibn Hajar
declared his works influential in the field of the Science of hadith and Hadith terminology saying, "Scarce
is the discipline from the disciplines of the science of hadith on which he has not written a book." He
then quoted Abu Bakr ibn Nuqtah, a Hanbali scholar, as saying, “Every objective person knows that the
scholars of hadiths coming after al-Khatib are indebted to his works.”[3]

This is a short list of some of al-Baghdadi's works. Some accounts have him authoring over 80 titles.[1]

● Ta'rikh Baghdad: The History of Baghdad

● al-Kifaya fi ma'rifat usul 'ilm al-riwaya: an early work dealing with Hadith terminology, which Ibn
Hajar praised as influential in the field
● al-Djami' li-akhlak al-rawi wa-adab al-sami
● Takyid al-'ilm: Questions whether putting traditions into writing is forbidden
● Sharaf ashab al-hadith: Centers around the significance of traditionalists
● al-Sabik wa 'l-lahik: dealing with hadith narrators of a particular type
● al-Mu'tanif fi takmilat al-Mu'talif wa 'l-mukhtalif: Correct spelling and pronunciation of names
● al-Muttafik wa 'l-muftarik
● Talkhis al-mutashabih fi 'l-rasm wa-himayat ma ashkala minhu min nawadir al-tashif wa 'l-wahm
● al-Asma' al-mubhama fi 'l-anba' al-muhkama: identifying unnamed individuals mentioned in
hadith
● al-Rihla fi talab al-hadith
● Iktida' al-'ilm al-'amal

Shāh Walī Allāh (pertaining to Ḥadīth): Shah Wali Allah’s main focus was on the Qur'an, Hadith, Kalam,
socio-political and ethical philosophy and spiritual sciences. He wrote extensively in Islamic studies,
including Tafsir (Qur'anic exegesis), Hadith (traditions of the Prophet), Fiqh (law), usulal' Fiqh, (principles
of jurisprudence), 'Aqa'id (beliefs), Kalam (scholastics), philosophy, Tasawwuf (spiritual sciences), history,
biography, Arabic poetry, and grammar. He also wrote in the areas of sociology, politics, psychology and
ethical philosophy. Al-Musawwa min Ahadlth al-Muwatta', It is a highly technical commentary in Arabic
on this early collection of traditions compiled by Malik ibn Anas (d. 179 A.H.). It was first published in
Delhi in 1293 A.H. Musaffa Sharh-i Muwatta'. It is a commentary in Persian on the Muwatta'. It
represents Shah Wali Allah's methodology in the teaching of Hadith. It was first published in 1293 A.H. in
Delhi in two volumes. It has been translated into Urdu by Sayyid 'Abd Allah and was published from
Calcutta in 1294 A.H. Sharh Tarajim Ba'dAbwab al-Bukhan (Arabic), Hyderabad, 1949. In this treatise,
Shah Wait Allah has discussed the wisdom of the topical headings adopted by Imam Bukhari for different
chapters of ahadith of this important compendium of traditions compiled by Imam Bukhari (d. 256 A.H.).
It was first published in Hyderabad (India) in 1323 A.H.

Ghulam Ahmed Parvez: His work and research produced many books on Qur'anic teachings, the most
well known of them being Lughat-ul-Qur'an in four volumes, Mafhoom-ul-Qur'an in three volumes,
Tabweeb-ul-Qur'an in three volumes, Nizam-e-Rabubiyyat, Islam A Challenge to Religion, Qur'ani Faislay
in five volumes and Shahkar-e-Risalat (the biography of the second Caliph Hazrat Omar). He delivered
many lectures on Iqbal’s viewpoint of implementing the Qur'anic injunctions, which were later compiled
and published as a presentation on Iqbal’s philosophy under the title Iqbal aur Qur'an. He also gave
weekly lectures on exposition of the Qur'an at Karachi which he continued (even after shifting to Lahore
in 1958) till October 1984 when he was taken ill and expired subsequently on 24 February 1985. This was
in addition to his lectures on the Qur'anic teachings to college and university students, scholars and
general public at various occasions.He organized a country-wide network of spreading his ideas of the
Qur'anic teachings called Bazm-e-Tolu-e-Islam. Such organizations have now been formed in a number of
foreign countries as well. He urged the Muslims to ponder deeply over the Message of the Quran. He
considered Islam a din (way of life), a form of government, a system of government like democracy,
autocracy, or socialism. He proclaimed that according to Islam all authority rests with "the law of God" as
given in the Quran, whereby food and wealth are to be distributed equally to everybody. He preached
that Islam was not a typical religion of rituals and superstitious beliefs but was a challenge to the very
institution of organized religion.

Joseph Franz Schacht: A British German professor of Arabic and Islam in University of Columbia was the
leading Western scholar on Islamic law, whose Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (1950) is still
considered a centrally important work on the subject. The author of many articles in the various editions
of the Encyclopedia of Islam, Schacht also edited The Legacy of Islam for Oxford University Press. Other
books include An Introduction to Islamic Law (1964). Some of his work is published in the book Quest for
the Historical Muhammad edited by Ibn Warraq. Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami's work On Schacht's
Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence is a systematic response to Schacht's thesis.

Ibn Ḥajar al-‘Asqalānī : he was a medieval Shafiite Sunni scholar of Islam who represents the entire
realm of the Sunni world in the field of Hadith. Ibn Hajar went on to be appointed to the position of
Egyptian chief-judge (Qadi) several times. Ibn Hajar authored more than fifty works on hadith, hadith
terminology, biographical evaluation, history, Quranic exegesis, poetry and Shafi'i jurisprudence. Fath
al-Bari – considered the most prominent and reliable commentary on al-Bukhari's Jami` al-Sahih: In 1414
(817 A.H.), Ibn Hajar commenced the enormous task of assembling his commentary on Sahih Bukhari.
Ibn Rajab had begun to write a huge commentary on Sahih Bukhari in the 1390s with the title of Fath
al-Bari. Thus, Ibn Hajar decided to name his own commentary with the same title, Fath al-Bari, which in
time became the most valued commentary of Sahih Bukhari. When it was finished, in December 1428
(Rajab 842 A.H.), a celebration was held near Cairo, attended by the ulema, judges, and leading Egyptian
personalities. Ibn Hajar read the final pages of his work, after which poets recited eulogies and gold was
distributed. It was, according to historian Ibn Iyaas (d. 930 A.H.), 'the greatest celebration of the age in
Egypt.' al-Isaba fi tamyiz al-Sahaba – the most comprehensive dictionary of the Companions. al-Durar
al-Kamina – a biographical dictionary of leading figures of the eighth century.
Ṣaḥīḥ Bukhārī (by Imām Bukhārī d. 870) : Bukhari (full name Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismail bin
Ibrahim bin al-Mughira al-Ja'fai) was born in 194 A.H. and died in 256 A.H. His collection of hadeeth is
considered second to none. He spent sixteen years compiling it, and ended up with 2,602 hadeeth (9,082
with repetition). His criteria for acceptance into the collection were amongst the most stringent of all the
scholars of ahadeeth. Sahih Bukhari is a collection of sayings and deeds of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh),
also known as the Sunnah. Imam Bukhari lived a couple of centuries after the Prophet's (saw) death and
worked extremely hard to collect his ahadeeth. Each report in his collection was checked for
compatibility with the Qur'an, and the veracity of the chain of reporters had to be painstakingly
established. Bukhari's collection is recognized by the overwhelming majority of the Muslim world to be
one of the most authentic collections of the Sunnah of the Prophet(pbuh). Sahih Bukhari is divided into
nine volumes, each of which has several books. Each book contains many ahadeeth. The ahadeeth are
numbered consecutively per volume. The books really only serve to group ahadeeth together, but the
volumes impose the numbering.

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (collected by Imām Muslim d. 875): Imam Muslim born Nishapur (in modern Iran, died
261 AH) . Sahih Muslim is one of the Kutub al-Sittah (six major ahadith) of the hadith in Sunni Islam. It is
the second most authentic hadith collection after Sahih al-Bukhari, and is highly acclaimed by Sunni
Muslims as well as Zaidi Shia Muslims. It was collected by Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, also known as Imam
Muslim. Sahih translates as authentic or correct. Out of 300,000 hadith which he evaluated,
approximately 4,000 were extracted for inclusion into his collection based on stringent acceptance
criteria. Each report in his collection was checked and the veracity of the chain of reporters was
painstakingly established. Sunni Muslims consider it the second most authentic hadith collection, after
Sahih al-Bukhari. Sahih Muslim is divided into 43 books, containing a total of 7190 narrations. However,
it is important to realize that Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj never claimed to collect all authentic traditions as his
goal was to collect only traditions that all Muslims should agree on about accuracy. According to
Munthiri, there are a total of 2,200 hadiths (without repetition) in Sahih Muslim. According to
Muhammad Amin, there are 1,400 authentic hadiths that are reported in other books, mainly the six
major hadith collections.

Sunan Abi Daud : Imam Abu Dawud compiled twenty-one books related to Hadith and preferred those
ahadith which were supported by the example of the companions of Muhammad. As for the
contradictory ahadith, he states under the heading of 'Meat acquired by hunting for a pilgrim': "if there
are two contradictory reports from the Prophet (SAW), an investigation should be made to establish
what his companions have adopted". He wrote in his letter to the people of Makkah: "I have disclosed
wherever there was too much weakness in regard to any tradition in my collection. But if I happen to
leave a Hadith without any comment, it should be considered as sound, albeit some of them are more
authentic than others". Hadith Mursal (a tradition in which a companion is omitted and a successor
narrates directly from Muhammad) has also been a matter of discussion among the traditionists. Imam
Abu Dawud states in his letter to the people of Makkah: "if a Musnad Hadith (uninterrupted tradition) is
not contrary to a Mursal or a Musnad Hadith is not found, then the Mursal Hadith will be accepted
though it would not be considered as strong as a Muttasil Hadith (uninterrupted chain)". The traditions
in Sunan Abu Dawud are divided in three categories. The first category consists of those traditions that
are mentioned by Imam Bukhari and/or Imam Muslim. The second type of traditions are those which
fulfil the conditions of Imam Bukhari or Imam Muslim. At this juncture, it should be remembered that
Imam Bukhari said, "I only included in my book Sahih Bukhari authentic traditions, and left out many
more authentic ones than these to avoid unnecessary length". He had no intention of collecting all the
authentic traditions. He only wanted to compile a manual of Hadith and his function is quite clear from
the complete title of his book Al-Jami', al-Musnad, al-Sahih, al-Mukhtasar, Min 'Umur Rasul Allah
Wa-Sunanihi Wa-Ayyamihi. The word al-Mukhtasar (epitome), itself explains that Imam Bukhari did not
attempt to compile a comprehensive collection. Imam Muslim said that he condensed his Sahih from
300,000 Sahih ahadith. This proves that there are many ahadith which are authentic in spite of their not
being mentioned in either Sahih Bukhari or Sahih Muslim. Abu Dawud collected 500,000 hadith, but
included only 4,800 in this collection. Sunnis regard this collection as fourth in strength of their Six major
Hadith collections. It took him 20 years for collecting the ahadis

Jāmi‘ al-Tirmidhī: Jami` at-Tirmidhi, popularly and mistakenly Sunan at-Tirmidhi, is one of Kutub al-Sittah
(the six major hadith collections). It was collected by Abu `Isa Muhammad ibn `Isa at-Tirmidhi. He began
compiling it after the year 250 A.H. and completed it on the 10 Dhu-al-Hijjah 270 A.H. It contains 3,956
Ahadith, and has been divided into fifty chapters. It is also classified as a Sunan, which implies that the
book has been chapterised according to legal chapters, such as Purification, Prayer, Poor-due and
Fasting, narrated on the authority of Islamic prophet Muhammad, while the opinions of the companions
are usually not mentioned. Tirmidhi's method was that of placing the heading first, then mentioning one
or two Ahadith which were related to the heading. These Ahadith are followed by his opinion as to the
status of the Hadith. Subsequently, he mentions the opinions of the different jurists. He also indicates if
there were other narrations transmitted by other companions on the same subject. His principal aim was
to discuss the legal opinions of early jurists. Tirmidhi mostly mentioned those Ahadith which the jurists
used as the basis for their legal decisions and he mentioned which school used which tradition/s. Hence
this book became an important source for the different view-points of the various legal schools. The
Jami' thus bears the distinction of being one of the oldest texts dealing with the difference of opinion
amongst the various jurisprudential schools. Although Shafi'i (b. 150-d.204 A.H.) wrote his Kitab al-Umm
before Tirmidhi's Jami', the Kitab al-Umm is less comprehensive in comparison to the Jami' of Tirmidhi.
Al-Hafidh Abu'l-Fadl Al-Maqdisi said: "I heard Al-Imam Abu Isma`il `Abdullah bin Muhammad Al-Ansari in
Harrah - when Abu `Isa At-Tirmidhi and his book was mentioned before him - saying: "To me, his book is
more useful than the books of Al-Bukhari and that of Muslim. This is because only an expert can arrive at
the benefit of the books of Al-Bukhari and Muslim, whereas in the case of the book of Abu `Isa, every
one of the people can attain its ben/efit."[3]Ibn Al-Athir said: "(It) is the best of books, having the most
benefit, the best organization, with the least repetition. It contain what others do not; like mention of
the different views, angles of argument, and clarifying the circumstances of the hadith as being sahih,
da'if, or gharib, as well as disparaging and endorsing remarks (regarding narrators).

Nasā’ī : Al-Nasā'ī (214 – 303 AH; c. 829 – 915 CE), full name Aḥmad ibn Shu`ayb ibn Alī ibn Sīnān Abū
`Abd ar-Raḥmān al-Nasā'ī, was a noted collector of hadith, and wrote one of the six canonical hadith
collections recognized by Sunni Muslims, Sunan al-Sughra, or "Al-Mujtaba", which he selected from his
"As-Sunan al-Kubra". He also wrote 15 other books, 6 dealing with the science of hadith. Imam al-Nasai
was a follower of the Shafi Fiqh according to Allamah as-Subki, Shah Waliullah, Shah Abdulaziz and many
other scholars. The leader of the Ulama'a Allamah Anwar Shah Kashmiri is to the opinion that he was a
Hanbali and this has also been stated by ibn Taymiyyah but the truth is that he was a Mujtahid more
inclined towards the Hanbali Fiqh but many a time would differ from the Hanbali scholars. These are a
few of his works: Sunan Al-Kubra, Sunan Al-Sugra/Al-Mujtana/Al-Mujtaba, Amul Yawmi Wallaylah, Sunan
Al Nisai

Sunan Ibn Mājah :is one of the Kutub al-Sittah (six major hadiths), collected by Ibn Mājah. It contains
over 4,000 aḥādīth in 32 books (kutub) divided into 1,500 chapters (abwāb). About 20 of the traditions it
contains were later declared to be forged; such as those dealing with the merits of individuals, tribes or
towns, including Ibn Mājah's home town of Qazwin. Sunni regard this collection as sixth in strength of
their Six major Hadith collections. Nonetheless this position was not settled until the 14th century or
later. Scholars such as al-Nawawi (d. 676/1277) and Ibn Khaldun (d. 808/1405) excluded the Sunan from
the generally accepted books; others replaced it with either the Muwaṭṭaʾ of Imām Mālik or with the
Sunan ad-Dārimī. It was not until Ibn al-Qaisarani's formal standardization of the Sunni cannon into six
books that Ibn Majah's collection was regarded the esteem granted to the five other books.[2][3][4]

Mu’aṭṭā’ (Imām Mālik d. 795) : The Muwaṭṭaʾis the first written collection of hadith comprising the
subjects of Muslim law, compiled and edited by the Imam, Malik ibn Anas. Malik's best-known work,
Al-Muwatta was the first legal work to incorporate and join hadith and fiqh together. The work was
received with wide praise. Malik composed the 'Muwatta' over a period of forty years to represent the
"well-trodden path" of the people of Medina. Its name also means that it is the book that is "many times
agreed upon"- about whose contents the people of Medina were unanimously agreed. Its high standing
is such that people of every school of fiqh and all of the imams of hadith scholarship agree upon its
authenticity. Amin Ahsan Islahi has listed several distinguishing characteristics of the Muwatta:

1. Its briefness (in size) yet comprehensiveness (in coverage)

2. Malik did not accept any marfū‘ hadīth (ascribed to the Prophet) if it was not verbatim
transmission of the words of the Muslim prophet Muhammad (he even gave consideration to
letters, prepositions and particles like wāw, tā, bā etc. in them)
3. No acceptance of Hadith from any innovator - this is a stricter standard than many other
muhaddithun
4. Highly literary form of the classical Arabic. This helps readers develop the ability to understand
the language of the prophetic traditions.

Al-Kāfī by al-Kulaynī (d. 941) : The book Al-Kāfī (The Sufficient Book) is a Twelver Shīʿī ḥadīth collection
compiled by Muhammad ibn Ya‘qūb al-Kulaynī. It is divided into three sections: Usūl al-Kāfī, which is
concerned with epistemology, theology, history, ethics, supplication, and the Qurʾān, Furūʿ al-Kāfī,
which is concerned with practical and legal issues, and Rawdat (or Rauda) al-Kāfī, which includes
miscellaneous traditions, many of which are lengthy letters and speeches transmitted from the Imāms.[2]
In total, al-Kāfī comprises 16,199 narrations;[3] however, as with all Shī‘ah hadīth books, every single
hadīth must be individually examined through the science of hadīth.

Man Lā Yaḥḍuruh al-Faqīh by Ibn Babuwayh (d.991): Al-Shaykh al-Saduq (Khorasan c. 923, — Rayy 991)
is the title given to Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn 'Ali ibn Babawaih al-Qummi (‫)علي بن بابويه القمي‬, or
commonly known in English as Ibn Babawayh. He was the leading traditionist of his time (4th Century
A.H.) and one of the most outstanding traditionists of Shi'ite Islam. He earned the title of al-Shaykh
al-Saduq on account of his great learning and his reputation for truthfulness.Al-Shaykh al-Saduq died in
Ray in 381 A.H. and he was buried there. This work is included in the four major books of the traditions
of Shi'ite Islam. Despite the fact that many of his other works are extremely important, this book is
regarded as his most important work. A new book is under writing.It is a book on Fiqh (jurisprudence),
al-halal wa al-haram (the permitted and prohibited), al-shara-i' wa-'l-ahkam (revealed law and ordinary
laws) which would draw on all the works which the Shaykh had composed on the subject. This book
would be called Man la yahduruhu al-faqih and would function as a work of reference. Another element
in the work that stresses that it was conceived as a reference book to help ordinary Shi'ites in the
practise of the legal requirements of Islam is the general absence of the Isnads or traditions. The isnads -
or the chain of authorities by which the tradition had been received from the Prophet or one of the
Imams - was, and is, an all-important feature of the science of traditions. Therefore this book was not
meant to be a work for scholars, who would want to check the authorities. Scholars could check the
isnads in the numerous individual studies compiled by al-Shaykh al-Saduq. This book was a summary of
the study of legal traditions by one of the great scholars of traditions.
Al-Tahdhīb and al-Istibṣār by al-Ṭūsī: Shaikh al-ta'ifa (the teacher of the community) Abu Ja'far
Muhammad b. al-Hasan b. 'Ali b. al-Hasan al-Tusi was born in Tus in Iran in the year 385 of the Islamic
era. His career marks the climax of a very great period in Shi'ite Islamic scholarship and learning. It was
during this period that Shi'ite scholars were without rivals in the Islamic world. Al-Shaikh al-Tusi's
teachers included al-Shaikh al-Mufid, and the two brothers, members of Ahl al-bait and both outstanding
scholars, al-Sharif al-Murtada and al-Sharif al-Radi. In addition, he was the leading Shi'ite theologian of
his time. As well as writing works of a general theological nature, he also wrote specific works on
individual topics. On the Imamate, he wrote Talkhis al-Shafi, which was based on al-Sharif al-Murtada's
al-Shafi fi 'l-imama. He wrote a work on al-Ghaiba, the occultation of the 12th Imam. As a traditionist, he
naturally had an interest in the men who related traditions, in his Kitab al-rijal, he tries to list most of the
important Shi'ites. His Fihrist is an important work of Shi'ite bibliography. In it he lists many of the works
of early Shi'ite writers and sometimes gives an account of their writers and the contents of the works.
This work may to some extent reflect al-Tusi's own library before it was so tragically destroyed

Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei or Seyed Mohammad Hossein Tabatabaei (1903—7 November 1981)
(Persian: ‫عالمه سید محمد حسین طباطبائی‬‎) was one of the most prominent thinkers of philosophy and
contemporary Shia Islam. He is famous for Tafsir al-Mizan, the Quranic exegesis. It was in Najaf where
Tabatabaei developed his major contributions in the fields of Tafsir (interpretation), philosophy, and
history of the Shi'a faith. In philosophy the most important of his works is Usul-i falsafeh va
ravesh-e-realism (The Principles of Philosophy and the Method of Realism), which has been published in
five volumes with explanatory notes and the commentary of Morteza Motahhari. If Ayatollah Haeri is
considered the reviver of Qom's hawza in an organizational sense, Tabatabaei's contributions to the field
of tafsir, philosophy and mysticism represent the intellectual revitalization of the hawza with lasting
implications for the curriculum. His other major philosophical work is a voluminous commentary of
Asfār al-'arba'eh, the magnum opus of Mulla Sadra who was the last of the great Persian (Iranian)
Muslim thinkers of the medieval age. Apart from these he also wrote extensively on philosophical topics.
His humanist approach is underlined by his three books on: the nature of man - before the world, in this
world, and after this world. His philosophy is focused upon the sociological treatment of human
problems. His two other works, Bidāyat al-hikmah and Nihāyat al-hikmah, are considered among works
of high order in Islamic philosophy. Several treatises on the doctrines and history of the Shi'a remain
from him as well. One of these comprises his clarifications and expositions about Shi'a faith in reply to
the questions posed by the famous French orientalist Henry Corbin. Another of his books on this topic
Shi'ah dar Islam was translated into English by Seyyed Hossein Nasr under the title Shi'a Islam, with the
help of William Chittick as a project of Colgate University. These books are claimed to serve as an
excellent conduit by which popular misconceptions about the Shi'a faith may be removed further paving
the way for a better ecumenical understanding amongst the various Muslim schools of thought. His
written books number forty-four titles overall; three of which are collections of his articles on various
aspects of Islam and the Qur'an. He was also an established poet .

Amīn Aḥsan Islāḥī : Imam Amin Ahsan Islahi (1904–1997) was a Pakistani Muslim scholar, famous for his
Urdu exegeses of Quran,Tadabbur-i-Qur’an—an exegesis that he based on Hamiduddin Farahi's
(1863–1930) idea of thematic and structural coherence in the Qur'an. Imam Islahi was born in 1904 at
Bamhur, a small village in Azamgarh, United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh), British India (now India).
Imam Islahi was among the founder members of the Jamaat-e-Islami, a religious party founded by the
eminent Islamic scholar Mawdudi in 1941. It was on the the 29th of Ramadan 1400/August 12, 1980 that
he finished his work on Tadabbur-i-Qur’an that took twenty-two years to complete

AbulAlaMaududi : (25 September 1903 – 22 September 1979), known also as Mawlana Mawdudi, was
an Islamic scholar, political philosopher,clergyman, Muslim revivalist leader, and a
20th-century Islamist thinker in India, and later Pakistan.He was also the founder of Jamaat-e-Islami, the
Islamic revivalist party.Maududi believed that without Sharia law Muslim society could not be Islamic.
“That if an Islamic society consciously resolves not to accept the Sharia, and decides to enact its
own constitution and laws or borrow them from any other source in disregard of the Sharia, such a
society breaks its contract with God and forfeits its right to be called 'Islamic.'" Maududi also largely
expanded upon his view of the Islamic State and Sharia in his book Islamic Way of Life.
The modern conceptualization of the "Islamic state" is attributed to Maududi. In his book, The Islamic
Law and Constitution, published in 1941 and subsequent writings, Maududi coined and popularized the
term "Islamic state" itself. In addition, he coined and popularized the term "Islamic revolution" in the
1940s, even though this phrase is commonly associated with the 1979 Iranian Revolution that occurred
40 years later. The state would follow Sharia Islamic law, a complete system covering family relationships,
social and economic affairs, administration, rights and duties of citizens, judicial system, laws of war and
peace and international relations. In short it embraces all the various departments of life. The Sharia is a
complete scheme of life and an all-embracing social order where nothing is superfluous and nothing
lacking.

SayyidQutb :(October 1906 – 29 August 1966) was an Egyptianauthor, educator, Islamic theorist, poet,

and the leading member of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood in the 1950s and 1960s.he is best known
in the Muslim world for his work on what he believed to be the social and political role of Islam,
particularly in his books Social Justice andMa'alim fi al-Tariq (Milestones). His magnum opus, Fi Zilal
al-Quran (In the Shade of the Qur'an), is a 30-volume commentary on the Quran.Qutb's career as a
writer also heavily influenced his philosophy. In al-Taswiir al-Fannifil-Quran (Artistic Representation in the
Qur'an), Qutb developed a literary appreciation of the Qur'an and a complementary methodology for
interpreting the text. His hermeneutics were applied in his extensive commentary on the Qur'an,Fizilal
al-Qur'an (In the Shade of the Quran), which served as the foundation for the declarations of Ma'alim
fi-l-Tariq.

Al Suyuti : (1445–1505 AD) was an Egyptian religious scholar, juristic expert and teacher, and one of the
most prolific Arab writers of the Middle Ages, whose works deal with Islamic theology. In 1486, he was
appointed to a chair in the mosque of Baybars in Cairo. He adhered to the Shafi'i Maslak and is one of
the latter-day authorities of the Shafi'i School, considered to be one of the Ashabun-Nazzar (Assessors)
whose degree of ijtihad is agreed upon. A writer with hundreds of written works, most of which are still
available today and widely read, published and translated. Some of his more famous works were Tafsir
al-Jalalayn; a Qur'anic exegesis written by Al-Suyuti and his teacher Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli, Al-Itqān fi
‘Ulum Al-Qur’an and Al-Tibb al Nabawi.

Ibn ‘Abd-Allāh al-Ḥakīm al-Nīsabūrī (d. 1012): Was a Sunni scholar and the leading traditionist of his
age. Al-Hakim gained a substantial reputation for writing Al-Mustadrak alaa al-Sahihain. The Shafi'i
hadith specialist Ibn al-Salah honours al-Hakim as one of the 'seven compilers of useful compilations'
who has the distinction of being one of the few men to have compiled significant works in all three
genres of hadith literature. The Shafi'i historian al-Dhahabi calls him "the great hafiz and imam of the
traditionists". Despite this, he had been accused of being a Shi'a, but al-Subki stoutly denies this. He
rejects the label of Shi`i as baseless because Ibn Asakir includes al-Hakim among the Asharis, who
consider the Shias as innovators.

Al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī: was a Sunni Muslim scholar and historian. Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi was born on 24
Jumadi' al-Thani, 392 A.H/May 10, 1002, in Hanikiya, a village south of Baghdad. He was the son of a
preacher and he began studying at an early age with his father and other shaykhs. al-Baghdadi was a
member of the Hanbali school of Fiqh (jurisprudence religious law) but moved across to Shafi'i Based on
his theological opinions. He spent eight years lecturing in the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, until he was
the subject of a major controversy. Biographers Yaqut, Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, al-Dhahabi, as-Safadi, and Ibn
Taghribirdi all contend that the controversy involved al-Baghdadi's relationship with a youth. Another
major controversy associated with al-Baghdadi is the validity of his works. Biographers Yaqut, Sibt ibn
al-Jawzi, Ibn Kathir, and Ibn Taghribirdi believe that al-Baghdadi only finished the work of an author
named as-Suri.[4] While Yaqut contends that al-Baghdadi took the work from as-Suri's sister and claimed
them as his own, Ibn Kathir believes that the works in question were borrowed from as-Suri's wife but he
does not give an opinion as to the authenticity of them. He has also been accused of being dishonest in
relation to the hadiths by Abu'l-Faraj ibn al-Jawzi. Some of his works include Ta'rikh Baghdad: The History
of Baghdad ,al-Kifaya fi ma'rifat usul 'ilm al-riwaya: an early work dealing with Hadith terminology, which
Ibn Hajar praised as influential in the field and Takyid al-'ilm: Questions whether putting traditions into
writing is forbidden