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SOIL MECHANICS

4 EFFECTIVE STRESS AND CAPILLARITY

1. SOIL WATER

Water present in soil in any form is termed as soil water. Soil water is generally of following

types:

1.1. Ground Water

It is subsurface water that fills the voids continuously and is subjected to no forces other

than gravity. It obeys all the laws of hydraulics and is capable of moving under

hydrodynamic forces.

1.2. Absorbed Water

i. Hygroscopic Water

It is that water which is being absorbed by the soil solids from the atmosphere by physical

forces of attraction and is retained over it due to adhesion. This water is densely packed

surrounding the soil solids and possess higher amount of viscosity lower freezing point

and higher boiling point than normal water.

Water absorption capacity of the soil depends upon the specific surfaces area of the

particle due to which fine grained soil absorbs higher moisture than coarse grained soil.

ii. Film Water

It is attached to the surface of soil particle as a film on the layer of hygroscopic film. It is

formed due to condensation of aqueous vapours. It is also held by molecular forces of

high intensity but not as high as in the case of hygroscopic film. It can migrate on the

application of external energy potential. The greater the specific surface of soil, the more

is the film moisture that can be obtained.

1.3. Structural Water

It is the water chemically combined in the crystal structure of the soil mineral. Under

loading, the structural water can hot be separated or removed and therefore have no

significance. It can also not removed by oven drying at 105°C – 110° C; however, it can

only drive off at such high temperature as would cause the destruction of crystal

structure.

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1.4. Capillary Water

It is located in the voids of capillary size of the soil. This water fills the voids of the soil
upto a certain distance above the free water surface level that is being termed as zone
of capillary saturation. Water in capillary tubes hangs in tension and is supported from
the walls of capillary tube along the edge of the meniscus. If the internal surface of the
tube is initially wet, capillary rise with concave meniscus is observed and if it is obey,
capillary fall with convex meniscus is observed. Since, soil always consists of adsorbed
water, capillary rise with concave meniscus is observed in it.
The rise in the capillary tube takes place upto an extent, surface tension forces equal
weight of the water in it.

Mathematically expression for surface tension and capillary height

d2
dTs cos  =  hc  rw
4

4Ts cos 
 hc =
rw d

For hc →=0
max

4Ts
 hcmax =  cos 0 = 1
rw d

Points to be noted here are, water in capillary tube above the free water surface level is
in the state of tension, whereas water surface level is in the state of tension, whereas
water below the free water surface level is in hydrostatic compression as usual.
These tensile stresses in water are termed as capillary tension, capillary potential or
pressure deficiency. Since, the capillary pressure is transferred by grain to grain contact,
it is also termed as inter granular pressure or effective stresses. Capillary pressure is

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equals to capillary tension at the level of the meniscus and remains constant throughout
the rise of capillary. The theory of capillarity is not entirely valid in case of the soils as it
is consists of inter connecting voids not only in vertical direction but also in horizontal
direction. Hence following modifications are made to find the rise of capillary in soil.
(i) Take the diameter of pore size equal to 20% of effective grain size (D 10)

d = 0.2D10

4Ts 20 Ts
Therefore, hc max = =
rw d rw D10

(ii) For maximum rise of capillary, Hazen has given following equation

C
hc max = (cm)
eD10

where e = voids ratio

C = constant (value is 0.1 – 0.5 cm2)
hc max and D10 are taken in cm.
(iii) Capillary rise in soils can also be analysed by assuming voids to be spherical.

4TS
hc max = 1
rw e3D10

1.4.1. Capillary heights of soils

Soil Height of Capillary (hc)

1 Fine gravel 2 – 10
2 Coarse sand 10 – 15
3 Medium sand 15 – 30
4 Silt 100 – 1000
5 Clay 1000 – 3000
6 Colloids 3000 and more

The soil above the water table may be divided in following three zones.
(i) Zone I: Zone of capillary saturation.
(ii) Zone II: Zone of partial saturation.
(iii) Zone III: Zone of contact water.
The first zone is the zone which has soil with 100% saturation. In the second zone, only
small pores are filled with water while the large voids are filled with air and hence degree
of saturation is less than 100%. The third zone contain water surrounding the particle at
contact point without having any continuity.

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Example: The capillary rise in a soil having D 10 = 0.07 mm is 49 cm. Estimate the
capillary rise in another soil having its D 10 to be 0.12 mm. Assume that the void ratio is
same for both soils.
C
Sol. Since hc =
e.D10

Here C is a constant and also, e is constant for both soils.

 hc1 .D10 = hc2 .D102

 ( 49) (0.007) = hc2 (0.012)

 hc2 = 28.58 cm

2. SLAKING OF CLAY

When a mass of clayey soil which has been dried well is suddenly immersed in the water, it
disintegrates into soft, wet mass termed as slaking of clay which occurs due to the entry of
water in the voids in which air was present initially that leads to the development of meniscus
causing high pressure and subsequent explosion of the voids.

3. BULKING OF SAND

If the dry sample of sand is slightly moistened and is loosely dumped, its volume will increase
considerably relative to dry state. This increase in volume of the soil with increase in water
content is found only upto certain percentage of moisture content, beyond which if moisture
content is increased, meniscus starts increasing resulting in decrease of apparent cohesion
and when soil becomes completely saturated, meniscus is destroyed as a result of which
increase in volume reduce to zero

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The finer the grains, the greater are the increase in volume. The volume change depends upon
the water content also, its maximum value being when  = 5% to 6%. Bulking is not present
in clay and silt because absorbed water content is more than the required value. Moreover silt
and clay possess inherent cohesion.

4. FROST ACTION

The freezing and thawing of water present in soil and the resultant effect on soil and on
structures founded in this soil is known as frost action. Which is generally analysed in terms of
Frost heave and Frost boil.
(i) Frost heave
It is defined as the rise of ground water surface due to frost action. When the atmospheric
temperature falls to freezing point, the water present in the capillary fringe may freeze, leading
to formation of ice. (volume of which is approximately 9% more than water)
(ii) Frost boil
If the temperature increases above the freezing point of water, soil in which frost heave has
taken place; reduction in volume is observed due to the melting of the ice. This melting of the
ice increases the water content of the soil which intern reduces its load carrying capacity by
converting it into soft soil mass.

5. STRESS CONDITIONS IN SOIL

At any given plane, total stress () or load per unit area in the soil is due to either self-weight
of the soil or overburden pressure. This total loading has two divisions:
i. Effective pressure/intergranular pressure:
It is the pressure transmitted from particle through their point of contact through the soil mass
and it tends to force the particle to come in contact with each other resulting in decreased void
ratio & increased degree of denseness.
Since this pressure is transmitted by grain to grain contact, it is also termed as intergranular
pressure.
ii. Neutral pressure / pure water pressure:
It is the pressure which is transmitted through pore fluid and is equal to the weight of the water
above the concerned pressure. Since this pressure acts all around the soil solids, it does not
tend to bring them in contact. This pressure does not have any measurable influence on voids
ratio or any other property of soil mass, therefore it is termed as neutral pressure (u).
Mathematically total stress in the soil mass can be expressed as follows
Total stress = Effective stress + Pore water pressure

 = 1 + u

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Note: Effective stress is physically non-significant as it is completed by considering contact

forces to act on total area of the section instead of area of contact.
All the engineering properties or mechanical properties of the soil like consolidation, shear
strength, bearing capacity, compressibility, and permeability are the function of effective
stress.
5.1. Submerged Soil Mass:

Now, total stress at (1) – (1)

 = H1rw + Hrsat
Pore pressure (u),

u = rw (H + H1 )
1
 Effective stress ( )

1 =  − u = H1rw + Hrsat − Hrw − H1rw

 1 = Hrsat − Hrw = H(rsat − rw )

 1 = Hr1

Here, r1 = submerged unit weight

r1 = rsat − rw

5.1.1. Variation of stress

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5.2. Soil mass with surcharge

At (1) – (1)
Total pressure () = q
Pore pressure (u) = 0
Effective stress (1) = q – 0 = q
At (2) – (2)
Total pressure () = q + H1r
Pore pressure (u) = 0
Effective pressure (1) = q + H1r
Where, r = bulk unit weight of soil
q = surcharge
At (3) – (3)
Total stress () = q + H1r + H rsat
Pore pressure (u) = H rw
Effective stress (1) = q + H1r + Hr1
Here, r1 = submerged unit weight
rsat = saturated unit weight
q = surcharge applied
5.2.1. Variation of stress

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Example: For the sub-soil condition as shown in figure below, Calculate the effective
stress at 6 m below the ground level. Assume γ w = 10 kN/m2.

Sol. Analysing the stress at 6 m depth below G.L

Total stress = σA = γd .(1) + γsat, sand .(2) + γsat, clay .(3).
G. w 2.65  10
=
Now γd = 1 + e 1 + 0.4
= 18.93kn / m3.
(G + e) w (2.65  .04)  10
=
Also ,γsat = 1+e 1 + 0.4
= 21.79kN / m3.
So, σA = 18.93 .(1) + (21.79 × 2) + (20 × 3)
= 122.51 kN/m2.
uA = γw × 5 = 10 × 5 = 50 kN/m2

Hence, A = A − uA = 122.51 − 50 = 72.51 kN / m2

5.3. Soil mass with capillary fringes

At (1) – (1)
Total stress () = 0
Pore pressure (u) = –H1rw
Effective stress (1) = H1rw

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At (2) – (2)
Total stress () = H1 rsat
Pore pressure (u) = 0
Effective stress (1) = H1 rsat
At (3) – (3)
Total stress () = (H1 + H) rsat
Pore pressure (u) = H rw
Effective stress (1) = H1rw + (H1 + H).r1
At (4) – (4)
Total stress () = x rsat
Pore pressure (u) = – (H1– x) rw
Effective stress (1) = H1rw + x r1

5.3.1. Variation of Stress

Note: If the soil above (2) – (2) is saturated by ground water instead of capillary water,
effective stresses in the soil will be reduced by h c.rw.
Example: A sandy soil layer of 7 m depth lies over an impermeable layer. The ground
water table is 4 m below the ground surface. There is a capillary rise of 1.2 m with a
saturation of 50%. What will be the effective stress at the bottom of sand layer? Take e
= 0.6 and G = 2.65.
Sol.

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G. w 2.65  9.81

 d,sand = = = 16.25kN / m2
1+e 1 + 0.6

b,sand( cap.saturated) =
(G + s.e )  w
1+e
[2.65 + ( 0.5  0.6 )  9.81
=
1 + 0.6
= 18.09 kN/m2

 sat,sand =
(G + e ) w =
(2.65 + 0.6 )  9.81
1+e 1 + 0.6
= 19.93kN / m2

So,

X − X = (  d,sand  2.8 ) + ( b,sand ( cap.sat.)  1.2 )

+ (  sat  3)

= (16.25  2.8 ) + (18.09  1.2 ) + (19.93  3 )

= 126.99 kN/m2

uX − X =  w  3 = 9.81  3 = 29.43kN / m2

So,

X −X = 126.99 − 29.43 = 97.56kN / m2

5.4. Partially saturated soil

If soil is in such condition then a part of void space is occupied by air. Hence in order to
analyse pore air pressure is also considered along with pore water pressure. Bishop gave
an expression for effective stress in such condition

 ' =  − ua + x(ua − uw )

Here, x = factor of unit cross section area occupied by water = A w/A

Aw = Area of water
A = Area of cross section of soil
ua = Pore air pressure
uw = pore water pressure.

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6. CAPILLARY SIPHONING

In a composite dam, central impervious core is provided in order to prevent the seepage of
water through its body.

If the height of the impervious core above the HFL is less than the height of capillary rise (h c),
capillary forces drains the water from downstream side of the dam, which may also result in
damage of downstream slope of dam. The process of draining of water by capillary forces in
composite dam is termed as capillary siphoning.

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