Registration No: 20PCR01098

Roll No: CA630974

Student Name: Mamoona Ashraf
Level: B.Ed (4 Years)
Course: Teaching of Math (6409)
Semester: Spring, 2021

ASSIGNMENT No. 2
Q NO.1: DISCUSS DIFFERENT METHODS OF TEACHING FRACTIONS AND
DECIMALS TO ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS, PROVIDE EXAMPLES TO JUSTIFY
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE METHODS DISCUSSED.

ANS:
Before students begin to write fractions, they need multiple experiences breaking apart a
whole set into equal parts and building a whole with equal parts. Next, they're ready to
connect to the standard numerical representation, the fraction.
Use fractions that every student understands. For example, take the fraction: Take the time to
explain that this fraction represents a pizza that has been cut into two pieces, but you only
have one of the pieces. The numerator of the fraction is the top number and the denominator
of the fraction is the bottom number. A fraction is a part of a whole number, and a way to split
up a number into equal parts. It is written as the number of equal parts being counted, called
the numerator, over the number of parts in the whole, called the denominator. These numbers
are separated by a line. I would introduce the 4th method, i.e. ask the children to give
example of fraction from the local context to introduce fraction to them. Chalk talk method
means drawing various pictures and creating static images to make the students understand
the topics.
Although fractions are taught before decimals and percentages in many countries, including
the USA, a number of researchers have argued that decimals are easier to learn than
fractions and therefore teaching them first might mitigate children's difficulty with rational
numbers in general.
To use LEGOS or DUPLOS as a center game, you can put kids in groups of two. Each child
rolls the dice twice, to determine the numbers in the fraction. The smaller number rolled is the
numerator and the larger number is the denominator. Kids use LEGOS to create that fraction
using two different colors.

WHAT IS A FRACTION:
The parts might make up one thing, or more than one thing. ...
It's important to note that a whole can mean more than one thing. ...
You learn that when you count up, the numbers have more value. ...
Positive whole numbers (like 1, 2 or 65) are simple. ...
Fractions don't always mean the same thing. So we can define the three types of fractions like
this: Proper Fractions: The numerator is less than the denominator.
Examples: 1/3, 3/4, 2/7. Improper Fractions:
The numerator is greater than (or equal to) the denominator.
Examples: 4/3, 11/4, 7/7. Mixed Fractions
SET MODELS:
In set models, the whole is understood to be a set of objects, and subsets of the whole make
up fractional parts.
For example, 3 objects are one‐fourth of a set of 12 objects. The set of 12 in this example
represents the unit, the whole or 1.
The idea of referring to a collection of counters as a single entity makes set models difficult for
some students. Putting a piece of yarn in a loop around the objects in the set to help students
“see” the whole.
A common misconception with set models is to focus on the size of a subset rather than the
number of equal sets in the whole. For example, if 12 counters make a whole, then a subset
of 4 counters is one‐third, not one‐fourth, because 3 equal sets make the whole. However, the
set model helps establish important connections with many real‐world uses of fractions and
with ratio concepts. Two color counters are an effective set manipulative. Counters can be
flipped to change their color to model various fractional parts of a whole set. Any countable
objects (e.g., a box of crayons) can be a set model (with one box being the unit or whole). The
following activity uses your students as the whole set. It can be done as an energizer, warm-
up, or full lesson.
Two-color counters in arrays. Rows and columns help show parts. Each array makes a whole.
Here or are yellow. Two-color counters in sets showing red. The whole must be clearly
indicated.
1
3
1
12 makes 1 whole
2
3
6
9
Objects. Shows are cars.

HOW DO I TEACH MY CHILD FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS:

Fractions, decimals and percentages are three words that can sound a little scary to parents
and children alike, but they don’t have to be. Quite simply, fractions, decimals and
percentages all represent parts of a whole. However, with them all looking so different, you’d
be forgiven for getting confused about which is which and what to do when comparing
fractions, decimals and percentages.
If this is something that causes confusion in your house don’t panic as this guide will help both
you and your child to understand the relationship between all three types of number? It’ll also
explain what your child will be expected to know for all three topics in each school year to
enable you to help them figure out fractions, decipher decimals and prevail over percentages.
But, before you find out everything you need to know about fractions, decimals and
percentages for children, we’ve created a quick recap section for you to go over anything you
may have forgotten since school.
We may see and use them inadvertently in everyday life, but just how much do you remember
about fractions, decimals and percentages and the relationship between them from your time
in school?
If you’ve got some gaps in your memory about these three cornerstones of maths, then here’s
a quick run through of everything you need to know!
WHAT IS A FRACTION:
Fractions are used to represent smaller pieces (or parts) of a whole.
The parts might make up one thing, or more than one thing. Either way, altogether, they make
up what’s called a whole. It’s important to note that a whole can mean more than one thing,
and it’s useful to think of a sweet shop as an analogy. For sharing a singular whole amount,
you can think of a chocolate bar, a cake bar, or muffin. For grouping an amount into fractional
parts, you can imagine a bag of sweets – there are lots of sweets in the bag, but you need all
of them to make up the whole bag. Welcome to Third Space Learning One to one
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KS3 & KS4 Math’s
25 GCSE Math’s Questions and Answers by Topic and Difficulty
25 GCSE Math’s Questions and Answers by Topic and Difficulty
School Leadership
Ousted Deep Dive: What It Is, What to Expect and How to Prepare (40 Questions)
Ousted Deep Dive: What It Is, What to Expect and How to Prepare (40 Questions)

CLASSROOM TEACHING
The Long Multiplication Method: How to Teach Long Multiplication So All Your KS2 Pupils
‘Get It’ the Long Multiplication Method: How to Teach Long Multiplication So All Your KS2
Pupils ‘Get It’ Math’s Mastery
What is The Concrete Pictorial Abstract (CPA) Approach and How to Use It in Math’s?
What is The Concrete Pictorial Abstract (CPA) Approach and How to Use It in Math’s?
Math’s Interventions
9 Ways to Ensure Your Math’s Intervention in KS2 Is Targeted and Effective
9 Ways to Ensure Your Math’s Intervention in KS2 Is Targeted and Effective

HOME LEARNING
Online Tutoring: A Complete Guide to Everything Parents and Schools Should Know Before
They Start Online Tutoring: A Complete Guide to Everything Parents and Schools Should
Know Before They Start Third Space Updates
“I Was Wrong About Third Space” – A Head teacher’s Review
How to Help Your Child When Comparing Fractions, Decimals, And Percentages Ellie
Williams Fractions, decimals and percentages are three words that can sound a little scary to
parents and children alike, but they don’t have to be. Quite simply, fractions, decimals and
percentages all represent parts of a whole. However, with them all looking so different, you’d
be forgiven for getting confused about which is which and what to do when comparing
fractions, decimals and percentages. If this is something that causes confusion in your house
doesn’t panic as this guide will help both you and your child to understand the relationship
between all three types of number. It’ll also explain what your child will be expected to know
for all three topics in each school year to enable you to help them figure out fractions,
decipher decimals and prevail over percentages. But, before you find out everything you need
to know about fractions, decimals and percentages for children, we’ve created a quick recap
section for you to go over anything you may have forgotten since school. This blog is part of
our series of blogs designed for parents supporting home learning and looking for home
learning resources during the Covid-19 epidemic.

BLOG CONTENTS
Fractions, decimals and percentages recap – The things you may have forgotten since school
What does your child need to know about fractions, decimals and percentages in KS1 & KS2?
How Math’s online tuition can help your child tackle fractions, decimals and percentages
What is the relationship between fractions, decimals and percentages?
How to help your child convert decimals into percentages
How to help your child convert fractions to decimals
How to help your child convert percentages to decimals
Ways you can practice converting between fractions, decimals and percentages at home
Fractions, decimals and percentages in a nutshell – The things you may have forgotten since
school!
We may see and use them inadvertently in everyday life, but just how much do you remember
about fractions, decimals and percentages and the relationship between them from your time
in school?

WHAT IS A FRACTION
Fractions are used to represent smaller pieces (or parts) of a whole. The parts might make up
one thing, or more than one thing. Either way, altogether, they make up what’s called a whole.
It’s important to note that a whole can mean more than one thing, and it’s useful to think of a
sweet shop as an analogy. For sharing a singular whole amount, you can think of a chocolate
bar, a cake bar, or muffin. For grouping an amount into fractional parts, you can imagine a
bag of sweets – there are lots of sweets in the bag, but you need all of them to make up the
whole bag.

FRACTIONS, DECIMALS AND PERCENTAGES PRACTICE TEST

Help your child revise their knowledge of these key math’s topics with this free practice test.
Simply register to download this resource and many more like it. (Use Google Chrome to sign
up and access the Third Space Learning Math’s Hub) Download Free Now!

WHERE ARE FRACTIONS USED

When compared to decimals and percentages, fractions are probably seen least regularly on
a daily basis, but nevertheless, fractions do still play an important role in our everyday lives.
Some examples of times when you’d use fractions are:
Recipes: ¼ of a spoon of baking powder and ½ a bar of chocolate form the beginning of a
delicious cake recipe, and most other elements of food preparation involve fractions as
measures in one way or another. Eating food: You might not want to, but cutting that pizza
into ¼ and sharing it around is definitely the right thing to do….
Splitting the bill: If you are out with 4 friends and want to split the bill, you’ll need to work out
what ⅕ of it is, unless of course someone had a starter and a dessert and then that’s a
different calculation all together…

WHAT IS A DECIMAL
It can be hard to know how to explain decimals to a child, but here is a simple answer:
A decimal is a way of writing a number that is not a whole number.
They are used to write ‘in between’ numbers. An example would be 9.4 as it is more than 9,
but less than 10.

WHERE ARE DECIMALS USED

Decimals are used often in everyday life, especially when a high level of precision is needed
within the numbers.
Examples of places you may see decimals include:
Money: You might be paying £2.99 for your lunchtime meal-deal or £449.49 for a new laptop,
but either way, decimals are involved.
Weight: If you are measuring ingredients in the kitchen on electric scales, you’ll be able to
make sure that you get exactly 156.5 grams of flour.
Length and width: Ensuring that you’ve measured exactly 95.6cm when trying to get a sofa
through a door frame can be the difference between success and failure!

WHAT IS A PERCENTAGE
A percentage, shown by the % symbol, literally means ‘out of 100’.
So for example:
39% means 39 out of 100
96% means 96 out of 100
4% means 4 out of 100

WHERE ARE PERCENTAGES USED

Percentages are most often seen in supermarkets or other shops, advertising a discount that
is supposed to entice shoppers to part with their hard earned money, but they can also be
seen in other locations in our daily lives.
Examples include:
Sales in shops: That pair of trainers is finally 50% off? Fantastic!
Food labels: Percentages are used to tell you how much a certain food or drink will contribute
to your daily calorie allowance.
Tax: More often than not, everyone’s least favorite use of percentages, taxes is expressed in
percentages due to the fact that the things they are being applied to are all different prices. So
why are comparing fractions, decimals and percentages important? In short, fractions,
decimals and percentages are all ways to describe the same thing, but they are used in
different scenarios.
For example, one half can be written as:
Fraction: ½
Decimal: 0.5
Percentage: 50%
You might cut a cake in ½, whilst having £0.50 in your pocket and then take a look through a
50% off sale online.
Q. NO. 2: EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OFF GEOMETRY AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN
MATHEMATICS. PROVIDE LIST OF STRATEGIES TO TEACH GEOMETRY AT
ELEMENTARY LEVEL?

ANS:

WHAT IS GEOMETRY?
Geometry is a branch of mathematics that studies the , shapes, positions and dimensions of
things. Flat like squares, circles, and triangles are a part of flat geometry and are called 2D
shapes. These shapes have only , the length and the width.

WHY GEOMETRY MATTERS

It’s easy for students to write off geometry as just another useless math lesson. But when you
explain its importance, they begin to see how it’s related to everything in their world. At a
basic level, geometry is important to learn because it creates a foundation for more advanced
mathematical learning. Algebra and geometry often overlap, points out Thinker Math founder
Raj Valli. It introduces important formulas, such as the Pythagorean Theorem, used across
science and math classes. It is also foundational knowledge for certain careers in SYSTEM
fields. Students interested in art may also find a love of geometry, says former university math
lecturer and creator of Geometries Yana Mohanty, Ph.D.
“Geometry is intimately connected with the visual arts—in fact, many leading artists of the
Renaissance, such as da Vinci, Durer, and others took a keen interest in mathematics.
Therefore, starting with geometry may spark an interest in math in students that would not
consider themselves mathematically inclined,” she writes. She adds that students who
understand geometry and spatial ability will push the boundaries of technical and scientific
professions.

GEOMETRY AND SPATIAL THINKING

Geometry is essential for helping children understand spatial relationships. This is detailed in
the report “Mathematics Learning in Early Childhood: Paths toward Excellence and Equity,”
co-edited by Taniesha A. Woods, Ph.D. Spatial relationships are important even for young
children, because it helps them understand their place in the world. It teaches them to
determine how large a room is, how far away a desk is or which way to move. Geometry
allows students to connect mapping objects in the classroom to real-world contexts regarding
direction and place. Understanding of spatial relationships is also considered important in the
role of problem solving and higher-order thinking skills. Kindergarten specialist Edward
Schroeter emphasizes the importance of stocking a classroom with objects and ideas that can
reinforce spatial learning. “Since young children learn best by working with concrete objects
and through stories, educators should stock their classrooms with picture books that model
building and design, spatial vocabulary, spatial gestures, and spatial and geometric
concepts,” he writes. Puzzles, blocks, shape sorters and building toys are fun and engaging
elements that inspire young students to learn more about shapes. Paper folding tasks, like
origami and airplane making, help students with the tactile aspect of learning geometry.
For older students questioning the importance of geometry, ask them to consider the example
of moving into a new house. Deidra Alexander at Bright Hub Education spells out the many
ways in which this ordinary life situation requires knowledge, planning and applications of
geometry. “What are the specs of your living room space? Do you know whether an oversized
sofa, a lamp, three large tables, and a dinette set will all fit in there? Did you remember to
take the measurements of the door leading into the living area?”, she writes as examples in a
lesson plan for middle school math.
These questions could be used as a group exercise to get students thinking about the critical
daily applications of geometry. It helps them understand that their family likely uses geometry
in daily life. This makes geometry lessons more meaningful and easier to remember.

GEOMETRY AND LITERACY

Geometry isn’t usually linked to literacy, but it is in fact a fundamental component in learning
how to read. This is one reason why its so important for preschoolers to learn about shapes,
says preschool teacher Becky Chapron. “A preschooler who is able to distinguish between
shapes is better equipped to notice the differences in shapes of letters. This helps not only
with reading but also with writing,” she explains.
She suggests that early childhood teachers expose children to shapes to help them solidify
their understanding of two-dimensional structures. At the same time, the students learn the
properties of what a shape looks like and how many sides it has. Researcher and author
Ya’ara Bashan Haham, who specializes in playground design, shows how geometry can also
be taught outside during play. Haham points out that there are geometric shapes all around
the playground: railings, wheels, domes, triangles, squares and rhombus-shaped features are
everywhere. Students know these as geometric shapes using playground terms such as
tower, monkey bars or swing. More hands-on activity ideas for geometry come from the blog,
Little Bins for Little Hands.
These geometric lessons involve everyday classroom items, like Popsicle sticks and foam
sheets. One activity involves having students count the number of sides each shape has.
Showing students how to recognize and name geometric shapes, which are sometimes
hidden or must be imagined in the world around us, can help them see geometry in their
everyday lives. This reinforces what’s learned in class, creating a real-world connection that
makes geometry fundamentals more memorable.

PLAN BOOK BLOG

Why Are We Learning This? How Teaching Geometry Shapes Student Worldview In this
installment of our series on why learning matters, we explore the importance of geometry.
From assisting with creative career paths to laying a foundation for viewing the world,
geometry is used in ways many of us don’t even realize. Here’s why geometry is so important
both for life skills and future careers.

TEACHING GEOMETRY
Unexpected Career Applications of Geometry
Students who aren’t strong in math — especially those who prefer more creative subjects may
be particularly disinterested in geometry. However, relating geometric principles to their
strengths can make mathematics more engaging. Meena Mehta at learning app Topper
explains how mathematics and art are actually related in many ways. “The theory of
perspective (a graphical representation of on a flat surface of an image as seen by eyes)
showed that there is more to geometry than just the metric properties of figures: and this
perspective is the basis of the origin of projective geometry,” she writes. Mehta also points out
that geometry is an essential component of computer aided design software, which is used in
a variety of creative professions, including architecture.
Laurie Brenner at Sciencing agrees that geometry is essential in the use of CAD software,
which most architecture, engineering and contracting jobs require. “Before a contractor builds
a structure, someone must design the building’s shape and create blueprints. A computer
outfitted with computer-aided design software contains the math to render the visual images
on the screen,” she explains. While young students may not understand the concept of CAD,
they can understand the relationship between a physical structure and concepts of geometry.
Astronomy is another field which relies on geometry. Since young students tend to be
especially interested in space, explaining the importance of geometry in a career involving
outer space can help students value the subject more. “According to the Escher Math
website, geometry allows astronomers to plan observations and reconstruct bodies in outer
space such as asteroids,” writes Stormy Hickman at Career Trend.

LIST OF STRATEGIES TO TEACH GEOMETRY AT ELEMENTARY LEVEL:

Teaching in today's mixed-ability classroom can be a challenge. These days, it's not
uncommon to find a wide range of abilities in the one classroom—from students struggling to
grasp new concepts, to those who are way ahead of their peers from day one. This factor has
contributed to a range of problems for early math learners, including a large achievement gap
between students. Make it hands-on Elementary math can be difficult because it involves
learning new, abstract concepts that can be tricky for children to visualize. Try to imagine
what it's like for a five-year-old to see an addition problem for the very first time. Since it's a
totally new concept to them, it can be hard for them to visualize a scenario where one quantity
is added to another. Manipulatives are hands-on tools that make math a lot easier for young
children to understand. Tools like Lego, clay, and wooden blocks can all be used in the
classroom to demonstrate how math ideas work.
For example, Lego is a great way to demonstrate number building, operations, fractions,
sorting, patterns, 3D shapes, and more.

USE VISUALS AND IMAGES

While students will come across countless graphs and visuals in their math textbooks,
research shows this isn't the only place they should be utilized. According to the National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics, the most powerful way to use graphics in elementary
math is in conjunction with specific practice or guidance, either from a teacher or another
classroom tool such as Math seeds

FIND OPPORTUNITIES TO DIFFERENTIATE LEARNING

It's important that students feel comfortable and are given the opportunity to learn new math
ideas at their own pace, without feeling rushed. But while the idea that 'given enough time,
every student will learn' is nothing new, it's easier said than done. Mastery learning is about
giving students as much time as they need to grasp a specific skill or concept. It involves
varying the time you give each student to succeed. Technology-based classroom tools offer a
powerful way to differentiate learning while teaching elementary math, which is an effective
way to help students in mixed-ability classrooms to succeed. Learn more here.

ASK STUDENTS TO EXPLAIN THEIR IDEAS

Have you ever noticed how much more confident you feel about a concept after explaining it
to someone else? Meta-cognition is the process of thinking about your options, choices, and
results, and it has a big impact on the way students learn. Before assigning a math problem,
ask students to brainstorm problem-solving strategies they can use. Encourage students to
work together to suggest different strategies in a respectful way. This process can be carried
out at every stage of problem solving when teaching elementary math. Once students have
offered an answer, ask them to verbalize step-by-step how they got that answer.
INCORPORATE STORYTELLING TO MAKE CONNECTIONS TO REAL-WORLD
SCENARIOS
When it comes to igniting the interest of young minds, not much comes close to a good story.
Incorporate story problems into your classroom lessons allow students to see how certain
math concepts can apply to real life. Story problems are also a good way to help students
understand how to use math in everyday life, and see the relevance of math.

Q.NO. 3 HIGHLIGHT THE SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OFF INFORMATION HANDLING IN

MATHEMATICS.SUGGEST WAYS TO TEACH INFORMATION HANDLING AT SECONDARY
LEVEL?

ANS:

ROLE OF MATHS
Mathematics as a subject is an important subject that leads to the development of other
scientific fields; in South Africa, the teaching of mathematics seems to experience major
problems confronting educators, which are the lack of qualified teachers in the teaching of
mathematics, particularly in data handling mostly in rural schools. The other factor is that the
majority of learners studying through the medium of English are usually second or third
language speakers. It has been noticeable that the education crisis has continued in post-
apartheid South Africa. This study investigates the role of data handling in teaching and
learning of mathematics among grade 7 students. A qualitative research approach was
adopted with semi structure interview as the major instrument to elicit information from the
respondents. In addition, document analysis was also used get information concerning the
teacher and learners’ performance. One hundred and twenty-five participants (125) were
chosen using simple random sampling techniques. The information gathered were coded,
transcribed, and categorized according to the different themes. The findings revealed among
others that, only 11% of the respondents specialized in mathematics; 78% said that their
schools did not have enough teachers and learners support materials. Less than 60% of the
respondents involved their learners during the teaching and learning and only 11% said that
their students always do their homework. It was recommended among others that greater
attention should be paid to the needs of larger number of students who currently learn very
little useful mathematics; Major innovation is needed to develop a provision that meets the
diverse needs of all our students and not just the most talented. © 2014, Mediterranean
Center of Social and Educational Research.
According to Proclus, a famous mathematician, “Whatever there is a number, there is beauty.”
Proclus was passionate about numbers and he loved mathematics. For him, numbers were
his first love. Are you also passionate about numbers like him? But are you not totally sure
about the scope of Mathematics?
Today many rewarding careers involve dealing with numbers. For some professions, number-
crunching may not be the key task but dealing with numbers could be one of the most
important foundations. For Data Scientists, Actuaries, and Financial Analysts, number
crunching is a core task. However, for Mechanical Engineers, the use of Mathematics for
design and manufacturing is needed but number crunching is not a core task. Thus, the scope
of mathematics and the opportunities within this career field are unlimited.
A career in Mathematics today has a lot of options. In many fields such as Social Sciences,
Medicine, Engineering and Natural science, etc. Mathematics is considered as a significant
tool. It is used for solving business problems, scientific problems, and economic problems.
Across various industries, a career in Mathematics in India opens up plenty of opportunities.
Read about the following career options to understand the scope of Mathematics.

DATA SCIENTIST
Data Scientists are specialists who use Mathematical and Statistical methods, computer
modeling and software to extract knowledge and information from structured (such as a
database in MS-Excel or SQL) or structured data (such as written text, images, and videos).
Data can be anything from population data and personal income data of Indians to images,
video, and GPS data. Data Scientists use models or formulas to analyze a very large pool of
data to derive useful information and insights. There is a huge scope of mathematics
principles in Data Science. Using such information and insights decisions are taken in
business and in day to day life. For example, a business can analyze consumer buying habits
and purchase data to decide what should be the features of a new product which would have
a high chance of acceptance by a group of customers. Google map analyses a humongous
amount of real-time GPS data to tell you out of the many alternative routes which would be
the fastest route to reach your destination and would tell you the ETA (Expected Time of
Arrival). Data Science is a very prospective career in Mathematics now. Qualification: A
Bachelor’s degree in Mathematics, Statistics, Computer Science, or in a similar field followed
by a Master’s degree or a Diploma in Data Science/ Data Analytics/ Business Analytics. You
can do a Master’s degree in Statistics/ Applied Statistics/ or in a similar field too.
A B.Tech. in Data Science and Engineering /A B.Tech. in Computer Science & Engineering
with a specialization in Data Science is a very good option too.
Salary bracket: Rs. 3.5 – 9 lakh or even more a year at the beginning of your career.

ACTUARY
Actuaries analyze statistical data like mortality rates, injuries, birth rates, retirement rates, etc.
to figure out the probability of their occurrences and the costs associated with each event.
Actuaries have to deal with risks. Actuaries also have to create new policies for people and
firms to minimize the risks associated and also the financial effects of these given scenarios.
Actuary is one of the most sought out careers in Mathematics in India and those who have
comparatively high command over Mathematics are most likely to be successful in this career.
Thus, the scope of Mathematics in this field of work is immense. Qualification: A Bachelor’s
degree in Mathematics, Statistics or Actuarial Science or in a field related to Finance. A
Fellow Membership of the Institute of Actuaries of India is essential for becoming an Actuary
in India. You can get a good job also with an Associate Membership of the institute.
Salary bracket: Rs. 3 – 5 lakh a year at the beginning of your career

MATHEMATICIAN
Mathematicians can be of two types: theoretical and applied ones. Theoretical
Mathematicians develop new principles of Mathematics and try to find new developments in
the existing ones. Applied Mathematicians apply the concepts of Mathematics to solve bigger
problems in Economics, Scientific, and Engineering domains. In order to understand the
scope of Mathematics in India, one must also understand the fact that becoming a
Mathematician requires immense expertise in all the fundamental theories and principles of
Mathematics. Students who wish to pursue a career in Mathematics in India must consider
becoming a Mathematician.
Qualification: A Ph.D. in mathematics is the most desired educational requirement. If you want
to avail yourself the full scope of Mathematics, then you may do well to acquire a Ph.D.
degree.
Salary bracket: Rs. 6.5 – 7.5 lakh a year or even more at the beginning of one’s career

STATISTICIAN
Statisticians make use of Statistical and Mathematical theories to collect, decode, and
interpret numerical inputs and hence provide usable information. Statistics is applied in a wide
range of work. For example, Statistics can be used to learn how new products might be
accepted or how safe they are even before they are sold. The scope of Mathematics is
expanding by leaps and bounds as more and more students are showing their interest in the
field of Statistics.
Qualification: A Master’s degree in Statistics or Mathematics is the minimum requirement, but
research and academic jobs generally require a Ph.D.
Salary bracket: Rs. 6.5 – 7.5 lakh a year or even more at the beginning of one’s career

ASTRONOMER
Astronomers primarily use principles of Physics and Mathematics to understand the working
of the universe and contribute to research and breakthrough experiments. A student who
wants to pursue a career in this field and is interested in exploring the scope of Mathematics
can consider becoming an Astronomer.
Qualification: A Ph.D. in the field of Astronomy is necessary.
Salary bracket: Rs. 7 – 8 lakh a year or even more at the beginning of one’s career

METEOROLOGIST
Meteorologists study the physical features and motions and behaviors of various processes of
the earth and its atmosphere. They are involved in explaining, understanding, observing or
forecasting the earth’s atmospheric phenomena and/or how the atmosphere affects the earth
and life on the planet. Thus, a student who wishes to explore a career in Mathematics in India
can pursue meteorology. Meteorology comes within the scope of Mathematics.
Qualification: A B.Sc. in Meteorology or a Bachelor’s in Mathematics both are sufficient to get
into Meteorology.
Salary bracket: Rs. 7 – 8 lakh a year or even more at the beginning of one’s career

ECONOMIST
Economics is increasingly becoming a numerical science, given that the job of an Economist
is to identify problems and solutions within the requisite distribution and production of goods
and services such as land, labor and raw materials. They have to research, analyze and
monitor prevailing economic conditions and predict likely economic conditions. Thus, a career
as an Economist is one of the most preferred careers in mathematics in India. Moreover, to go
beyond and understand the unlimited scope of mathematics, you can take up higher studies
like Ph.D.
Qualification: Corporate jobs require a minimum of an M.A. or M.Sc. in Economics. However,
possessing a Ph. D. is in economics most desirable.
Salary bracket: Rs. 3 – 7 lakh a year or even more at the beginning of one’s career

PHYSICIST
The scope of Mathematics is wide in almost every field of science, including Physics. One of
the most attractive careers in Mathematics in India is actually in the role of a Physicist. A
physicist is a scientist who specializes in the field of physics. The field of physics
encompasses the integration of matter and energy at all length and time scales. Physicists
perform experiments to conduct research and then to develop various theories related to
nature and its laws, energy, motion. Etc. A career as a Physicist is mostly preferred by those
who wish to get into research and experiments. Therefore, a student can explore various
careers in Mathematics through higher studies in Physics.
Qualification: A doctoral degree (Ph.D.) would be an advantage although some jobs require a
minimum of an M.Sc. in Physics.
Salary bracket: Rs. 6 – 7.5 lakh a year or even more at the beginning of one’s career

ENGINEER
Engineers are creators of novel and better products and services, be it electronics, software
or computer products. They have to be aware and upbeat about technological advancements
taking place across the globe. Engineering comes within the scope of Mathematics as a field
of careers. To pursue a career in Mathematics, many students prefer getting a degree in
Engineering and gain expertise in their field of interest.
Qualification: A college degree in Engineering with specialization in any stream, along with
courses in Engineering Mathematics and Engineering Physics.
Salary bracket: Rs. 3 – 10 lakh a year or even more at the beginning of one’s career

MARKET RESEARCHER
Market Researchers are involved in inspecting the market conditions to analyze the potential
sales of a product or service. They conduct various polls and surveys to understand factors
that will affect the sale of a particular product. This is a key job necessarily required prior to
any new product launch. If you are looking for a career in mathematics, then Market
Researcher could be a great career choice. This career option is included in the scope of
mathematics in India as a number of Mathematics enthusiasts are opting for a career as a
Market Researcher.
Qualification: A bachelor’s degree would pretty much suffice for any research job, but a
master’s degree is usually required for technical positions.
Salary bracket: Rs. 3 – 10 lakh a year or even more at the beginning of one’s career

MATHEMATICS OR SCIENCE PROFESSOR:

If you are interested to pursue a career in Mathematics in India but are also interested in
teaching secondary students or college students, then you must consider becoming
Mathematics or Science Professor. Generally, as a science professor, you would be involved
in teaching various subjects like Engineering Mathematics, Calculus, random processes, etc.
Thus, a career in Mathematics in India can be pursued by becoming a Mathematics or
professor.
Qualification: A doctorate (Ph.D.) degree is essential.
Salary bracket: Rs. 6.5 – 7.5 lakh a year or even more at the beginning of one’s career

ACCOUNTANT/AUDITOR
An Accountant generally prepares financial reports to help managers in business or
executives working for the government. As Accounting requires a lot of number crunching, it is
included in the scope of Mathematics. Students who are passionate about numbers and wish
to explore the scope of Mathematics can go for this career field.
Qualification: Generally, a graduation degree in business or a chartered accountant
qualification would be advantageous.
Salary bracket: Rs. 6 – 7.5 lakh a year or even more at the beginning of one’s career
WHAT SKILLS ARE DEVELOPED BY STUDYING MATHEMATICS?
The Scope of Mathematics is extensive in developing various skills that could be useful for
various occupations. These skills act as foundations to solve complex problems in many
areas of business. Critical Thinking: Skills in an analysis of complex situations, using logic and
reasoning to understand the situations and take appropriate actions or make interpretations
and inferences. Problem Solving: Skills in analysis and understanding of problems, evaluating
various options to solve the problems, and using the best option to solve the problems.
Analytical Thinking: Skills in solving problems quickly and effectively using visual thinking
ability. Quantitative Reasoning: Skills in applying and understanding basic and elementary
mathematics concepts for solving reasoning problems quantitatively. Time management:
Skills in prioritizing work, managing time effectively.
Logical Argument and Illogical Argument: Skills in analyzing logical and illogical errors. In
reasoning, logic is a method that supports a conclusion that is true and on the other hand,
illogical is a method that supports a conclusion that is false.

WAYS TO TEACH INFORMATION HANDLING AT SECONDARY LEVEL:

The words "statistics" and "data handling" might sound dry but it's an area of math’s with an
exciting range of skills at its core including investigating, gathering, presenting, and examining
information. Not only is it a practical topic that can be used across the curriculum, unlike other
areas of math’s, it also has great potential to brighten up your classroom displays. This week
we have a spread of resources about tally tables, bar graphs, pie charts, pictograms to help
you teach primary and secondary students, with a range of abilities.
Get started with this fun activity that introduces 7-11 year olds to data handling using species
from the African savannah. Created by AR Kive, pupils use this fact sheet to identify the data
needed to fill in a table and then use this to construct two different bar graphs. Pupils answer
questions using the graphs, before writing five questions to help them interpret a third graph.
Older pupils could compare the three graphs for height, length and weight of different animals.
Can they think of any questions that can only be answered by looking at more than one
graph? For example, is the tallest animal also the longest? Is the shortest animal also the
lightest? Great for introductory or revision lessons, these data handling posters explain what
pictograms, bar charts, line graphs and pie charts are, with diagrams and interactive
questions included.
They would also make a fun group activity: give one poster to each group then ask them to
teach the rest of the class about it. You can download posters for other math’s topics from
Teaching Packs, while these display cards by Twinkl feature useful data handling vocabulary.
For more practice collecting, collating and presenting data, try this worksheet by Primary
Leap. It asks pupils to total up a tally sheet then turn the information into a bar chart. There
are also worksheets about interpreting data in line graphs, pictograms and conversion graphs.
The worksheets are useful for reinforcing learning and could be used as homework. They also
provide ideas for surveys that your own class might want to conduct. For example, how many
different colors of car passed the school in one hour, or what are the most popular sandwich
fillings at lunchtime?
For paired work on a computer, try these interactive resources from the Guardian. This one
asks pupils to create a bar chart from information contained in a table by dragging the bars to
the correct height, while this one asks pupils to solve a variety of problems by interpreting
data in line graphs. These activities focus on extracting and interpreting data from tables,
specifically working out the range and mode of a set of data.
For secondary pupils, we have a set of resources that focus on collecting data, presenting
data and interpreting data. The activities, which could be used with the whole class on an
interactive whiteboard or by pupils working in pairs on a computer, start by looking at
frequency tables and explain terms such as "grouped data" and "class intervals". Students
then examine the construction of pie charts and bar charts, followed by histograms, frequency
polygons and cumulative frequency curves. Finally, pupils interpret and discuss charts and
graphs that give false impressions, analyses cumulative frequency graphs, interpret data
represented on a pie chart, compare data using averages, and analyses scatter graphs.
Secondary pupils might also enjoy this "collective memory" activity based on calculating
averages. As math’s teacher Mel Muldowney explains: "Students work in groups with the
poster on the wall just outside my door. One member at a time from each group is allowed to
view the poster for 30 seconds. They have to tell the group what they have seen with a view
to replicating the poster. The twist is that the answers [on the poster] are wrong and the
students have to correct them on their version of the poster." There's more about calculating
the mean, median, mode and range in this interactive data handling task, ideal as a quick-
finisher activity. For topical ways of using data handling with your class, the Guardian's Data
Store is a great source of information. It publishes the raw statistics behind the news with the
aim of making important data more accessible. You will find a wide range of tables and
graphs – such as these about the "poshest" sports or these about the World Cup's top 100
footballers – for your pupils to analyze and explore. Can students find an issue affecting their
school or local area that could be turned into a data handling project? We have a small favor
to ask. Since we started publishing 200 years ago, tens of millions have placed their trust in
the Guardian’s high-impact journalism, turning to us in moments of crisis, uncertainty,
solidarity and hope. More than 1.5 million readers in 180 countries have recently taken the
step to support us financially – keeping us open to all and fiercely independent. With no
shareholders or billionaire owner, we can set our own agenda and provide trustworthy
journalism that’s free from commercial and political influence, offering a counterweight to the
spread of misinformation. When it’s never mattered more, we can investigate and challenge
without fear or favor. Unlike many others, Guardian journalism is available for everyone to
read, regardless of what they can afford to pay. We do this because we believe in information
equality. This way, everyone can keep track of global events, understand their impact on
people and communities, and become inspired to take meaningful action. We aim to offer
readers a comprehensive, international perspective on critical events shaping our world –
from the Black Lives Matter movement, to the new American administration, Brexit, and the
world's slow emergence from a global pandemic. We are committed to upholding our
reputation for urgent, powerful reporting on the climate emergency, and made the decision to
reject advertising from fossil fuel companies, divest from the oil and gas industries, and set a
course to achieve net zero emissions by 2030. If there were ever a time to join us, it is now.
Every contribution, however big or small, powers our journalism and sustains our future.

Q.NO. 4 DESCRIBE THE MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND ALSO

ELABORATE EACH MEASURE BY PROVIDING EXAMPLES?

ANS:

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

A measure of central tendency is a summary statistic that represents the center point or
typical value of a dataset. These measures indicate where most values in a distribution fall
and are also referred to as the central location of a distribution. You can think of it as the
tendency of data to cluster around a middle value. In statistics, the three most common
measures of central tendency are the mean, median, and mode. Each of these measures
calculates the location of the central point using a different method. Choosing the best
measure of central tendency depends on the type of data you have. In this post, I explore
these measures of central tendency; show you how to calculate them, and how to determine
which one is best for your data.

LOCATING THE CENTER OF YOUR DATA

Most articles that you’ll read about the mean, median, and mode focus on how you calculate
each one. I’m going to take a slightly different approach to start out. My philosophy throughout
my blog is to help you intuitively grasp statistics by focusing on concepts. Consequently, I’m
going to start by illustrating the central point of several datasets graphically—so you
understand the goal. Then, we’ll move on to choosing the best measure of central tendency
for your data and the calculations. The three distributions below represent different data
conditions. In each distribution, look for the region where the most common values fall. Even
though the shapes and type of data are different, you can find that central location. That’s the
area in the distribution where the most common values are located.
The central tendency of a distribution represents one characteristic of a distribution. Another
aspect is the variability around that central value. While measures of variability is the topic of
a different article (link below), this property describes how far away the data points tend to fall
from the center. The graph below shows how distributions with the same central tendency
(mean = 100) can actually be quite different. The panel on the left displays a distribution that
is tightly clustered around the mean, while the distribution on the right is more spread out. It is
crucial to understand that the central tendency summarizes only one aspect of a distribution
and that it provides an incomplete picture by itself.
Mean
The mean is the arithmetic average, and it is probably the measure of central tendency that
you are most familiar. Calculating the mean is very simple. You just add up all of the values
and divide by the number of observations in your dataset.
Median
The median is the middle value. It is the value that splits the dataset in half. To find the
median, order your data from smallest to largest, and then find the data point that has an
equal amount of values above it and below it. The method for locating the median varies
slightly depending on whether your dataset has an even or odd number of values. I’ll show
you how to find the median for both cases. In the examples below, I use whole numbers for
simplicity, but you can have decimal places. In the dataset with the odd number of
observations, notice how the number 12 has six values above it and six below it. Therefore,
12 is the median of this dataset. In a skewed distribution, the outliers in the tail pull the mean
away from the center towards the longer tail. For this example, the mean and median differ by
over 9000, and the median better represents the central tendency for the distribution.
These data are based on the U.S. household income for 2006. Income is the classic example
of when to use the median because it tends to be skewed. The median indicates that half of
all incomes fall below 27581, and half are above it. For these data, the mean overestimates
where most household incomes fall. Statisticians say that the median is a robust statistical
while the mean is sensitive to outliers and skewed distributions.
Mode
The mode is the value that occurs the most frequently in your data set. On a bar chart, the
mode is the highest bar. If the data have multiple values that are tied for occurring the most
frequently, you have a multimodal distribution. If no value repeats, the data do not have a
mode. In the dataset below, the value 5 occurs most frequently, which makes it the mode.
These data might represent a 5-point Liker scale.
Typically, you use the mode with categorical, ordinal, and discrete data. In fact, the mode is
the only measure of central tendency that you can use with categorical data—such as the
most preferred flavor of ice cream. However, with categorical data, there isn’t a central value
because you can’t order the groups. With ordinal and discrete data, the mode can be a value
that is not in the center. Again, the mode represents the most common value. In the graph of
service quality, Very Satisfied is the mode of this distribution because it is the most common
value in the data. Notice how it is at the extreme end of the distribution. I’m sure the service
providers are pleased with these results! When you are working with the raw continuous data,
don’t be surprised if there is no mode. However, you can find the mode for continuous data by
locating the maximum value on a probability distribution plot. If you can identify a probability
distribution that fits your data, find the peak value and use it as the mode.
The probability distribution plot displays a lognormal distribution that has a mode of 16700.
This distribution corresponds to the U.S. household income example in the median section.
Which is Best—the Mean, Median, or Mode?
When you have a symmetrical distribution for continuous data, the mean, median, and mode
are equal. In this case, analysts tend to use the mean because it includes all of the data in the
calculations. However, if you have a skewed distribution, the median is often the best
measure of central tendency.
When you have ordinal data, the median or mode is usually the best choice. For categorical
data, you have to use the mode. In cases where you are deciding between the mean and
median as the better measure of central tendency, you are also determining which types of
statistical hypothesis tests are appropriate for your data—if that is your ultimate goal. I have
written an article that discusses when to use parametric (mean) and nonparametric (median)
hypothesis tests along with the advantages and disadvantages of each type.
Analysts frequently use measures of central tendency to describe their datasets. Learn how to
Analyze Descriptive Statistics in Excel. The central limit theorem applies to the sampling
distribution of the means, not the original data distribution. If you have a sample size of 1000,
the original data might be non-normal (you’d have to check the distribution) but the sampling
distribution of the means would follow a normal distribution, which allows you to use these
data with hypothesis tests that assume normality even when your data don’t follow the normal
distribution. For more details, read my post about the central limit theorem.

Q.NO. 5 EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING IN TEACHING OF

MATHEMATICS. ALSO HIGHLIGHT THE IMPORTANT METHODS USED FOR TEACHING
OF MATHEMATICS?

ANS:

IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING IN TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS:

Do a little research into the best teachers out there and you’ll discover that they have several things in
common: knowledge, charisma and care for students, to name a few. However, if there’s one element
that makes for effective teaching, it is planning. Here are several reasons that lesson planning is
essential:
It gets you prepared. Some material you might know like the back of your hand, while other material
might be new to you or more complex, and therefore more challenging to deliver successfully.
Planning helps you get up to speed so you’re not figuring things out while trying to teach students. It
boosts your confidence. Confidence in the classroom is largely about having good control. Armed with
a plan to impart learning upon your students each day, you’ll achieve learning objectives more easily
and will avoid those “dead” minutes when you’re stalling or thinking on the fly (and your students get
restless). It solidifies you as a professional. When you are observed for performance
evaluations, you’ll be graded on your effectiveness in the classroom. Thoughtfully prepared
lessons are easy to spot, whereas “off-the-cuff” teaching can seem disorganized and
unimpressive. It makes sure lessons are meaningful. Arguably the most important reason to
plan is that it ensures your students’ time in the classroom is worthwhile. As their teacher, you
should tie all activities to specific learning objectives and connect your daily lessons to all
long-term units. It is vital that everything flows together so you can help your students achieve
grade-level standards. You might be a fun and energetic teacher, but remember that anything
you do in the classroom must have a purpose if your goal is to guide your students toward
knowledge acquisition. Planning is an essential part of your job and an investment in your
success as a teacher. Be sure to take the time to do it. planning for a lesson has long been
recognized as a primary factor impacting the efficacy of classroom instruction. according to
brahier (2013), “the effectiveness of a lesson depends significantly on the care with which the
lesson is prepared” (p. 141). focused lesson planning has been shown to support teachers’
implementations of cognitively demanding tasks, help teachers anticipate students’ cognitive
challenges, and support the generation of questions teachers can ask that promote and elicit
student thinking (boaler & staples, 2008; franke & kazemi, 2001;
Henningsen & stein, 1997). smith, bill, and hughes (2008) assert, “one way to both control
teaching with high-level tasks and promote success is through detailed planning prior to the
lesson” (p. 133).
As introduced by morine-dershimer (1977) and described by schoenfeld (1998), a teacher's
lesson image is “the teacher's envisioning of the possibilities and contingencies related to a
lesson” (p. 17).
Furthermore, a teacher’s lesson image includes the teachers’ expectations for how students
will engage with certain tasks or activities, what students might find straightforward or
challenging, and potential student responses to the lesson’s tasks and activities and how the
teacher expects to deal with them (schoenfeld, 2010, p. 233). as such, a teacher’s lesson
image incorporates everything related to how the teacher imagines the lesson will unfold
(schoenfeld, 1998, p. 18).
Although the idea of a lesson image is more preponderant in literature with reference to
experienced teachers, one need not have taught a lesson in order to have some image for
how instruction might play out. therefore, prospective and early career teachers should be
motivated to imagine and anticipate how students might engage with instruction, envision the
understandings and ways of thinking students might learn from alternative instructional
approaches, and the ways in which discourse invites mathematical thinking and reasoning
(grouws & shultz, 1996; thompson, 2002).
One tool that encourages teachers to make their lesson images explicit, and potentially
objects of thought and reflection, is the formal lesson plan. according to brahier (2013), “a
lesson plan a road map that can be used by the teacher to provide structure to the lesson” (p.
165). Furthermore, written lesson plans help motivate teachers to think deeply about their
classroom tasks and activities and attempt to anticipate how students might interpret a task,
the methods or strategies (correct and incorrect) students might use to make sense of the
task and work toward a solution, and how those “strategies and interpretations might relate to
the mathematical concepts, representations, procedures, and practices that the teacher would
like his or her students to learn” (smith & stein, 2011, p. 8).
As such, formal lesson plans permeate teacher preparation programs in general and
mathematics methods classes in particular. As described by Kagan and Tippins (1992), “In
virtually every teacher education program, considerable time is spent teaching novices how to
write detailed, linear lesson plans” (p. 477).
Although much less pervasive, research in professional development in mathematics
education has included formal lesson plans as a data generating and analysis component (e.g., Burns
& Lash, 1988; Morine-Dershimer, 1977; Smith, Bill, & Hughes, 2008). In addition, the creation and
implementation of formal lesson plans and reflecting on how students engaged with instruction has
been used with practicing teachers as a means to support teachers’ development of instructional
practices that promote “framing and solving problems, looking for patterns, making conjectures,
examining constraints, making inferences from data, abstracting, inventing, explaining, justifying,
challenging, and so on” (Stein, Grover, & Henningsen, 1996, p. 456).
Unfortunately, lesson plans have typically been viewed by teachers as a script or directions for
executing a lesson that emphasizes procedures and structures, with “limited attention to how the
lesson will help students develop understanding of key disciplinary ideas” (Smith & Stein, 2011, p.76).
According to Kagan and Tippins (1992), “Traditional university coursework may exaggerate
the importance of daily lesson plans…[and] an emphasis on detailed written lesson plans may
even be somewhat detrimental in that it masks the importance of improvisation” (p. 478).
Moreover, research has consistently shown that “experienced teachers do not use written
lesson plans…[and] at most…jot down an outline or list of topics to be covered during the
lesson, using a cryptic shorthand” (Kagan & Tippins, 1992, pp. 477-478). Practicing teachers
tend to regard formal lesson plans as useful only for student teachers or when they need to
plan a new unit, perhaps with new standards, or as a required component of a formal
administrative observation of their instruction (Kagan & Tippins, 1992).
Purpose of the Study Disparity between prospective and practicing teachers, regarding the
expectations of and value to developing, discussing, and revising formal lesson plans,
highlights a need to better understand these distinctions from a situational perspective
(Peressini et al., 2004), where teacher learning is “understood as a process of increasing
participation in the practice of teaching, and through this participation, a process of becoming
knowledgeable in and about teaching” (Adler, 2000, p. 37).
In this article we present results from a study designed to better understand teachers’
perspectives on the role formal lesson plans can and do play in the teaching and learning of
mathematics. Specifically, the study was designed to address the following research
questions:
• What are practicing (or in-service) teachers’ perspectives on the role lesson plans
play in their instructional practices?
• What are prospective (or pre-service) teachers’ perspectives on the role lesson plans
play in their instructional practices?
• How do practicing and prospective teachers’ perspectives regarding lesson plans
compare and contrast? Methods
Study participants consisted of two samples: (a) 28 practicing teachers comprised of middle
(grades 5-8) and secondary (grades 9-12) school mathematics teachers and intervention
specialists (special education teachers); and, (b) 32 prospective teachers comprised of early
childhood (grades K-3), middle childhood (grades 4-9), secondary (grades 7-12), and special
education (grades K-12) license seeking teacher candidates. Potential participating teachers
were emailed a link to an online survey designed to make explicit their perspectives on the
role formal lesson plans play in their practice.

ANALYSIS
A situated perspective suggests that knowledge, beliefs, and practices are indissoluble from
the situations in which they occur (Putnam & Borko, 2000). As such, learning to teach
mathematics “occurs in many different situations—mathematics and teacher preparation
courses, pre-service field experiences, and schools of employment” (Peressini et al., 2004, p.
67).
The samples of teachers examined here represent individuals at different ends of a teacher-
learning trajectory:
Teachers at the mathematics methods stage (prior to student teaching) and teachers at
various levels of experience as practicing teachers. In the following section, we examine and
compare practicing and prospective teachers’ perspectives on the role formal lesson plans
play in their practices. We focus on two specific comparisons: (a) the role of lesson plans for
prospective teachers, and (b) the role of lesson plans for practicing teachers. Analysis
involved both qualitative and quantitative methods.
The role of lesson plans for prospective teachers. Survey respondents were asked their
perspectives on the role lesson plans serve prospective teachers. Practicing teachers
indicated a wide spectrum of perspectives. Sample responses included, “Prepares you to
think about all of the things that can occur in a period…makes you start thinking about how to
organize the time in class” and, “They help a pre-service teacher realize and get used to
every aspect that is involved in teaching on a daily basis. It helps with time management and
relating teaching to things that are meaningful in students' lives.” Individual members of the
research team, which consisted of the course instructor and three graduate students enrolled
in a graduate level course on mathematics education research, examined practicing teachers’
responses and developed themes with which to categorize these responses (Strauss &
Corbin, 1998). The entire research team then reviewed and discussed each category,
category (theme) descriptors were made consistent, and teacher’s responses were re-
classified to support coding reliability. The final categories arrived at through examination and
discussions align, to a degree, with Clark and Peterson (1986) “types” and “functions” of
planning. In order to provide.
There were substantial differences between the percentages of practicing and prospective
teachers’ responses for “Reflective Tool,” “Guide,” and “Organization.” Practicing teachers
indicated formal lesson plans serve prospective teachers as a “Reflective Tool” 26% more
and “Organization” 19.2% more than did prospective teachers. Taking into account that our
sample of prospective teachers had been limited, in general, to observing K-12 instruction and
tutoring individual students as part of their respective prior and current mathematics methods
course field experiences, it is not surprising they would identify formal lesson plans as a
“Reflective Tool” to a much smaller degree than practicing teachers. Regarding
“Organization,” practicing teachers used the term in the sense of helping a prospective
teacher “prepare” or be “well planned” for a lesson. As observers or class tutors, our sample
of prospective teachers would have limited understandings of how and what to prepare for
pragmatically. Therefore, it seems reasonable that prospective teachers would indicate
“Organization” to a much smaller degree than practicing teachers. Prospective teachers
identified “Guide” as a role formal lesson plans serve prospective teachers (i.e., themselves)
22% more than did practicing teachers. Prospective teachers used the term “Guide” in ways
similar to how practicing teachers employed the term; that is, in very general ways.
For example prospective teachers’ responses included, “[It] will be a guide to help with my
instruction”;
Whereas sample practicing teachers’ responses, included, “[A] basic outline.” Both groups of
teachers used the term “Guide” in the sense described by Kagan and Tippins (1992), where a
teacher simply “jot[s] down an outline or list of topics to be covered during the lesson, using a
cryptic shorthand” (p. 478). Although our sample of practicing teachers may plan their lessons
mentally, without committing much to paper as described by Kagan and Tippins (1992, p.
478) and suggested by their identification of a lessons plan as a “Reflective Tool,” prospective
teachers (especially at the mathematics methods stage) lack the experiences to think of
lessons in terms of students developing understandings and skills, rather than in terms of
topics. The role of lesson plans for practicing teachers. Survey respondents were asked their
perspectives on the role lesson plans serve practicing teachers. Practicing teachers indicated
a wide range of perspectives regarding the role that formal lesson plans serve a practicing
teacher (i.e., themselves). Sample responses included that lesson plans “help better organize
the teacher and to keep track of what they taught or modified, and what is working and not
working” to “I feel it is burdensome.” Prospective teachers also indicated a wide array of
perspectives regarding the role they envisioned formal lesson plans serving in their future as
a practicing teacher. Responses ranged from, “They will help me improve my teaching by
allowing me to look back at what I taught and fix my mistakes. It is a way to better my
teaching,” to “Formal lesson plans will be a requirement that I will do because it is required but
not because it is valuable to me or my time.” Individual members of the research team
examined and categorized teachers’ responses using those categories (or themes), if
possible, described earlier in Table 2. Next, the entire research team reviewed and discussed
each response and its categorization, re-classifying responses as needed.
In this report we described and compared prospective teachers’ (at the mathematics methods
stage of their respective licensure programs) perspectives of the role formal lesson plans can
and do serve in mathematics teaching and learning with practicing teachers’ perspectives.
Analyses of teachers’ responses to survey questions designed to make teachers’
perspectives explicit indicated that our sample of prospective teachers had reasonable
perceptions of district and school expectations they will encounter, regarding lesson plan
requirements, as early career teachers—at least compared to our practicing teacher sample.
In addition, we described how analyses suggest that lesson plan activities for prospective
teachers at the mathematics methods stage should: (a) promote and reinforce a focus on
student thinking and learning, rather than a focus on covering topics; (b) minimize the
potential for interpretations that convey formal lesson plans as something done simply by
mandate; and (c) model and engage teachers in authentic planning, enactment, and reflection
sessions. Furthermore, analyses suggest that universities and licensure programs should
seek consistency in their mathematics methods courses regarding: (a) resources faculty
promotes to their students (i.e., prospective teachers) and (b) the amount of time prospective
teachers should anticipate spending developing and revising their lesson plans once they
have entered the field.
Prospective teachers’ inclination to view formal lesson plans as a “Guide” aligns with Kagan
and Tippins (1992) suggestion that lesson plans be defined as a brief outline of instructional
procedures to be used to supplement teachers' guides and other curricular materials and
resources (p. 477,488).
Rather than pushing for lesson plans to be viewed as a “Reflective Tool” or a means to keep
instruction “On Track,” as identified by our sample of practicing teachers, mathematics
methods instructors should allow for students (i.e., prospective teachers) to initially view
lesson plans an outline or guideline. According to Kagan and Tippins (1992), once enacted,
these lesson plans should be revised to reflect the “spontaneous modifications that occurred
during class (p. 488),” thus becoming a record of interactions. Such a process has the
potential to promote a more natural transformation of prospective teachers’ perspectives of
the utility of formal lesson plans toward student learning; thus, supporting prospective
teachers’ development of productive lesson images. It seems reasonable to expect
prospective teachers’ experiences at developing lesson plans, attempting to enact lesson
plans, and reflecting on these attempts to vary somewhat across licensure programs and
universities. The number and content of mathematics methods courses prospective teachers
take, the amount and context of field experiences, and the faculty assigned to teach
mathematics methods courses all have significant impact on these experiences. Results
presented here do not address these distinctive experiences. Future research should explore
how such potentially disparate experiences impact prospective teachers’ expectations of the
realities of mathematics teaching.
With a situated lens, a focus on teachers’ perspectives regarding formal lesson plans
supports the development of models of teachers’ understandings and ways of thinking at two
distinct points (i.e., contexts) along a teacher-learning trajectory: the mathematics methods
stage, prior to student teaching, and the practicing teacher stage. Although each of these
“stages” is idiosyncratic, with the practicing teacher stage itself encompassing a continuum of
experiences and contexts, such a focus supports the development of productive learning-to-
teach situations for prospective teachers. Such situations have the potential to be successfully
re-contextualized in prospective teachers’ future K-12 classrooms (Peressini et al., 2004, p.
70).
Finally, this study did not include one important set of data points, those of prospective
teachers’ perspectives during student teaching. As such, future research should explore
teachers’ perspectives on the role formal lesson plans serve at three distinct stages of a
teacher-learning trajectory:
prospective teachers enrolled in program-specific mathematics methods courses, prospective
teachers during student teaching, and practicing teachers—including those teachers serving
as cooperating or mentor teachers during student teaching. Steps for Preparing a Lesson
Plan.
Below are six steps to guide you when you create your first lesson plans. Each step is
accompanied by a set of questions meant to prompt reflection and aid you in designing your
teaching and learning activities.

(1) OUTLINE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The first step is to determine what you want students to learn and be able to do at the end of
class. To help you specify your objectives for student learning, answer the following
questions:
What is the topic of the lesson?
What do I want students to learn?
What do I want them to understand and be able to do at the end of class?
What do I want them to take away from this particular lesson?
Once you outline the learning objectives for the class meeting, rank them in terms of their
importance. This step will prepare you for managing class time and accomplishing the more
important learning objectives in case you are pressed for time. Consider the following
questions:
What are the most important concepts, ideas, or skills I want students to be able to grasp and
apply?
Why are they important?
If I ran out of time, which ones could not be omitted?
And conversely, which ones could I skip if pressed for time?

(2) DEVELOP THE INTRODUCTION

Now that you have your learning objectives in order of their importance, design the specific
activities you will use to get students to understand and apply what they have learned.
Because you will have a diverse body of students with different academic and personal
experiences, they may already be familiar with the topic. That is why you might start with a
question or activity to gauge students’ knowledge of the subject or possibly, their
preconceived notions about it. For example, you can take a simple poll: “How many of you
have heard of X? Raise your hand if you have.” You can also gather background information
from your students prior to class by sending students an electronic survey or asking them to
write comments on index cards. This additional information can help shape your introduction,
learning activities, etc. When you have an idea of the students’ familiarity with the topic, you
will also have a sense of what to focus on.
Develop a creative introduction to the topic to stimulate interest and encourage thinking. You
can use a variety of approaches to engage students (e.g., personal anecdote, historical event,
thought-provoking dilemma, real-world example, short video clip, practical application, probing
question, etc.). Consider the following questions when planning your introduction:
How will I check whether students know anything about the topic or have any preconceived
notions about it?
What are some commonly held ideas (or possibly misconceptions) about this topic that
students might be familiar with or might espouse?
What will I do to introduce the topic?

(3) PLAN THE SPECIFIC LEARNING ACTIVITIES (THE MAIN BODY OF THE LESSON)
Prepare several different ways of explaining the material (real-life examples, analogies,
visuals, etc.) to catch the attention of more students and appeal to different learning styles. As
you plan your examples and activities, estimate how much time you will spend on each. Build
in time for extended explanation or discussion, but also be prepared to move on quickly to
different applications or problems, and to identify strategies that check for understanding.
These questions would help you design the learning activities you will use:
What will I do to explain the topic?
What will I do to illustrate the topic in a different way?
How can I engage students in the topic?
What are some relevant real-life examples, analogies, or situations that can help students
understand the topic?
What will students need to do to help them understand the topic better?

(4) PLAN TO CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING

Now that you have explained the topic and illustrated it with different examples, you need to
check for student understanding – how will you know that students are learning? Think about
specific questions you can ask students in order to check for understanding, write them down,
and then paraphrase them so that you are prepared to ask the questions in different ways. Try
to predict the answers your questions will generate. Decide on whether you want students to
respond orally or in writing. You can also ask yourself these questions:
What questions will I ask students to check for understanding?
What will I have students do to demonstrate that they are following?
Going back to my list of learning objectives, what activity can I have students do to check?
Whether each of those has been accomplished? An important strategy that will also help you
with time management is to anticipate students’ questions. When planning your lesson,
decide what kinds of questions will be productive for discussion and what questions might
sidetrack the class. Think about and decide on the balance between covering content
(accomplishing your learning objectives) and ensuring that students understand.

(5) DEVELOP A CONCLUSION AND A PREVIEW

Go over the material covered in class by summarizing the main points of the lesson. You can
do this in a number of ways: you can state the main points yourself (“Today we talked
about…”), you can ask a student to help you summarize them, or you can even ask all
students to write down on a piece of paper what they think were the main points of the lesson.
You can review the students’ answers to gauge their understanding of the topic and then
explain anything unclear the following class. Conclude the lesson not only by summarizing the
main points, but also by previewing the next lesson. How does the topic relate to the one
that’s coming? This preview will spur students’ interest and help them connect the different
ideas within a larger context.

(6) CREATE A REALISTIC TIMELINE

How easy it is to run out of time and not cover all of the many points they had planned to
cover. A list of ten learning objectives is not realistic, so narrow down your list to the two or
three key concepts, ideas, or skills you want students to learn. Instructors also agree that they
often need to adjust their lesson plan during class depending on what the students need. Your
list of prioritized learning objectives will help you make decisions on the spot and adjust your
lesson plan as needed. Having additional examples or alternative activities will also allow you
to be flexible. A realistic timeline will reflect your flexibility and readiness to adapt to the
specific classroom environment. Here are some strategies for creating a realistic timeline:
Estimate how much time each of the activities will take, then plan some extra time for each
When you prepare your lesson plan, next to each activity indicate how much time you expect
it will take
Plan a few minutes at the end of class to answer any remaining questions and to sum up key
points
Plan an extra activity or discussion question in case you have time left
Be flexible – be ready to adjust your lesson plan to students’ needs and focus on what seems
to be more productive rather than sticking to your original plan.
Presenting the lesson plan.
Letting your students know what they will be learning and doing in class will help keep them
more engaged and on track. You can share your lesson plan by writing a brief agenda on the
board or telling students explicitly what they will be learning and doing in class. You can
outline on the board or on a handout the learning objectives for the class. Providing a
meaningful organization of the class time can help students not only remember better, but
also follow your presentation and understand the rationale behind in-class activities.
Having a clearly visible agenda (e.g., on the board) will also help you and students stay on
track.