A History of Hinduism

“insightful and fascinating...
” SHASHI THAROOR
A HISTORY OF
HINDUISM
The Past, Present and Future
R RAMACHANDRAN
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A History of
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A History of
Hinduism
R Ramachandran
Copyright © R Ramachandran, 2018
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SAGE Vitasta Team: Veena Batra, Somesh Mishra and Guneet Kaur
Dedicated to the memory of my mother
Seethalakshmi alias Angichi
of
Harita Gotra from Tirunellai agraharam
A true follower of dharma
She played her role in the performance of Vedic rites at home, cooked
oblations and food for the family in hearths made of clay using
firewood, milked and tended cows, performed various other chores
and bestowed abundant love on her ten children, especially her
youngest Ramamritham.
Contents
List of Figures ix
Chronology of Personalities, Events, and Institutions xi
Preface xix
Introduction xxiii
The Roots 1
Rigvedic Religion 21
Mimamsa 39
Uttara-Mimamsa 53
Buddhism and Jainism 73
Dharmasastras 97
Epics 117
Puranas 131
Hindu Temples: Their Origin and Growth 163
Adi Sankaracharya 181
Bhakti Movement 197
Hinduism under Muslim Rule 213
Hinduism under British Rule 229
The Present 249
A Peep into the Future 269
Appendix 275
Glossary 277
Selected References 291
Index 293
About the Author 299
List of Figures
1 Coimbatore West Suburbs 8

2 Rigvedic People—Stages of Migration—1500 BC to
1200 AD 35
3 Buddha’s World—500 BC 75
4 Buddhist and Jaina Monuments 88
5 Aryavartam in Manusmriti—300 BC-200 AD 104
6 Palakkad Agraharams 156
7 Agraharam House Plan 159
8 Hindu Temples: Regional Patterns 176
9 Places Visited by Adi Sankaracharya 788-820 AD 188
Chronology of Personalities,
Events, and Institutions
Years ago
(base:
2000
AD) Christian Era Personalities, Events, and Institutions
12000 10000-1000 BC Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures in the
Sub-Continent
4600 2600-1700 BC Harappan Civilization
3500 1500-1000 BC Around 50 Rigvedic rishies (poets) lived

and composed the first 5000 Verses
3500 1500-500 BC Megalithic cultures in the South—burials
and hero stones
3200 1200-800 BC Painted Grey Ware Culture (PGW)
3000 1000-800 BC Krishna Yajurveda, Samaveda composed
3000 1000 BC Use of iron tools began
2800 800-600 BC Composers of early Brahmanas
2700 600-500 BC Yajnavalkya composed the Shukla
Yajurveda
2600 600-500 BC The first kingdoms emerge in Ganga
plains
2600 600-500 BC Composers of Aranyakas and early
Upanishads
2600 600 BC Art of writing originates in Ganga Plains(?)
2600 600-300 BC Northern Black Polished Ware Culture
(NBPW)
2566 566-486 BC Gautama Buddha
2550 550 BC- Bimbisara founds Rajagriha—the Capital
of Magadh
(continued)
A History of Hinduism
(continued)
2540 540- 468 BC Vardhamana Mahavira
2519 519 BC- Cyrus, the Persian King occupies North-
West India
2519 519 BC- Karoshti script used in North-West India
2500 500- 400 BC Composers of Atharvaveda, its Brahmana
and Upanishads
2400 400 BC- Jaimini—the author of Jaiminisutra
2400 400-100 BC Composers of Brihadaranyaka and
Chandogya Upanishads
2400 400-100 BC Badarayana composed Brahmasutra
2362 362-320 BC The Nandas of Pataliputra
2327 327-150 BC Alexander and other Greeks in North-
West India
2321 321-185 BC The Mauryan Dynasty
2300 300-200 BC Composers of Grihyasutras
2300 300 BC Kapila Muni—the founder of Sankhya
School
2300 300 BC Early Inscriptions on rocks in Tamil
Nadu in Brahmi script
2250 250 BC The third Buddhist Council in
Pataliputra convened by Asoka
2200 200-100 AD Authors of Dharmasastras
2200 200-200 AD Composers of Sangam poetry in Tamil
2166 166-78 AD Newer waves of Greeks, Scythians, and
Parthians enter N-W India
2150 150 BC Patanjali—the author of Patanjali Yoga
Sutra
2150 150-150 AD Buddhist monuments in Barhut and
Sanchi built
2094 94-150 AD The Saka kings in North-West India
2050 50-250 AD Satavahanas with their capital in Paithan
on the Godavari River
2050 50-50 AD Roman Trade in India peaks
1992 78-140 AD Kushana kings—Kanishka promotes
Buddhism
1850 150 AD Earliest inscriptions in Sanskrit in
Junagarh
xii
Chronology of Personalities, Events, and Institutions
1800 200 AD Valmiki composes Ramayana

1800 200 AD Kautilya’s Arthasastra
1700 300 AD Mahabharata—early part composed
1700 300 AD Vatsyayana composes Kamasutra
1700 300-900 AD The Pallava Dynasty in Kanchipuram,
Tamil Nadu
1680 320-550 AD The Gupta Empire from Pataliputra
1650 350-750 AD The early Puranas composed
1600 400-477 AD Kalidasa—the author of Raghuvamsam
and other poems or plays
1600 400 AD Bhagavad Gita composed
1595 405-411 AD Fa Hsien, Chinese traveller
1550 450-477 AD Ajanta Caves carved out by Vakataka
dynasty
1550 450 AD Harivamsa composed
1545 455-467 AD Hunas invade North-West India—acted
against Buddhism
1524 476 AD Aryabhatta—astronomer was born
1500 500-900 AD Nayanmars—Tamil Shaiva poets
compose hymns in Tamil
1500 500-1200 AD Bhavishya Purana
1500 500 AD Temple at Deogarh—built by Guptas
1495 505-587 AD Varahamihira—the author of the Brihat
Samhita
1457 543-757 AD The Chalukyas of Badami
1450 550-575 AD Elephanta caves near Mumbai carved
1450 550 AD Bhartruhari
1400 600-900 AD Alvars—Tamil Vaishnava poets compose
hymns in Tamil
1394 606-647 AD Harsha king of Kanauj—staunch Buddhist
1370 630-643 AD Hien Tsang—Chinese traveller
1370 630-970 AD Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, AP
1350 650 AD Bana—author of Harsha Charita and
Kadambari
1350 650 AD Bhavabhuti in Vidharba—author of
Uttararamacharita
(continued)
xiii
(continued)
1350 650-800 AD Early Tantric texts in Sanskrit
1288 712 AD Arabs capture Sind and North-West India
1264 736 AD Delhi founded
1248 752-880 AD Rashtrakutas rule from Devagiri
1235 765-773 AD Ellora Kailasanatha Temple built by Raja
Krishna
1230 770-1120 AD Pala dynasty in Bengal
1220 780-840 AD Gurjara Pratiharas
1212 788-820 AD Sankaracharya
1200 800-880 AD Manikavachakar—author of
Tiruvachakam (in praise of Shiva)
1150 850 AD Agni Purana composed
1120 850-1267 AD Chola Empire
1100 900 AD Garuda Purana
1100 900-1350 AD Brahma Purana
1100 900-1150 AD Khajuraho Temple built by Chandellas
1050 950 AD Bhagavata Purana
1027 973-1189 AD Chalukyas of Kalyani
1025 975-1025 AD Abhinava Gupta—Shaiva philosopher of
Kashmir
1000 1000-1027 AD Mohammed Ghazni raids North-West
India
970 1030 AD Al Beruni visits India
944 1056-1137 AD Ramanujacharya—qualified advaita
philosopher in Tamil Nadu
923 1077-1147 AD Ganga dynasty
900 1100-1350 AD Devibhagavatha Purana
894 1106-1167 AD Basava—the founder of the Lingayat sect
in Karnataka
890 1110-1327 AD Hoysala dynasty of Dorasamudra,
Karnataka
886 1114-1171 AD Solanki/Chalukya rule in Gujarat
867 1133-1150 AD Sekkiar—author of Peria Purana in Tamil
about Shiva
852 1148 AD- Kalhana writes the Rajatarangini
xiv
810 1190-1294 AD Yadavas of Devagiri (Daulatabad)

808 1192 AD Delhi Sultanate established
803 1197-1323 AD Kakatiyas of Warangal, Telangana
800 1200 AD Jayadeva—author of Gita Govinda lives
in Bengal
800 1200 AD Early Sufi saints (Muslims) in North
India
784 1216-1327 AD Later-Pandyas of Madurai
781 1219-1294 AD Madvacharya—founder of the dualist
school in Karnataka
762 1238-1258 AD Konarak temple built
700 1300 AD Srivaishnava Brahmanas in Tamil Nadu
split into Vadakalai and Thenkalai
664 1336-1565 AD The Vijayanagar Empire with capital at
Hampi, Karnataka
600 1400-1500 AD Brahmavaivarta Purana
600 1400-1450 AD Namadeva
590 1410-1510 AD Ramananda in Varanasi inspires bhakti
movement in the North
560 1440-1510 AD Kabir
531 1469-1539 AD Guru Nanak—founder of Sikhism
522 1478-1583 AD Surdas
521 1479 AD Vallabhacharya
515 1485-1533 AD Chaitanya—Vaishnava poet and saint in
Bengal
502 1498-1597 AD Mirabai
468 1532-1623 AD Tulsi Das—author of Ramacharitamanas
400 1600- 1800 AD Nayak rule in Tamil Nadu
392 1608-1649 AD Tukaram—a Dalit poet of Maharashtra
378 1622-1673 AD Kshetrayya—a Dalit poet in Andhra
Pradesh
370 1630-1680 AD Shivaji—the Hindu nationalist icon from
Maharashtra
341 1659 AD The Satnami sect founded. They worship
a Guru rather than God
256 1784 AD The Asiatic Society of Bengal founded in
Calcutta
(continued)
xv
(continued)
254 1746-1794 AD Sir William Jones—Indologist
251 1749-1836 AD Charles Wilkins—Indologist
247 1753-1821 AD Colin McKenzie—Indologist
244 1756-1836 AD Ghasidas and Satnami Movement
235 1765-1837 AD Colebrooke, H T—Indologist
226 1774-1833 AD Raja Ram Mohan Roy—Hindu reformer
220 1780-1830 AD Swaminarayan and the Satsangi sect
214 1786-1860 AD Wilson, H H—Indologist and first
professor at Oxford centre for Hindu
Studies
200 1800 Saibaba of Shirdi
200 1827-1890 AD Jyotiba Phule—Dalit leader of
Maharashtra
186 1814-1891 AD Caldwell, Robert—author of Dravidian
Linguistics
184 1816 First use of the word Hinduism by
Ram Mohan Roy
181 1819-1899 AD Monier Williams—Indologist
180 1820-1908 AD Pope G V—translated Tirukkural into
English
177 1823-1900 AD Frederic Max Mueller—Indologist at
Oxford; translated Rigveda
176 1824-1883 AD Swami Dayananda Saraswati—founder of
Arya Samaj in 1875
172 1828 Brahmo Sabha founded by
Ram Mohan Roy
164 1836-1886 AD Ramakrishna Paramahamsa
163 1837-1925 AD Bhandarkar, R G Indologist and author
of Sanskrit grammar books
163 1837 The Brahmi script deciphered
153 1847-1943 AD Anne Besant—The Theosophical Society
at Adyar, Chennai
145 1855-1928 AD Sri Narayana Guru—a Dalit spiritual
leader of Kerala
139 1861-1941 AD Rabindranath Tagore
xvi
138 1862 The Archaeological Survey of India

established
137 1863-1902 AD Swami Vivekananda
131 1869-1948 AD Mahatma Gandhi—expounded
Ramarajya and satyagraha
121 1879-1950 AD Ramana Maharshi—the mystic saint of
Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu
112 1888-1975 AD Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan—Hindu
philosopher
110 1890-1976 AD Mortimer Wheeler—Archaeologist
109 1891-1956 AD Bhimrao Ambedkar—eminent Dalit
leader; converted to Buddhism in 1950s
107 1893 World Parliament of Religions at Chicago
104 1896-1977 AD Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada—
founder of ISCON
103 1897 Vedanta Movement founded in America
by Swami Vivekananda
103 1894-1994 AD Chandrasekharendra Saraswati
(Kanchi Acharya)
82 1918-2008 AD Maharshi Mahesh Yogi—founder of
Transcendental Meditation, Rishikesh
80 1920-2013 AD Saibaba of Puttaparthi
78 1922 Vir Savarkar coins the word ‘Hindutva’
76 1924 RSS—Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh
founded by Dr Hedgewar
70 1930-2015 AD Swami Dayananda Saraswati—founder of
Arsha Vidya Gurukulam
69 1931-1990 AD Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh—founder of
OSHO
60 1940-2000 AD Swami Chinmayananda-leading Vedanta
scholar of the 20th century
30 1970 Growth of Hindu temples in USA
xvii
Preface
Six years after the publication of my book on the nature of

Hinduism, I have ventured to write a sequel. In the meanwhile,
I have read many more scriptures in original Sanskrit, besides
other relevant texts. Whenever I read the original Sanskrit texts, I
maintained short notes and comments on them; this is particularly
the case with Valmiki Ramayana, on which you would find a fairly
intensive analysis in this work.
What, however, prompted me to write this work are some
distorted versions of the history of Hinduism by Western scholars
interested in digging up dirt, rather than trying to understand
what happened—of which they have no clue. I felt the need to
write my own version of the history of Hinduism.
I am a Brahmana and I am very proud of my ancestors. I
am convinced that Brahmanas have an intellectual heritage that
is unparalleled in the world. They did not impose their views
on others, nor did they wield any authority at any time, other
than moral ones, to punish or reward anyone. They never tried or
even thought of destroying other cultures; instead, they protected
them and accepted some of their ideas and gave them a new form.
Despite attempts by the British to instill hate against Brahmanas
in the South (refer to their role with the Justice party of 1916),
Brahmanas still enjoy the trust and respect of all people here. From
my personal experiences in the area where I live, I am convinced
that the people of Tamil Nadu, of all Jaties and even tribes, have
very high regard for Brahmanas. I am sure that this is the case all
over India.
Some ‘pigmy intellectuals’ from the West saw only ‘darkness’
in the minds of Brahmanas, but I will not get into any controversy
with dirt diggers in this book; instead, I will state my point of view
and let others judge.
The complexity of Hinduism has baffled many in the past
and at present. It is difficult to wade through this difficult terrain
without strong commitment and a burning desire to know the
truth. I have spent a whole lifetime on this; but on a full time basis
only for the past decade and a half. I had the benefit of learning
many things from my father who was a great intellectual himself,
with a very analytical and critical mind; but for the training from
him I could not have gone as far as I have done. It was a special
privilege to which I am most indebted.
The place where I live is about 20 km from the city of Coimbatore.
I live in a senior citizen complex which some consider to be a copy
of an agraharam. We have both Vaishnavite Ayyengars and Smarta
Iyers here—almost in equal numbers. We have a small library that
has a fair collection of religious texts and many of my friends here
own small personal libraries of their own. I have relied on these
resources for my work. Obviously, the resources at my command
are indeed very meagre, yet I have tried to get as much detail from
them as I could. I have used my Social Science background to full
effect. I have depended much on memory and, therefore, I can only
apologize for the mistakes that have crept in without my realizing.
As always, I enjoy writing from my heart and state what I
believe to be true. Religion is a sensitive subject and I know this very
well from interactions with other senior citizens in this complex.
My objective here is not to offend anyone, but at the same time,
I have not hesitated from telling the truth even if it is unpleasant.
In this matter, I have gone against the golden rule mentioned in
Manusmriti—do not tell the truth that is unpleasant. I hope the
readers will pardon me for doing this occasionally.
xx
Preface
Whatever the merits of this book, I can assure you that it

is original and positive in its approach. I hope you will enjoy
reading it.
R Ramachandran
Thondamuthur
xxi
Introduction
• Is Hinduism a Revealed Religion? • Historical

Evidence • Chronology of Sanskrit Texts • The History
of Brahmanas • The Historical Method • Assumptions
and Value Judgements • Telling the Story
Whoever says he understands ‘Hinduism’ does not really understand

it in the same way, the abstract God Brahman is not easily defined,
nor understood in its totality. Much like the six blind men trying
to define an elephant, it remains at best a partial understanding.
Hinduism needs a framework or a paradigm to understand it even
partially. One way of achieving this is by establishing a chronology of
religious texts, in terms of their style and content and then extending
it to history by relating it to events and movements outside of
Hinduism. This, in short, is the basic objective of this work.
A History of Hinduism implies that there is more than one
history of Hinduism and none of them can claim to be the sole
‘truth’. This work has an academic perspective. It is not a religious
text or a religious perspective on history of Hinduism. For the
latter, one may read Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati’s work:
Hindu Dharma: The Universal Way of Life.
Is Hinduism a Revealed Religion?

In the second half of the 20th century, the elite have come to
believe that Hinduism is a ‘revealed religion’ much the same way
as Christianity. To substantiate this, they mention the legend of

Veda Vyasa to whom the Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and
the Puranas were revealed by God. The Kanchi Acharya (Sri
Chandrasekharendra Saraswati) had time and again asserted that
Hinduism is a revealed religion. At the same time, he has said that
the Vedas were revealed to the great rishies. How can we have a
multitude of revelations? Further, he asserts that the meaning of
Vedic mantras is unimportant and only their sound matters. This
is entirely irrational. If one reads the Vedic mantras, it becomes
obvious that they have nothing to do with revelation. On the other
hand, they reveal a lot about the society and life of common folk
during the Rigvedic period. This is also true of other religious
texts—they are so varied in style, content and purpose.
In revealed religions, there is a dominant historical personality
around whom the whole religion is woven. Thus, in Christianity
we have Jesus Christ and in Islam Prophet Mohammed. Hinduism
was never woven around a single individual; instead, we have
hundreds of individuals who composed verses and texts, but
refused to project themselves. Each sacred text evolved over
a period of time. Rigveda took probably 500 years to reach the
corpus of over 10,000 verses and at least 50 poets, involving several
generations. This is true of later Vedas, Brahmanas, Upanishads, and
even Puranas. There is no personality cult in Hinduism. An average
Hindu would not have heard of Veda Vyasa, let alone worship him.
Certainly, all Christians know about Jesus Christ and Muslims
without exception know about the Prophet. How come Hindus
alone do not know a thing about Veda Vyasa or anyone worships
him? Nor do they have a festival or day in honor of Veda Vyasa.
Hinduism, as a revealed religion, does not make sense. In any case,
the very concept of revelation is based on faith and it need not be
accepted as fact.
For those who still believe in the concept of revelation, history
has no relevance (what has been revealed by God is not subject to
xxiv
Introduction
scrutiny, analysis and inference or rejection); but for those who do

not, like this author, history does matter.
Historical Evidence
In Sanskrit, there are no historical writings with one exception in
the 12th century AD in the work of Kalhana. What we have are
mythologies. Dating the past is almost impossible given the paucity
of reliable information. However, we can infer a chronology of the
Hindu religious texts from their style of writing and the contents
of the texts. To this corpus, we can add evidence from archaeology,
the historical records of foreigners who came to India—from
Persia, Greece, and China, in particular. Moreover, there is a
substantive volume of evidence from Buddhist and Jaina texts
which refer to, and borrow from, Hindu religious texts. Historical
evidence of events that took place after 300 BC is well recorded
and there is little controversy as far as laymen are concerned. For
events that took place before that there is archaeological evidence
that goes back to millennia. These are well supported by various
truly scientific methods of dating the past; these experiments can
be repeated again and again to confirm the findings. Hence, the
history of Hinduism can be traced with a fair degree of accuracy.
Chronology of Sanskrit Texts

There is no doubt that the corpus of Rigvedic verses is the oldest
and they came to us through an oral tradition. Rigvedic verses
and the language have many unique attributes; there is a separate
dictionary for Rigvedic Sanskrit. The Mimamsa texts are clearly of
later origin; these include the Yajurveda and Samaveda with their
Brahmanas. These define a new religion using Rigvedic verses in
a different context and involving elaborate rituals, some of which
involve animal sacrifice. The Aranyakas are a later addition to the
Mimamsa texts; these also include the eight early Upanishads. They
bring in a new perspective and are very critical of the utility of
xxv
rituals. They laid the foundation for a Hindu philosophy of life,

which permeates the Hindu way of life even today. Some of the
Mimamsa texts were entirely in prose and rather voluminous, and
even when they were written down, their preservation for posterity
raised serious questions. It is the fear of loss of the prose texts that
gave rise to the sutra style of writing. Jaiminisutra and Brahmasutra
are the best known texts of this genre and they summarize the
two Mimamsa religions in short pithy statements. The sutra texts
are also known as Dharmasutras. The Dharmasutras give way, still
later, to an entirely different style of writing, known as Smrities.
The Smrities constitute Dharmasastras—they lay down the laws of
varna-ashrama-dharma and raja dharma. These provide a sort of
constitution and laws for early kingdoms with a king at its head.
The emergence of kingdoms necessitates several changes; the
answers are provided by the invention of the concept of Saguna
Brahman in the later Upanishads. Kings now are portrayed as
incarnations of God. Epics elaborate the concept of raja dharma in
the Smrities, while the Puranas grapple with the concept of Saguna
Brahman in the form of Shiva and Vishnu and his incarnations,
besides several other sectarian Gods. The Puranic religion has
survived to this day, primarily because of translations and
adaptations of Epics and the stories in the Puranas in vernacular
languages and their popularization through music, dance, drama
and other forms of art including sculpture and temples of Gods.
The History of Brahmanas

The history of Hinduism is altogether different from the history
of India; the latter is generally viewed as the history of rulers—of
kings and their dynasties and rarely about the life of the ordinary
folk. In India, kings were thought to belong to the Kshatriya Varna.
This assumption is very important in religious literature, but in
actual history most kings since 300 BC belonged to other Varnas,
including the Shudra Varna. When Shudras or Mlechhas became
xxvi
Introduction
kings they were elevated to the Kshatriya status. If we accept this

very flexible definition of Kshatriyas, the history of India may be
thought of as the history of Kshatriyas.
History of Hinduism, on the other hand, is the history of
Brahmanas—how they shaped the religion to establish their role
in society and to make a living. Most Sanskrit texts in Hinduism
were written by Brahmanas. The basic question then is: in what
context and why did they write these texts? The answer obviously
is that they wrote these religious texts to preserve their status in
society and to earn gifts of gold and land—the very means of
their sustenance. Changes in social context occurred from time to
time in response to changes in society, from tribal to peasant and
feudal systems. The influx of foreigners from Yavanas to Muslims
and then the British influenced the way Brahmanas reshaped
Hinduism to the changing times. Brahmana is the only Varna that
has its root in Rigveda, as will be explained later in the text. The
Brahmana lineages are more stable and central to the preservation
of the Vedic corpus and its adaptation into various other forms.
It is not possible to get admitted into this Varna at later stages in
life because the learning of the Sanskrit language and recitation of
Vedic texts in proper form requires years and years of training from
early childhood.
The Historical Method

I view history as a series of layers superimposed one upon the other
and the job of the historian is to explain the transition from one
layer to the other. In other words, history consists of short periods
of rapid social change followed by longer periods of social stability,
the latter explained by the former. In Hinduism, I have, in the
previous section, already identified several layers. I shall explore the
circumstances under which these layers of history came into being.
There is yet another way of looking at history. Here we look at
history as a process over time. There are several processes working
xxvii
at any given time. Each process is like a vertical slab with a

beginning and an end. Let us take the example of Rigvedic poets
and the slow enlargement of the Rigvedic text. It is a historical
process. In any lineage, there are several generations of poets. The
lifespan of each poet represents a vertical slab; the preceding and
succeeding generations overlap in time, but still provide continuity
and progress over time.
In Hindu religious texts, the Upanishads, Smrities, Puranas, and
other genres represent a sequence of vertical slabs; in each there is
continuity and progress. The Upanishads and Puranas cover centuries
and they overlap with other developments. In this book I have used
both the approaches—the horizontal or the layers and the vertical or
the slabs.
This is essentially an academic book written for the benefit of
Hindus who know English. For this reason, I have not cared to
explain a great many terms used in the religious texts, nor have I
retold the stories from Epics. I assume that the readers know the
context well. I have used a great many Sanskrit words in the text
without diacritical marks. I assume that most Hindus understand
the meaning of these words and can easily recognize them. There
is, however, a glossary at the end to help those who are unfamiliar
with the basics of Hinduism.
Assumptions and Value Judgements

Throughout the work, I have avoided two major ‘isms’ that have
dominated the writing on Hinduism in the twentieth century. They
are ‘nationalism’ and ‘racism’. My reading of the original Sanskrit
texts show that these two ‘isms’ have nothing to do with Hinduism
and both were never a part of Indian ethos. In the 19th century,
the Indologists, who were essentially racists like their countrymen,
introduced these elements in the study of Hinduism and the
ancient Sanskrit literature. Unfortunately, Indian scholars—both
western educated and even the traditional scholars, accepted these
xxviii
Introduction
values without questioning. Thus, Indian writers on Hinduism are

no less racist in their approach than their western counterparts.
Spirited nationalism has led to new interpretations of the scriptures
which often do not stand up to scrutiny. Glorification of the past
is both naïve and unproductive. Nationalism is a very destructive
concept and Europe paid a heavy price for promoting this concept;
they are trying to reverse it now.
The approach in this work is essentially humanist—in a way
it is a little broader than that. The Hindu scriptures say that man
can be born as an animal—a cow, a dog, or a bird and so on. God
resides in everything that lives. All living things are equal in the
eyes of God. The purpose of religion is not just to explain the
human condition, but to explain everything that there is to know.
The Hindu religious doctrine has a much wider canvas than other
major religions; yet, it is the least aggressive among them. There
is no assertion of superiority or inferiority in religious thought or
principles; there is no question of converting others to the Hindu
point of view, nor to downgrade other cultures and religions.
Hinduism is an open house—anybody can walk in or walk out.
I would like the readers of this book to look at the propositions
with an open mind. They have the freedom to accept or reject any
notion; likewise, they should accept the author’s right to his own
views expressed in this book.
Telling the Story

Where do we begin our narration? In the past, the narration used
to begin with the arrival of the Aryans; the very concept of Aryan
in the literature of Hinduism is racist. I shall not mention the word
Aryan hereafter in this text. Where do I start then? I think we
should go to the earliest settlers in India and study their religion,
or whatever remains of it. They are still there, in flesh and blood,
and much of their culture is still intact. The existence of these
cultures is unquestionable proof of the Brahmana perspectives on
xxix
religion—no conversion, no persuasion to change, and certainly no

destruction of existing cultures. This basic value system is beyond
the comprehension of Christians and Muslims and all the chaotic
misinterpretations of Hinduism arise from this basic inability.
From the earliest settlers, we move on to village Gods and regional
Gods in very brief sections. This is the foundation of the edifice of
Hinduism and it is still intact.
The main body of the text has to do with Sanskrit based
religions, starting with Rigveda, Mimamsas, Buddhism and Jainism,
the Smrities, Epics and Puranas and then on to bhakti—in a time
sequence. I would like to emphasize that Buddhism and Jainism
did dominate the religious scene, at least among the elite, for some
centuries and they did bring about a radical response from the
Brahmanas, which changed the framework of the Vedic religion.
This is the part of the story that is most difficult to understand.
The Puranic religion, for all its faults, integrated the Vedic religion
with the folk religions of India to a large extent without destroying
them. I have added two chapters to emphasize the linkages. The
chapter on Adi Sankara best illustrates the integration process,
which had already been initiated with Bhagavad Gita. Adi Sankara
was successful in integrating bhakti and jnana—two important
‘paths’ that Hindus follow. I have also added a chapter on the origin
and growth of Hindu temples; in a way, this illustrates the progress
of Puranic Hinduism from 5th century AD onwards.
The Vedic religions, with their roots in the Indus-Ganga Plains
shifted to the Deccan around 2nd century AD and eventually
(around 6th century AD) to the far South, where they transformed
themselves with the infusion of bhakti—a notion that has its roots
in Tamil culture; with renewed invigoration this religion spread
north, where Sanskrit based Vedic Hinduism had come under
severe strain from Muslim rulers.
While we trace the sequence of changes brought about by
Brahmanas and explain them in terms of compelling contextual
xxx
Introduction
reasons, it must always be remembered that the original tribal,

village, and regional gods and religions were always there as a
substratum.
After independence, Hinduism has been revitalized but there
is still considerable confusion as the old concepts do not fit into a
new India. In the final chapter, I have dared to take a peep into the
future. I am a free person, enjoying religious freedom to the fullest
degree and so there is no constraint here for me. Let us begin the
journey by going back to the ancient roots of Hinduism.
xxxi
The Roots
• Introduction • India 3,500 Years Ago (1500 BC)

• Religions in 1500 BC • The Past from the Present;
Tribal Gods and Religions • Village Gods and Religions;
Regional Gods • Brahmanas at Present • The Past and
the Present • Overview
Introduction
Hinduism has existed from the time the Indian sub-continent was
settled by people 12,000 years ago. Since then, it has grown into a
giant tree that has a thousand roots and a thousand branches. The
tree has old and new branches, they bloom with colorful flowers on
occasions and have fruits that are sweet for the most part, but are
also sour and bitter at times. Likewise, the tree has ancient roots
as well as newer ones; the essences from these roots nourish the
branches in varying degrees and proportions. This is what happens
when a host of independent cultures co-exist—newer ones are
added to the mix from time to time, and the old and new closely
interact with each other without destroying one another.
Take for example Tantrism. It is today practiced in some form or
other by Vaishnavites, Shaivites, Saktas, and Buddhists; apart from
the followers of tribal and village cults. Tantrism has deep roots in
the ancient past going back to Neolithic people of India 12,000
years ago. All over India, people worshipped spirits of various kinds
and exorcised them for good and bad. In present day Hinduism,
Tantrism is very much present in all parts of India, although it is

more popular in eastern India than elsewhere. The Shaivites, in
particular, and Vaishnavites to some extent use tantric methods for
various religious purposes. One might even say that it is an integral
part of Shaivism. Texts in Sanskrit on Tantrism were composed,
rather late, around 6th century AD. Some Nambudiri Brahmanas in
Kerala specialize in Tantrism even today, even though Adi Sankara,
who belongs to this group, denounced it in no uncertain terms.
Apart from Tantrism, Hinduism has many ancient roots and
they are very much present in varying degrees all over India. The
tree of Hinduism, nourished by thousands of roots, is now the
oldest religion of the world; it is still very healthy and vibrant and it
continues to grow. It has withstood changes in weather and climate
through the centuries.
Among the roots that go back into the pre-historic age, a few
more need to be mentioned here. About 4,500 years ago, a great
civilization arose on the Indus river valley and it lasted for about 700
years, adding many new religious ideas that still exist as branches
of the tree of Hinduism. The worship of male and female Gods as
part of a fertility cult, the worship of trees and plants, animals and
spirits were practiced during the Harappan age and they continue
in modified forms to the present. The people outside of the Indus
valley built megaliths to honor and worship their heroes, a tendency
that continues to persist at the present.
The roots of Hinduism acquired a very notable addition at the
time when the Indus valley civilization disappeared from the scene
and a new migrant group entered the sub-continent. They spoke
Sanskrit. This book is about what happened after this ‘historic’
event. This root has fascinated a lot of people in India and abroad,
who viewed it in their own way. For example, the European
Indologists were fascinated by the common words in Sanskrit and
some of the European languages; they even coined a new word—the
Aryan race. In the 19th century, Indian scholars and others trained
2
The Roots
in British educational institutions looked at the Sanskrit literature

in perspective of nationalism and even racism—both concepts
inspired by the Indologists from Europe. In this book an attempt
has been made to look at the history of Hinduism from an insider’s
point of view; to be more specific, from a South Indian Brahmana’s
point of view.
First, we look at the situation existing at the time when the
Rigvedic people came to India.
India 3,500 Years Ago (1500 BC)

Three thousand five hundred years ago, the sub-continent of
India was inhabited by about ten million people (as compared to
1.6 billion today). At that time, most of the country was heavily
forested, in particular, the eastern part of the Ganga Plains, the
central belt along the Vindhya and Satpura ranges and almost the
whole of the west coast of India. North-Western parts of the sub-
continent were semi-arid lands interspersed with tributaries of the
Indus River. Similarly, the plateau region extending from Vidharba
in Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu in the South was less forested with
scanty rainfall. It is the areas with scanty rainfall that were first
populated; the forest lands could not be cleared because tools made
of iron were not available at that time.
The people of the North-Western region, including the whole
of Pakistan and extending up to Gujarat in the south and Ganga
River in the east, were inheritors of the well-known Harappan
civilization without their urban component. The reason why the
urban component vanished from around 1700 BC is still a mystery,
yet there is continuity in terms of other aspects of culture and
religion; the latter is more important from our point of view.
In the rest of the sub-continent, there were several small
communities as far south as Tamil Nadu and as far east as Assam.
In general, most of these communities belonged to the Chalcolithic
age—the age preceding the Bronze and Iron Age. The Harappan
3
culture belongs to the Bronze Age. In all these cultures, the use of
iron was unknown.
The people responsible for these cultures belonged to different
races of mankind—people with yellow skin and straight hair in the
Himalayan belt and in the North-East; people with dark to very
dark skin and wavy hair scattered around rest of India. Small tribal
groups lived in the hilly areas mainly as hunter gatherers, while the
larger communities lived in permanent village settlements along
river valleys, mainly as farmers and herders of cattle. The evidence for
these statements comes from excavations of pre-historic settlements;
time is determined by radio-carbon dating method. Estimating
the population 3,500 years ago is a very complicated process that
cannot be explained here.
Religions in 1500 BC
The people of India at this time practiced a great variety of
religions—of this there is no doubt. The evidence for this is partly
archaeological and partly inferential.
A great deal of the archaeological evidence comes from the
excavations of Harappan sites. The Harappan culture extended
over the whole of Gujarat and western Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana,
Delhi and even western Uttar Pradesh. There are literally a few
thousand sites where the remains of this civilization can be found
and many have been excavated since independence. The original
sites at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are now in Pakistan. The
Harappan culture ranks among the oldest of world civilizations,
though much later than the civilizations in the Nile Valley and
Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). One drawback of the Harappan
culture is the paucity of written material in stone and terracotta
tablets and our inability to decipher the Harappan script in spite of
many attempts. On the other hand, the scripts in Mesopotamia and
Nile valley have been deciphered and we know their culture in far
greater detail.
4
The Roots
The 2000 and odd stone tablets, not yet deciphered, are the
only evidence from which inferences regarding their religious
beliefs can be made; this is indeed very scanty material. Each
stone tablet consists of a set of symbols, mostly around ten, but
sometimes having as many as 20 symbols. Some inferences have
been made based on these symbols.
The symbols have been intricately carved on stone and have a
high degree of artistic merit. They show a great variety of objects
such as human figures, various domesticated and wild animals,
and some imaginary ones as well as well as plants and trees. Some
of the tablets seem to convey religious beliefs and even legends.
Icons of a mother goddess have been found in abundance and
from this, it is believed that the Harappan people worshipped
female Gods. They also made terracotta tablets with symbols and
figurines in large numbers.
Apart from the depiction of female Goddesses, there is also
a depiction of a male (nude) God in human form with horns;
this God assumes a yogic posture and it has been concluded that
he represents a prototype Shiva of later times. The depiction
of animals around this God is interpreted as the source of the
concept of pasupati—again referring to Shiva. Also of some
significance is the presence of figurines of the bull with a single
horn, which is somewhat unusual, yet suggestive of the worship
of the bull as a fertility God. Among trees depicted in tablets—
the pipal tree is of some significance as this tree is now considered
sacred by both Buddhists and Hindus. Another notable feature is
the presence of conical forms that are interpreted as the ‘phallus’
indicating worship of male fertility. The dead were buried, as
several grave sites have been discovered and there is no evidence
of cremation. These suggest that this civilization has no direct
connection with the one that followed it—a religion based on
Sanskrit. The Sanskrit based religion was notable for cremating
the dead as opposed to burial.
5
Excavations of sites other than Harappan culture, further

south, reveal the practice of burial in specially made urns; the
presence of great many items—of ornaments, weapons, and food
in the burial sites reveal elaborate rituals associated with death. The
megaliths or hero stones are commonly met with in the South, and
they reveal another religious aspect of practice—worship of tribal
chiefs and other leaders who were known for their hunting or
fighting skills. Legends and folk tales about their exploits form an
important aspect of their mythology. While these artifacts tell us
something about the religion of these ancient communities, they
do not go far enough; for this we need to devise other methods.
The Past from the Present

Our knowledge of society and religion 3,500 years ago is indeed
meagre. These societies were all pre-literate and hence we have
no written evidence (even the sum total of Harappan evidence in
tablet form does not amount to much; they cannot be thought
of as literature in any case). However, the existing archeological
evidence is relevant and it is growing. It will eventually open up
newer vistas giving us a more accurate picture of the past.
There is, however, another way we can learn about the
prehistoric past—by studying present societies, both at the
tribal, village and regional levels to see elements that have not
been obliterated by the so called Vedic religions. I would term
this as the sieve method. From Rigvedic times, Brahmanas never
questioned the right of the local cultures to exist—as Christianity
and Islam have done in the past—but co-existed peacefully in the
midst of tribal, village and regional religions. This co-existence
has produced changes in both Rigvedic religion and its later
adaptations, and the local religions as well. Elements of their
original beliefs and practices still remain in the local religions. In
India, there is an infinite wealth of cultural information at the
tribal and village levels. Historians have ignored it. Actually, the
6
The Roots
study of tribal and village cultures falls within the domain of

social anthropology (with which geography has had a very close
relationship). Nevertheless, historians never read the literature
from this discipline or so it appears. Just reading is not enough;
one has to push it through an intellectual sieve to arrive at the
right inferences.
In the following pages, I use examples from my neighborhood
to elaborate my point. This is actually field research, a method
extensively used by social anthropologists and geographers. All the
facts and inferences described below are verifiable. Keeping this in
view, I have given the actual locations of the places mentioned in
the text in Figure 1.
Tribal Gods and Religions

About two km from where I live is Attukkal—an Irula village.
Irulas are perhaps India’s oldest inhabitants—adivasis. They are
now found in small communities near or inside the forests of the
Western Ghats regions of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala. The
Irulas originally belonged to the negritto racial group. However, I
found only a few who have the typical woolly hair. The majority,
in fact, have wavy hair. This indicates considerable admixture with
other adivasis of the Australoid group and perhaps others as well.
The Irulas have their own God and religious beliefs. They still
sacrifice black goats to their God. The temple priest is from among
the Irula community itself. In the village that I referred to above,
they have a temple for their God named Vettaikkaran, which in
Tamil means ‘hunter’. The present temple has been rebuilt a year
or so ago and they celebrated the anniversary of this event on
Sivarathri day. They sacrificed 10 black goats on this occasion. The
Irulas consider themselves as Hindus. They are proud of this fact.
The very concept of God of the Irulas—Vettaikkaran or
hunter is probably as old as the tribal group’s existence in India—
about 12,000 years. Why a hunter is thought of as God? Irulas
7
Approx scale
Figure 1 Coimbatore West Suburbs
Source: Drawn by the author.
Note: This figure is not to scale. It does not represent any authentic national or international boundaries and is
used for illustrative purposes only.
The Roots
were, although they no longer are, primarily hunters. They hunted

for food in the forests surrounding them. The expert hunter
among them was transformed into a legend and then into God.
This supposition is no longer relevant, but Irulas regard it as
their tradition.
It may be noted here that Irulas are no longer a truly tribal
community, at least in Attukkal. Most children here go to school.
There is electricity and television antennas are visible everywhere.
Water is obtained from an elevated tank with public taps. However,
people still depend on collection of forest produce to obtain
additional income. Goats, chicken fowl, and even cattle are kept
inside the village. Wild elephants inhabit the forests immediately
to the north of the village and they venture out at night along
with herds of wild boars who are attracted to farm lands to the
south of the village. A tarred road connects the village. The first
km and a half of this road from the village was just a footpath
when I first visited the village years ago. The nearest bus stop is 1.5
km way. The Irulas are quite familiar with the city of Coimbatore
which is about 25 km away; there are about 50 motorcycles in
the village.
While the original God Vettaikkaran is their own, he is now
presented in forms that are borrowed; his wielding of a sword
reminds me of another village God—Karupparayar in the
Kongunadu region of Tamil Nadu. Further, there is a suggestion
of relationship to the Hindu God Shiva. This description of a
tribal God and religion is by no means unique to Irulas. A similar
situation exists in other parts of India. The names of Gods differ,
so also their beliefs. People are quite happy to be left alone to
practice their religion. They do not want others to preach to them;
nor do they care for their advice.
Brahmanas never tried to change the tribal ways of life and
they left them alone, even though, some of the great intellectual
Brahmanas lived in or near forests.
9
Village Gods and Religions

Around the place where I live, there are at least four temples for
Karupparayar (Karuppuswamy) within a radius of three kilometres.
He is a very popular village God in the Kongunadu region of
Tamil Nadu (consisting of the districts of Coimbatore, Tiruppur,
Erode, Salem, and Namakkal).
Karupparayar is usually represented as a man seated on a horse
(or without it) with an arival—a long sword like weapon. Along
with his image in clay, which is painted, there are invariably one or
more lingas or hero stones and also invariably a trisul, implying that
Karupparayar has something to do with Shiva. However, we cannot
be sure about the origins of these symbols. They could have come
from the ancient Harappan culture or may be a later addition. Hero
stones are fairly common in Kongunadu and they are an important
aspect of the megalithic culture of this region dating back to at least
1000 BC.
Karupparayar, near Brindavan where I live (see Figure 1), is
worshipped by the dominant social group—the Okkaligas. There
are four main clans of Okkaligas in this area. The worship of
Karupparayar is clan based, that is, each clan has its own temple.
These temples are very small, usually a small brick structure, 8 feet
by 10 feet, which houses the clay and rock images of Karupparayar
with small conical or cylindrical stones that probably refer to clan
heroes of a distant past. The temple, located on the outskirts of the
village, is usually taken care of by a family living in a farmhouse
nearby. They clean the premises and decorate the idols and place
flowers on them on a daily basis. There are usually larger, sometimes
lifesize images of horses and deities on horseback outside the temple.
These are made of clay and painted. There is no provision for going
round the temple, a practice that is common to all Puranic temples.
Family members belonging to the clan visit the temple either
alone or along with a priest, usually from the potter caste; they
perform the rituals and return home. The visit is pre-arranged with
10
The Roots
the priest. On certain occasions, the family may also sacrifice a goat
for the fulfillment of their wishes; such occasions, are now rare.
Normally, the priest offers flowers and vibhuti (ash) to the devotees
as prasad.
There is also a practice of oracles either by the priest himself or
any other chosen person from the clan. Those who perform oracles
have to undergo strict rules of conduct—vritham, for a certain
period of time. They usually go into a trance and make statements
or prophesy. These used to be taken very seriously in the past, and
for this reason, the worship at the temple is kept very secret by the
family. When larger groups join the event, the God Karupparayar is
also worshipped through songs—villu pattu and dance in the form
of karakkattu and kuthu. People usually vow to make offerings to
God when they face financial, health or other problems; when the
problems are resolved they fulfil their vows in the temple.
Decisions regarding annual festivals and other issues regarding
Karupparayar temples are taken by a committee; these decisions are
based on customs and traditions supported by folk-lore. The festival
itself may involve hoisting of a flag and tying the kappu—a ring.
Goats, chicken are sacrificed during the celebrations as offerings to
the deity, while sometimes alcoholic drinks are also served.
The Karupparayar temple near my residence has been newly
renovated; it is located about a km from the nearest village, but
there is a family living in a small house near the temple. The priest
visits the temple twice a week in the morning hours and performs
a puja; the language used by the priest is Tamil. He belongs to
Valayar Jati—originally they were hunters, but very different from
Irular. The Irulas are adivasis, while Valayar are part of the village
community, although belonging to a specific Jati. The original
priests belonged to the potter caste. Pottery is no longer in
demand and for want of employment, the potters have migrated
out of this village and hence the replacement with a priest from
another Jati.
11
Most of the families who worship at this temple are Okkali

Gounders, while the temple is technically open to other Jaties
from the surrounding villages. Families offer private prayers, pre-
arranged, and even sacrifice goats on occasions. There is an element
of privacy and secrecy around this and people are unwilling to
discuss matters with strangers.
While temples for Karupparayar are commonly found in
villages in my neighborhood, elsewhere the village temples are for
Muniappan—a God very similar to Karupparayar according to
some and different according to others.
Apart from Karupparayar and Muniappan, the 18 villages
with dominant Okkaliga community have a common temple for
Mariamman, which they consider as their common God, at a higher
level. This common temple is located in a prominent spot in the town
of Thondamuthur. The temple, though very small originally, has
been rebuilt into an impressive structure a year ago. The construction
of new temples is a recent phenomenon, indicating local prosperity.
The consecration of the new temple, which I witnessed, was a very
big event and it lasted for several days with thousands of visitors and
a variety of ritual performances—all unknown to me.
The Epics or Puranas make no sense to the people here and
Sanskrit and Vedas are like things from an alien planet.
Regional Gods
Every region in India has its own favourite God. In Bengal, it is
Kali or Durga. In Maharashtra, it is Ganesh, and in Tamil Nadu,
it is Murugan. Some of these may have ancient roots; others could
be only a few centuries old or even something transplanted from
some other region.
The Tamil God Murugan has very ancient roots; songs in praise
of Murugan are found in the Sangam literature. They also refer
to arupadaiveedu—the six principal abodes of Murugan, which
the poets describe at some length. The reference to the abodes of
12
The Roots
Murugan show that temples for this God existed as early as 2nd
century AD. The word murugan means a handsome young man.
Murugan is always represented as a young boy or as a youthful
adult. I would think that the human form of Murugan is derived
from the earlier hero stones, commonly found all over Tamil Nadu.
The most famous work on Murugan in the Sangam literature,
which goes back to 2nd century AD (note that the legend of this
God may have existed long before this work), is by Nakkirar.
This work has a long title Thirumurugatharupadai—which would
translate as: Murugan: the God with six abodes. The six sacred
abodes of Lord Murugan are: Tiruttani, in Northern Tamil Nadu;
Swamimalai near Kumbakonam in Tanjavur District, where the
temple for Murugan is on an artificial hill inside the walled temple
compound; Palni—this popular temple is in Dindigul district and
it is on a prominent granitic dome shaped hill; Pazhamudircholai
and Thirupparamkundram are both near Madurai, and finally
Tiruchendur near Tuticorin on the seashore. Pilgrims from all parts
of Tamil Nadu flock to these centres of pilgrimage at least once
a year. In later literature, we find that Murugan has not only six
sacred abodes, but also six heads.
In the ancient Tamil literature, Murugan is associated with
hills or mountains (known as kurunji in old Tamil). He is the
youthful fighter armed with a spear with a peacock as his vehicle.
The prominent temples for Murugan are all on hill tops or on
hilly areas. There are a few exceptions as well—there is a Murugan
temple in Kempanur village in my neighborhood. It is not on a hill
but in the centre of the village.
In later literature, Murugan is often mentioned as the son of
Shiva and Parvati. He assumes various other names, some with
Puranic connections, others of a local nature. Thus Skanda or its
Tamil equivalent Kanda (which came first?) and Subbramania are
of Puranic origin and are in Sanskrit; while Vadivel, Senthil, or
Palaniswami have only a regional significance.
13
A very unique form of worship associated with Murugan is

kavadi attam. A kavadi can take many forms. However, the most
common and the most spectacular form is that of a pair of semi-
circular wood pieces attached to a horizontal plank which is carried
on the shoulders of the devotees. The whole devise is decorated
with flowers and peacock feathers. The other kavadies are the milk
kavadi—where milk is carried in a pot on one’s head, or the vel
kavadi, which is a large pole with a lot of decorations.
The kavadi attam is associated with the important festival of
thaipusam which is celebrated in the Tamil month of Thai (January-
February) and on a full moon day when the moon is on the star
pusam; often these two events coincide. However, they could fall
on two different days. Individuals wanting to participate in this
festival, which includes both men and women, must begin their
preparations some six weeks in advance—refrain from eating meat,
bathe in cold water daily, shave one’s head—again for both men
and women, sleep on the floor and so on. Just a day before the
festival, people walk barefoot to the sacred abode of Murugan, near
to their village carrying the kavadi—singing and dancing. Some,
in addition, pierce their lips or tongue or the chest or back and
attach lemons with strings. All these burdens and self-torture is
to demonstrate their true love for Lord Murugan. In return, they
expect the Lord to fulfil their desires – often to cure a near or dear
one having a chronic disease.
In the Coimbatore region, there is a well-known temple for
Murugan, which people visit on occasions. It is in Marudamalai,
about 10 km away (see Figure 1). This temple is located at about
a thousand feet on the slopes of the Western Ghats and it is
surrounded by forests with all kinds of wild animals including
elephants. Built probably in the 12th century AD, this temple was
indeed very small when I first visited it some 60 years ago; a new
and very impressive temple was constructed recently, ten years ago.
It attracts large crowds on all days of the week with much larger
14
The Roots
crowds on weekends and Tuesdays. Marudamalai is also known for

the natural cave in which the 12th century Pampatti Siddhar—a
Shaivite saint lived. His name suggests that he had a special
relationship with snakes and that he allowed these to crawl over
him. The Pampatti Siddhar is one of the 18 Siddhas mentioned in
Tamil Literature and the cave where he lived is under the protection
of the Archaeological Survey of India.
This region (Coimbatore West Suburbs) has also a very well-
known Shiva temple in Perur, probably built in the 9th century
AD. It has several exquisitely carved pillars. These come under the
protection of the Archaeological Survey of India; the Perur temple
is known as the Pateeshwarar temple (Shiva was the favourite God
of the sacred cow known as Patti, one of the four daughters of
Kamadhenu). The temple also houses the Pachainayaki temple for
Parvati (Pachai in Tamil means green and Parvati in mythology
was of green color). This temple truly represents the Puranic age
and Puranic Hinduism. Perur is essentially a Brahmana agraharam
and the temple has more to do with Brahmana culture, although
the temple is well patronized by non-Brahmanas as well. Most, if
not all, large Puranic temples have a Brahmana agraharam either
around it on four sides or nearby.
Brahmanas at Present
The worship of Vettaikkaran and Karupparayar represents grass
root religions of a local nature; the worship of Murugan has wider
regional significance. The regional Gods, if not some aspects of
their worship, were absorbed in the Puranic religion and mythology.
This has happened throughout India. The local Gods, however,
remained untouched by the pan-Indian culture of the Puranas.
The description of religious practices, in a local setting,
attempted above, would be incomplete without mention of the
religion of the Brindavan Brahmana Community of which I am
a member.
15
The Brindavan community is of recent origin—about six

years old. It consists of Sri Vaishnava and Smarta Brahmanas, who
are all senior citizens. They live in a small gated community of
about eighty households. The members of this community are all
highly educated, and were mostly professionals—administrators,
teachers, accountants, engineers, and even doctors (medical).
Their children—a majority of them—live in foreign lands and
visit them occasionally. The senior citizens here also go abroad to
spend time with their children.
What is religion like in this community? It is predominantly
Puranic with a little bit of Vedic religion (Mimamsa). Daily
bhajans are held in the evenings in the small prayer hall attended
by around twenty regular devotees; the prayer hall has idols of
Lord Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana, reflecting the management’s
preferences—they are Sri Vaishnavites.
The bhajans, however, cover a wide spectrum from Vedic
mantras to slokas relating to almost all the principal Puranic
Gods. The participants are a mix of Sri Vaishnavites and Smartas.
Women outnumber men in the ratio of five to one. Bhagavad Gita
and some Upanishads are fairly popular—however, their meanings
may not be fully understood by the devotees, as their knowledge
of Sanskrit is indeed minimal. There are a few male members who
know the basics of Sanskrit language and they do have original
versions of various scriptures, particularly the Epics and Puranas.
Discourses on the Gita and Bhagavata Purana are routinely held.
Some male members of this community perform an abridged
version of the annual upakarma and the monthly tarpana and for
this a specialist priest is invited. A few, less than five, perform
the daily sandhyavandana three times a day (something that all
Brahmanas are expected to do daily). Similarly, some perform the
annual Shraddha ceremony in memory of their ancestors. The
rituals following deaths, which is not uncommon among senior
citizens, is invariably performed with the assistance of well-trained
16
The Roots
priests. These are in accordance with the Vedic texts. There are
local Brahmana associations who own land and facilities for the
performance of the last rites in accordance with Vedic practice.
No one performs the daily homa, while many do perform the daily
puja for their favourite Gods with flowers obtained from the plants
in the complex. These daily pujas are also performed by both men
and women, mostly women.
The community, as a whole, does celebrate the full range of
Puranic festivals during the course of the year. This is done with
great enthusiasm. Among the more important religious functions
are Bhagavatha Saptaham and Bhagavat seva. The former lasts for a
week in which the entire Bhagavata Purana in Sanskrit is read out.
The latter is based on Devi Bhagavatham; it lasts only for a day.
The priests who officiate in these functions are well trained and
often knowledgeable.
While Deepavali is celebrated in Brindavan and in the
villages around us, it has greater significance for the community
in Brindavan. The Dussehra festival, which lasts for ten days, is
observed on a grand scale in Brindavan, but it has no relevance to
the Hindu communities outside.
On the other hand, the Pongal festival is celebrated with
greater gusto in the surrounding villages but notionally in
Brindavan. In the surrounding villages, several other festivals are
celebrated with much fanfare. Among these is Adi perukku—
an event that welcomes the onset of the rains and the flooding
of rivers.
The communities in Attukkal, Kempanur, and Brindavan
coexist in harmony and there is no conflict whatsoever. They
practice different shades of a religion that is known as Hinduism.
The communities respect each other and interact with each other
almost on a daily basis. In a way, this describes the Hindu way of
life—peaceful co-existence. Tolerance of diversity and differences
and co-operation are the key elements of this culture.
17
The Past and the Present

I have described the tribal, village and regional Gods and religions
in brief to illustrate that the ancient roots of Hinduism still exist
and are still important. They may have undergone changes as the
original settlers mixed with the later ones. Hinduism is an open
house where religions, ancient and newer ones, co-exist and absorb
each other’s ideas without compulsion and in an atmosphere of
absolute freedom. The Irulas, for example, retain their culture and
religion and to some extent their way of life as they deem fit. This
is true of the great many village and regional Gods; and it is equally
true of family gods, and of the Gods of Jaties as well. The over
6,000 Jaties in India are a product of the respect given to them by
Brahmanas and also their recognition of their validity. Brahmanas
never considered their religion to be superior to the others or as the
only true and valid religion. Their policy has been one of mutual
respect for all Gods and religions.
Hinduism should never be compared with Islam or Christianity
religions—their outlook is poles apart. A lot of confusion about
history and religion in India arises from westerners looking at
Hinduism from their narrow perspectives and Indians trying to
look at their own religion with an outlook borrowed from the west.
In this book I shall try to avoid this pitfall.
There is some confusion in the understanding of Hinduism;
this arises from the undue importance given to the religions
based on the Sanskrit language. In the past, the role of the oral
traditions (non-Sanskritic) and the traditions of regional and
vernacular traditions have been totally ignored. The fact is that the
rich diversity of Hinduism is due to the survival of these traditions
and their interaction with Sanskrit based traditions. I would like
to emphasize this aspect at the outset and remind the reader
about it from time to time in this book. However, by virtue of
my own personal background, I shall in the succeeding chapters
focus primarily on Sanskrit based religions and how they evolved
18
The Roots
absorbing many facets from other religions from the regional

and local levels. I would like to remind the readers of the roots
of Hinduism at every stage of the evolution of Hinduism based
on Sanskrit texts. One should not be carried away by what the
Brahmanas say in Sanskrit texts; it is only a part of the whole the
story of Hinduism.
Overview
What follows in the subsequent chapters has more to do with the
Brahmanas of Brindavan and elsewhere, and less with the farming
community of Kempanur, and hardly of any relevance to the
community in Attukkal. The three communities represent India in
miniature and you can find the same pattern all over India. Often
the Brahmana element is missing, for Brahmanas constitute less
than three percent of India’s population. The following chapters
deal with the story of Brahmanas from the beginning—from the
arrival of the Rigvedic people.
19
Rigvedic Religion
• Rigvedic Society • Rigvedic Verses • Prosody • Poets or

Rishies • Vedic Sanskrit • Rigvedic Religion
• Brahman: The Original Concept • Gotra, Pravara, and
Charana • The Prelude and the Prognosis
Rigvedic Society
Around 3,500 years ago, a group of Sanskrit speaking people came
to the Indian sub-continent from central Asia. They composed verses
in Sanskrit in praise of their Gods and recited them in front of fire—
representing their foremost God ‘Agni’. These verses, composed
according to rules of prosody, were then memorized and passed on
to the generations to follow. After several centuries, when they were
compiled into a text, these verses were collectively known as Rigveda.
Rik in Sanskrit means a verse and veda is knowledge; Rigveda is then
knowledge in the form of verses.
The people who composed these verses—let us call them Rigvedic
people—numbered less than one lakh in the beginning. They had
come to the upper Indus basin after an arduous journey through the
Khyber Pass, losing many of their near and dear ones, as well as their
cattle and horses. The groups that survived the journey consisted of
groups of 100 to 200 persons who made a living by herding cattle;
each community’s worldly possessions consisted of tents and clothing
made of leather, cattle numbering around 500, about twenty horses,
and with bows and arrows as defensive weapons.
The verses, composed by the Rigvedic poets, reflect dependence

of these people on nature and hence their prayers in the form of
verses appealing to the powers of nature—the sun, fire, rain, water,
wind, and thunder and lightning. They offered food (meat or dairy
products that they themselves depended on) to the Gods through the
medium of Agni. The fire worship was performed by the community
as a whole and for the welfare of the entire community. Everyone
in this community was ‘equal’. The value of equality, togetherness,
and sharing were stressed by the poets in the Rigvedic mantras.
Throughout the Rigvedic text, meaning almost every verse of the
text, one would come across the pronouns—‘we’ and ‘us’. These two
pronouns hardly ever appear in the later Vedas. They are replaced by
the pronoun—‘I’, the priest and ‘he’—the performer of the ritual
ceremony or yajna.
The Rigveda is a unique religious text. It stands apart from later
Sanskrit texts. It relates to a particular type of society which no longer
exists—in fact it ceased to exist 3,000 years ago. Yet, the Rigvedic
text is considered to be the most sacred religious text of the Hindus
even today, although no one knows anything about it.
Even among Brahmanas today, very few can recite a verse from
Rigveda from memory.
Rigvedic Verses
The Rigveda consists of 10,552 mantras—verses set to one or more
metres. The Rigvedic poets—known as rishies—had mastered the
art of prosody. It is the mastery of prosody and strict rules for their
recitation that have preserved this religion for posterity. Quoted
below is a set of mantras, known for their lyrical quality as well as
sanctity of their content:
आपो हिष्ठा मयोभुव स्ता न ऊर्जे दधातन। महेरणाय चक्षसे

यो वः शिवतमो रस स्तस्य भाजयतेह नः। उशतीरिव मातरः
तस्मा अरं गमाम वो यस्य क्षयाय जिन्वथ। आपो जनयथा च नः
22
Rigvedic Religion
Oh Water! You are most desired the world over. You provide
us nourishment. You have neglected the barren lands!
That which is the most beneficial essence, we depend on you here!
You are like mother’s words of scolding!
We enter you but slowly to get rid of which you prompt us.
Oh water! Refresh us again and again
(Rigveda, Mandala 10.9.1-3)
The three verses given above are in gayatri meter, consisting of

twenty-four syllables divided into three parts (padas). This is the
oldest and most sacred of all Vedic meters. It is supposed to possess
unique mystic properties. There are strict rules for reciting these
mantras and even the slightest variations are not allowed. The verses
have to be learned from a guru—a teacher who knows the rules.
The verses are addressed to the water Goddesses. Water is
always in feminine gender in Sanskrit and it is always in plural.
The plurality is perhaps due to the fact that water is present in
various forms—as rain, as rivers and streams, as lakes, and as the
ocean itself.
While the meaning of the verses is fairly straightforward, there
are three intriguing phrases that need explanation. The phrase ‘you
neglect the barren lands’ has to be understood in the context of
semi-arid lands of the Punjab where the Rigvedic people first settled
in India, where the lands between the rivers was barren without any
source of water. The second phrase is ‘it is like the words of scolding
by mother’. This has to be understood again in the specific context.
These mantras relate to the act of bathing—marjanam. Bathing
here means bathing in the cold waters of Himalayan Rivers in the
Punjab. Here the waters are ice cold and one shivers while entering
the water, yet the after effects are indeed most welcome. The next
line makes this clear—we enter you (water) but slowly. The third
phrase—refreshes us again and again—can be interpreted in
different ways. Bathing is to remove dirt which is alluded to and to
23
refresh; however, the actual word used has to do with birth from
the mother’s womb which is a bag of water. One immerses in water
and is reborn. It is a colorful phrase, but I doubt whether the poet
actually referred to the concept of rebirth, which came into being
at a later point of time.
The three verses are repeated in all the four Vedas and within
the Vedas themselves in various contexts; obviously, they were
considered to be very important. It is also noteworthy that these
mantras are a part of the daily sandyavandanam ritual of Brahmanas
throughout the ages. As a young boy, I used to recite these mantras
while performing my daily prayers in the morning and evening.
Prosody
The invention of the gayatri meter is perhaps the most important
event in the history of Hinduism. This meter consists of twenty-
four syllables, which in Rigveda are grouped into three parts or
padas, each pada consisting of eight syllables. The numbers three
and eight have since acquired mystic value. The correct intonation
of the syllables is sacrosanct and it is this that makes the verses easy
to remember and difficult to paraphrase.
Who invented this meter? Obviously, he is one of the early
poets or rishies. My own reading of the Rigvedic mantras has led
me to the conclusion that this poet was the original Angiras; later
he was also given the title of Brihaspati and Brahmanaspati. Brihat
means the Rigvedic text—he is the lord of the Rigvedic text.
Brahmanaspati means the lord of the chief priests or the doyen
of the chief priests. To me, Angiras is the founder of the Rigvedic
religion and the inventor of the gayatri meter—the most sacred of
all Rigvedic meters. An invocation to Angiras—Brihaspati—is a
must in all Vedic rituals.
Only about a quarter of the Rigvedic verses are in the gayatri
meter. About one sixth of the verses are in the anushtup meter,
which is closely related to the above; it has four padas instead of
24
Rigvedic Religion
three consisting of eight syllables each. Trishtup with forty-four

syllables and Jagati with forty-eight syllables are far more numerous.
Together these four metres account for nearly 90 percent of the
Rigvedic verses. Altogether, there are twenty metres in use in
the present day Rigvedic text. The number of metres increased
gradually over time. In this way, one can infer that the Rigveda
evolved over a period of time. A detailed analysis of the metre used
in each mantra, its content, and the name of the poet is necessary
if we want to learn more about the evolution of the Rigvedic text.
Poets or Rishies
Rigvedic verses were composed by over 50 poets, belonging
to several generations. The principal poets were: Vishwamitra,
Gautama, Atri, Vashistha, Bharadwaja, Bhrigu, Jamadagni,
Angirasa or Brihaspati, Kanva, Saunaka, Parasara, and Kasyapa.
The opening verses of Rigveda, as it exists now, were composed by
Madhuchanda Vaishwamitra, while the closing verses of Rigveda
were composed by Samvanana Angirasa. The opening and closing
verses are very well known and are used in rituals almost invariably
in some context or other. It is also notable that quite a few of the
Rigvedic poets were descendants of senior poets; for example,
Madhuchanda is from the lineage of Vaishwamitra. When the first
vowel in a name is lengthened (it also undergoes some complicated
changes in some cases) it assumes the meaning: belonging to or
in the lineage of. Thus Vishwamitra becomes Vaishwamitra;
Bhrigu becomes Bhargava and so on. The important point to
note here is that even during Rigvedic times lineages of poets
were already recognized. This, eventually, led to the formation of
Brahmana gotras.
Vedic Sanskrit
The Sanskrit used in Rigveda is very different from the language
used in the Smrities. Words have a different meaning. For example,
25
the word ‘namas’ in Rigveda means food, while in the Puranas it

means salutation. Nouns are declined in a different way; hasthah
(hands) becomes hastasah in Rigveda; sringah (horns) is actually
sringani in later Sanskrit. The difference is indeed very substantial,
so much so, there is a separate Vedic dictionary. The first such
Sanskrit-English dictionary was prepared by Monier Williams.
The Kanchi Acharya calls Vedic Sanskrit as Chandas—
although this word has a limited connotation as metre in prosody.
The Acharya, however, considers the literal meaning of Rigvedic
mantras as irrelevant—only the correct pronunciation and recitation
of verses matters. These have mystic properties, according to him.
There is another rational interpretation of the Acharya’s statement.
The meaning of Rigvedic mantras bear no relation to the purpose(s)
for which these mantras were used in rituals in later time periods.
In that context, they are indeed meaningless.
Adi Sankara never wrote a commentary on Rigveda or any
other Veda; he never even quotes or mentions verses from the
Vedas. The point is that the later Vedas and certainly the Upanishads
have nothing to do with the Rigvedic religion. The later Vedas do
contain verses from the Rigveda, but their meaning does not matter.
In this context, what the Kanchi Acharya said is right. The Epics
and Puranas used the names of Rigvedic poets, constructed stories
around them, and attributed to them magical powers, absolute
knowledge, immortality and so on. All this is really part of the
mythology of Hinduism and has nothing to do with history.
Rigvedic Religion
Rigvedic people worshipped the Gods Indra and Varuna, through
the medium of Agni—the fire God. To this God, they offered
meat and other dairy products and prayed for protection for
the community, their cows and horses. They worshipped the
Gods for longevity of life and for sustaining the welfare of their
tribal communities.
26
Rigvedic Religion
The utter simplicity of this religion comes out vividly in the

following verse:
दधिक्राव्णोः अकारिषं जिष्णोरश्वस्य वाजिनः।

सुरभि नो मुखा करत् प्र नः आयूं षि तारिषत् ।।
Yogurts and oblations are ready; Fast and strong as a horse
(Oh Agni)
Please make our mouths fragrant; enhance our lives a little bit
(Vamadeva Gautama in anushtup meter in Rigveda 4.39.6)
Each mantra in Rigveda has three components—praise of a God,

offering of food or oblations, and a request. God is usually Agni,
Indra, Varuna or Vishvedeva. Oblations and food may consist
of meat or milk products. In this mantra the request in flowery
language is for food and enhancement of lives. The pronouns ‘we’
and ‘us’ are used in every mantra; the prayers are made collectively
by the tribal community for the benefit of all the members of
the tribe.
In the later Mimamsa religion the request is on behalf of the
yajamana for his own or his family’s welfare—a major departure
necessitated by social change.
The verse quoted above is repeated in the Taittiriya Samhita
(Krishna Yajurveda), the Shukla Yajurveda, the Samaveda, and the
Atharvaveda. I think that the repetition is because of the beauty of
the verse, the wit and mild humor and an air of skepticism inherent
in the prayer. The meter used in this verse is an elaboration of the
original gayatri meter—the difference is that while gayatri has three
parts with eight syllables, the anushtup meter used here has four
parts of eight syllables each. It is obviously a meter conceived at a
later time, but is still popular.
It is appropriate to quote another verse which possibly comes
from the end of the Rigvedic period (around 1000 BC); the verse
itself gives sufficient proof of this statement.
27
तत् त्वा यामि ब्रह्मणा वन्दमानः तदा शास्ते यजमानो हविर्भिः ।

अहेऴमानो वरुणेह बोध्यु रुशं स मा न आयुः प्र मोषीः
The honorable Brahmanas and the Yajamana’s requests with
oblations is: please do not take away our lives; we know, Oh
Varuna, you are not easily given to flattery here; nevertheless you
are highly respected everywhere!
(Rigveda 1.24.11)
This mantra is repeated in both the Krishna and Sukla

Yajurvedas and it is invariably recited in all Vedic rituals. The reason
for its popularity is the presence of two words—Brahmana and
Yajamana. In the Mimamsa religion (that we will discuss in the
next chapter), these two words refer to the two important persons
involved in the ritual: the priest and the person wanting to perform
the ritual.
A large number of verses in the present Rigvedic text either
belong to the Mimamsa period or even later; this becomes clear
from their content and the manner in which they are stated. The
closing verses of Rigveda, belong to a period when the gurukula
system came into being; this means that it belongs to the period of
the early Upanishads—a period even later than the Purva Mimamsa
period.
What distinguishes the original Rigvedic text—excluding
the later additions—is its overall simplicity and down-to-earth
approach to religion. Even the praise of Gods is very subdued and
often mentioned with skepticism, as we have noted in the verses
quoted above. Gods like Indra, Varuna and so on are praised in the
hope that they will solve the community’s basic problems of food
supply, longevity of life, and the protection of warriors and the
cattle from predators. The approach to God is simple and direct,
through the medium of Agni, another God.
The Rigvedic text is notable for the total absence of mysticism,
glorification, personification of Gods, ascription of divine powers
28
Rigvedic Religion
in humans, miracles, fantasies, and even the presence of ghosts or

evil spirits, which many ancient tribal communities used to worship
or fear. In later phases of Hinduism, we will find all these creeping
in and at times even deluging the literature.
Furthermore, there is no heaven or hell, no sin attached to
human actions, although non-permissible actions are mentioned
occasionally as in the verse below:
इदमापः प्र वहत यत् किं च दरु ितं मयि ।

यद् वाहमभिदद्ु रोह यद वा शेप उतानृतं ।।
Oh water! Wash away whatever dirt is in me!
Those from my harmful actions or those from my sexual misconduct
(Rigveda 1. 23. 22)
This verse is also repeated in the 10th mandala of Rigveda as

well as in Shukla Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. There is remorse for
misconduct but no mention of punishment. The concept of purity
and pollution that are introduced in the Smrities find no mention
anywhere in Rigveda.
I like the Rigveda for it straightforwardness, honesty, simplicity
and directness; no other religion in the world can match these
unique qualities, including the later versions of Hinduism. There
is but one caveat: the sacrifice of cattle and meat as oblation is
not recommended now. In Rigvedic times, they thought of meat
as food and the killing of cattle was part of the issue of obtaining
food. Actually, the sacrifice of cattle is not mentioned in Rigveda—
that belongs to the Mimamsa period. At this stage cattle were killed
for food and the same was offered to the Gods.
Brahman: The Original Concept

In Rigveda, ‘Brahman’ means a priest—a person who directs
the rituals before the fire altar with the whole community in
attendance. He is a composer and poet as well. The other priests
29
who participate in the community rituals under the direction of

the Brahman—the chief priest, were known then as ritwiks. In
the later Mimamsa religion, the word Brahman still retains this
connotation; the only thing is that several other categories of
priests were added on. Thus, we have the hotri (or hota) who recites
the Vedic mantras, the adhvaryu who prepares the soma juice and
makes other arrangements for the yajna, the udgata who chants
the mantras from Samaveda, and the Brahman, who supervises the
entire procedure. The Brahman or chief priest merely sits on a high
pedestal supervising the performance of the other priests. In a very
elaborate ritual, each category of priests will be assisted by three
others and thus one could expect sixteen priests officiating in a
major ritual. However, the division of labor among priests could
have originated in the Rigvedic period itself, but they were fully
developed in the Mimamsa period, when elaborate rituals were
conducted at the behest of a rich yajamana.
Still later, in the Upanishadic texts, Brahman becomes the
absolute God and in the Puranic age Brahman becomes Brahma—
the creator of the world and one of the three supreme Gods—
Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. The different meanings of the word
brahma or brahman belong to different religions and different
periods; the confusion becomes unavoidable for a layman.
Gotra, Pravara, and Charana

The concepts of gotra, pravara, and charana do not belong to the
Rigvedic period, but their roots are in Rigveda. Further, the three
concepts have survived over time even to the present and they
provide a chain of continuity that is remarkable for its persistence.
In this book, the thread of continuity is provided by these three
concepts. This book is about the history of Brahmanas, as much as
it is about the history of Hinduism; the three concepts are central
to the definition of a ‘Brahmana’. A Brahmana always was, and in
fact is, bound by definition to have a direct link with Rigveda.
30
Rigvedic Religion
The poets who composed the Rigvedic mantras were known as

rishies. The names of these poets are given at the start of each section
of the Rigvedic text along with the name of the meter used in the
verses and the Gods to whom the verses are addressed. We have, in an
earlier section, noted the names of the principal rishies and the fact
that many of the Rigvedic poets were descendants of earlier poets;
a sort of lineage was already emerging in Rigvedic times. Rigvedic
poets were real people who had children and grandchildren. They
are all historical personalities in the true sense of the term. In the
post Rigvedic period, the descendants of the Rigvedic poets began
to identify themselves with one or more rishies from whom they
were descended. This led to the concept of gotra—a gotra is a group
of people who claimed descent from one or more Rigvedic rishies.
In later times and even to the present a Brahmana is identified by
his gotra. It is but natural for Brahmanas to claim descent from a
well-known ancestor—in this case a Rigvedic poet whose name
appears in several suktas or cluster of verses.
Until recent times, a Brahmana boy who had already been
initiated into Vedic study through the upanayana ceremony was
expected to identify himself. He was also required to seek alms from
ladies of households. He would address the housewife as follows:
भवति भिक्षाम् देहि

अभिवादये भार्गव वैतहव्य सावेदस त्रया ऋषेय प्रवरान्वितवादू लगोत्रोत्भव आपस्तं ब सूत्र
यजुर्शाखा अध्यायी श्री रामचन्द्र शर्म नाम अहम अस्मै भोः
Madam, please give me alms.
I offer my salutations. I, Sri Ramachandra Sharma, am from the
lineage of the three rishies—Bhrigu, Vithahavya, and Savedasa, born
in Vadula gotra, and I am a student of Apasthamba Sutra and
Yajur Sakha.
This introductory statement has three components: the gotra

name, the pravara, and the charana. All three are important. The
31
gotra name is just a short form for purposes of identification and

it is actually defined by pravara. Pravara is the lineage in which
one or more names of Rigvedic poets are mentioned. In the above
introduction Bhrigu, Vithahavya, and Savedasa are all Rigvedic
poets whose names appear in the Rigvedic text. They have all
contributed several verses to the Rigveda. In pravara, one claims
ancestry to Rigvedic poets. Charana means recitation. What the
student is saying is that he is studying a section or sakha of a Veda
and a part of a Brahmana (apasthamba sutra is actually a Brahmana
attached to Krishna Yajurveda). The student can be tested by asking
him to recite mantras from the above, which he would be expected
to know.
Brahmana gotras, pravaras and charanas have survived through
time and that is how I am able to make my own introduction in
the Sanskrit passage above. However, few Brahmanas nowadays
know their gotra, pravara or charana and they will not be able to
introduce themselves in Sanskrit. Yet, over the centuries, Brahmanas
did maintain their identity and provided some sort of continuity
with the Rigvedic people. This is a true historical fact.
At this stage, one may ask about the other sections of the Rigvedic
population—those who were not poets or their descendants. Other
than the poets, the other group that had a clear identity was the
warriors. It is logically correct to expect lineages of warriors as well;
one would expect to claim ancestry from a well-known warrior and
his name would then be perpetuated. The Rigveda does not contain
any mention of names of warrior heroes or their descendants; this
does not mean that they did not exist. Obviously, by analogy, they
did. The other sections of the Rigvedic society, however, remained
anonymous.
There is a big difference between warrior lineages and Brahmana
lineages. Among Brahmanas the Vedic knowledge was transferred
from father to son at an early age. Among warriors this is not
necessary. Neither is the training such a prolonged experience as in
32
Rigvedic Religion
the case of the Brahmanas, nor is it begun at an early age. There is

no evidence of continuity among warrior lineages as we will notice
in the later chapters of this book. There is yet another dimension
to the warrior lineages. In the post Rigvedic period, the warrior
lineages became clans; the warrior class requires close collaboration
in battle and they need to be organized, and hence, lineages tend
to transform into clans. This is not the case with Brahmanas who
are more or less independent as their profession did not require
any organization when the tribe gave way to a peasant society.
Brahmanas were always organized into nuclear or joint families.
There were no clans of Brahmanas.
The Prelude and the Prognosis

The Rigvedic people came to the upper parts of the Indus River
(the land of the seven rivers) around 1500 BC, and possibly they
remained there for a few centuries. During this time period several
things happened. No society remains static for so long. With each
generation of poets, the corpus of verses grew. It is important to
remember that there were hundreds of Rigvedic communities and the
poets came from different tribal communities. There was interaction
among these tribal communities and also between the Rigvedic and
the pre-existing non-Rigvedic communities. The Rigvedic verses
begin to acknowledge the existence of these ‘other’ communities
and their Gods. At the same time, the homogeneity of the Rigvedic
tribal communities underwent changes with the emergence of the
lineages of poets and warriors among them. Branches—sakhas—of
the Rigvedic corpus emerged with each lineage expanding their own
corpus of verses. The number of sakhas would also have increased
over time. No one tribal community knew all the verses of the
Rigveda. The compilation of Rigvedic verses came only after the art
of writing was invented; and that happened many centuries later.
When this happened, some of the sakhas would have merged and
different combinations of sakhas would have emerged.
33
With increasing population, these tribal communities would

have felt the need to move on to new regions. It is also possible
that the Rigvedic communities met with increasing pressure from
newer immigrants through the Khyber Pass. Equally possible
are the consequences of increasing desertification of the Indus
basin. Whatever the reason, at least some of the Rigvedic tribal
communities did migrate to the east in search of new pastures.
The process of migration is a recurring event in all tribal
communities and the Rigvedic people were no exception. From
hindsight, we know that the Rigvedic people or sections thereof,
migrated to newer lands from time to time and eventually covered
the whole of the sub-continent. Again, from hindsight, and from the
literary and archaeological evidence, we can postulate five distinct
stages of migration of Rigvedic people (or sections of them) through
historical periods (see Figure 2).
We have already discussed the first stage during the period
1500 BC to 1000 BC, in which the regional setting was the upper
Indus basin. In this stage, the Rigvedic religion was practiced in a
pure form and the major part of the Rigvedic verses were composed
by poets. The Indus basin had nothing more to contribute to the
growth of Vedic religion. The venue shifted to the east. In later
time periods, while this region was held in high esteem, the people
there were thought to be Mlechhas—referring to their foreign origin
(Yavanas, Sakas, Pahalvas and so on).
In the second stage, from 1000 BC to 600 BC, the Rigvedic
people seem to have settled down in the region of the Upper
Yamuna around the present day Delhi. Again, we may note that
the migration did not involve the entire Rigvedic population, at
that stage, but only some communities while other communities
of Rigvedic people continued to live in the Indus basin. It is in
this stage that the Rigvedic religion was modified and the newer
Mimamsa religion emerged. This development is discussed in
Chapter 4.
34
Rigvedic Religion
Approx scale
Figure 2 Rigvedic People: Stages of Migration

Note: This figure is not to scale. It does not represent any authentic national or
international boundaries and is used for illustrative purposes only.
35
In the third stage, there was further eastward movement along

the upper reaches of Middle Ganga Plain; the new focus was
eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. In the second stage itself, the tribal
communities merged, at least partially, into the pre-existing peasant
communities in the Yamuna basin; this process could have begun
even earlier. What I mean by merger is the gradual disappearance
of ethnic differences. The process of merging, in general, starts from
the less important individuals and sections and proceeds upwards;
the logic here is not difficult to understand. The lower sections
of society have much in common, while the upper sections, for
example the Brahmanas have very distinctive skills. In the case of
Brahmanas, the issue of merger happens at the level of the young
student who wants to learn the Vedic mantras and he is accepted by
the teacher as a member of the family. This occurs only on very rare
occasions. In the case of warriors and others, inter-group marriages
were fairly common; evidence for this comes from Smrities.
In the third stage, there are developments on several fronts: the
development of spiritual thought in the form of the Upanishads,
which constitute Uttara Mimamsa and the emergence of a number
of heterodox religions and sects, among which Buddhism and
Jainism were by far more important. (These aspects are elaborated
in Chapters 5 to 7).
In the first three stages, migration possibly involved all sections
of the tribal communities, including the poets and the warriors and
the ordinary folk. In the final two stages, migration involved only
descendants of poets, while the other sections remained more or less
in the Ganga Plains.
The fourth stage involved the migration of Rigvedic people
(mainly or exclusively Brahmanas) beyond Aryavartam, as described
in the Smrities. At this stage, migration of Brahmanas was prompted
by invasion of Northwest India by Yavanas and the resulting
destabilization of Vedic culture there and the rise of Buddhism and
other heterodox religions. The conversion of Asoka to Buddhism
36
Rigvedic Religion
was another important contributing factor. The political patronage

extended to Brahmanas was considerably reduced as a result. The
selective migration of Brahmanas to central India started from
200 BC to about 500 AD. This migration is reflected in stage IV.
These developments are reflected in the contents of the Epics and
Puranas, discussed in Chapters 8 and 9. In this stage, the Brahmana
communities settled down in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and
even Gujarat—focusing on the valleys of the Narmada, Tapti, and
Godavari rivers. Several new kingdoms emerged in this region and
they encouraged the settlement of Brahmanas here.
In the final stage—500 AD to 1200 AD, the Rigvedic people,
now clearly restricted to Brahmanas alone, migrated to the far
South. There was a strong positive incentive for Brahmanas to
migrate further south where the Hindu kings were very willing to
accept them and give grants of land and various other incentives;
this process achieved a climax during the reign of the Cholas. The
Brahmana population of the entire South owes its presence to the
generous land grants from kings and other rich chieftains.
The Brahmanas settled down in a new kind of settlement known
as agraharam and practiced the Vedic religion in peace. It is to the
migrant communities of Brahmanas that we owe the Sanskritization
of the South. In 5th century AD, the region of South India was
known as Tamizhakam—the land of Tamils or the region where
Tamil is the spoken language. In Tamil, there is no concept of
race, while linguistic affinity is strong, as also religious preferences.
The other so called Dravidian languages did not exist then. They
came into being as a result of the process of Sanskritization of the
Tamil language.
The fifth stage is notable for the emergence of Hindu temples
in the South and the flowering of the bhakti movement. At the
same time, the Mimamsa religion and Vedic culture flourished here,
along with the regional and local cultures. These new developments
are discussed in Chapters 10, 11, and 12.
37
Mimamsa
• India 3,000 Years Ago (1000 BC) • Yajur and Sama Vedas
• Brahmanas (Texts) • Mimamsa Religion • Atharvaveda •
Dharmasutras • Two Varnas • Vedic Sakhas • Summary
India 3,000 Years Ago (1000 BC)

Over a period of time, the Rigvedic people began a slow migration
to the east, from the Indus and its tributaries to the basin of the
Yamuna around Delhi (see Figure 2—Stage II). In this new setting,
the tribal units of Rigvedic people merged into the pre-existing
agricultural communities and they lost their separate identity and
also their unique tribal way of life. In other words, the Rigvedic
tribal communities were transformed into a number of Jaties,
based on their occupations and locations, while maintaining some
attachment to their earlier tribal roots.
There is considerable archaeological evidence for this period
from 1200 BC to 800 BC. Based on the characteristics of the
pottery used at that time, archaeologists have used the term
Painted Grey Ware Culture to designate the society of that time.
There were hundreds of village settlements in this area and many
have been excavated. However, none of these can be described as
urban. These peasant communities cultivated wheat and barley,
and practiced animal husbandry. There is evidence of the use of
iron tools, although very sparingly.
The basic unit of society from now on was the family,

which could be a nuclear family, a joint or an extended family.
The Rigvedic people branched into lineages and families, most
engaging themselves in farming and animal husbandry. A notable
exception was the poets and their families who continued the
tradition of memorizing the Vedas passed on to them by their peers
and the worship of Vedic Gods through the medium of Agni. The
poet priests became a distinct category and they earned a living
by providing ritual services to the former members of the tribal
population and to others. This priestly class later came to be known
as Brahmanas. Thus, Brahmanas became the first ‘Varna’—meaning
a category of people distinct from the others—to be formed out of
the original Rigvedic communities. It is important to note that the
term ‘Varna’ is a general category term and it would normally have
a large number of Jaties, within its domain.
Yajur and Sama Vedas

The disintegration of the Rigvedic tribal society posed new
problems for the descendants of Rigvedic poets. Their main concern
was with the preservation of the corpus of Vedic mantras. This
required constant practice, teaching and learning of the mantras
by the younger generation. They had very little time to practice
agriculture or animal husbandry and yet they had to make a living.
For this, they improvised a new system of lifecycle rituals.
While the Rigvedic mantras were the central pieces in these rituals,
newer mantras, and even prose forms were introduced into the
rituals to make them more relevant to the lifecycle events such
as births, deaths, marriage and nuptials, puberty, initiation into
the learning process for young boys, and finally rituals for the
consecration of the dead and the worship of the ancestors. These
rituals involved considerable expertise and the Brahmanas could
extract fees (initially in kind, later in gold) for helping people
perform them. This became the main means of livelihood for
Brahmanas. They did keep cows, for milk was an important part of
40
Mimamsa
their diet and milk products were used in most rituals as oblations.
The cow was a sort of sacred link to their Rigvedic origins. They
continued to be meat eaters and they offered meat as oblation, in
addition to other items.
Krishna Yajurveda was the first Mimamsa text to emerge out of
this new predicament. It deals extensively with various rituals to be
performed both by Brahmanas and others. At this time the Varna
categories did not exist, except that Brahmanas were emerging as
a distinct group. The vast majority of Brahmanas, at any point in
time, were Yajurvedins. However, Yajurveda itself branched into
two later, around 400 BC.
The Krishna Yajurveda text is actually known as the Taittiriya Samhita.
It deals with a great number of family and lifecycle rituals, in addition
to a number of sacrifices: somayaga, vajpeya, rajasuya, asvamedha etc. I
would ascribe the elaborate sacrifices to a later period in the evolution of
Yajurveda—that is several centuries later. The Krishna Yajurveda is also
the original source of the Rudra mantras and so also purusha sukta (later
included in Rigveda). Krishna Yajurveda in itself is a separate religion. It
actually expanded and became elaborate over the centuries. It was later
known as the karma kanda of Vedas or Mimamsa.
Samaveda, a later addition to the Vedic corpus, added a new
dimension to Mimamsa by introducing a new form of reciting the
Rigvedic mantras; it also focused more on the worship of ancestors.
The reciting of Samaveda verses—samagana—is particularly
important in the so called soma sacrifices.
There were only three Vedas at this stage: Rigveda, Yajurveda,
and Samaveda. Samaveda is comparatively short in relation to
Yajurveda, about 1,800 verses, and it mostly consists of mantras
drawn from Rigveda. Its contribution is mainly in the rendering
of the mantras in musical form. The priests who chant Samaveda
mantras are known as udgatas. They are a special category of
priests, as only they are allowed to chant the saman. Unlike Krishna
Yajurveda, Samaveda has no independent status—it is only an
41
adjunct to Yajurveda rituals. The specialization of a Brahmana boy

in Yajurveda or Samaveda depends entirely on the teacher under
whom he obtained his training. Thus, among two boys from the
same family, one could be a specialist in Yajurveda and the other
in Samaveda.
In Krishna Yajurveda, the mantra portion, the Brahmanas and
even Aranyakas are all in the same text. This text is also mostly
in Sanskrit prose. At a later point in time, the Krishna Yajurveda
branched off into a newer one known as Shukla Yajurveda; this is
a much shorter text and it has only one Brahmana—the Satapada
Brahmana—in the form of a separate text.
The composition of Shukla Yajurveda is attributed to the sage
Yajnavalkya. This name appears again and again in the Upanishads—
it means someone belonging to the lineage of Yajnavalkya and not
necessarily the original Yajnavalkya. The name Yajnavalkya does
not appear among Rigvedic poets. We have already noted that
by lengthening the first vowel of a proper noun the meaning is
altered—the lengthened form means something belonging or in
the lineage of.
Yajurveda, especially Shukla Yajurveda, introduces a whole class
of Gods that are new and not mentioned in Rigveda. We have thus
mention of Lord of the beasts (Pasupati), Lord of Herbs (Aushadi),
and even astonishingly Lord of the Thieves! All these go to show
that Brahmanas had an open mind and willingness to absorb Gods
and practices of other communities. The issues of superiority or
inferiority of Gods or religious practices is never mentioned.
Brahmanas (Texts)
Brahmanas as texts are actually instructions given by the Brahman
or the chief priest who sits on a high pedestal in any major sacrificial
ceremony. Brahman occurs in Rigveda as a leader among the poet
priests. The concept of brahman is not new. However, in Yajurveda
it acquires a new status as the Yajurveda rituals involve a host of
42
Mimamsa
priests. Hence their leader—the brahman—has a very special

standing especially in the more elaborate sacrificial yagas.
Each of the four Vedas has its own Brahmanas. Rigveda has
two—Aitareya or Aswalayana and Kaushitaki or Sankhyayana.
Shukla Yajurveda has one—Satapada Brahmana. In Krishna
Yajurveda, the mantra part and the Brahmana are interspersed
together in Taittiriya Samhita. However, in later time periods, it
acquired sub-texts in the form of sutras—apasthamba, Gautama,
Baudayana, and Vashistha being the principal ones. Samaveda has
six or seven Brahmanas.
Each Brahmana consists of three parts—the explanatory part
or Brahmana proper, the Aranyaka or the deliberations of recluses,
and Upanishads, the thoughts of the intellectuals. It is important
to emphasize that the three parts may actually belong to different
time periods. Religious texts in Hinduism are always time flexible
and author flexible. Aranyakas were composed at a later point in
time than Brahmanas, while Upanishads are of still later origin.
Another interesting aspect is that, with time, there is movement
from western parts of the Ganga plains towards the east. By the
time of Mahavira (5th century BC), the founder of Jainism, the
Vedic communities have moved to eastern Bihar.
Mahavira came from Vaishali in Bihar. It may be noted that
Mahavira established Jainism in opposition to Mimamsa. It is
reasonable to conclude that Mimamsa religion thrived in east Bihar
at that time (5th century BC).
Furthermore, the later Vedas and their Brahmanas evolved over
a period of time—may be in terms of centuries. The later additions
to Yajurveda include the Purusha sukta and Rudra japa (which also
finds its place in Rigveda).
While references to Rudra in Rigveda may be seen as a borrowing
from pre-existing cultures in the Indus region, its elaboration and
identification with Shiva is still of later origin. In a sense, Shaivism
may be traced to Yajurveda, but only in a notional way.
43
Mimamsa Religion
Purva Mimamsa is a ritual based religion. The rituals are termed
as karmas. They are of three kinds: the daily rituals, the occasional
rituals, and rituals performed for fulfilling one’s desires (nitya
karmas, naimittika karmas, and kamya karmas). The rationale for
these rituals is that everyone owes a debt to the Rigvedic sages, the
Vedic Gods, and one’s ancestors. Non-performance of the rituals
will have negative consequences, while diligent observance of the
rituals will bring positive results. The responsibility for performing
the rituals is on the students (brahmacharins) and on married adults
(grihasthas).
These rituals are also known as srauta karmas (as opposed
to smarta karmas mentioned in Smrities, which are of later
origin). Srauta karmas are the essence of Mimamsa and are held
to be sacrosanct by true Brahmanas. The daily ritual known as
sandhyavandana, which is to be performed three times a day, is
important for self-purification. It is nitya karma. The study of Vedas
is known as brahma yajna. It is the duty of every Brahmana to do
this daily to repay his debt to the Rigvedic rishies. The worship of
devas or Vedic Gods is for the welfare of self and family. It is called
deva yajna. In addition to this, there is pitr yajna which is meant to
please the ancestors. All the above yajnas must be performed daily
by a Brahmana.
I would like to point out here that all Vedic religions and
rituals are Brahmana centric. Others can and did participate as
yajamanas by giving gifts (dakshina) to Brahmanas. They rarely
had the expertise to perform the rituals by themselves. In course of
time, most Brahmanas also did not possess the requisite expertise
and they had to depend on the priestly class (Vaidika Brahmanas,
see chapter on Smrities) to perform rituals.
Lifecycle rituals form another category. They are to be
performed as the occasion warrants. The main ones are: simanta,
jatakarma, namakarana, annaprasana, caula or cuda, and
44
Mimamsa
upanayana; this is followed by marriage. In the final phase, one

should also include the cremation rituals—dahana-kriya.
A householder, in addition to all the above, must perform
three kinds of yajnas at infrequent intervals and some only once in
a lifetime. The three sacrificial yajnas are: paka yajnas, havir yajnas,
and soma yajnas. Each of the above has seven distinct yajnas each. A
householder must perform these yajnas at least once in his lifetime,
and if possible, more often.
Some, but not all yajnas involve animal sacrifice. The more
common ones do not involve animal sacrifice; these include the
paka yajnas and five of the seven havir yajnas. In these yajnas only
the following are offered in the fire: ghee (ajya), rice mixed with ghee
(haviryanna), cooked rice (caru or purodas), milk, and unbroken
rice grains (akhsata). One may also note that the mention of rice
in the above list itself indicates that Brahmanas at this stage were
based in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, where rice cultivation
was commonplace.
In actual practice, in the routine homa yajna performed by
Brahmacharins, only samit (sticks of the palasa tree or flame of the
forest) are offered as indicated by this famous verse from Rigveda:
सं समिर्धुवसे वृषन्न्गे विश्वान्यर्य आ ।

ईडस्पदे समिध्यसे स नो वसून्या भर ।।
Worship the great bull Agni, universally respected, with samit
Worthy of respect, worship him, he will fill us with riches.
(Note: This verse is in the form of advice given by a teacher to his
students. In the gayatri mantra japa and homa performed on a daily
basis only samit is offered to the fire God).
(Rigveda 10.191.1)
This verse makes it clear that all that is needed for worship are
sticks of wood or the darba grass; no animal sacrifice is involved in
worship. The Brahmanas of my generation used wood sticks for the
daily gayatri mantra japa and homa.
45
In rare and major yajnas, animals are sacrificed. The largest of

these is the asvamedha yajna performed by monarchs, involving
the sacrifice of 100 horses, while the vajapeya sacrifice involves
twentythree animals. While these yajnas are rare, there were others
where single animals were sacrificed—mostly male calves. There
are detailed instructions regarding the cutting and offering of
meat from the sacrificed animal in the Brahmanas. The Mimamsa
religion has been severely criticized or looked down upon for yajnas
involving animal sacrifice. This is indeed very unfair; but it suited
Western scholars to paint it that way.
Atharvaveda
The Atharvaveda stands on a very different footing from the
other three, although it does rely heavily on Rigvedic mantras.
Atharvaveda is not recognized as a Veda in Manusmriti or in
Bhagavad Gita. Yet, three of the first eight Upanishads belong to
this Veda—Prasna, Mundaka, and Mandukya; the last of these is a
basic text for Vedantins.
Atharvaveda derives its name from the purohit or priest
Atharvan. This Veda is a mixture of prose and poetry and it deals
essentially with sacrifices for three purposes: santikam for peace,
paushtikam for strength, abhicarikam to hurt enemies. This Veda
has mantras in praise of Gods not mentioned in the other three
besides fierce spirits. It is precursor of the tantric school with its
magical formulas. Atharvaveda has only one Brahmana—the
Gopada Brahmana.
The Samhita part of Atharvaveda (of which I have a copy),
consists of over 4,000 verses and it is twice as large as Samaveda or
Shukla Yajurveda. While quite a few verses from Rigveda are included
in it, and often repeated again and again in various sections, the
original verses of this text are not very attractive from my point of
view. Their lyrical quality is poor and they lack originality.
Atharvaveda is often thought of as a medicinal text, but this
is not true. It deals with a great variety of problems that common
46
Mimamsa
people, as well as kings faced and they offer solutions to these

problems. For each problem, for example, the destruction of an
enemy or victory over him, there are many independent solutions
offered. Each solution consists of a section comprising five to fifteen
verses. These verses are to be recited in an elaborate ritual or homa
for which detailed instructions are given in the Brahmana text.
Examples of medical issues for which solutions are offered are:
leprosy, leukoderma, and tuberculosis. It also offers solutions for
after-effects of poisons, fever, conception, safe pregnancy, and safe
delivery. There are sections that focus on relief from sickness, grief,
and relief from poverty.
Solutions are offered for political issues such as war and peace,
protection from unknown enemies, destruction of the opponent’s
army, the welfare of the king and the people, village welfare, as well
as general welfare and prosperity with abundant food.
Family issues deal with love, obtaining a bride or groom,
marriage, sons, and long life for self, family and others. Freedom
from fear and solutions for it occur repeatedly. The moral issues
are not neglected. They deal with issues such as: release from sins,
cure for curses, purity of the soul, release from burdens of life, and
attainment of heaven or moksha, immortality or simply spiritual
advancement. There are also sections dealing with evil spirits and
even serpents. The list is very long, but there is nothing that is
uncommon even at the present time.
Whatever the merits of the solutions offered in Atharvaveda or
its practical efficacy, the Atharvaveda provided a means of livelihood
to a number of Brahmanas who specialized in this Veda. People
wanted solutions to various problems and they were willing to pay
for the solutions in good faith. In those days people had no other
alternative but to seek the help of priests or local medical men.
The more learned Brahmanas and certainly the intellectuals
among them did not approve of the practices of the priests who
practiced this Veda and hence it had a very low status among
47
them. This also explains why it is not mentioned in Manusmriti or

Bhagavad Gita. Nevertheless, from the point of view of this text it
is important. The issue in this text is how Brahmanas found a way
to make a living and not whether it is meritorious or not.
Atharvaveda, I would think, had a very important role in the
lives of the people in ancient times, but its importance has declined
drastically in the past few centuries. Still, it was practiced in isolated
pockets until a few centuries ago. There are hardly any Brahmanas
who specialize in this Veda anywhere in India at the present time.
Dharmasutras
The Mimamsa texts were summarized, at a later stage, in the form
of terse statements known as sutras. Jaiminisutra is a summary of the
Mimamsa religion. It is considered as the foundation of Mimamsa,
although it is really a summary of the karma kanda of the later
Vedas. The Jaiminisutra is of much later origin than the Krishna
Yajurveda. Jaimini, certainly, was not the originator or founder of
the Mimamsa tradition. The Jaiminisutra consists of over a 1,000
aphorisms. It begins with the following aphorism:
यथातो धर्म जिज्ञास ।

In that manner, and therefore, the desire to know dharma.
This is the source of the word dharma and hence Jaiminisutra

is also known as Dharmasutra. The word sutra is applied to any text
that is in the form of terse statements; some of these may belong to
much later time periods. The objective of the sutra form of writing
was to preserve and protect the original texts, which were rather
elaborate and tedious to read.
The Apasthamba Sutra is actually a Brahmana rather than a
summary in sutra form. In Sanskrit, terms like sutra, are used rather
liberally and hence there is considerable and inevitable confusion.
There is a whole class of sutras known as grihya sutras. The grihya
48
Mimamsa
sutras contain much detail and they also deal with differences in
the traditions of Brahmana lineages; hence Brahmanas follow grihya
sutras that are specific to them.
Brahmasutra is as important as Jaiminisutra; it summarizes
the early Upanishads. While Jaimini is obviously the author of
Jaiminisutra, the author of Brahmasutra is generally considered to be
Badarayana. However, in the Puranic age, Badarayana is considered
to be the same person as Veda Vyasa. It is also said that Jaimini is
Vyasa’s son. These statements lead to several contradictions. I would,
therefore, dismiss the stories of Veda Vyasa as mere legends, having
no basis in history. The Sutras certainly belong to a period much
later than the original Mimamsa texts—Yajurveda and Samaveda.
Probably they belong to the age of the Buddha, since Buddha uses
the word dharma—a term coined from Jaiminisutra. However,
Brahmasutra may belong to a still later period.
Two Varnas
The early part of the Mimamsa period also saw the coming into
prominence of the lineages of warriors of the Rigvedic period.
The reasons for this are fairly simple. They are at the root of the
adaptations of the Rigvedic people to the peasant way of life which
is based on land. During the earlier period, the warriors were
protectors of cattle and the pasture lands. In a peasant society,
land becomes even more important and the warriors were better
placed to obtain, by whatever means, lands and to retain them by
force. Their lineages became more powerful as land and not cattle
became the real wealth; the acquisition of land and the rights on
it depended on physical force and the warrior class was well suited
for this purpose. Unlike Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas were organized
as clans. This form of social organization is better suited for war
and conquest.
In terms of power and status, the warrior classes had better claims
to superiority than the Brahmanas. Yet, the Brahmanas were the
49
true repositories of Vedic lore and they alone possessed the expertise
to conduct rituals, which everyone admired and respected. In the
Mimamsa period, there were no real conflicts between Brahmanas
and the new class of warriors who were then known as Kshatriyas–
protectors of land. The Brahmanas rendered ritual services to the
Kshatriyas in return for gifts in kind. At later time periods, the gifts
were in the form of gold—hiranyam; and still later in the form of
land grants, which were then worked by tenant farmers with often a
50/50 share to the Brahmanas, who did not work in the fields.
The relationship between the two principal classes of Rigvedic
people, though very close, often assumed proportions of love and
hate—an uneasy relationship. This continued for some centuries.
By the time of the Puranas, the original Kshatriyas were replaced
by newer immigrants and even the ordinary peasants who turned
into able soldiers. Sometimes, even Brahmanas became soldiers and
commanders and eventually some of them took over kingship as well.
There is considerable historical evidence for all these statements. But
they belong to a later time period.
One important point to be noted here is that unlike Brahmanas,
the Kshatriyas were far less cohesive. They came from very different
backgrounds and often returned to their original social class
(Shudras).
Only those holding power (kings and the class to which the
king belonged) were truly recognized as Kshatriyas. Kshatriya
status was tenuous and it needed recognition from time to time
from Brahmanas to have social validity. The Varna system is truly a
Brahmana construct.
Vedic Sakhas
In actual practice, the Vedic texts were in the form of sakhas or
recensions. Each sakha consisted of a Veda or a portion thereof,
called the samhita part, a Brahmana, an Aranyaka, and an
Upanishad. A sakha was actually a text used by a family or group of
50
Mimamsa
Brahmanas; it consisted of everything that they knew. When written

down it consisted of bundles of palm leaves tied together and kept
in a basket. There were 1,180 Vedic sakhas, according to Vishnu
Purana, but only twenty-one or so sakhas actually existed in the
19th century, when the manuscripts were collected by Indologists.
The Vedic sakhas were put together and compiled several times in
the past, and the ones that we recognize today are those that were
compiled in the 19th century. In other words, the Vedic texts used
in the past, had a very different look than the ones we use today
and they differed widely between groups of Brahmanas.
A rather unbelievable aspect of the above is that of the 1,180
sakhas, nearly a thousand were of Samaveda—Samaveda being the
shortest among all Vedas. Secondly, it has hardly any original verses;
almost all verses were borrowed from Rigveda. This again leads me
to disbelieve the Puranic statements.
Of the remaining sakhas, twenty-one belong to Rigveda,
fifteen to Shukla Yajurveda, ninety-four to Krishna Yajurveda, and
finally fifty to Atharvaveda; there are no internal contradictions
here. Among these Sakhas only a few (seven or eight) are actually
available today.
While the numerical jugglery may have little historical merit,
there is no doubt that hundreds of sakhas did indeed exist in
the past.
Summary
Mimamsa (or Purva Mimamsa as it is sometimes known) is the core
of Vedic religion. It was practiced diligently for over 2,000 years
and some aspects of it still survive. It is the religious foundation of
Manusmriti which calls it by the name karma yoga to distinguish
it from jnana yoga which refers to the Uttara Mimamsa religion.
There is no conflict between these two. Manusmriti clearly states
that Mimamsa is for grihasthas (householders). Those who take
sanyas at an early age or at the end stage of one’s life can opt for
51
Uttara Mimamsa or anyone of the advanced yogas. Others can

continue to practice Mimamsa till the end of their life. This is what
the great majority of Brahmanas did throughout the historical
period. The practice of Mimamsa survived among Brahmanas in
the South until about 100 years ago. Thereafter, it has lost its vigor
and the rituals were performed without conviction and without
proper understanding. In the 21st century, I would say with some
conviction that it is more or less dead. Nevertheless, Mimamsa
is alive at an intellectual level among scholars of Sanskrit and in
the various religious mutts, especially those established by Adi
Sankara. However, a mutt is not the proper place for the practice
of Mimamsa religion. One can get training there. Its proper place
is at home. The practice of Mimamsa religion does not require any
institutional framework such as a temple. This is, in a way, true
of Hinduism in general. Hinduism is intrinsically a home based
religion and it does not require outside support.
52
Uttara-Mimamsa
• Some Brahmanas Revolt • Upanishads: Basic Concepts

• The Upanishad Texts • The First Eight Upanishads
• Other Schools of Thought • Later Upanishads: A Review
• Brahmasutra • The Minor Upanishads • Summary
The Mimamsa religion, as outlined in the earlier chapter,

developed and flourished for a hundred years without anyone
raising questions against it. Then it met with some opposition
from the ranks of Brahmanas. What was the problem?
Some Brahmanas Revolt

The families of Brahmanas had become independent and self-
seeking. Success in life depended on income from services provided
to other families, mainly, if not exclusively, from non-Brahmanas
and there was considerable competition here. Not everyone was
happy with this situation. Those who knew the Vedas well were
not necessarily more successful as priests. Those who were being
served cared very little for the quality of the priest’s knowledge of
the Vedas. Competition for name or money had its own negative
consequences.
The intellectual Brahmanas had theoretical and technical
objections to the practice of Vedic rituals in an altogether changed
social situation. The Rigvedic mantras and worship of Agni were
meant for the welfare of the community as a whole and the
worship involved everyone in the tribal community. This comes

out very clearly in the Rigvedic mantras which invariably use
the pronouns ‘us’ and ‘we’. They had doubts about the efficacy
and appropriateness of the mantras in the context where rituals
were performed for the welfare of individuals and families alone
and for lifecycle events such as births, marriages and deaths. This
prompted them to look at the whole concept of worship afresh
and the nature of the ‘Gods’ they worshipped.
The intellectuals among Brahmanas and those who cared
more for the practice of Rigvedic religion in its true ambience of
communal living receded into the background and they sought
solace and refuge in the forests, where they established gurukulas
or simple hermitages. The hermitages or ashrams comprised one
or more dwellings, in which a group of people—including men,
women and children lived together more or less on the pattern
of small tribal communities. They maintained cows as they had
done before. The cow remained an integral part of Brahmana
households throughout the historical periods until about a
hundred years ago.
Students came to the gurukulas for training and specialized
knowledge of specific sakhas of Vedic study. In this way, they
trained the future priests. In recognition for this service, they
received gifts from the families of the students. In fact, the students
as independent adults in later life were bound by duty to repay
their debt to their teachers for life. This was a new value system
that evolved to sustain the gurukula system.
The more intellectual Brahmanas living in the hermitages
spent less time on students, while giving more time to meditation
and thoughts on the basic concepts—in particular the concept of
God itself. They wrote down what they discovered; these texts are
known as Aranyakas. Upanishads are a part of Aranyakas, while
both Aranyakas and Upanishads are considered to be a part of
Brahmanas.
54
Uttara-Mimamsa
This might give the impression that there was no conflict

between rituals based on Brahmanas and the spiritual enquiries in
the Upanishads. This is partly true and partly false; the two systems
are independent and worlds apart. The ritualistic Brahmanas and
the recluse poets of the Upanishads did sharply criticize each
other. While the priestly class of Brahmanas thought that the
performance of Vedic karmas (rituals) is adequate in itself, the
Upanishadic poets thought that rituals were fine up to a point,
but without knowledge of the Brahman one cannot attain eternal
bliss. An uneasy relationship existed between the two categories of
Brahmanas. Besides, there were quite a few who sat on the fence.
Upanishads: Basic Concepts

There are a few distinctive aspects to Upanishads. They are:
l The main thrust is on the concept of Brahman—the absolute
God. This concept is elaborated at great length in every
Upanishad;
l The second important concept is atman. Atman is the
counterpart of Brahman residing in all living objects, including
man;
l Theoretically, atman and Brahman are one and same—this is
proved with an elaborate set of deductive arguments;
l The atman becomes impure on account of karmas (in the
sense of ordinary human actions) in the real world. In living
things, it exists within enclosures or shells of tendencies—
good and bad, and the load of sins and good actions from
previous births;
l The impure atman is subject to rebirth. Rebirth can take any
form even as a tree or lowly animal, but the majority of those
with lower level of impurity will be born as humans; the object
of life is to get released from the cycle of births and deaths and
to become one with God. This leads to an elaborate theory of
salvation of the soul or moksha.
55
The Upanishad Texts

There are 108 Upanishads, of which eight belong to the period
prior to the advent of Buddhism and Jainism; three later
Upanishads belong to the age of the Smrities, while the bulk of 97
Upanishads belong to the Puranic age. Sankaracharya considered
only ten Upanishads as part of his definition of Vedas (this will be
elaborated in a later chapter) and he totally ignored the rest of the
Upanishads.
However, an even stricter definition would include only the
first eight Upanishads. Although the focus, in terms of chronology,
is on the first eight Upanishads in this chapter, we shall make
comments on the others as well in later sections to maintain some
continuity in arguments.
An important characteristic of all Upanishads is that they
follow a question and answer format. This format tends to persist
in texts of later time periods too, for example in Bhagavad Gita and
in most, if not all the Puranas. Most Upanishads are very short; one
important Upanishad has only 12 verses. Again the majority are in
verse form but there are prose passages in many Upanishads.
They also contain, though not always, short anecdotal stories
to illustrate a point. Some of these have become very famous, like
the story of Nachiketas in Katha Upanishad. As a general rule, the
contents of the Upanishads are far more important than the lyrical
qualities of the work; nevertheless, some of them contain verses of
very high lyrical quality.
The First Eight Upanishads

Eight Upanishads, which form part of Aranyakas, constitute the
backbone of the Uttara Mimamsa or the Vedanta school. These
eight Upanishads are: Isavasya, Kena, Katha, Aitareya, Taittiriya,
Prasna, Mundaka, and Mandukya.
Of these, Isavasya Upanishad belongs to the Shukla Yajurveda
text itself (Chapter 40 consisting of 17 verses), Aitareya Upanishad
56
Uttara-Mimamsa
belongs to the Rigveda Brahmana of the same name; Kena

Upanishad is a part of Talavakara Brahmana of Jaimini sakha of
Samaveda. Taittiriya Upanishad belongs to the Krishna Yajurveda
Samhita, which includes all the three components—Mantra,
Brahmana, and Aranyaka; Katha Upanishad belongs to Katha
Sakha of Krishna Yajurveda; Mundaka, Prasna, and Mandukya
Upanishads are part of the Brahmanas of Adharva Veda and are
considered to be of later origin than the others.
The commonly recognized order of early Upanishads is as
follows: Isavasya, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya,
Taittiriya, and Aitareya. This is not really their chronological order.
In the following sections I have tried to capture the essence of each
of the eight Upanishads.
Isavasya Upanishad:– It has claims to be the oldest of the
Upanishads. It forms part of samhita of Shukla Yajurveda and its
style is more akin to Rigveda, with a collection of 17 verses not
connected to each other in any rational sequence. It also includes
a few verses from Rigveda itself, and is therefore more in the nature
of an anthology and not an independent work. Yet, it contains
the basic concepts in very brief form and it could be seen as the
formative stage of Upanishadic doctrine. However, it could also be
argued that Isavasya Upanishad is a later insertion into a Vedic text
to give authenticity to all the Upanishads by mixing its verses along
with Rigvedic mantras. The first verse of Isavasya consists of two
disconnected parts and this is justified by a set of unconvincing
arguments by later writers.
Kena Upanishad:– This is a cohesive set of verses organized
into sections that explore the concept of the absolute Brahman.
I consider the Kena Upanishad as the oldest among the eight
Upanishads for its exploration of the concept of Brahman in a
raw form. A few verses from this Upanishad are quoted further to
illustrate this point:
57
के नेषितं पतति प्रेषितं मनः के न प्राणः प्रथमः प्रैति युक्तः ।

के नेषितां वाचमिमां वदन्ति चक्षुः श्रोत्रं क उ देवो युनक्ति ।।
Who makes the mind focus on an object? Who joins life with the
body in the beginning?
Who directs men to make statements?
Which God directs the eye and ear? (Part I, verse 1).
यच्चक्षुषा न पश्यति येन चक्षूं षि पश्यति ।

तदेव बह्म त्वं विध्दि नेदं यदिदमुपासते ।।
What the eyes cannot see, but by which the eyes are made to see.
That alone you understand as Brahman and not what people worship
here (Part I, verse 7).
नाहं मन्ये सुवेदेति नो न वेदेति वेद च ।

योनस्तव्देद तव्देद नो न वेदेति वेद च ।।
I do not think that I know it well. Nor do I know that I do not
know it.
Among us those who know, know it; even they do not know that
they do not know. (Part II verse 2)
While the verses quoted above are self-explanatory, the last

verse ends on an enigmatic note. The point is that the concept of
the absolute God Brahman is indeed difficult to explain in words—
it has to be experienced; that is what the other Upanishads will
tell us. The objective of Kena Upanishad was to show that there is
a God that is far superior to the Rigvedic Gods—namely Indra,
Varuna and Agni. To make this point clear, the Upanishad relates a
story where a woman appears before Indra and explains to him that
all his victories are indeed the work of Brahman. The story is not
proof; it is only an explanatory device.
Katha Upanishad:– This work focuses on atman and its journey
through the cycle of births and deaths and finally its salvation
(moksha). Katha-Upanishad has been praised for the sheer beauty of
its poetry and clever narration. The key concept in this Upanishad
58
Uttara-Mimamsa
is atma jnanam. Much of the material in this work was later copied
into the Bhagavad Gita of Puranic times.
What happens to the atman when it leaves the body after
death? The answer is given below by Lord Yama, the teacher of
Nachiketas, who asked the question:
श्रेयश्च प्रेयश्च मनुष्यमेतस्तौ सं परीत्य विविनक्ति धीरः ।

श्रेयो हि धीरोअभिप्रेयसो वृणीते प्रेयो मन्दो योगक्षेमात् वृणीते ।।
That which is good for the next life (shreyas) and that which
gives pleasure in this life (preyas) are presented to people; the
intelligent prefer the former after comparing and discriminating the
consequences of the two options; the dull persons prefer the latter
for the welfare of their lives (Katha Upanishad, Chapter 1, section 2,
verse 2).
For those who value symbolism, Katha Upanishad contains a series

of verses that explain the relationship between the body, atman,
the intellect, the mind, the sensory perceptions and the path to
salvation. A few verses are quoted below:
आत्मानं रथिनं विध्दि शरीरं रथमेव च ।

बुध्दिं तु सारथिं विध्दि मनः प्रग्रहमेव च ।।
इन्द्रियाणि हयान्याहुर्विषयां स्तेषु गोचरान् ।
आत्मेन्द्रियमनोयुक्तं भोक्तेत्याहुर्मनीषिणः ।।
यस्त्वविज्ञानवान्भवत्यमनस्कः सदाअसुचिः ।
न स तत्पदमाप्नोति सं सारं चाघिगच्छति ।।
यस्तु विज्ञानवान्भवति समनस्कः सदा शुचिः ।
स तु तत्पदमाप्नोति यस्माद्यभू ो न जायते ।।
The atman is the owner of the chariot, the chariot his body. The
intellect is his charioteer and the mind the reins.
The senses are the horses and the interests of the senses the road.
When the atman is joined with the mind and the senses, it is called
the enjoyer by the learned.
59
He who has no understanding, who has no control over his mind

and who is always impure—he does not reach the final destination,
but returns to this world.
The person who has understanding and control over his mind and
his mind is always pure; he obtains that place from which he does
not return to earth. (Katha Upanishad, Chapter 1, section 3, verses
3&4, 7&8)
The analogy of the chariot is highlighted in Bhagavad Gita,

with Lord Krishna as the charioteer and Arjuna, the Lord of the
chariot. The bhaktas perceive this relationship as one between the
teacher and his student or Brahman and atman. One can look at
this analogy in any number of ways. The picture of the chariot with
Arjuna and Krishna has a very powerful message in itself.
Prasna Upanishad:– Six students approach a teacher and request
him to explain the concept of Brahman. After a year of service to
the teacher, the students are allowed to ask questions. The teacher
answers each question one by one. The questions are: who created
all living beings? What supports life? How does life enter and depart
from the body? What controls consciousness in wakeful, sleeping,
and dream states? What is achieved by meditating on AUM? Who
is the person with sixteen parts?
All the questions are eventually answered by Brahman/atman.
It is everything—both mind and matter. Understanding it leads to
eternal peace. (Note: ‘it’ stands for Brahman in Upanishads).
Mundaka Upanishad:– By knowing what, everything here
becomes known? This is the question put to the teacher. The
answer given is that there are two types of learning—para and
apara. The study of the four Vedas, the performance of rituals
based on them, learning of grammar, astrology, prosody and so on
constitute apara. This learning will give only very limited benefits
in this and the next life; this benefit is meagre and transient. The
advocates of ritualism come in for sharp criticism by the teacher.
The teacher recommends learning of the higher para knowledge.
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Uttara-Mimamsa
For this, one must retire to the forests and seek guidance from a
teacher. Brahman is then described at length—it is formless and
imperishable; the entire universe is its creation. Brahman is the
creator of the Sun, moon, the Vedas, the human body, the mind
and the intellect. Brahman should be worshipped by reciting AUM.
AUM is the bow, one’s atman is the arrow, and Brahman the target.
Only a person with a pure heart can know Brahman. A person with
pent up desires can never achieve him. Brahman will reveal itself to
one who has renounced life and is living as an ascetic. No one can
realize Brahman; but Brahman will reveal itself to the deserving.
Mandukya Upanishad:– This Upanishad is all about meditation
based on AUM to attain the ultimate union with the Absolute.
The three letters in AUM stand for the three states of wakefulness,
dreams and deep sleep; the fourth or the turiya state is the one which
is to be attained. The first three states are governed by Vaisvanara,
Taijasa, and Prajna; the Lord of the fourth stage is atman itself. By
knowing it one dissolves into Brahman. Atman and Brahman are
one and the same.
Mandukya Upanishad is in some ways comparable to Pantanjali’s
Ashtanga Rajayoga. While the latter belongs to the Sankhya School,
the former is part of the Vedantic tradition of meditation. It is held
in high esteem by all Vedantins. Adi Sankara’s teacher (actually
teacher’s teacher) Gaudapada wrote a glossary on this Upanishad
and Adi Sankara has written bhashyams for both. It is a text book
for spiritualists of the Vedanta tradition; one could augment this by
studying Adi Sankara’s own Vivekachoodamani.
Taittiriya Upanishad:– Taittiriya Upanishad, the Taittiriya
Brahmana, and the Taittiriya Samhita together form the Krishna
Yajurveda text.
In this Upanishad, Bhrigu approaches his father Varuna and
asks him to enlighten him about Brahman (note Bhrigu and Varuna
are just first names of ordinary individuals, just as we call persons
by the name of Rama or Krishna or Govinda today). Varuna tells
61
him that Brahman is that from which these beings are born, that
by which when born they live, and that into which they enter on
passing away. He asks him to go the forest and meditate. Each time
he comes up with an answer, he is sent back until finally Bhrigu gets
enlightened. Thus Bhrigu is led step by step from matter (annam)
to life (prana) and from life to consciousness (manas), and from
consciousness to bliss (ananda). Brahman is perfect bliss.
Aitareya Upanishad:– This Upanishad tells the story of atman
feeling lonely, creating a being and entering it through its head.
Having entered the body it forgets its origin. Eventually, it
recognizes itself as Brahman. How?
There is intelligence, consciousness, insight, steadfastness,
discrimination, memory, volition, decision, life, desire, and
control—all these indeed are names of intelligence. Intelligence is
Brahman.
All the eight Upanishads reviewed above are all very brief, except
Katha Upanishad. The next three Upanishads, which were written
a few hundred years later, are all lengthy. By this time, society had
gone through further changes as we will see in the later sections.
Other Schools of Thought

The age of the early Upanishads—from 600 BC to 300 BC—also
led to the emergence of other and competing schools of thought.
Their theoretical formulations were at variance with the Vedanta
of the first eight Upanishads. It is not clear whether all of them
originated at this point in time; it is possible that some of them did
and others did not. Some of these schools, in particular Sankhya,
were absorbed into the Vedantic philosophy, so that it is now
impossible to separate the two. Nevertheless, it is necessary to
briefly state the basic features of these schools of thought.
The schools of thought, other than Vedanta, are: Sankhya,
Nyaya, and Vaisesika. Grammar is also included in this category,
but it has no relevance to philosophical or religious thought.
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Uttara-Mimamsa
Nyaya is also known as tarka sastra. Gautama, the author of

this school, argued by reasoning that Isvara is the creator of this
world. Isvara is also described as paramesvara—clearly this line of
thinking is the work of Shaivites. Gautama traced the source of
his inferences to Vedic passages, in which the word Rudra appears
repeatedly. Nyaya School bases its enquiry on four pramanas or
bases: pratyaksha, anumana, upmana, and sabda. These may roughly
translate as perception, inference, comparison, Vedic evidence. The
basis of enquiry focuses on what are defined as padarthas or word
meanings. These may exist or may not; thus even non-existence
cannot be dismissed outright. The padarthas are seven in number:
dravya (substance), guna (quality), karma (action), samanya
(association), visesha (difference), samavaya (inherence) and abhava
(non-existence). These lead to an elaborate theory.
Sankhya, a school founded by Kapila Muni around 300 BC,
is based on twenty-five tatvas or principles or categories, of
which purusha—equated with atman—is the basis of all. Of the
remaining twenty-four tatvas, prakriti is a product of maya and
it is the principal tatva. The other tatvas in decreasing levels of
importance are: intellect, ego, the mind, the five jnanendriyas and
the five karmendriyas, the five tanmantras, and the five mahabhutas;
these together constitute the twenty-five tatvas. There is no place
for God or worship in Sankhya and for this reason it is considered
as atheistic. However, the Vedantins treat it as though there is no
difference between the two schools of thought (both Bhagavad Gita
and Vivekachoodamani make this clear). Prakriti, according to an
interpretation, is made up of three gunas—sattva, rajas, and tamas.
There is an elaborate theory woven around these attributes.
Patanjali was a follower of the Sankhya school and he is the
author of the very well-known and popular Patanjali Sutra or
Patanjali Yoga Sastra. It describes an eight fold path to samadhi—
the equivalent of salvation. However, Patanjali (150 BC) belongs to
period of the Dharmasastras; the first two stages in this yoga involve
63
yama and niyama—which are defined in Dharmasastras. The other

six stages are: asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, and
samadhi. The Patanjali Sutra explains all these in over 150 aphorisms.
In Vaisesika, founded by Kanada, it is believed that everything
ultimately is made up of anu or atoms. Isvara created the world by
different combinations of atoms. The individual self is different from
Isvara, though. In Vaisesika School, the emphasis is on differences
between attributes of objects—in other words, it is important to
look into their peculiarities. There is a hint of scientific theories of
modern times here. However, both Nyaya and Vaisesika schools do
not believe in Isvara or God. They are rationalists up to a point but
accept that everything cannot be fully comprehended. However,
everything is inter-related and there has to be a God to create them.
The pure ‘atheist’ school in India was called Charvakam (that which
is pleasing to hear). They believed in living as one liked and not to
engage in any form of worship, which they considered to be totally
useless. This school is closest to existentialism.
Later Upanishads: A Review

The later Upanishads, namely, Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka, and
Svetasvatara belong to the time period between 300 BC and 200
AD; this is made clear by their frequent references to kings and
kingdoms. Chandogya Upanishad praises ahimsa—a concept
borrowed from Jainas and hence it dates to a period later than fifth
century BC. The last of the trio—Svetasvatara Upanishad—stands
on a different platform. It actually belongs to a still later time period,
just prior to the age of the Puranas.
Chandogya Upanishad:– This is a lengthy Upanishad which
uses the story telling format to explain concepts, especially the
concept of Brahman and its meditational form AUM. There is
a lot of repetition here, as with all the later Upanishads; the only
difference is in terms of the context and manner of elucidation of the
earlier concepts.
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Uttara-Mimamsa
The stories reflect a much altered social context from the earlier
Upanishads. For the first time we find mention of kings—albeit
very lower order ones. Besides, we have mention of asuras along
with devas as their arch-rivals. In the Rigveda we have only devas
and no asuras. The society painted here is early feudal society.
The initial question asked is: What is the origin of the world?
Answer: space—space is Brahman. Space is AUM. The space
outside is Brahman and the space inside is atman. This is followed by
a series of stories involving different teachers and different students.
The names of the students and teachers are all pre-Puranic and
there is no mention of Puranic Gods or Puranic stories. Krishna,
as son of Devaki and a student of Angiras, is mentioned along
with many other students and teachers. This Krishna definitely has
nothing to do with the Krishna of Bhagavata Purana.
Chandogya Upanishad could possibly have been written by
different authors at different points in time ending with the age of
the Smrities—namely, Manusmriti. Manu is mentioned at the end
but there is no reference to Manu dharma. Brahmanas, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas are mentioned, but there is no mention of the concept
of Varna.
In terms of its content, Chandogya Upanishad labors hard on
explaining the concept of Brahman through different stories; it then
moves on to atman, the self, and the realization of atman/Brahman.
True knowledge of atman and attainment of eternal bliss is really
Jnana yoga but this term is not used at all. Nevertheless, students
of spiritual pursuit would like this Upanishad. It is useful despite its
repetitive nature and the element of mysticism in the final stages of
realization.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad:– This is nearly as long as the Chandogya
Upanishad and is written in the same style—stories. The stories are
dialogues among Brahmanas and sometimes Kshatriyas. Interestingly,
there is a common character in both, though not very important–
Uhasta Chakrayana. He was a poor Brahmana who won some money
65
from the court of the local king in Kuru country by his knowledge;
while a person with the same name appears as a scholar in the court
of Janaka of Videha. The two regions are a thousand kilometres apart.
The king Janaka appears in Buddhist literature as well.
The principal protagonist in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is
Yajnavalkya. Yajnavalkya was the composer of Shukla Yajurveda and
is also the author of Yajnavalkya Smriti–which is next in importance
to Manusmriti. However, when the first ‘a’ is lengthened it has the sense
of ‘in the lineage of ’ and hence there could be several Yajnavalkyas.
In this Upanishad, Yajnavalkya appears as an outsider who outwits
the scholars of the court of Janaka. The topic of debate is—what
is Brahman?
The initial statement in this Upanishad is: If one worships a
God thinking that God is one thing and he another, he does not
know God. He is like an animal to God. A person who meditates
on his self becomes one with it and is not reborn.
In his discourse with his wife Maitreyi, Yajnavalkya says: It is
not for the sake of husband that a husband is dear, but it is for
the sake of the self that a husband is dear. This line of argument is
repeated again and again. The point is that the self is Brahman and
everything here is Brahman. Life should be lived as dedication to
Brahman and therefore the mention of self again and again.
In the court of Janaka, Yajnavalkya is asked questions by several
court scholars—all questions pertain to the concept of Brahman;
Yajnavalkya answers all of them to the satisfaction of the scholars.
Gargi, who is more astute than the others, does indeed go further
to a point where the concept of Brahman cannot be explained in
words anymore.
After this, king Janaka himself takes over and the discussion
further elaborates the domain of Brahman.
An interesting definition of atman given by Yajnavalkya is—he
who dwells in all beings, which the beings do not know, but he
controls their body.
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Uttara-Mimamsa
Finally, to the question how many Gods are there, Yajnavalkya

gives an ambiguous answer; it could be 33 or 3,003 he says. He is
then pinned down and finally he says that there is only one! (This is
indeed Hinduism).
Svetasvatara Upanishad:– This is considered to be the last
of the eleven major Upanishads. Although, for the most part it
focuses on the elaboration of the concept of Brahman, there is an
important qualitative difference. For the first time, this Upanishad
anticipates a new form of Brahman—the Brahman in human form.
Svetasvatara Upanishad is, I think, the root of Shaivism. It equates
Brahman with Rudra of Rigvedic roots and Rudra is equated with
Shiva. Shiva is then described as Maheshwara; thus Isvara becomes
Brahman in human form. This is an important concept further
developed in Puranas. What the Puranas do is to add Vishnu and
Krishna as Brahman in addition to Shiva. The substantive part of
this Upanishad concerns Brahman and atman and a third—nature
or Prakriti. The first is all powerful and the second is powerless and
is just an onlooker. The two are linked by the third—a product of
maya. Nature or Prakriti is maya. One who understands all three as
one and the same becomes immortal.
For achieving immortality the self, atman, has to be realized
by meditation using the pranava—AUM. Meditation on pranava
is yoga. Yoga is to be practiced in a comfortable posture in a clean
place. This yoga is explained in some detail.
The concept of maya and prakriti, are linked to Maheshwara—
the Saguna Brahman in the following verse:
मायां तु प्रकृ तिं विघ्यान्मायिनं च महेश्वरं ।

तस्यावयवभूतस् ै तु व्याप्तं सर्वमिदं जगत् ।।
Know that maya is prakriti (the phenomenal world) and the
controller of maya is the Maheshwara. The phenomenal world is
filled with living things that are part of his body.
(Svetasvatara Upanishad Part 4, verse 3)
67
What is notable in this verse is the use of the word Maheshwara.

Maheshwara is Shiva and he is also known as Rudra. These two
words are also used in several other verses in this Upanishad.
Rudra, Shiva, and Maheshwara are all one and the same—they
refer to the God of Shaivites.
To Shaivites, Isvara is Shiva and Shiva is Brahman in human
form. The Vaishnavites use the term Isvara to denote Vishnu
and in Bhagavad Gita, Krishna or Narayana. Shaivites do not
believe in avatars. To them the term Isvara denotes only Shiva,
their supreme God. All these developments play an important
part in the Puranic period; their origin, however, can be traced to
Svetasvatara Upanishad.
Brahmasutra
Brahmasutra of Badarayana is considered to be a summary of
the first ten Upanishads (excluding Svetasvatara Upanishad ). It is
a basic text for Vedantins. Adi Sankara has written an elaborate
bhashyam on this work, although, the original text consists of only
555 aphorisms or sutras.
Jaiminisutra, and Brahmasutra are a sort of cousins; the
first summarizes the Purva Mimamsa School, while the latter
summarizes the Uttara Mimamsa School of thought. The first
consists of over a thousand aphorisms, while the latter has only
555 aphorisms.
Both texts start with an aphorism which is almost identical
except for one word. The word dharma in Jaiminisutra is replaced
by the word Brahman in Brahmasutra. Brahmasutra refers to
Jaimini in several places and it is clearly a later work, perhaps
written many centuries later.
Brahmasutra is infinitely more difficult to understand and it
is meant only for the scholars of Vedanta philosophy. I am giving
below the first five aphorisms of Brahmasutra to give an idea of
what one is up against:
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Uttara-Mimamsa
अथातो ब्रह्म चिज्ञासा।

जन्माध्धस्य यतः।
शास्त्रयोनित्वात् ।
तत्तु समन्वयात्।
ईक्षतेनार्शब्दम्।
Literal meaning:
l Hence thereafter a deliberation on Brahman.
l That (Brahman) from which(are derived) the birth etc. of this
(the universe).
l (Brahman is omniscient) because of (its) being the source of
the scriptures.
l But that Brahman (is known from the Upanishads), (it) being
the object of full import.
l The pradhana of the Sankhya is not the cause of the universe
because it is not mentioned in the Upanishads, which fact is
clear from the fact of seeing (or thinking).
Note: These meanings are taken from Swami Gambhirananda:

Brahma-Sutra Bhashya of Sankaracharya, Advaita Ashrama, Pithorgarh.
The simple meaning is followed by detailed explanation or

bhashyam. The original bhashyam is by Adi Sankara in Sanskrit. On
an average, each aphorism takes two pages, sometimes much more.
While Brahmasutra is indeed difficult, there is an alternative for the
layman—the Bhagavad Gita. Indeed, it would appear that this is
the reason for the composition of Bhagavad Gita in the 4th century
AD and its insertion into the Mahabharata epic.
The Minor Upanishads

There are 97 minor Upanishads. According to Swami Chinmayananda,
there are more—perhaps 163, of which 125 are acceptable, but
only 108 are widely accepted as authentic. The numbers 8, 18, 108,
and 1008 have mystic significance in Hinduism. This could be one
reason why the number 108 is widely accepted by most scholars.
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The problem is that there is no proper definition of what

constitutes an Upanishad; this applies equally to various other terms
in Hinduism. There are varying definitions of what constitutes Vedas,
for example. In the case of Vedas, Manusmriti has defined it in one
way while Adi Sankara has defined in an entirely different way. In
the case of Upanishads, I have not found a satisfactory definition
anywhere. I have applied, instead, two criteria for recognizing a work
as an Upanishad. They are:
l It should be a part of any of the four Vedas and especially of the
Brahmanas and Aranyakas attached to them.
l It must explain the concepts of Brahman, atman, and the path to
moksha or salvation.
I have read the first eleven Upanishads several times; the rest of
97 Upanishads have been read once. The latter are in fact very light
reading compared to the first and do not deserve more than one
reading. In the light of the definition given above, the 97 minor
Upanishads should not be called Upanishads. They do not satisfy
the first criteria or even the second criteria. There is a problem
in the application of the second criteria. The problem is a change in
the definition of Brahman. During the Puranic period, starting from
Shiva Purana, Vishnu Purana, and Bhagavata Purana, the original
Upanishadic definition (see Kena Upanishad) is designated as Nirguna
Brahman, while the concept of Brahman used in the Puranas is that
of Saguna Brahman. The Saguna Brahman takes human form.
All the 97 minor Upanishads are based on the application of
the concept of Saguna Brahman. This leads to a multitude of Gods,
with the principal ones being Shiva and Vishnu. The titles of some
of the minor Upanishads reveal their Puranic outlook, for example:
Vasudeva, Savitri, Devi, Ganapathi, Krishna, Varaha, Hayagriva,
Garuda, Jabali, Bhagyalakshmi, Subala, Seetha, Dakshinamurthy,
Skanda etc. Other titles do point to philosophical themes such
as Yogasiksha, Turyatita, Sanyasa, Avyakta, Akakshara, Adhyatma,
Atma, Parabrahma, Muktika, Amrita bindu, Tejobindu, Nada bindu,
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Uttara-Mimamsa
Atmaprabhaudha, Yogachudamani, etc. Then there are titles related to

the original or later Upanishadic personalities: Yajnavalkya, Maitreyi,
etc. These are indeed very few.
The 108th Upanishad is titled: Muktikopanishad. This is in the
form of advice given by Lord Rama to his bhakta Sri Hanuman. This
appears, on the face of it, as a parallel to the advice given by Lord
Krishna to Arjuna in Bhagavad Gita. However, this is indeed a very
poor second. Nevertheless, it may be held in high esteem by bhaktas
of Lord Ram. The dialogue in this Upanishad occurs in Ayodhya
after Rama’s return; needless to say that there is no mention of any
such thing in Valmiki’s Ramayana. Another interesting point about
this Upanishad is that Lord Rama lists all the 108 Upanishads. The
first ten in the list follow the traditional ordering given earlier in this
review starting with Isavasya. However, Svetasvatara appears not as
the 11th but the 14th in the list.
The minor Upanishads are all in very simple Sanskrit prose of
the classical style. Verses occur as a rarity rather than the norm.
Further, for the most part they are very brief. Their content is more
descriptive of Gods and hardly philosophical. Whatever philosophical
content is there is actually repetitive of statements in the original
Upanishads. There is nothing new here to attract the attention of
academic scholars. In spite of all the above, the minor Upanishads
are useful to the bhaktas—those having faith in Puranic Gods. They
translate some aspects of Upanishadic philosophy in a new and easily
understandable mode.
Summary
During the period under discussion, 600 BC to 300 BC, there were
sharp criticisms of each other of two groups of Brahmanas—those
who believed that the practice of Mimamsa religion is all that is
needed to attain salvation and those who believed in the Upanishadic
concepts of the absolute God and the path to salvation. During
the age of the Smrities, from 300 BC to 200 AD, a compromise
71
solution was arrived in which the practice of Purva Mimamsa was

recommended for grihasthas, while vanaprastins and Sanyasins were
to focus on the Upanishads and practice dhyana yoga.
Still later, during the Puranic age, the concept of Brahman itself
gets transformed into Saguna Brahman or Brahman in human form.
Here Brahman is worshiped in an altogether newer form using idols
and flowers as offerings. Further bhakti takes over and meditation
and yoga are relegated to a lower level.
The 108 Upanishads were written at various points in time.
The first eight are the oldest and they belong to the active period
of the Purva Mimamsa school of Hinduism, which is from 8th
century BC to 4th century BC, somewhat overlapping with the
time of Buddha. The next three Upanishads are post Buddha era
and are contemporaneous with the age of the Smrities, in particular
Manusmriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti. They belong to the period from
300 BC to 200 AD. The remaining 97 Upanishads belong to the
Puranic period, from 2nd century AD to 10th Century AD.
The single most important contribution of the Upanishads is
the discovery of the Absolute God and its detailed exposition. They
called it Brahman. The discovery that God resides in all living things
led to the concept of atman; from this they postulated the concept of
rebirth. They theorized on the mechanism and principles of rebirth
and that gave birth to the well-known karma theory. From karma
theory it is one step to the concept of moksha or salvation. Moksha
is at the core of Upanishads and the path to moksha is very difficult.
This is meticulously outlined in Katha and Mandukya Upanishads.
It is later elaborated by Patanjali in his Yoga Sastra, in Manusmriti,
and still later in Bhagavad Gita. Adi Sankara gave its final form in his
work Vivekachoodamani.
The eight principal Upanishads represent Hindu philosophy.
One must read them to claim to know the basic concepts. These
concepts are relevant today and they will always be relevant. They
focus on the individual and the social context is immaterial.
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Buddhism and Jainism
• India in Circa 600 BC to 300 BC • Siddhartha

Gautama and Buddhism • Religious Texts of Buddhism •
Later Developments • Chaityas and Stupas • Buddhism
Goes Abroad • Vardhamana Mahavira and Jainism •
Ajivikas and Other Sects • Buddhist and Jaina Influences
on Hinduism • The Decline of Jainism and Buddhism
• Buddhist Monuments and Temples • Jaina Monuments
and Temples • Summing Up
India in Circa 600 BC to 300 BC

Magadha with its capital in Rajagriha (present day Rajgir) in south
Bihar was the most powerful kingdom of this time with Bimbisara
as king who was later replaced (killed by jailing and starvation)
by his son Ajatasatru. Another important kingdom of this period
was that of Kosala with its capital at Shravasti, where the King
Prasenajit was ruling. In this period, Prasenajit, a scholar interested
in religious pursuits, was replaced by his son, by wrong means.
Other prominent capital cities of this period were: Champa, Saketa
(later known as Ayodhya), Kausambi, and Varanasi. Kausambi and
Varanasi were the oldest among these cities. In addition, there were
other small towns, such as Kapilavastu, Vaishali, Kusinagara and
so on. While small kingdoms dominated in the southern parts of
the plains, the north was in the control of chiefdoms: the Sakyas
in Kapilavastu, the Mallas of Kusinagara, Licchavis and Vrijjis
of Vaishali. While Buddha came from the Sakya clan, Mahavira

belonged to the Licchavis clan. In some of the chiefdoms, the leader
or rajan was elected through a public assembly of clan members
(see Figure 3 and note that this region is much the same as the one
shown in Stage III of Figure 2).
The stories of Buddha, Mahavira, and several other philosophers
and ascetics unfolded in the fertile region of the middle Ganga
Plain between Varanasi in the west and Vaishali in the east. South
of Vaishali, and to the south of the river Ganga was the city of
Rajagriha, the capital of Magadha. Kapilavastu and Vaishali were
close to the present day Nepal in the north. All the principal
personalities described below lived in this region and never went
outside of it.
Within this region the Brahmanas had further developed the
Mimamsa religion, which earned them both a good reputation as
well as a stable means of living. The Yajurveda and Samaveda were
already in existence along with the early Brahmanas, Aranyakas
and Upanishads. The rituals of the Mimamsa religion give greater
importance to rice, and much less to wheat and barley, clearly
indicating a change in environment. However, in villages, the
ancient Gods and religious practices were followed and there were
small temples for the Gods outside these villages.
It should also be noted that although the pre-Vedic religions
were very much present they were not mentioned in the Sanskrit
literature relating to this time period. One has to note the occasional
references to non-Vedic gods and certain Vedic practices to infer
the presence of these cultures. As we shall see, the Buddhist texts
refer to them more explicitly and use their folklore and religious
practices without giving any credit.
Several developments were taking place at this time away
from the Middle Ganga Plains. The Persians, under Cyrus and
later Darius, had conquered the whole of the Indus basin and had
established their rule. They introduced the Karoshti script in this
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75
Approx scale
Figure 3 Buddhaʼs World

Note: This figure is not to scale. It does not represent any authentic national or international
boundaries and is used for illustrative purposes only.
region, perhaps the first form of writing in North-West India. In

the South, the Chalcolithic and Megalithic cultures had their sway.
The early Tamil language and culture were emerging in the far
South perhaps stimulated by the advent of tank irrigation—a form
of irrigation that is unique to South India. In this system, earthen
dams were built across small streams and water stored in them
during the rainy season and in the dry months they were used to
irrigate fields. This system of irrigation increased productivity and
led to emergence of urban centres and an independent civilization
based on the Tamil language. The three regions mentioned above
remained totally cut off from each other during this time but they
were to interact closely from 3rd century BC onwards.
Siddhartha Gautama and Buddhism

Siddhartha Gautama was born in 556 BC in Lumbini (Nepal) as
the eldest son of the chief of the Sakya clan whose capital was in
Kapilavastu.
At the age of thirty-five or so, he gave up his luxurious palace
life to seek the truth—the cause of suffering in this world. He
wandered for seven years and learned yoga under two teachers; the
first at Vaishali on the banks of the Gandhak river and the second
in Rajagriha, the capital of Magadha. Both the teachers were
Brahmanas who taught him Upanishads, yoga, and meditation. At
Rajagriha, the king of Magadha, Bimbisara, on his own initiative,
made friends with Gautama and they became lifelong friends.
Bimbisara gave him a plot of land near Rajagriha where he could
establish a refuge for his meditation and spiritual pursuits. Buddha
always stayed in this grove whenever he returned to Rajagriha.
Disappointed with his failure to learn the truth from his second
teacher in Rajagriha, Gautama left for Bodh Gaya with five of his
classmates. He stayed there for six years practicing yoga on his own.
Again, lack of success prompted him to abandon all austerities and
lead a normal life. This change of mind did not impress his friends
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and they left him alone and went to the Deer Park in Sarnath, near
Varanasi.
Later, under a pipal tree, Gautama meditated for forty-nine
days, at the end of which he became enlightened. He discovered
the basic reasons for suffering in this world and the principles to
be followed to emerge out of this suffering. The noble truths that
he discovered are:
l Truth of suffering—birth, age, sickness, death, union with
beloved one and separation, and non-achievement of desires.
l Origin of suffering—craving for pleasure, craving for existence,
craving for non-existence, all cause suffering
l Suppression of suffering—complete destruction of desire.
l The path to end suffering—the sacred eight fold path: right
understanding, right thought, right speech, right action,
right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right
concentration.
l We may sum up these as the middle path. A life of pleasure and
life of austerity will not lead one to salvation and hence one
must follow ‘the middle path’.
After he attained enlightenment under the pipal tree in Bodh
Gaya, and after seven weeks of contemplation, Buddha proceeded
to Varanasi to meet his friends and test his discoveries. His friends
immediately accepted his findings and became his steadfast disciples
from then onwards. Soon he attracted a number of followers and
the first order of monks was established at this time. This group
began their journeys stopping in the outskirts of villages in the
afternoons and for the night, while marching to new locations and
seeking alms in the morning hours. The order of monks was allowed
only one meal—the noon meal. The afternoons were reserved for
religious instruction and meditation.
For over forty years, Gautama Buddha, along with his followers,
travelled on foot for eight months in a year and for the rest of
the four months of monsoon they camped on the outskirts of a
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large village or town where they were hosted by a rich landlord or

chieftain. He followed a circular path which included Kapilavastu,
Kusinagara, Vaishali, Rajagriha, Gaya, and Varanasi (see Figure 3).
The order of monks expanded, and on the bidding of his foster
mother, he allowed an order of nuns, although at heart he was
against it. Celibacy was a basic requirement for both monks and
nuns. He had doubts about violations of this code if the two orders
were located close to each other. What he thought would happen,
did indeed happen. It did weaken the Buddhist monastic order in
later periods.
Gautama Buddha had to face many unhappy situations. His
royal friend Bimbisara was jailed and allowed to die of starvation
by his son Ajatasatru. Nevertheless, Ajatasatru had no hesitation in
asking Buddha for pardon. Buddha kept silent. Likewise, another
royal friend, the king of Kosala, Prasenajit was also tricked into
giving up his kingdom by his son. Soon after the takeover, the
new king attacked Kapilavastu and killed many young Sakyas who
offered no resistance, following Buddha’s ideals of non-violence.
Buddha took everything stoically and continued his travels,
meeting people everywhere till the ripe age of eighty years and then
finally the end came during an afternoon. His last meal consisted
of a new dish of pork given by a blacksmith which did not suit
him. He was worn down by diarrhea. He was cremated with great
fanfare and his ashes were taken to different places for burial by the
chiefs of various clans and kings.
Religious Texts of Buddhism

Whatever Buddha preached in his lifetime was in oral form; some of
his close disciples may have kept notes on palm leafs. After his death
in 486 BC, a great gathering of monks was held in Rajagriha. In
this congregation, his chief disciple Upali recited the Vinaya Pitika,
which is about the rules to be followed by the order of monks. A
second disciple, Ananda, recited the Sutta pitika—a doctrinal text
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containing Buddha’s teachings. Pitika means a basket—a basket

containing bundles of palm-leaf documents, while sutta is the Pali
word for sutra in Sanskrit. Both the texts were in Pali. The Sutta
Pitika is comparable to Jaiminisutra which summarizes Mimamsa
texts. The word dharma becomes dhamma in Pali. Thus Sutta Pitika
is a text on Buddhist dharma. A second congregation was held in
Vaishali about a hundred years later—around 390 BC. At this time,
Buddhism branched into two, of which the older one is known as
Theravada. A third council was convened by Emperor Asoka in
Pataliputra around 250 BC; it is in this council that Theravada
Buddhism got recognition as the orthodox sect.
Nevertheless, Theravada Buddhism eventually receded into the
background in India, and established itself in Sri Lanka and from
there this sect was propagated in Myanmar and Thailand and other
South East Asian countries. During the interregnum—after the
death of Buddha and the holding of the third council, Buddhism
had established itself in the Middle Ganga Plains as a popular
religion with generous support from kings and rich landlords. It
coexisted peacefully with Brahminical Hinduism, and other local
religions—the Jainas and Ajivikas. There were some verbal duels
between the Jainas and Ajivikas and even Buddhists.
While Buddha had rejected the concepts of Brahman and
atman, he did, however, accept the Upanishadic doctrine of
rebirth and karma; this remained as a central theme in Buddhism.
Buddhists generally respected Brahmanas, while passing negative
remarks about some aspects of Mimamsa religion such as the
killing of animals in sacrificial rites. They also respected the Vedas
and did not oppose them in any way.
Later Developments
Much of what we know and consider as Buddhism today actually
belongs to later time periods. Much like Hinduism, Buddhism also
evolved over a period of time from 5th century BC to about 10th
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century AD. There were parallel developments in Hinduism at the

same time. Both these religions borrowed from each other without
acknowledging their debt. Among the secondary texts of Buddhism
are the Jataka stories which describe Buddha’s life in previous births.
In these stories we come across Buddha in a different form known
as Bodhisattva or Buddha in the making, but not fully matured.
They also have the concept of a future Buddha—the Maitreya,
somewhat parallel to our concept of Kalki. Forms of worship were
borrowed by both religions from folk cultures, though these were
never acknowledged by either.
Chaityas and Stupas

The focal points of Buddhism from 500 BC to 300 BC were the
chaityas. These are places of a sacred and often secluded nature –
with groves of trees commemorating the tree under which Buddha
got enlightened. In addition, there were places where the ashes of
Buddha were buried and small monuments built over them. Later
a dome shaped brick and mortar structure was built over these and
these are now known as stupas. The chaityas were places of worship
for lay Buddhists and others. The Buddhist monks invariably
established their monasteries near the chaityas. The Buddhist
monasteries are known as viharas. Often, the three—chaityas,
stupas, and viharas are found together in the same location.
The chaityas and monasteries received gifts from kings and
their numbers grew. Emperor Asoka further expanded the network
of chaityas and stupas by reburial of Buddha’s remains, after
dividing the existing portions into several smaller parts. Perhaps
the best known caitya and stupa is the one at Sanchi, in Madhya
Pradesh. This is the largest monument to Buddha in India. Other
centres of Buddhist pilgrimage are: The pipal tree in Bodh Gaya
where Buddha was enlightened; Lumbini near Kapilavastu where
Buddha was born, the Deer Park at Sarnath near Varanasi where
Buddha gave his first sermon and the grove near Kusinagara where
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he died (see Figure 3 for location of places associated with the life
of Buddha).
The chaityas have their origin in the pre-Buddhist period,
where the village people worshipped spirits and other gods near
groves in the outer periphery of the villages. The Buddhists merely
adapted them using them as substitutes for the times Buddha spent
in groves as an ascetic. This adaptation enhanced the popularity of
the new religion since it combined the older more popular local
cults with the new brand of Buddhism.
Further, the forms of worship were exactly the same as the
ordinary people had followed for centuries—going round the
sacred trees or relics in a clockwise fashion, prostration, and
offering of flowers.
The deification of Buddha and the worship of his idols belongs
to a later period of time—around 2nd century AD (refer to the
section on Buddhist monuments and temples).
Buddhism Goes Abroad

The role of Emperor Asoka is undoubtedly the most significant
factor in the spread of Buddhism to the rest of the world. Asoka
not only convened the third council of Buddhists in Pataliputra
in 256 BC but also sent emissaries to other countries, the most
significant one being to Sri Lanka led by his own son, who had
become a Buddhist monk. Later, under the Kushanas (1st to 3rd
century AD), Buddhism not only flourished in North West India,
but spread to central Asia and beyond to Mongolia. This period
also accounts for the first sculptured images of Buddha, which were
then installed in several locations in Central India and elsewhere.
They show Greek influence, although they combine elements from
local cultures as well. These sculptures provided the protype for
images of Buddha in the later centuries.
It is to the Palas of Bengal (7th century AD) that we owe
the addition of tantric rituals into Buddhism, and this form of
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Buddhism, Mahayana, spread to Tibet (and the rest of China),

Korea and Japan. Buddhism is the state religion in a number of
countries in Asia today: China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Thailand,
Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, and Sri Lanka.
Vardhamana Mahavira and Jainism

Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, was a contemporary of Gautama
Buddha. Like Gautama, he was from a Kshatriya clan—a clan
closely related to the Licchavis of Vaishali in North East Bihar.
He was born in 540 BC or thereabout and lived for about 70
years. (The Buddhists consider Mahavira as an ardent opponent of
Gautama Buddha). He married and had a daughter.
At age of 30, he left home and became an ascetic. He joined a
well-established group known as Nirgranthas. This sect was founded
by another ascetic by the name of Parsva, long before the birth of
Mahavira. Parsva is considered today as the 23rd thirthankar, while
Mahavira is the 24th and the last thirthankar.
As an ascetic, Mahavira went from place to place living on food
which he obtained by begging. He subjected himself to very strict
austerities. This continued for about six years when he was joined
by another ascetic by the name Gosala. They became friends and
continued the ascetic life for another six years. A heated discussion
between the two friends led to parting of ways for good. Gosala
founded a sect known as Ajivikas or materialists; while Mahavira
stuck to his strict regimen in which he wore no clothes. A year later,
Mahavira attained enlightenment. He progressed from arhant, a
worthy follower, to a jina, a conqueror, and finally a thirthankar—a
person who has crossed the ‘bridge’ and attained nirvana. He died
at the age of 72 near the city of Rajagriha. He died by the method
of prayopavesa—death by self-imposed starvation. The Jains call
this practice santara and it is practiced by Jaina saints even today.
For 200 years, the followers of Mahavira remained as an
inconspicuous group until Chandragupta Maurya, the founder
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of the Mauryan Empire, abdicated and became a Jaina. A major

schism among Jainas occurred at this time—those under the
leadership of Bhadrabahu insisted on not wearing any clothes (this
rule applies only to monks, the lay were allowed to wear clothes).
Chandragupta Maurya accompanied Bhadrabahu to the South
where he spent his last days in the vicinity of Sravana Belagola in
Karnataka. (Note: The term Sravana is the equivalent of Brahmana;
the former relates to Jainism and Buddhism, while the latter relates
to Hinduism).
On account of famine in the Ganga plains, a large number
of Jainas followed Bhadrabahu to the South, where Jainism was
introduced. Jainas thrived in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In 300
BC, Jaina monks reached as far south as Tirunelveli District of
Tamil Nadu and established cave dwellings for their monks. We
find epigraphic evidence to support this. This is perhaps the earliest
evidence of writing in India. This involved the Brahmi script, Tamil
language and Jaina principles. The Jaina philosophy of life had
considerable influence on Sangam literature in Tamil. In particular,
the Tirukkural (God’s Voice) gives clear evidence of this influence.
Meanwhile, the other group led by Stulabhadra stayed behind
in Bihar. Stulabhadra allowed his followers to wear white clothes.
The differences between the two groups were indeed small, but the
groups insisted on being different.
Jains were, and continue to be, strict vegetarians and adherents
of ahimsa, sometimes taken to extreme lengths. These two basic
principles made it impossible for most people to follow this religion.
Agriculture was among the long list of prohibited occupations
and as a result the great majority of rural folk in India could not
become Jainas. However, from the beginning, Jainism thrived
among the trading community. To this day, Jains are either traders
or professionals—teachers, lawyers, and even doctors.
The Jaina religious texts were first composed only in the 2nd
century BC, several hundred years after the death of Mahavira.
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Thereafter, they underwent several modifications. An interesting

aspect of later Jaina literature is their claim that the King Trisanku
was the first thirthankar. Trisanku, they claim, is the founder of the
dynasty of suryavamsies with his capital at Ayodhya. As late as 8th
century AD, Ayodhya was well known as a Jaina centre. However,
in Valmiki Ramayana Trisanku is mentioned as one of the ancestors
of Ram but not the first. In any case, Jainas do accept a common
link with Hinduism.
Buddha and Mahavira, both Kshatriyas, were fully conversant
with the Mimamsa religions. Their position is closer to the Uttara
Mimamsa, though they refused to accept the central concepts
of atman and Brahman. They, however, did accept the theory
of rebirth. Jainism made a strong impact on a section of the
Brahmanas. While they stuck to Purva Mimamsa, they eliminated
animal sacrifice and became vegetarians. About fifty percent of
Brahmanas today are pure vegetarians.
Buddhists and Jains abandoned Sanskrit and replaced it
with Pali and Prakrit, the languages of common people in the
Middle Ganga Plains. For a few centuries, Buddhism and Jainism
flourished both in the North and the South of India. This does not
mean that they replaced the existing religions. Nevertheless, the
influence of Jainism is very much visible in Karnataka today, while
it left a very strong impression in early Tamil literature. However,
Jains and Buddhists together accounted for less than half percent of
India’s population until the 1950s, when Dr Ambedkar converted
to Buddhism and encouraged millions of Dalits to convert
to Buddhism.
Ajivikas and Other Sects

Ajivikas, a sect founded by Gosala, was even stricter than Jainas. They
wore no clothes, did not believe in any God or Gods, and practiced
vegetarianism. They denied every doctrine that Brahmanas had
propounded; this included the Brahman and atman and Karma
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theory. Nevertheless, they retained the concept of rebirth, much

the same way as Buddhists and Jainas. For Ajivikas, birth cannot be
influenced by human action; it is determined by a vague universal
principle. Everything is deterministic and hence one should live as
one likes and not bother about anything. There are no texts for this
religion; we know of them only through Buddhist and Jaina texts.
Ajivikas were not the only sect that can be thought of as atheists.
Lokayatas (existentialists) and Charvakas (meaning sweet talkers)
were the other two groups who went against the established
religions and advocated materialism and a total irreverence to Gods
and worship in any form. The importance of these groups may be
recognized not so much by the strength of their followers as by
the criticism they generated in all other religious texts—Hindu,
Buddhist and Jaina. Obviously, they were seen as a threat to the
very foundation of established religious doctrines of the times.
Buddhist and Jaina Influences on Hinduism

Brahminical Hinduism was profoundly influenced by both
Buddhism and Jainism. However, these changes took considerable
time to be incorporated into Hindu philosophy. The earliest
evidence of the influence is found in the Smrities, which we shall
discuss in the following chapter.
Among the lasting influence of Buddhism was the ordering of
Hindu monks or sanyasins. The concept of Sanyas or sanyasin did
not exist in Rigvedic times or in the early Mimamsa period. None
of the Upanishads mention this word. It appears for the first time
in Smrities.
Buddha accepted monks into the fold after a simple ceremony.
In Hinduism, the teacher, himself a sanyasin, ceremonially accepts
his student as a sanyasi. As in the case of Buddhists, Hindu sanyasis
wear ochre-colored dress, shave their heads and they are expected
to be celibate for life. Buddhism introduced a monastic way of
life for monks. In the 8th century AD, Sankaracharya established
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Mutts, in a similar fashion, where sanyasins and lay students lived

together in a sort of gurukula, but without women folk as in the
original gurukula. However, most boys in the gurukula are just
brahmacharins and not monks or sanyasins. A Hindu priest is a
grihastha and not a sanyasi. The Vedic rishies were actually grihastas
and not sanyasis or ascetics, as is portrayed in the Puranic literature.
Most rishies had wives and children. They attended to the daily
chores just as their cohorts in the tribe.
The contribution of Jainism is seen in the acceptance of ahimsa
as a basic principle. Besides, a significant number of Hindus,
especially among Brahmanas, Vaishyas, and some Shaivites
accepted vegetarianism as well. Manusmriti endorsed vegetarianism
but made it optional.
Perhaps the most important way Brahmanas reacted to the
developments described above was to move away from it all into a
new phase in which folklore, anthropomorphism (the conversion
of Gods into human form), and bhakti—devotion to a personal
God, played a dominant role.
The Decline of Jainism and Budhism

Many reasons can be ascribed for the failure of Buddhism and
Jainism to sustain their vigor and replace Brahminical Hinduism.
The strict adherence to vegetarianism and ahimsa was acceptable
only to the trading community, but not the others. Jainism is
now, by and large, a religion of Vaishyas—the trading community.
Buddhism received enthusiastic support from the kings and
Buddhist monasteries became rich and self-dependent. This cut
them off from the masses and Buddhism became irrelevant to the
masses in course of time.
There is an even greater reason for its failure. Buddha favored
a society in which all are equal—there is no scope for Varna or
Jati. While a total abolition of Varna is feasible, the abolition of
Jati is not. While Varna is a religious concept—a concept created
86
by Brahmanas—Jati is not a religious concept nor was it created

by Brahmanas. It is a product of the freedom to maintain one’s
identity and culture, including religion and social practices by even
very small communities. Asking people to give up this privilege
was like asking for the moon. Maintaining culture and identity
is a fundamental human right. Brahmanas understood this, at
least by default, while Buddhists did not. The Christians did not
understand this nor the Indian social scientists who were more
devoted to their Western peers than their own identity and culture.
As far as the elite are concerned, Brahmanas were able to defeat
Buddhists in arguments and debates. Both Jainism and Buddhism,
which refuse to recognize a creator (Brahman) and individual souls
(atman) and do not recognize any cognizable Gods are left with a
religious structure without a foundation. Hindu intellectuals did
not find any logical merit in either Buddhism or Jainism.
However, in the final analysis, it is the people who have to
be won over. By adopting newer strategies, the Brahmanas won
the people over to their side. Among these new strategies, the
Brahmana–Kshatriya coalition, as envisaged in the Smrities, Epics,
and Puranas, is of great significance.
Buddhist Monuments and Temples

The monuments related to Buddha and Buddhism date back to
the 3rd century BC and they are much older than the monuments
relating to Jainism and Hinduism.
The largest Buddhist monument in India is in Sanchi, about
55 km north of Bhopal and in Vidisha (originally Besnagar) which
is further north of Sanchi. Equally important and well known are
the Ajanta caves in Maharashtra where we have a whole series of
caves with elaborate wall paintings and also statues of Buddha.
(see Figure 4).
About 55 km north of Bhopal is the village of Sanchi where
Emperor Asoka built a small stupa enclosing a small part of the
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Approx scale
Figure 4 Buddhist and Jaina Monuments

88
remains of Gautama Buddha, around 250 BC. Emperor Asoka

(265-232 BC) was based in this region before his elevation to
kingship. It has been considerably expanded and built upon in later
time periods, before it was relegated to obscurity. Rediscovered in
1818, and considerably restored in the early 20th century, Sanchi is
now a major tourist attraction, known the world over.
The main structure in Sanchi is the huge Stupa—a dome
shaped structure, 15 metres high and 37 metres in diameter, located
on a small hill. The whole stupa is encircled by a pathway with
railings. There are four entrance gates. The railings and gateways
are intricately carved and they generally tell the stories from
Jataka tales. There are no idols of Buddha, but he is represented
by symbols such as a tree, the wheel of law or just footprints. The
various miracles attributed to Buddha are portrayed, especially the
miracle he is said to have performed in Shravasti. Buddha’s journey
to nirvana is picturised in another gateway, which incidentally
also tells his life story in brief. Asoka’s life as a Buddhist is shown
in another gateway as well as the early days of Buddha’s life. The
events of Buddha’s later life and the temptations of the demons to
break his will are depicted in another gateway as also many other
tales from Jatakas.
There are a number of pillars in the area around the stupa; a
few of these were erected during the time of Asoka. However, the
majority of pillars (35 in all) belong to later time periods, as late as
5th century AD. There are many other smaller stupas around the
main dome. Asoka himself built 8 of them, but only two remain.
These stupas are in honor of Buddha’s disciples, whose remains were
probably buried there. Other stupas were built much later. Several
Buddhist monasteries (viharas) existed around this site; but they
have all disappeared, probably because they were largely built with
wood. The later chaityas (prayer halls) show Greek influence. They
are supported by many pillars. Around 7th century AD, some of
the chaityas assumed the form of early Hindu temples with two
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structures close to one another—a structure with a deity inside and

a hall meant for devotees.
There are other Buddhist sites within a range of 100 km from
Sanchi; among these the most prominent ones are near Vidisha.
There are a number of Buddhist sites that are now in ruins.
Mention may be made of Bharhut, near Nagod in Madhya Pradesh.
The rich sculptural relics from this site are in museums in London
and Kolkata. The relics in Bharhut belong to the same period as
Sanchi—150 BC or earlier.
The caves in Ajanta represent an entirely different kind of
monument, where there are hardly any sculptures and the pride
of place is taken by paintings—very elaborate and done on a very
large scale. The caves and the paintings belong to the period from
200 BC to 650 AD. They are later than the stupas at Sanchi, but
earlier than the monuments in the Ellora caves, where we have a
mixture of Buddhist, Jaina and Hindu works of art.
Ajanta is located about 60 km north of Aurangabad on a horse
shoe shaped gorge with steep cliffs; a river flows at the base of the
cliff, while the caves are indeed way up. There are twenty-seven
caves in all, with the older ones occupying the central part. The
caves here are neatly divided into two parts—those belonging to
the earlier Hinayana Buddhism and those belonging to the later
Mahayana Buddhism; the latter caves have a few large size images of
Buddha, all in the Gandharan style. Elsewhere, images of Buddha
are absent; he is represented symbolically by his footprints or the
wheel of law.
The themes and sources of stories relating to Buddha depicted
in the paintings are more or less the same as the ones in Sanchi,
except that these are in form of paintings. They include stories from
Jataka tales and the life history of the Buddha and some aspects of
the ordinary lives of people.
The caves fall into two categories: those that are essentially
viharas or monasteries—places where the monks lived, and those
90
that are chaityas or temples meant for prayer and meditation.

Sometimes these two are adjacent to each other or included in the
same cave.
There are beautiful views of the river and the landscape from
the temples; also the entire range of caves can be seen from a point
at the opposite side of the river.
The places in India, Pakistan, and beyond where Buddhist
monuments are found are shown in Figure 3. These cover the
whole of North India and extend south to the Krishna River. In
Purushapura (Peshawar), Kanishka built a magnificent tower,
which is no longer there. It was built around 200 AD. At Amaravati
on the Krishna River there is large stupa, although much damaged.
This stupa is known for the use of white marble for sculptures.
The site further up the river at Nagarjuna is now submerged under
water but the sculptures have been transferred to a museum nearby.
Amaravati has been selected as the location for the capital of the
new state of Andhra Pradesh.
Jaina Monuments and Temples

Jainism has always been overshadowed by Buddhism. However,
unlike Buddhism, it did survive the ups and downs of history and
remained relevant throughout. The Jaina monuments are not as
numerous as the Buddhist monuments, but there is one monument
that is really spectacular—the statue of Bahubali in Sravana
Belagola. Like their Buddhist counterpart, the Jaina monks also
lived in caves often along with Buddhist monks as in Ellora or
independently. Furthermore, we have hundreds of Jaina temples
that have existed throughout history, i.e. from about 5th century
AD onwards and are still in use (see Figure 4).
The 1000th anniversary of the statue of Bahubali in Sravana
Belagola was celebrated in 1981; the statue of Gomateshwara is
17 metres tall and completely naked in keeping with the basic
principles of Digambara Jains. The monks of this sect do not wear
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clothes while inside their monasteries. Not only is the statue very
tall, it stands on top of a hill that is over a thousand feet higher
from the surroundings. The statue is visible from about 25 km. At
the base of the hill there are several Jaina temples and monasteries
and there are still quite a few Jains among the local population who
are either converts or descendants of those who migrated over here
from Bihar a few thousand years ago.
The majority of the Jains now live in Maharashtra, which
is unquestionably the economic epicentre of India. The most
important centres of pilgrimage for Jains are in Gujarat and the
adjoining parts of Rajasthan. Jains do not believe in the existence
of a creator or God and hence there are no images of Gods in their
temples; instead, they have one or more statues of tirthankars. Jain
temples are, therefore, named after one of the 24 tirthankars.
There are two main centres where there is a concentration of Jaina
temples and where Jains go on pilgrimage. They are near Palitana in
South Gujarat and Girnar, near Junagarh. In each case, the holiest
temples are on top of a hill, which is difficult to climb; there are
temples at the base as well. Palitana is 60 km from Bhavnagar. There
are about 800 temples over a hill about 2 km away on a 600 metres
high hill. The hill top remains almost devoid of people during the
nights, when the tirthankars are left alone. It is considered as the
holiest place for Jains. The temples belong to a period later than
10th century AD. North of Palitana is Valabhi, an ancient capital of
Jaina kings and a Jaina centre now but in total ruins.
Near Junagarh, we have another major complex of Jaina
temples located on top of the Girnar hills. There are temples for
Neminath and Mallinath on top of the Girnar Hill, which is again
about 600 metres higher than the base. At the base itself, there is a
tank in which one is supposed to take a bath to purify oneself before
going up the hill to visit the temples. These Jaina temples belong to
the 12th century AD. Apart from the two centres described above,
there are over a hundred Jaina temples in Patan, in North Gujarat.
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However, the best known Jaina temple monuments are in

Mt Abu which is in Rajasthan, but close to the Gujarat border.
The Jaina temples in Mt Abu have exquisite carvings in marble.
The main temple complex is known as Dilwara and here we have
two temples, with the best specimens of Jaina architecture and
carvings. The older of the two temples is dedicated to Adinath, the
first thirthankar. The temple has an image of Adinath. It was built
in 1031 AD. The second temple is dedicated to Neminath, the
22nd thirthankar and it was built in 1230 AD.
One should not conclude, from the descriptions above, that
the Jaina temples are of much later origin than the Buddhist ones;
indeed Jaina caves are found side by with Buddhist caves in Ellora
and various other places in Bihar and elsewhere. Most of these relate
to 5th century to 8th century AD. These older Jaina monuments
are not as spectacular as their Buddhist counterparts and hence
they have not received the same attention.
Summing Up
During the period 500 BC to 300 BC, the Mimamsa religion was
the focus of attack, but it survived almost intact with a few minor
adjustments. In the next chapter, we shall see that Mimamsa was
indeed very much alive and it, along with the Smrities, formed the
foundation of Brahminical Hinduism for several centuries. What
are the reasons for its survival? Why did Buddhism and Jainism fail
to supplant it?
At the outset, it may be noted, that all three religions were
elitist in nature and did not have much of a mass support, as is
often assumed. The masses of India, living in thousands of villages,
followed their traditional village Gods and village religions and
were, if at all, only superficially influenced by the other three
religions. The elitist religions were confined to the first three Varnas
who constituted at best 15 percent of the total population. Besides,
each of the three was Varna specific. Mimamsa was essentially
93
Brahmana centric, while Buddhism was patronized by Kshatriyas,

and Vaishyas preferred Jainism. Their influence beyond their
Varnas was very limited.
Among the three, Brahminical Hinduism had a definite
advantage; it was already well established. The Brahmanas as
a Varna were cohesive. The Vedas were preserved and passed on
from generation to generation within families. No other social
organization was needed; the gurukulas were but extended families
and not an association of free persons. It is this foundation that
accounts for the survival of Brahminical Hinduism. Brahmanas
hardly ever carried arms and they were for the most part spared by
those engaged in armed conflict. Their scholarship and the respect
they commanded provided them security.
Buddhism, on the other hand, depended on monasteries for
its survival. So long as patronage from kings and the rich was
forthcoming, Buddhism survived. In fact, for some centuries, this
was the case. Buddhist monasteries increased in number and the
monks prospered. However, their contact with the lay population
in villages diminished over time and eventually vanished. They
had another serious disadvantage, when compared to Brahmanas.
The Buddhist monasteries were fewer in number compared to
Brahmana households. They were indeed conspicuous as landscape
features and they could easily be destroyed by adversaries. This is
what happened during the reign of Hunas in North-west India.
Once the institutional foundation was destroyed, Buddhism had
no other support.
The Buddhists were discriminated against by dynasties that
followed the Mauryas in the Ganga plains. They, however, received
special treatment under the Kushanas in the North-western parts
of India and beyond, but were severely suppressed by Hunas, who
came to India in the 4th century AD. With that, Buddhism came
to an end in the Indian Subcontinent.
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Jainism was slightly better placed. Its adherents were mainly,

if not wholly, from the trading classes; they were always rich and
prosperous. This was a very cohesive class and could support Jaina
monks and their institutions through generous gifts. No outside
support was needed. Like Brahmanas, Jainas were never involved
in armed conflicts.
On the other hand, Jainism never had any mass appeal.
Its strict adherence to vegetarianism and ahimsa were totally
unattractive to the great majority of people. With adherents from
the trading community alone, this religion could not expand in
any way. Eventually, Jainism practically vanished from the region
of its origin—north-eastern Bihar and found a better environment
in the desert region of Rajasthan and in Gujarat, where we find a
concentration of India’s prosperous trading communities.
Brahmanas found ways to accommodate the Kshatriyas,
whatever their ethnic origins may have been. Co-operation
between the two Varnas was essential for the survival of both.
Hinduism actually prospered on account of this, as we shall see in
the following chapters.
95
Dharmasastras
• Introduction • India from 300 BC to 200 AD • The

Smrities • Manusmriti • Aryavartham and Yavanas
• The Basis of the Varna System • Varna-Ashrama-Dharma
• Rajadharma • Other Sastras • Loukika and Vaidika
Brahmanas • Nibandanas • Itihasa Puranas and Temples
Introduction
The previous two chapters may have introduced an element of
confusion regarding the chronology of events. While dealing with
Uttara Mimamsa, Buddhism and Jainism, we started with 500 BC
but soon progressed into later time periods, including the period
covered in this chapter and even beyond. That was justified because
we were dealing with processes over time, which have a common
origin but no terminal point in time. Uttara Mimamsa, Buddhism
and Jainism are still alive, but their origins go back to the same
point in time, namely, 600 BC to 400 BC. We have emphasized
the circumstances under which they originated and progressed
through time.
The Smriti texts, the subject matter of this chapter, belong
to the period 300 BC to 200 AD. They acknowledge the early
Upanishads, Buddhism and Jainism, the latter only indirectly
and represent the response of the Brahmanas to all the above,
at a stage when all three had just taken off. A response from the
Brahmanas was urgently needed for their own survival. The Smriti
texts represent a major new thrust to keep society firmly under the
influence of Brahmanas. They tell us a great deal about the social
life of that time They accept Purva Mimamsa as the true religion,
while acknowledging Uttara Mimamsa, Buddhism, and Jainism.
India from 300 BC to 200 AD

The situation in the middle Ganga plains in 300 BC was rather
chaotic. There was intellectual ferment, with wide ranging solutions
to problems of society. Political changes were taking place at a rapid
pace. Chiefdoms and kingdoms had emerged and the power and
influence of the Kshatriyas had grown enormously in a secular
sense. Furthermore, they were trying to shake the very foundation
of Mimamsa religion, thus threatening the survival of Brahmanas.
Some of the Kshatriya kings, however, were also proving to be
irresponsible, as we saw in the case of Ajatasatru in Magadha and
Prasenajit’s son in Kosala. Something had to be done to stem
the rot.
Things were getting further aggravated by external forces. As
early as the 5th century BC, the whole of Indus basin had come
under the rule of the Persians. Around 300 BC, the Greeks, under
Alexander the Great, invaded the Indus basin and occupied it
for some time and remnants of his Greek army stayed behind;
they were called Yavanas. They did not fit into the society of the
Buddha, Jaina or the Brahmanas. Out of this turmoil the Mauryan
dynasty came into prominence and dominated the Ganga Plains
and beyond for nearly two centuries—326 BC–150 BC. To the
great discomfiture of Brahmanas, Emperor Asoka converted to
Buddhism and promoted this religion in a big way. At the end of the
Mauryan rule, smaller Hindu kingdoms began to rise once again.
Many of these kings were no longer from the original Rigvedic
society but were new entrants from other ethnic communities
including Yavanas.
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Brahmana–Kshatriya (the word Kshatriya connotes the ruling

class irrespective of their ethnic origins) rivalry is attributable to
the emergence of small kingdoms and the resulting tug of war for
supremacy between secular and temporal powers. This rivalry, as
we saw earlier, had its origins in 6th century BC when the first
kingdoms emerged in Varanasi (capital of the kingdom of Kasi)
and Kausambi (capital of the kingdom of the Vatsas). It acquired a
new dimension with the emergence of a new ruling class, not quite
at ease with the Vedic tradition.
Nevertheless, Brahmanas were highly respected for their Vedic
knowledge by the rest of the population and this gave them enormous
influence and even political power. Kings, on the other hand, were
wielders of physical force and the power of coercion and punishment.
Both religious leaders and rulers used intimidation to make people
obey them. Only the form of intimidation varied. Kings threatened
punishment with physical force, while religious leaders threatened
people with divine punishment. Those who exercise power tend to
abuse it; this applies equally to kings and religious leaders. There is,
of course, a basic difference—physical force has an upper hand over
moral or spiritual power. The two sources of power, by necessity,
have to co-operate. This is in the best interests of both. This is the
context in which the Smriti texts emerged.
The Smrities
Brahmanas, in response to the above, wrote new texts known as
Smrities. The Smrities are also known as Dharmasastras; this term
has a broader connotation that will be elaborated in a later section.
The Smriti texts go far beyond the Dharmasutras, mentioned in
the earlier chapters. The new rules and formulation of dharma
reflect changes in the social system. While the Dharmasutras
dealt elaborately with the types of rituals and the rules for their
conduct, the Smrities went beyond the Dharmasutras and dealt
with a variety of issues that concerned social and individual
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conduct. The Smrities are complimentary to the Dharmasutras

and there is no contradiction between the two. In Smrities, the
daily life of individuals, including mandatory rituals and the rules
to be followed, are elaborated. These rules vary according to the
Varnas, explained in a later section of this chapter. These rules are
collectively known as varna-ashrama-dharma. The second aspect
deals with rules of governance, known as raja dharma. Raja dharma
includes punishment for social offences; these are elaborated in
great detail. The Raja dharma may be thought of as a ‘constitution’
for early Hindu society with a king as its head. The king is the
head of the state and he is supposed to have divine attributes; it is
this power that he uses to punish those who violate the dharma. In
this, the King is assisted by ministers (drawn mainly from among
Brahmanas). Manusmriti deals exhaustively with these issues. It
is the focus on raja dharma and the laws of social conduct that
distinguish Dharmasastras from Dharmasutras.
In addition to punishment from the king, people are also afraid
of direct divine punishment for violations of the code of conduct.
The punishment here is not by the king but by God, which may
take several forms—rebirth as a poor person or with disabilities,
spending time in a number of hells and so on. Manusmriti deals
elaborately with divine punishment and ways to alleviate the
punishment through penance. Here, Brahmanas play an important
role. It is they who highlight the nature of divine punishment and
also prescribe the nature of penance to be performed by the guilty.
Manusmriti is the most important of the Smrities. In Hinduism,
all important religious texts and even concepts come in multiples
and they differ from each other. Besides, every concept or technical
term has many definitions.
There were 18 Smrities in all, besides 18 Upa-smrities. The 18
Smrities are: Manu, Parasara, Yajnavalkya, Gautama, Harita, Yama,
Vishnu, Sankha, Likhita, Brihaspathi, Daksha, Angiras, Pracetas,
Samvarta, Acanas, Atri, Apasthamba, and Satatapa. Obviously,
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they were composed by different authors at different times and at

different locations over a period of a few centuries from 300 BC
to 200 AD. India has always been culturally diverse and the
multiplicity of Smrities partly reflects this diversity. The number 18
recurs again and again in the age of the Smrities and Puranas.
The Smrities resolved or attempted to resolve the Brahmana–
Kshatriya conflict by recognizing the kings as the guardians of
dharma, while Brahmanas held an important advisory role as the
sole custodians of the sacred texts and as advisors to the king in
all matters.
The 18 Smrities differ considerably from each other and are
replete with contradictory statements. These differences may be
due to the time factor as well regional differences. However, though
there are contradictions within each Smriti, the Smriti texts are well
organized and coherent and are easily readable. The conflicting
statements in them are referred to in Yaksha Prasna, an episode as
well as an inserted text in the Mahabharata—thus:
तर्कोअप्रतिष्ठः श्रुतयो विभिन्नाः नैको मुनिः यस्य मतं प्रमाणं ।

धर्मस्य तत्वं निहितं गुहायां महाजनो येन गतः स पन्थाः ।।
Arguments galore! The Smrities differ. No one’s opinion is
authoritative.
The essence of dharma is hidden and elusive. The right path is the
path followed by great men.
(Yaksha Prasna, sloka 114)
Manusmriti suggests one’s own conscience as the ultimate

arbiter when in doubt:
वेदोअखिलो धर्ममूलं स्मृतिशीले च तव्दिदामं ।

आचार्यश्चैव साधूनामं आत्मानस्तुष्टिरेव च ।।
The Vedas are the root of dharma followed by Smrities.
The Acharya and good men come next; finally, one’s own conscience.
(Manusmriti, Chapter 2, sloka 6)
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Manusmriti
Manusmriti is divided into twelve chapters and contains 2,694
slokas. Any text that is 2,000 years old cannot claim to be the
original—with time some additions and some subtractions would
certainly have occurred. What we discuss here is in its current form
or more truthfully, one of its current forms. The main thrust of
Manusmriti is on varna-ashrama-dharma and raja dharma. Of
the twelve chapters in this text, six are devoted to varna-ashrama-
dharma; the seventh and eighth are on raja dharma. The first
chapter deals with how the text came into being. It says that Manu
passed it on to his son Brighu, who then passed it on to an assembly
of rishies. This style of introduction is repeated again and again in
the 18 Puranas, only the names differ.
Manusmriti starts with the creation of this world, the time
scales, and concludes with praise of Brahmanas. The section on
praise of Brahmanas is especially notable. The second chapter traces
the roots of dharma and defines the practice of dharma as karma
yoga. The objective is to fulfil ones desires. Manusmriti asserts that
all karmas (rituals) are kamya karmas. There is a brief description
of Aryavartam and the samskaras or rituals to be performed by the
three Varnas. Forty samskaras are defined in Dharmasutras (see
chapter on Mimamsa). The main theme in this chapter is on the
duties of Brahmacharins in the first ashrama. The third chapter
begins with marriage, types of marriage, conjugal rights, the five
yajnas to be performed daily by the grihastha, and concludes with
the role of the wife in performing these rites. Grihastha dharma is
further elaborated in the fourth chapter, while the fifth deals with
food—what is allowed and what is to be avoided; cleanliness, and
duties of wives and widows. The sixth chapter deals exclusively with
rules regarding vanaprastha and sanyasa stages of life.
The seventh and eighth chapters deal with raja dharma. The
duties of the King are described as part of the daily routine of the
king from early morning to late at night when he goes to bed.
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Dharmasastras
The issues involved are many and the two chapters are indeed
lengthy. The ninth chapter deals with conjugal rights, laws of
inheritance, Vaishya and Shudra dharmas and several other issues.
The tenth chapter deals with inter-Varna marriages and the
emergence of mixed classes. The inference is that inter-Varna
marriages were fairly common. It also deals with problems
that arise in an emergency such as war or pestilence, when it is
impossible to follow the normal rules. Chapter eleven is on remorse
and penance for violation of dharma. The twelfth chapter focuses
on the consequences of wrong actions in this and next life and it
makes a number of general remarks including a brief mention of
Karma and Jnanayogas.
While Manusmriti is rooted in Purva Mimamsa, it does
recommend vanaprastins and sanyasins to read the Upanishads.
It uses the word karma yoga for the practice of Purva Mimamsa
religion, while the term Jnana yoga is used for Uttara Mimamsa.
Manusmriti became the bedrock for the practice of Hinduism
by the three upper Varnas in India for about 2,000 years. In this
social system, both Brahmanas and Kshatriyas had well defined
roles and an exalted status in society.
Aryavartam and Yavanas

Manusmriti, in the first chapter, defines Aryavartam in fairly clear
terms as the land between the Himalayas in the north and the
Vindhyas in the South and the seas to the east and west (see Figure 5).
The word aryavartam consists of two words—arya meaning
respectable and aavartam meaning repetition or rebirth in this
context. In other words, Aryavartam is the land where respectable
people live or are reborn again and again. I would restrict the
meaning of arya to Brahmanas alone. This is not a racial or ethnic
word. The word arya means those who know the Vedas and the
sastras. Generally, it is Brahmanas who studied the Vedas and
kept Vedic knowledge alive and hence the respect. Brahmanas are
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Approx scale
Figure 5 Aryavartam
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Dharmasastras
respected throughout India even today, especially those who know

Sanskrit and have studied the Vedas.
In addition to Aryavartam, Manusmriti mentions Brahmavartam
and Madhyadesa and a number of other territories (janapadas)
and ethnic groups, some of whom were foreigners or yavanas. The
description is provided in Chapter 2, verses 17–22 of Manusmriti
quoted below:
सरस्वतीदृषद्वत्योर्देवनद्योर्यदन्तरम
तं देवनिर्मितं देशं ब्रह्मावर्त्तं प्रचक्षते ।।
कु रुक्षेत्रं च मत्स्याश्च पाज्ञ्चालाः शूरसेनकाः
एष ब्रह्मर्षिदेशो वै ब्रह्मावर्त्तादनत्तरः ।।
हिमवद्विन्ध्योर्मध्यं यत्प्राग्विनशनादपि
प्रत्यगेव प्रयागाच्च मध्यदेशः प्रकीर्त्तितः ।।
आ समुद्रात् तु वै पूर्वाद् आ समुद्राच्च पश्चिमात्
तयोरेवान्तरं गिर्योरार्यावर्तं विदर्बुु धाः ।।
The God created land between the divine rivers Sarasvati and
Drishvati is known as Brahmavartam.
Slightly less sacred is Brahmarishidesa consisting of Kurukshetra,
Matsya, Panchala, and Surasena.
The land south of the Himalaya and north of the Vindhyas.
And east of the Sarasvati and west of Prayaga is well known as
Madhyadesa.
The scholars know the country between the mountains and the seas
to the east and west as Aryavartam.
The Madhyadesa is fairly well defined as the land between the

Sarasvati, to the west of the Yamuna and Prayaga—at the confluence
of Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. The northern part of the Madhyadesa
consisting of the territories of Kurukshetra, Matsya, Panchala, and
Surasena are designated as Brahmarishidesa, while the lands to the
west of the Sarasvati were known as Brahmavartam—the lands
which have a higher status. What these descriptions mean is that
historically, the Vedic people first settled in Brahmavartam, then
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the Brahmarishidesa, and then expanded into Madhyadesa. By the

time Manusmriti was written they had moved further east to the
Middle Ganga Plains.
Manusmriti also mentions several ethnic communities in the
context of degraded Kshatriyas. These include the Greeks, Pahlavas
(Iranians), Paundras, Chinas (the people of Nepal), Oudhras, and
even Dravidas. In addition to all the above, Manusmriti mentions
a host of communities, which according to Manu’s theory were
the products of inter Varna marriages. The theory fails when it also
mentions that Brahmanas and Kshatriyas and so on could have
wives from different Varnas, including Shudras. How children born
of the same father could form different and distinct communities
(samkaravarnas) is a mystery, especially if they all continued to
live at the same location or even in the same house. The word
samkaravarnas actually means unified Varna and not division. The
fact is that Manu did not understand the reasons for the existence of
so many communities in different parts of Aryavartam (see Figure 5).
The Basis of the Varna System

The fourfold division of society into Varnas is the foundation on
which the Smrities are founded. Western scholars, in the last two
centuries, have given far too much importance to this system and
its practice as defined in Manusmriti, to which they added the racial
angle. Indeed, Europeans were so obsessed with race in the 19th
century, that they were incapable of seeing India in any other light.
Where was the need for the fourfold division of society? In
actual fact, it was simply recognition of existing divisions within
society at that time. The religious justification and the legends
about the origin of the four Varnas in the purusha sukta are simple
fabrications to justify the existing system. Why was society divided
into four recognizable divisions?
Varna classification is based on the different roles of sections
of society. The Brahmanas preserved the Vedic tradition, the
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Dharmasastras
Kshatriyas controlled land and the income from it, the Vaishyas
had an independent role as traders, while the Shudras provided
various services that were necessary in a civilized society.
The first of the divisions, namely Brahmanas, was already
there and owes its origins to Rigvedic times. The fifty or so rishies
(Rigvedic poets) constitute the pravara, the source of the Brahmana
lineages, later known as gotras. These lineages specialized in the
study and preservation of the Vedas.
The second division has also its roots in the Rigvedic tribal
community. Other than poets, the warriors formed an important
group within the tribal community. Their main function was to
protect their herd of cows from being poached by other tribes and
to exercise control over their grazing grounds and expand them
if possible. The warrior lineages became chiefs and then kings in
course of time as land became even more of a precious asset to be
guarded against opponents. The emergence of kingships solidified
the position of warrior lineages. They were then called as Kshatriyas.
This term has its root in kshetra or land. However, as centuries
passed, even Shudras became kings, so also mlechhas; and these
groups also began to claim Kshatriyahood. As a result, Kshatriyas,
in later time periods, were far less homogenous as they came from
different ethnic stocks and they had nothing to do with the original
Rigvedic people. Nevertheless, whoever was in power as king was
recognized as a Kshatriya, whatever his ethnic background, so long
as he was willing to abide by the Vedic tradition as defined by the
Brahmanas. In other words, the word Kshatriya means simply the
current ruling class.
The third Varna reflects the growing importance of trade.
The traders were often very wealthy and their support was needed
both by the ruling class as well as the Brahmanas; they were an
important source of income for both. Further, farmers who owned
large tracts of land were very rich and they needed recognition in
their own right. These two classes together were called Vaishyas.
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In Manusmriti, the definition of Vaishyas includes both trade and

agriculture as their principal occupations. However, there is a
contradiction here. In reality, Vaishyas specialized in trade, while
the farmers produced the soldiers and were closer to the Kshatriyas.
The rest of the population, who were poor, was called Shudras.
These people were mainly artisans—carpenters, smiths, weavers,
potters, metal workers and so on, besides small farmers and landless
agricultural workers; their occupation implied service to others, in
particular to the ruling class, the traders and Brahmanas.
The Varna categories did not have any racial or ethnic
connotation, nor were they rigidly defined. Manusmriti itself
recognizes the prevalence of inter-Varna marriages in matters of
inheritance and religious rights and points out the emergence of
Shudras and Mlechhas (foreigners like Greeks, Iranians, and others)
as kings; while historical records of Shudra kings begins with the
Nandas. Bright boys from any community were admitted to the
Gurukula system, so much so, even the composer of Atharvaveda is
believed to be from among the Shudras. There is no word for race
in Sanskrit or any of the Vernacular languages.
The four basic classes of society were not unique to India.
They existed everywhere in Europe, in China and all civilizations
in their feudal stage. What made matters different was the presence
of Jaties. The concept of Jati has nothing to do with Varna and in
fact, Manusmriti does not use this term at all. I shall deal with the
issue of Jati in a later chapter.
Varna-Ashrama-Dharma
Varna dharma is explained first. It is the duty of Brahmanas to
teach and to learn (the Vedas and all other sastras); to worship and
to help others to worship Gods; to give gifts and to receive them.
Among these, learning, worship, and giving gifts are own dharmas
(svadharma); while teaching, helping others to worship (priesthood),
receiving gifts (mainly as dakshina) are the means of making a
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Dharmasastras
living. High praise is showered on Brahmanas, because they have

attained this by virtue of their past karmas; it is asserted that wealth
rightly belongs to them. When hidden wealth is discovered, it has
to be given to Brahmanas as gifts.
The protection of people, giving gifts, worship, and learning of
Vedas are the duties of Kshatriyas; but they should not indulge too
much in recreation and pleasure.
The protection of animals (cows), giving gifts, learning of
Vedas, commerce, money lending, and agriculture are the duties
of Vaishyas.
There is only one duty prescribed for Shudras: rendering
service to the other three Varnas.
There are four stages of life or ashramas: brahmacharya,
grihastha, vanaprastha, and sanyasa. Details of the rituals to be
performed during each stage in life from birth to death are the
subject matter of chapters two to six. The emphasis is on Brahmana
Varna; the assumption is that the same rules apply to the other two
Varnas as well. When there is a difference, it is pointed out.
Rules in great detail for each of the life cycle rituals are given
for the four stages of life. One chapter is devoted to Brahmacharya;
while three chapters are devoted to grihasthashrama, and finally one
chapter to the two final stages of life—Vanaprastha and sanyasa.
The burdens placed on the grihastha are indeed pretty heavy. He
is responsible for supporting both brahmacharins and sanyasins,
whose main focus in life is to study Vedas.
The rituals to be performed by the grihastha, on a daily basis
or on an occasional basis, are those that are prescribed in the
Yajurveda and Jaiminisutra and also other sutras like the grihyasutras,
apasthamba and several other similar sutras, which are considered
as Smrities by some Acharyas. These rituals have been listed in the
chapter on Mimamsa.
Manusmriti does not mention puja or idol worship, nor
refers to any of the Puranic Gods. It is fully committed to Purva
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Mimamsa School and only a passing mention is made of Uttara

Mimamsa in the vanaprastha and sanyasa stages of life.
Rajadharma
Rajadharma is treated in Chapters 7 and 8. The duties of the king
are narrated in chronological order, from early morning when the
king gets up from his bed to late night when he goes to bed again;
this covers everything that a king is expected to do. Aspects of
administration, justice, espionage and even war, taxation, monetary
policy, resolution of land disputes and a great variety of topics are
dealt with. Manusmriti provides a fairly accurate picture of social
life around second century AD. The nature of crimes that existed
at that time is particularly revealing as they were no different from
the present society.
Although Manusmriti mentions about the divine origin of
kings, it says that this applies only to the original kings and not
the present ones. Further, it is unhappy about kings who have a
Shudra, Yavana origin. It wants Brahmanas to migrate to other
lands, when the king does not respect dharma and the Vedas. By
2nd century AD the presence of kings of Yavana origin had become
commonplace in North and North-West India; elsewhere, kingship
was being taken over by individuals of low origin. The Nandas and
Mauryas were not from the original Kshatriya Varna.
Manusmriti has this to say about such kings:
शनकै स्तु क्रियालोपादिमाः क्षत्रियजातयः ।

वृषलत्वं गता लोके ब्राह्मणार्दशनेन च ।।
पौणॅ ड्रकाश्चौड्रद्रविडाः कांबोजा यवना शकाः ।
पारदाः पह्ळवाश्चीनाः किराता दरदाः खशाः ।।
मुखबाहुरुपज्जानां या लोके जातयो बहीः ।
म्लेश्चवाचश्चार्यवाचः सर्वे ते दस्यवः स्मृताः ।।
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Dharmasastras
Non-performance of rituals and the non-association with

Brahmanas, in course of time, reduces Kshatriyas to the level of
Shudras.
Paundras, Oudhras, Dravidas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas, Paradas,
Pahlavas, Chinas, Kiradas, Daradas, and Khasas are to be considered
as Shudras (in the absence of Vedic rituals).
Those born from Brahmanas and Kshatriyas, who have not
performed Vedic rituals, even if they speak Arya bhasha or Mlechha
bhasha, are to be treated as Shudras.
(Manusmriti, Chapter 10, slokas 43, 44 and 45 on degenerate
Kshatriyas)
Brahmanas, especially the scholarly ones, never had a high opinion

of kings as this verse shows:
विव्दत्वं च नृपत्वं च नैव तुल्यं कदाचन।

स्वदेशे पूज्यते राजा विव्दान् सर्वत्र पूच्यते ।।
Kingship and scholarship are never comparable or equal.
A king is respected in his own kingdom, while a scholar is respected
everywhere. (From an unknown source)
Other Sastras
The word sastra may either refer to a religious text or a secular text.
All sastras, both religious and secular, belong to the age of writing;
they belong to the first century AD or later. The Smrities are truly
religious texts and indeed they define Hindu dharma. The origin of
the word sanatana dharma can be traced to Manusmriti:
सत्यं ब्रूयात् प्रियं ब्रूयात् न ब्रूयात् सत्यमप्रियं ।

प्रियं च नानृतं ब्रूयादेष धर्मः सनातनः ।।
Tell the truth; tell what is pleasing; do not tell the unpleasant truth.
Do not tell what is pleasant but untrue; this is sanatana dharma.
(Manusmriti, Chapter 4, sloka 138)
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What is sanatana dharma? It is the Dharma explained in Smrities

and in particular Manusmriti. Further, the true meaning of satyam
is explained in the following verse:
यो वै स धर्मः। सत्यं वै तद् ।… एतद् उभयं भवति ।।

That which is dharma is satyam. The reverse is true as well.
(Brihadaranyaka Upanishad I-4-14)
This concept of satyam is elaborated in Valmiki Ramayana in a

section titled satya prasamsa; we shall deal with it in the chapter
on Epics.
The earliest of the sastras dealt with language and rituals:
siksha sastra (phonetics), vyakarana (grammar), chandas (prosody),
Nirukta (lexicon, etymology), jyotisha (astronomy and astrology),
and kalpa (manual of rituals). These are also known as vedangas or
the six limbs of the Vedas. These sastras have their origin between
400 BC and 200 BC.
The later sastras, on the other hand, deal with secular matters,
although some of them have a very close link with religious issues.
Arthasastra deals with political science and economy. Ayurveda
deals with medicine and this has its roots in Atharvaveda.
Dhanurveda deals with military science, while Gandharvaveda
has to do with music. At a still later point in time, we find more
texts dealing with mathematics, astronomy, surgery, etc. The study
of secular sastras provided additional opportunities for gainful
employment for Brahmanas.
Kautilya’s Arthasastra is a well-known work; although this text
may have been written originally around 300 BC, the interpolations
in it may date to much later time periods, extending to 2nd century
AD. Aryabhatta, the mathematician, lived in the 5th century AD.
Most secular sastras were written after 2nd century AD. Most, if
not all the sastras, are truly historical works and their dates can be
verified by cross references and mention of kings and dynasties.
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Dharmasastras
Loukika and Vaidika Brahmanas

From 300 BC, Brahmanas were generally categorized as Loukika
Brahmanas or Vaidika Brahmanas. The distinction is solely based
on profession and training and has nothing to do with sociological
concepts of Jati or Varna. The Loukika Brahmanas were those
who specialized in one or more sastras—this could be Jyotisha,
Arthasastra, Ayurveda, or even any one of the Dharmasastras like
Manusmriti. Some of these Brahmanas took jobs under the kings
as ministers or as their assistants or provided certain special services
to the public.
The Vaidika Brahmanas obtained special training in the study
of Mimamsa and the performance of rituals. Some of them were
specialists; for example, the Dixits specialized in the conduct of yaga;
while purohits specialized in life cycle rituals performed in every
household. The schools where Vaidika Brahmanas were trained are
known as patasalas. The Nambudiri Brahmanas maintained such
patasalas for preserving Vedic study until recent times. The various
Sankara Mutts also have patasalas attached to them, where purohits
and other specialists are trained even today.
The proportion of Loukika Brahmanas to Vaidika Brahmanas
increased manifold during the 19th and 20th centuries. At present,
99 percent of Brahmanas are Loukika Brahmanas. As mentioned
in Manusmriti, most of these Brahmanas are only Brahmanas in
name–they have no knowledge of Sanskrit or the Vedas.
Brahmanas as a class were never rich. If a Brahmana received a
large gift, he was bound to share it with other Brahmanas. Receiving
any gift entails sin; this can be reduced by sharing with others. On
the other hand, most Brahmanas—even the well qualified ones—
were really poor. Examples of poor Brahmanas can be found in the
Upanishads, Epics and Puranas. However, even a poor Brahmana
was respected and a Brahmana could always live by seeking alms.
Even a minimal knowledge of Sanskrit and of the Vedas or sastras
was adequate for a Brahmana to make a living.
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Nibandanas
The Smrities constitute the foundation of Hindu law. Over
the centuries, with the absorption of local cultures they needed
modifications to take into account local customs and traditions.
This was accomplished by newer works in Sanskrit known as
Nibandanas. There are several of these works that reflect regional
customs and traditions.
The most notable among the Nibandanas is Mitaksara, which
is popular in Maharashtra and is recognized by our legal system.
Dayabhaga, another Nibandana, deals with laws of inheritance and
is followed in Bengal, in particular. All the regional Nibandanas deal
with achara and vyavavahara—the regional customs and traditions
and the regulations for their application. They constitute the real
dharma sastra at the grass root level. However, in Tamil Nadu, the
regional Nibandana known as Vaithynatha Dikshitiyam is hardly
ever read even by priests today. Copies of this work are not easily
available.
Itihasa Puranas and Temples

Manusmriti very casually mentions the word Itihasa along with
other sastras but does not mention Ramayana or Mahabharata. It
does not mention any of the names of Puranic Gods; only the names
of Vedic Gods are mentioned. There is no mention of idol worship
or puja. Manusmriti follows the Mimamsa religion truthfully and
it is founded on Dharmasutras and Grihyasutras.
The word devalaya or temple is not used but there is an indirect
mention of temples in the outskirts of the village as the following
verses show:
सीमामं प्रति समुत्पन्ने विवादे ग्रामयोर्व्दयोः ।

ज्येष्ठे मासि नयेत् सीमामं सुप्रकाशेषु सेतषु ु ।।
तडागान्युदपानानि वाप्यः प्रस्रवणानि च ।
सीमासन्धिषु कार्याणि देवतायतनानि च ।।
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Dharmasastras
When disputes arise about the boundary between two villages, the
boundaries should be demarcated in the month of May when the
boundaries can be seen clearly. Among other things, the following
may be located along the boundary: wells, ponds and other water
bodies as well as places for worship of devtas.
(Manusmriti, Chapter 8, slokas 245 and 248, about temples in the
village boundary; the word devta may mean a spirit or a lower order
God).
The small temples on the outskirts of villages belonged to the

Shudras and for the Gods that they worshipped from time
immemorial. This practice of building temples in the village
periphery continues even today. In the Puranic period, the same
temples were accepted by Brahmanas, so also the Gods that the
Shudras worshipped. These were then sanskritized and absorbed
into the Puranic religion.
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Epics
• Introduction • Brahmana–Kshatriya Tussle • Valmiki

Ramayana • Dharma and Satya • History in Ramayana
• Geography in Ramayana • Concept of Territory • The
Ideal King • Mahabharata • History in Mahabharata
• Later Developments
Introduction
The Epics hold a very special place in Hinduism today. Ramayana,
in particular, has an enormous popularity in the Hindi speaking
regions. Mahabharata’s religious significance is solely due to the
role of Lord Krishna. However, the whole story of Lord Krishna
is told in the Bhagavata Purana and not in Mahabharata. The two
Epics were written before the 18 Puranas and after the age of the
Smrities.
The two Epics—Ramayana and Mahabharata—have attracted
recent attention based on the claim that they represent the true
history of India. The Sanskrit word for Epics is itihasa which is a
combination of two words which mean: ‘the way it was’. Religious
leaders and even some historians hold these two as historical
treatises. Having read Valmiki Ramayana in original Sanskrit, and
after studying the story of the Mahabharata in some detail, I do not
accept this viewpoint.
I consider both Epics as Dharmasastras in a story format.
Their objective was to explain the principles of dharma to the
illiterate people through the medium of stories that could be orally

transmitted to a wider audience. The Smrities cannot be directly
understood by the common people, even if they are explained to
them. Furthermore, storytelling gave Brahmanas another means of
earning a living.
In my view, the original Epics did not present Rama or Krishna
as Gods or as divine beings; the transformation of these two into
Gods is the contribution of the Puranic period. Both the Epics
were rewritten to legitimize this proposition, during and after the
Puranic period. The original Ramayana and Mahabharata were
virtually forgotten and the newer versions were assumed to be
the original.
The two Epics, it should be emphasized, are rooted in the
dharma as explained in the Smrities. On this point, there can be no
doubt at all. Their original objective was to popularize the dharma
of the Smrities.
Brahmana–Kshtriya Tussle
The Smrities did not fully resolve the Brahmana–Kshatriya tussle
for supremacy, although they provided a basis for resolving the
issue. The influence of Brahmanas had declined considerably in
society. Vedic study and knowledge was no longer sufficient to
attract the masses and to make a living. The Mimamsa religion and
its practice were more or less confined to Brahmanas. Vaishyas and
Kshatriyas were more attracted to Jainism and Buddhism. Besides,
Brahmanas were increasingly dependent on the kings, the landed
aristocracy, and the rich traders. They realized that Buddhists had
attracted mass appeal through the medium of folklore. They had
used this method effectively by telling stories about Buddha in his
earlier births. The Jainas also adopted similar methods. The Epics—
Ramayana and Mahabharata—were written in Sanskrit to attract
the attention of the masses. The characters and episodes in them
already existed as folk-lore and some of them were included in the
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Epics
literature of Buddhism and Jainism. Both the Epics subscribed to

the dharma as prescribed in Manusmriti. In Valmiki Ramayana this
is made fairly explicit.
In the Epics, though Brahmanas had the highest rank among
the Varnas, some Kshatriyas are represented not only as kings, but
as kings with a knowledge of dharma. Thus, Rama in Ramayana
and Yudhishthira, Vidura, and Bhishma in Mahabharata are
represented as true exponents of dharma. Indeed, another name
for Yudhishthira is Dharmaputra. There is hardly any mention of
Vaishyas, while Shudras are mentioned infrequently. On the other
hand, mention is made of communities of Rakshasas, Yakshas,
Gandharvas, and Asuras, along with Devas of Rigvedic vintage. The
Rigvedic rishies also appear in a new form as teachers and ascetics,
who are immortal with supernatural powers.
Manusmriti mentions the term itihasa in the context of several
sastras. While the Itihasas existed at this time, they were merely
stories to highlight dharma—especially raja dharma. Manusmriti
says that Brahmanas can specialize in one or more sastras and earn
a living. Storytelling was one option and the Itihasas provided the
substance for this form of mass contact. Brahmanas could earn
gifts and presents by entertaining people with stories, while at the
same time promoting dharma and enhancing their relations with
the ruling class as well as the public.
Valmiki Ramayana
Ramayana was the first of the two Epics. Its sole object was to
describe an ideal king who followed raja dharma as prescribed in
Manusmriti. In the later modified versions, Rama is elevated to the
status of God and an incarnation of Vishnu—something that is not
mentioned anywhere in the original text. Among the later versions,
the most notable are Kamban’s Ramayanam in Tamil composed
in the 9th century AD and Tulsidas’s Ramacharitamanas in Hindi
composed in the 16th century AD. In between, several Ramayanas
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were composed in Sanskrit and other vernacular languages. They

differ from the original in many ways. In Ramacharitamanas, Ram
is seen as God and the whole work is in the spirit of devotion or
bhakti. This work has an indirect connection to the South through
the noted exponents of bhakti—Ramananda and Ramanujacharya.
Valmiki Ramayana is the first full length work of a single author
composed in one specific meter. The story is told in a coherent
narrative with a beginning, including a preface, and an ending.
The purpose of the work is clearly stated in the preface—it is to
demonstrate the qualities of an ideal man. The ideal is to be judged
against dharma; here the dharma relates to varna ashrama dharma
as well as raja dharma as enunciated in Manusmriti.
Dharma and Satya

The most important principle enunciated in Ramayana is satyam or
truth. Satyam is dharma and dharma is satyam. This statement made
by Rama in Ramayana is based on the Upanishads and Manusmriti.
Satyam here means abiding by the rules prescribed in Manusmriti
or Manu dharma.
The advice given by Jabali, a learned purohit of the Ikshvaku
family, and the answer given to him by Rama provide the rationale
of Valmiki Ramayana. Jabali’s advice is in Ayodhyakandam, Jabali
Vakyam, sarga 108, and Rama’s rejoinder in Sathyaprasamsa,
sarga 109.
The moot question in this context was whether Rama should
accept Bharata’s request that he return to Ayodhya and take over
the kingship, after the death of their father. Jabali argued that Rama
was justified in accepting Bharata’s offer, under the circumstances.
Rama’s response was firm and he explains in detail why he cannot
accept his younger brother’s offer. According to him, he was bound
by the order given to him by his father and he cannot deviate from
it. Rama was not convinced even after the family guru, Vashistha,
intervened. Eventually, Bharata had to return back to Ayodhya
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Epics
without his elder brother. Satyaprasamsa section consists of 39

verses. I am quoting below two verses which summarize Rama’s
line of argument:
सत्यमेवानृशंसं च राजवृत्तं सनातनं

तस्मात् सत्यात्मकं राज्यं सत्ये लोकः प्रतिष्टितः ।।
सत्यमेवेश्वरो लोके सत्ये धर्मः प्रतिष्टित
सत्यमूलानि सर्वाणि सत्यान्नास्ति परं पदं ।।
A king should follow the truth—rule without cruelty
From that, truth gets established in the kingdom and among
the people.
Truth is God; dharma is established in Truth.
Everything is rooted in truth; there is nothing higher than Truth.
(Valmiki Ramayana, Ayodhya Kandam, Sarga 109, verses 10 and 13)
What this episode illustrates is a very fundamentalist approach to

the interpretation of dharma in Ramayana—a very strict and rigid
adherence to the rules. Ramayana is all about satyam and dharma.
History in Ramayana
In Manusmriti, unlike the Puranas, yugas have a different meaning.
They do not relate to history or the past but to the standard of moral
values or dharma and in particular rajadharma. The following verse
from Manusmriti makes it amply clear:
कृ तं त्रेतायुगं चैव व्दापरं कलिरेव च ।

राज्ञा वृत्तानि सर्वाणी राजा ही युगमुच्यते ।।
All the four yugas–kritham, treta, dwapara, and kali—depend upon
the king’s rule and hence it is the king after whom a yuga is named.
In this verse and the subsequent ones, Manu interprets yugas in an

unconventional way. This is in contrast to the way it is interpreted in
the Puranas. It is the dharma followed by the king that determines
a yuga and not vice versa (Manusmriti, Chapter 9, verse 301).
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In the Puranic age, the story of Ramayana is attributed to the treta

yuga; while the story of Lord Krishna belongs to the next yuga,
namely, dwapara yuga. The moral values decline with every yuga
and in kali yuga—the present age—it is in its worst phase.
An aspect of the two Epics is the listing of names of kings in a
chronological order. Rama belongs to the Ikshvaku vamsa (lineage)
which is a part of surya vamsa. The origin is from the sun and his
son Manu and Ikshvaku is Manu’s son. The origin of the vamsa is
pure mythology.
From its origin, the Ikshvaku lineage is traced down to
thirty and odd generations, ending with Rama. There are other
lists of the Ikshvaku dynasty but they do not tally. Besides,
Jain’s claim Trisanku as the founder of Jainism, with his capital
in Ayodhya.
The genealogical lists which became rather fashionable from
this age were fully used by Brahmanas to trace their benefactor
kings to the solar or lunar lineages. It served the interests of
Brahmanas to obtain gifts and the kings were happy to establish
their genealogical legitimacy. The lists or tracing of ancestors has no
basis in fact. In later times, it was widely used to legitimize kings in
the eyes of the people.
My view is that Ramayana has nothing to do with history, nor
was it ever meant to be history. It is only a projection of the past
mixed with fiction, fantasy, miracles, and supernatural events and
forces. The core values pertain to dharma and it is clearly meant to
demonstrate and educate the masses about dharma.
The narrative in Ramayana is told in the fashion of a play. The
story unfolds from one scene to another—the time and space gaps
are totally ignored. The scene can shift quickly from one location
to another, without mention of the intervening time or distance.
This has merit when Ramayana is presented as a stage drama and
it is this aspect that probably makes it very popular among folk
artists.
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Epics
Geography in Ramayana
Valmiki had no interest in geography. From Ayodhya to Chitrakut,
the description is plausible enough, but beyond that everything is
pure imagination. Even the description of the hill in Chitrakut is
unrealistic and pure fantasy.
There is a longish piece on geography, when Sugriva sends
four teams to the four corners of the world to look for Sita.
However, he gives very little time, only a few months for the teams
to complete their job.
Sugriva had his capital in Kishkinda, near the Pampa River,
which is mentioned as lying to the south of Godavari (this river
is not the same as the Pampa of Kerala). Its exact location on the
present day map is not known. Sugriva does give an overview of
places, mountains, regions etc. when he sends out his commanders
to search for Sita. The following are lists of such places and features.
These are mentioned in the text in terms of their relative location
with respect to Kishkinda, that is, to the east, south, west and
north of Kishkinda.
View of the East—Interestingly, the view of the east (of
Kishkinda) begins with the Bhagirathi and Yamuna rivers followed
by Sarasvati. Bhagirathi today is a tributary of Alakananda in the
Himalayas. Regions mentioned are: Videha, Malla, Kasi, Kosalam,
Magadh, Vanga, and Punda; the mountains lying to the east are
Mahagiri, Sisira, Kailasam, Rishabha, Jadaroopasila and Udaya
Parvatam. Reference is made to Lolutan and Khsirodam seas.
View of the South—Vindhya with 1,000 peaks and
Narbada, Godavari, Krishnaveni, Mahanadi and Varada rivers
are enumerated in a sequence. This is followed by mentions of
regions: Vidharba, Vanga, Kalinga, Kausika, Dandakaranya,
Andhra, Pundran, Chola, Pandian, and Kerala. The rivers Kaveri
and Tamraparni find mention here. These regions are inhabited by
Apsarasus, Gandarvas etc. This is followed by mention of many
mountains: Mahendra Parvatam followed by Pushpita, Suryavan,
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Vaidhyuta, and Kunjara Parvatams. The last is where Agastya’s

ashrama is located. Beyond that is the city of Bhogavati—a city of
serpents with Vasuki as king. Finally, we have Rishabha Mountains
where Gandharvas live.
View of the West—The west begins with Avanti (generally
identified with Rajasthan) and then the Sindhu River. At the
junction of this river with the sea is a great mountain, named
Hemagiri with a hundred peaks. This area is inhabited by Vanaras
and Gandharvas. Beyond this are the Vajra and Chakravan
mountains. It was in this area that the Danavas killed the
Panchajana (of Rigvedic fame?) tribes. Further to the west are the
Varaha Mountains. Here we have the city of Pragjyothisham of
the Danavas. Further west is the Siledram, Meghavan and other
mountains. Finally we reach the North Meru Mountains. The sun
departs to his apartment here. This is also the abode of Indra.
View of the North—Dominated by the Himasailam, this
region is inhabited by Mlechhas, Pulindas, Suramana, Bharatas,
and Kurus; besides Kambojas, Yavanas and Sakas (all historically
true). Further north we have Chinan and Paramachinan.
There are forests of devadaru (cedar) and the Mahasam
Mountains followed by Sailendram, Hemagarbam, Sudarshanam
and Devasakha mountains. Beyond this are barren lands without
mountains, rivers or trees. Further north are the Kailasam and
Pandaran Mountains. Kubera lives here. Further, Vaishravana,
the king of the Yakshas, also has his abode. Still further north
are the Krauchan Mountains—the abode of rishies. Thereafter, we
have the Mainaka Mountains, known for Danavas, Gandarvas,
Kinnaras, Nagas, and Siddas.
Furthest north is the abode of snow. Here are the brahma loka
and deva loka. Here the sun is not visible but is well illuminated
on its own. Finally we have Somagiri where even gods dare not go.
So where is Kishkinda? From the above account it is logical
to infer that Kishkinda was located to the west of Yamuna, east of
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Epics
Sindhu River, north of Vindhyas, and south of the Himalaya. This

is the Madhyadesa of Aryavartam in Manusmriti (see Figure 5).
In the substantive narratives, Kishkinda was on the river Pampa,
which is found south of the Godavari River. Obviously there is a
contradiction here.
An alternative view is that the east, south, west, and north were
described in relation to the location of the poet and not Sugriva.
In that case, the poet lived in what is now known as Haryana.
Sugriva’s world view covers the entire Indian subcontinent
and even beyond to the west and north. The description lacks
credibility. It is a mix up of the known and unknown with
emphasis on mythical lands, people, mountains and rivers.
A relative location of even known features is inconsistent with
reality. On the whole, Valmiki has no interest in geography. His
work focuses on fantasy and myths about the past.
The problem is compounded by the fact that some rivers,
mountains, places have been named or renamed centuries after
Ramayana was written, drawing inspiration from it. Because
a present day city has a name similar to the one mentioned in
Ramayana does not mean that it existed at the time of Valmiki;
in the same way as a Rama of today is not the same person as the
Rama of Ramayana. Names of places, rivers and mountains have
changed over time—just as they do even today.
Concept of Territory
The concept of territory in Ramayana is very different from what it
is thought to be in the 20th century. In Ramayana, many distinct
territories are superimposed on one another; these territories
have no boundaries. The core areas or capitals are distinct and
identifiable, but the periphery is highly flexible.
Thus humans, vanaras, rakshasas, danavas, Gandharvas,
Yakshas and even devas co-existed in the same lands. Sugriva’s
influence extended all over the world and so did Ravana’s.
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Rama claims that, by the authority vested in him by his brother

Bharata, the then king of Ayodhya, he is empowered to punish all
wrongdoers in the kingdom, which by implication extends to not
only Dandakaranya, but even Lanka. At the same time, Ravana
made his brother, Khara, the governor of Dandakarnya.
The concept of territory in Ramayana is unique. Territory in
Valmiki’s world has no boundaries and several territories co-exist
in the same land area. The domains of Rama, Ravana, and Sugriva
are one and the same. Territories exist as layers, one superimposed
on the other. Only the capital cities are distinctly different.
The concept of territories without boundaries is common to
all mythologies all over the world; the co-existence of different
worlds in the same territory is also common to all mythologies. The
concept of territories with well-defined boundaries is a product of
the 19th century and is associated with the origin of the concept
of nationalism and the nation state in Europe.
The Ideal King

Rama, in Ramayana, is an ideal king and an ideal person who
stands for truth and is willing to make sacrifices in order to
maintain dharma. This is the duty of a Kshatriya. An ideal king
must be willing to put up with hardships, sacrifice comfort or
even his life. He must listen to the people and earn their love and
affection. In the process, he may have to sacrifice his personal or
family life. He may have to take unpleasant decisions involving his
family—in this case his wife. The upholding of truth or dharma
is his only goal. This, in short, is the ideal ramarajya according
to Ramayana. This is an ideal applicable to the ruling class
even today.
It is wrong and futile to look for history or geography in
Ramayana. Instead, one should focus on dharma. This is actually
what common people do and that is why they like this treatise and
hold it as sacred.
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Epics
Mahabharata
For the most part, Mahabharata is a realistic story of a great variety
of characters—good, bad or just plain ordinary. It has sustained
the interest of the common Hindus for centuries, if not millennia.
Unlike Ramayana, it is not hero centric, where the hero—is
eventually elevated to the status of a God. In Mahabharata, the
divine element is provided by Lord Krishna; however, he has only a
very minor role in the story. It is also possible that the elevation of
Krishna to God status was brought in later. Mahabharata is much
longer than Valmiki Ramayana, but, unlike Ramayana, it does
appear to be the work of several authors, at different points in time.
The focus in Mahabharata is actually on adharma, while
in Ramayana it is on dharma. One could enlighten people on
dharma in two ways—in a very positive way or in a negative way.
In Mahabharata, it is the latter path that is chosen. In the real
world, this path is more forceful, attractive, and entertaining
and hence Mahabharata is far more popular among the people
than Ramayana.
Mahabharata ends in a massive tragedy—annihilation of the
Kshatriya Varna; for, in the eyes of Brahmanas, the evil originates
from the ruling class.
At another level, the sustained interest in Mahabharata may be
largely due to the role of Lord Krishna. The main story of the life
of Lord Krishna is given in Bhagavata Purana, which is extremely
important from a religious angle. This work clearly belongs to a
later age. Furthermore, Mahabharata is also known for Bhagavad
Gita—the text in which Lord Krishna advises Arjuna about karma
yoga. Bhagavad Gita is undoubtedly the most revered religious
text for most Hindus (excluding Shaivites and Saktas). It links
Uttara Mimamsa with Bhakti movement through the medium of
the Puranas.
Mahabharata, much like Ramayana, expounds Manu dharma,
with a very convoluted story of fiction and fantasies. The central
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characters who represent dharma are Vidura and Yudhishthira.

Vidura, the eldest half-brother of Pandu and Dhritarashtra, is the
chief advisor to the king and he examines every issue from the point
of view of dharma. His advice is highly valued, but not necessarily
followed. His role as an advisor does not entitle him to play an
active role and hence, he remains as a mute spectator of adharma
of his evil nephews.
Yudhishthira, on the other hand, is a prince and heir to the
throne. He eventually becomes the king of Hastinapura, but after
a very protracted struggle and war with adharma, ending in the
annihilation of the votaries of adharma. In Mahabharata, almost
everyone, if not all, have performed an adharmic act at some time or
other in his or her life.
The basic objectives of the authors of both Ramayana and
Mahabharata (its original name was different) is the same—to
present aspects of dharma to the common people in a story format
and to make it popular.
History in Mahabharata
Mahabharata is commonly believed to represent the history of India;
in particular, the war in Kurukshetra was supposed to have taken
place in about 800 BC. Historians do not find any evidence of this.
The earliest evidence of kingdoms and kingships with their capital
cities belongs to 600 BC, and from this time on, we have historical
evidence from Buddhist and Jaina texts that do not support the
historicity of Mahabharata war. The war itself and the survival of a
handful of people does not make historical sense.
If we look at the main characters in the epic, their names tell
another story. No father would give such names as Duryodhan
(wicked warrior), Dushasan (wicked ruler) to his heirs. Even the
name of the king himself—Dhritarashtra (there is the implication
of seizing the kingdom and holding on to it) is odd. The point is that
the author of this work wanted to explain dharma to the layman.
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Epics
He wanted people to distinguish between good and bad characters

and avoid the possibility of confusion, that is, some people treating
the good as bad and bad as good. This is fairly common in real life.
Duryodhan and Dushasan are evil while the Dharmaputra, Arjuna
and Bhima represent the good. The names tell it all.
There is plenty in this epic to show that it has nothing to do
with history or geography. It is mythology and its objective is to
educate people on aspects of dharma and adharma.
In Mahabharata, the Chandravamsi (lineage of the Moon) is
the main Kshatriya lineage; while the kings of Ramayana belong to
the Suryavamsi (lineage of the sun). The problem in Mahabharata
is that neither of the two claimants to the throne—the Pandavas or
the Kauravas are directly descended from King Santanu. Santanu’s
two sons by Satyavati died young without any children. Their wives,
Ambika and Ambalika were forced to bear children through Veda
Vyasa. Veda Vyasa himself was an illegitimate child of Satyavati.
The Kauravas were legitimate children of Dhritarashtra, but
one wonders how 100 sons were born at one stroke. The Pandavas
were not legitimate children of Pandu, as their mother(s) conceived
children through divine intervention. The Chandravamsi lineage
in Mahabharata is pure mythology and has nothing to do
with history.
Chandravamsi and Suryavamsi lineages are artificial creations of
Brahmanas, who later used them to legitimize Shudra kings and
earn gifts of gold or land.
In Northern India, there is the practice of pundits from Varanasi
visiting Kshatriya families to extract a gift every year. They keep
records of the families and can recite the names of the ancestors
and certain relationships with other families. This does make an
impression on the hosts and they give some money, even if they do
not take the whole thing very seriously. Looking at it from the point
of view of the pundits, they are able to make some money from the
tradition established in the Epics.
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Later Developments
The real story of the Epics had only just begun in the 2nd century
AD; they attained name and fame over a period of centuries. The
translation of the two Epics into vernacular languages made them
accessible to the people, without the help of Brahmana storytellers.
However, the first translation of Ramayana in any Indian vernacular
language took place in the 9th century AD. Within a matter of a
hundred years, translations of the epic appeared in other languages.
The Epics are easy to translate and the translator could modify the
text any way he wanted as there were no rules to follow. Eventually,
the translations followed the language of bhakti and attained even
greater fame.
The first Hindu temples for Gods mentioned in the Epics
and Puranas were constructed around 5th century AD and this
happened almost exclusively in peninsular India. During the ninth
to twelfth centuries AD, the great temples of South India were built
and they have served as the foundation of the growth of Puranic
Hinduism. The stories in the Epics and Puranas are depicted in
sculpture form inside temples or in their huge gateways, providing
a visual imagery of the events in them. The Epics had a great
influence on music, dance, storytelling and other art forms. All
these developments, however, belong to later time periods.
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Puranas
• Introduction • India in Circa 200 AD to 600 AD

• Gods in Human Form • Saguna and Nirguna Brahman
• Brahmana–Kshatriya Relations • The Invention of the
Yugas • The Contents of the Puranas • Veda Vyasa
• Names of Puranas • Chronology • Vaishnava Puranas
• Other Puranas • Upapuranas and Sthala Puranas
• Kriya Yoga • Temples and Agamas • Mimamsa in the
Puranic Age • The Growth of Agraharams in the South
• Agraharam: A Case Study • Summing Up
Introduction
The Puranas define a new kind of religion which is vastly different
from the original Rigvedic and the later Mimamsa religions. What
are the primary elements of change? There are several aspects:
l The Puranic religion is based on worship of Gods in human
form, while this is not the case with Rigvedic or Mimamsa
religions.
l In the Puranic religion, the main form of worship involves
idols and puja, while in the Vedic religions it is homa through
the medium of the fire god Agni.
l Puranas are entirely based on stories or mythology, while Vedic
religions do not involve mythology; they are based on an
elaborate theory about human activities—karma, punishment
and reward, salvation etc.
l The Puranic religion successfully integrated Vedic theories

using the twin concepts of Saguna and Nirguna Brahman;
further, they included, in their stories, the Rigvedic poets by
immortalizing them and giving human form to Vedic gods.
l The Puranic religion incorporated the existing local cultures,
sanskritized them and wove them into their mythology, thus
providing a link between the Vedic and folk cultures, both of
which have deep roots in the past.
These aspects gave the Puranic religion the character of a
composite religion in its own right. Puranic religion is truly what
we call Hinduism today—it represents everything from origins
to the present. Yet, it should not be mistaken as the original
form of Hinduism. It is a new synthetic religion created out of a
specific need.
There is, however, a very negative aspect to the Puranic
religion—it is not a cohesive religion but a collection of religious
sects and cults, each having its own specific forms of worship, beliefs
and practices. On the other hand, the Rigvedic religion and the later
Mimamsa religion are both very distinct and cohesive and can be
easily defined.
Around the first century AD, there were several religious sects,
for example, Pasupatas, Kapalikas, Pancharatras, and Bhagavatas.
These were not the only sects or cults existing then; there were
indeed many more. They come into the open in later time periods.
The Puranas, as texts, emerged from these sects. In other words, they
gave a formal written shape to the pre-existing sects. In the process,
they brought about several changes in which the Vedic and folk
cultures were interwoven. There was some integration of the older
sects into three major sects with several subsects under each: those
who worshipped Shiva, those who worshipped Vishnu, and those
who worshipped Shakti. The followers of each sect considered their
God as supreme; while they did not deny the other Gods, they gave
them lesser importance. In the historical past, some sects considered
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themselves as an independent religion and rejected all other sects.

Mention may be made of Veerashaivites and Srivaishnavites in
the South.
The Puranas as texts were composed at various points in time,
starting from 2nd century AD to the 14th century AD. There are 18
major Puranas and a number of Upapuranas. Puranas are like sacred
texts for different sects and are considered to be sacrosanct by the
followers of each sect. The Vishnu Purana and Bhagavata Purana
are the sacred texts of the Vaishnava sects. Likewise, Shiva Purana
is the foundation for the Shaivites, while Markandeya Purana is the
foundation of the Saktas. Nevertheless, all Puranas acknowledge
the other sectarian gods, while asserting the superiority of their
own. The negativism is more due to the practitioners of different
sects, rather than the creation of the Puranic texts. An interesting
point is that each sect is based not on one Puranic text but a number
of them. This is characteristic of Hinduism, where multiplicity
of Gods and religious texts is commonplace. There is no rigidity,
whatsoever.
The emergence of the Puranic religion should also be viewed
in the context of Brahmana–Kshatriya relations. It was also a new
instrument used by Brahmanas to retain their power, importance
and relevance to the whole society and to obtain benefits, especially
from the kings, and to maintain their exclusive way of life.
India in Circa 200 AD to 600 AD

The Puranic age begins with the end of the reign of Kanishka
(78-140 AD), who encouraged Buddhism in the North. Even
after this, Buddhist monasteries continued to exist in remote rock
cut caves. The Jainas were present in the southern and western
parts of India. Moreover, Manusmriti had already been composed
(100 BC-100 AD). Ramayana and Mahabharata, in their original
form, were already written. Kautilya’s Arthasastra was probably still
in the making, in terms of additions and modifications. In the
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South, the Sangam period—the golden age of Tamil poetry—had

just ended.
The most important dynasties of the Puranic age are the
Guptas (320-550 AD) with their capital in Pataliputra and
reign extending over large parts of North India. In the South,
the Pallavas were on the rise (375-800 AD). In between these
two very influential dynasties, there were several other notable
dynasties linking the North and the South. Among these were
the Satavahanas (50 BC-200 AD), Vakatakas (460-477 AD),
Rashtrakutas (765-773 AD), Kalachuris (550-575 AD), the early
Chalukyas (543-880 AD) and others. Their relative importance
varied from time to time.
This period is also notable for the Huna invasion of North
India (455-467 AD) and the visit of the Chinese traveller Fa Hsian
(405-411 AD). Kalidasa wrote poems and plays in Sanskrit during
this period (400-477 AD), while Kamasutra was composed by
Vatsyayana around 300 AD.
A very important aspect of this time period is the building of the
earliest temples in India from 5th century AD onwards.
During this period, the political map of India was organized in
terms of Hindu kingdoms—small and big. The geography of the
Puranic age comprised of about 250 Janapadas or small kingdoms.
The names of these kingdoms are mentioned in the Puranas.
In northern India, we have the Gupta Empire which lasted
from 4th century AD to 6th century AD. This is considered to be
a golden age from the point of view of Hinduism. Yet, this period
was full of turmoil with frequent wars between the kingdoms,
and even religious conflict. The Buddhist institutions suffered the
most—Nalanda and Taxshila were turned into ruins.
The Purana texts define Kali Yuga as starting from the end of
the reign of Parikshit, the grandson of Arjuna, but this is mythology.
Of greater significance is the mention of King Bimbisara and
Ajatasatru, and later the Sungas, Nandas, Mauryas, and Kanvas—
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all dynasties based in Magadh. This is history. It is clear from this

that the Puranas were written after 2nd century AD. The Puranas
also mention that the Nandas and Mauryas were of non-Kshatriya
origin (born to Shudra women). The names of the historical kings
and dynasties are mentioned in several other Puranas as well. There
is no doubt that these were composed during the historical period
from 2nd century AD to 14th century AD. On the other hand, the
Vedas and Mimamsa texts existed 1,000 to 1,500 years before the
Puranic texts.
Gods in Human Form

In the Vedic religions, there are no Gods in human form. The only
form of worship was the homa where havis (oblations), words of
praise addressed to specific Vedic Gods, and a special request to
the Gods was offered. In praising Gods, there is an element of
personification; but there are no idols or images (except perhaps
mental ones). In one instance in the Keno Upanishad, Brahman
appears in the form of a woman before Indra; this is probably the
one exception. Imagery was used in mantras. Take for example the
mantra addressed to Agni by the priest while kindling the fire:
चत्वारि शृङा त्रयो अस्य पादा व्दे शीर्षे सप्तहस्तासो अस्य

Four horns, three feet, two heads, and seven hands he has
(Rigveda 4.58.3)
In the Puranic religion all Gods take human form. How did this
come about?
Saguna and Nirguna Brahman

Around the beginning of the first century AD, the Brahmanas
invented the concept of Saguna Brahman, while retaining the
older concept of the Absolute God—Brahman (the first reference
to this concept occurs in Sveteshvataropanishad). They named
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the older version as Nirguna Brahman, which means Brahman

without attributes. The Saguna Brahman took human form to
regenerate dharma among the masses. This transformation was
effected through a mechanism known as maya. Maya or ‘illusion’ is
inseparable from the concept of Saguna Brahman. Using the power
of maya, the Nirguna Brahman took the form of Saguna Brahman
or Isvara. Thus, Isvara is conceived as the creator of prakriti—the
phenomenal world and humans. Vishnu and Shiva were recognized
as Isvaras by Vaishnavas and Shaivites respectively. The Vaishnavites
used the concept of rebirth to postulate several incarnations of
Vishnu, while the Shaivites did not subscribe to the concept of
avatars. Further, both Vaishnavites and Shaivites accepted idol
worship, which was already in vogue among the Shudras.
These new developments were in fact inspired by local
cultures. The God Rudra of Harappan and Vedic vintage became
Shiva (explained in Sveteshvataropanishad) and he is also identified
with linga, trishul and other symbols. Shaivism has its roots in the
Upanishad mentioned above and in the Shiva and Skanda Puranas,
while Vaishnavism is based on Vishnu Purana and later Bhagavata
Purana. In the latter, idol worship and puja are explained by Lord
Krishna in a section titled Kriya Yoga. The Shiva Purana also has
sections devoted to procedures to be followed in idol worship. In
particular, it deals with the installation of the linga and its mode
of worship.
A very important point, often ignored by the bhaktas, is that all
Gods in human form are an illusion; they are the products of maya.
While the layman sees the human form of his favourite God, the
Jnani sees nothing. He is one with Brahman. Thus, the intellectual’s
viewpoint is at variance with the layman’s; this dichotomy has
existed throughout the historical period.
All the actions of Brahman in human form are illusions. It
follows from this that all that the Puranas say is imaginary. There
is no history here. This does not mean that the illusions are not
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relevant. They are and very much so to the bhaktas, but not to
those who ‘know’. This subtle point distinguishes the intellectual
Brahmana from the lay bhaktas. This also proves that history and
mythology are two entirely different systems.
Brahmana–Kshatriya Relations
The love-hate relationship of the two principal Varnas—Brahmanas
and Kshatriyas—is highlighted in the Puranas in the story format.
The Kshatriyas get a far better deal here, although all the Puranas
were written by Brahmanas. The reason is not far to seek. By the
time of the Puranas, the Brahmanas had moved in significant
numbers to the South, first to the Narmada and Godavari valleys
and still later to the extreme South. The kings in these new lands
did not belong to the old Kshatriya clans of the Mimamsa period.
Instead, they were either from the Brahmana Varna or from the
Shudra Varna—more from the latter. Nevertheless, the two
principal Varnas needed the support of each other, even more than
at any other time in the past.
For the kings, particularly those coming from lower strata of
society, recognition as true Kshatriyas was of paramount importance
for their power and influence depended on this. For this they had
to organize Vedic yagas of various kinds to earn respect from the
public. Brahmanas provided the means to achieve this. In return,
the kings treated Brahmanas with respect and gave them land
and gifts of gold. This provided the primary source of living to
the Brahmanas.
Evidence for the above comes from the establishment
of agraharams—Brahmana villages, throughout the South. The
agraharam is the foundation for the spread of Vedic and Puranic
religions in the South. From the South, the Puranic religion
returned to the North with the infusion of bhakti, as we will see
later. There is a need to study the role of agraharams in far greater
detail to understand the evolution of Hinduism at this time.
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The Puranas are essentially stories of kings and queens, princes

and princesses. While most kings, as depicted in the Puranas, are
very ordinary humans with no claims to divinity, there are two
notable exceptions—Rama and Krishna. These two are the principal
Gods worshipped by Vaishnavas. However, the Shaivites and Saktas
do not give any importance to kings and queens. Shiva himself is
represented as a hunter while Shakti in various forms is a power
goddess who gets rid of evil demons. There were many kings in the
South and in the North who were ardent followers of Shaivism.
Further, the Brahmanas created fictitious lineages for various
dynasties tracing them to the two principal lineages in the two
Epics—Suryavamsi and Chandravamsi. Both of these dynasties were
descendants of Manu by two different wives and Manu himself
is represented as the son of the Sun God. However, this belief
is relevant only in the North where Brahmanas used it to make
a living.
It is in this context that the Puranas—particularly Brahmanda
Purana and Bhagavata Purana—mention a few historical kings
who belong to the 5th century BC to around the beginning of the
Christian era. These kings belong to the Kali age—the fourth Yuga
known for decadent moral values and degenerate Kshatriya kings.
According to the Puranas, the Kali Yuga begins with the death of
Parikshit—the grandson of Arjuna. Bhagavata Purana is actually a
series of stories told by Suka to Parikshit. In this Purana there is a
prediction about what is going to happen in the Kali Yuga.
The kings of Kali Yuga that are mentioned in the Puranas are:
Bimbisara and Ajatasatru; the latter killed his father to gain the
kingdom. Both father and son were known to have had friendly
relations with Gautama Buddha. Pushyamitra, a Brahmana,
usurped the kingdom from a descendant of Ajatasatru by killing
him and established the Sunga dynasty. They were overtaken by
the Nandas—a son of a Shudra wife of the ruler. The Nandas
were replaced by the Mauryas, who were succeeded by Kanvas—a
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Brahmana dynasty. Kings of the Gupta period are not mentioned.

This may lead us to conclude that the two Puranas mentioned
above belong to the intervening period between the Kanvas and
Guptas. However, it is quite possible that they were written much
later and the information given above is just copied from an
earlier Purana.
The Invention of the Yugas

The Brahmanas were an unhappy lot from the advent of Buddhism
and Jainism, from around 5th century BC. Their influence had
diminished and they were left powerless. They had to invent new
ways to regain their influence and power. The invention of Saguna
Brahman and maya was one means that they could use. However,
they could not in any way glorify the contemporary kings and
ruling dynasties—they had nothing but contempt for them. The
invention of the concept of yugas provided an opportunity to
overcome this hurdle and to revive their fortunes.
They postulated that while the kings of the Kali yuga (from 5th
century BC onwards) were degenerate Kshatriyas, the earlier kings
before 5th century BC were not. They invented three more yugas
starting with krita, treta, and dwapara. They postulated that the
moral values based on dharma declined rapidly with each yuga and
reached their lowest point in the kali yuga, when the kings were
from either the Shudra Varna or Mlechhas (foreigners). Within
this framework they re-created the two Epics: Ramayana and
Mahabharata. Ramayana belongs to treta yuga, while Mahabharata
belongs to dwapara yuga. In Ramayana, Rama was an ideal king
who followed dharma in a very strict way. In Mahabharata, the
kings were portrayed more or less as degenerate, those who violated
dharma often. Even Yudhishthira, the sole upholder of dharma
in Mahabharata, had to make compromises at various points in
time. Between the two Epics, the Brahmanas showed a decline of
moral values and the degeneration of Kshatriyas. Still, the very
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portrayal of Rama and Krishna as royalty was sufficient to enlist

the cooperation of the kings and nobles. To this they added the
invention of fictitious dynasties (Chandravamsi and Suryavamsi).
This was essentially a mechanism that they used to legitimize the
kings and obtain gifts from them.
Manu interprets yugas in a straightforward way, leaving little
room for misinterpretation. It is the dharma followed by the king
that determines a yuga and not vice versa. It is only a construct
to project good and bad kings. Ramayana and Mahabharata are
founded on this principle enunciated by Manu and they should
not be considered in any other way.
Nevertheless, the depiction of both Rama and Krishna as
Gods may be taken as a further concession to the ruling class. The
subtlety of the yuga concept has often been ignored in subsequent
centuries. Thus, what was in fact an illusion is assumed to be real.
Furthermore, the Epics and later the Puranas borrowed names
of personalities from the Vedas and Upanishads to show that
their stories were part of the Vedic tradition and to reinforce the
Brahmana–Kshatriya nexus.
Throughout the medieval period, the new kings of the North
and a few in the South were traced either to the Suryavamsi lineage
or the Chandravamsi lineage, just to legitimize their royal status
in the eyes of the people. In most cases, the new kings belonged
to the Shudra Varna. In return, the new kings gave groups of
Brahmanas large land grants to establish villages. These are known
as agraharams. There are thousands of agraharams in South India
even today, clear evidence of the patronage extended to Brahmanas
by the kings of the day.
The Contents of the Puranas

The Puranas normally contain five basic features:
l Creation of the cosmos.
l The enlargement of the universe.
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Puranas
l Creation of living things and humans.

l Description of the four yugas and the periods of the 14 Manus,
the forefathers of mankind.
l Genealogy of the rulers of the country. For the most part,
however, they focus on stories of men and women, both
ordinary people and kings to highlight the need for following
dharma as given in the Smrities. Most of the stories in the
Puranas deal with the ancestors of the hero of Ramayana and
stories connected with Mahabharata. The stories of the Shaivite
and Saktas Puranas, however, cover a different spectrum, and
are entirely independent of the Epics.
Veda Vyasa
While dealing with Puranas, one cannot ignore Veda Vyasa.
His name appears often in the Puranas; he is supposed to be
the author and the primary storyteller. However, after a few
brief statements, he delegates this function to the principal
student Suta and his own son–Suka. The story in the Puranas
is told to a group of rishies who have assembled in the woods
near the river Naimisha—a mythological river. In recent times,
this river is identified with the Gomati River and the forests
(Naimisharanya) near this river were located about 90 kms
north-west of Lucknow.
The name of Bharadwaja also appears at times and his ashram
on the banks of the Ganga is mentioned. We may recall the lavish
reception given to the people of Ayodhya in this ashram, when
they were on their way to meet Ram in Chitrakut.
Veda Vyasa was the son of Parasara and Satyavati, when she was
still a maiden. Parasara was one of the original Rigvedic poets whose
name appears in the Rigvedic text. Later, Satyavati got married
to Santanu, the king of Hastinapura. She had two sons by this
marriage. The two sons died after their marriage leaving no heirs.
Satyavati compeled her daughters-in-law to have a child by her
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surviving son—Vyasa. The two princesses, Ambika and Ambalika,

were unwilling to do this. They sent their maid at first and Vidura
was born to the maid. On hearing this, Satyavati forced them to go
to Vyasa and produce children. They obeyed unwillingly—one of
the sons was born blind and the other pale skinned.
The story contravenes dharma and the prescriptions laid
down in Manusmriti (Chapter 9.59). While a widow is allowed
to have a child by the brother of her husband or by an agnate, she
cannot be compelled to do so (Veda Vyasa was not an agnate but
an illegitimate cognate). The rationale was that a widow had no
support in the absence of her husband and she needed a son for
support in old age. She had to decide whether to have a son or not
but could not be compelled to do so.
In this story, both Satyavati and Veda Vyasa are shown in bad
light. Probably the intention of the author of this work was to show
the seeds of adharma that pervades the story of Mahabharata till
its very end. Adharma is ultimately punished by total annihilation
of Kshatriyas.
The Mahabharata and the story of Parsuram show that the
Brahmanas were annoyed with the adharmic acts of the Kshatriyas.
The annihilation of Kshatriyas may also refer to the fact that by the
time the Puranas were written, the old warrior class of Kshatriyas
was no longer there—eliminated by competition from others, both
locals and outsiders. Yet, Brahmanas had to make compromises
with the new class of Kshatriyas in their own self-interest, even
though they knew of their adharmic ways.
The story of Suka, the fourth son of Veda Vyasa, is also very
strange. Suka was born to a parrot which was flying in the air
when Vyasa’s seed fell on it and she got pregnant and gave birth
to Suka. The parrot was actually a damsel from the world of
Gods. I would think that Veda Vyasa was never meant to be a
real person and everything about him is unreal, mythical and
unethical.
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Names of Puranas
The Puranas are generally considered to be 18 in number. In
addition there are 18 Upapuranas and a host of Sthala puranas.
The Sthala puranas are invariably associated with an important
temple and its agama sastra. The agama sastras, in turn, relate to
one principal temple and a number of smaller temples associated
with it. The 18 Puranas are:
l Brahma Purana (10,000 verses)
l Padma Purana (5,600 verses)
l Vishnu Purana (23,000 verses)
l Siva Purana (24,000 verses)
l Bhagavata Purana (18,000 verses)
l Narada Purana (25,000 verses)
l Markandeya Purana (9000 verses)
l Bhavishya Purana (14,000 verses)
l Brahmavaivarta Purana (21,00)
l Linga Purana
l Varaha Purana
l Skanda Purana (100,000 verses)
l Vamana Purana (11,000 verses)
l Kurma Purana (17,000 verses)
l Matsya Purana (14,000 verses)
l Brahmanda Purana
l Garuda Purana
l Agni Purana
The verses in the Puranas usually comprise of 32 syllables. All the
18 Puranas put together have over 4 lakh verses, while Mahabharata
consists of one lakh verses. Valmiki Ramayana has only 20,000
verses. This gives on idea of the comparative volume of material
in these texts.
Chronology
There is no acceptable ordering of the Puranas. From the religious
point of view a chronological ordering of the Puranas is irrelevant
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since they were revealed to Veda Vyasa by God. However, if we

ignore the religious angle, chronology becomes relevant and some
inferences are possible, however tentative, from the content of
the Puranas.
From a historical angle, all Puranas were composed after the
period of the Mauryan rule. The early Puranas do mention the
Mauryan dynasty and the presence of Yavanas in the North-West,
as well as some of the later dynasties prior to the Gupta age; they
belong to the period after 2nd century AD. The following are the
tentative dates given for the early Puranas: Brahmanda (350-900
AD), Kurma (550-850 AD), Markandeya (250-550 AD), Matsya
(250-500 AD); all the others belong to a later period.
One could also say that the age of the Puranas coincided with
the origin and growth of temples, from the period of the Guptas
that is from 5th century AD onwards (see Chapter 10—Origin and
Growth of Temples).
Vaishnava Puranas
The Vaishnava Puranas are by far the largest group; there is a Purana
for each of the main avatars of Vishnu, apart from the original
Vishnu Purana itself. Vishnu Purana provides the foundation for
the Vaishnavite sect. Ramanujacharya used this Purana as the basis
for the formulation of his qualified non-dualism (visishta-advaita),
while Bhagavata Purana which deals mainly with the life of Lord
Krishna is considered today as the bible of the Sri Vaishnavas. The
other Puranas in this group are: Matsya Purana, Kurma Purana,
Varaha Purana, Vamana Purana, and the Brahmavaivarta Purana—
the latter deals with the ras leela of Lord Krishna.
Apart from Vishnu Purana, the Bhagavata Purana holds a very
special place in Vaishnavism. While Vishnu Purana was composed by
Parasara, the father of Veda Vyasa, Bhagavata Purana is essentially a
dialogue between Suka, the fourth son of Veda Vyasa and Parikshit,
given on the banks of the Ganga River where Parikshit had retired
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after abdicating his kingdom to his son Janamejaya, on account of

a curse by some rishies.
Bhagavata Purana, which I have read in original Sanskrit, is
very tedious to read; there are dialogues within dialogues. It is not
organized in any chronological order. Instead, a dialogue within
a dialogue represents an episode or a short story in itself. The
more substantive part of the Purana is at its end where there is a
very prolonged dialogue between Lord Krishna and his boyhood
friend Udhava. Here, the discussions are more serious and they
deal with philosophical matters. Bhagavata Purana also deals
with Lord Krishna’s relationship with the Gopies and particularly
Radha. Udhava acts as a go between Lord Krishna and the Gopies,
especially when he was preoccupied with other responsibilities in
Kurukshetra or Mathura.
Other Puranas
Of the eighteen Puranas, ten come under the category of Vaishnava
Puranas; the remaining eight deal with Shiva, Shakti and Skanda—
three well recognized sects of Hinduism. This would seem to be
rather imbalanced. However, the Skanda Purana alone has one lakh
verses, about one fourth the size of the 18 Puranas put together.
The lack of numbers is thus partially offset by the volume of verses.
There is another problem with these Puranas: it is nearly impossible
to neatly divide them into the three sects that they represent. The
reasons for this is not far to seek. Shiva, Parvathi, and Skanda have
close relations and it is difficult to separate their individual stories;
yet some demarcations are normally made.
Shiva Purana and Linga Purana are the primary texts for
Shaivites. Skanda Purana is about Skanda or Karthikeya and
various others names. However, the bulk of this Purana deals with
stories concerning Shiva.
The Markandeya Purana is primarily devoted to Devi, Durga
or Shakti. The Brahmanda Purana is also devoted to the same
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Goddess in another form. Here, the focus is on Lalita or Amba.

This Purana contains the lalita sahasranama—verses consisting of
the thousand names of Amba or Lalita. Reciting the 1,000 names
in a sequence is very popular among bhaktas. In a similar way, there
are lists of thousand names of Shiva and Vishnu as well; these are
part of the Mahabharata.
Among the other Puranas, the Garuda Purana is about
ancestors and it is used in the Shraddha ceremony. Narada Purana
shifts between Shiva and Vishnu, although it is primarily a
Vaishnava Purana. Brahma, Padma, and Agni are the other Puranas
which deal with nonsectarian deities. Bhavishya Purana deals with
the happenings in the Kali Yuga, while all the other Puranas are
concerned with the earlier three Yugas; Ramayana deals with treta
Yuga, while Mahabharata deals with Dwapara Yuga.
The number of verses devoted to a sectarian God or Goddess
in the Puranas does not necessarily indicate the number of
followers or bhaktas. In fact, there is a gross imbalance here. If
we take India as a whole, Shaivites outnumber the Vaishnavites
by a big margin, especially in rural areas and among the masses
of illiterate people. In the South, the rural temples are mainly for
Shiva or Parvathi (in her folk versions), Skanda and Vinayaka.
Temples for Vishnu are very rare indeed. Nevertheless, a few
temples for Krishna are very famous. Among the old historical
temples known for their size and architectural excellence, Shiva
temples dominate the scene.
Upapuranas and Sthala Puranas

In addition to the 18 Puranas, there are 18 Upapuranas. The
principal Upa-Puranas are: The Vinayaka Purana, the Kalki
Purana, Tula Purana, Magha Purana, and others. The Upapuranas
are obviously of much later origin and are relatively unimportant.
Some of the Upapuranas are named after the months of the year;
they actually deal with the significance of these months from the
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Puranas
religious point of view, in terms of rituals and other observances. In

addition to the above, there are Sthala Puranas which connect the
Puranic legends the local and regional lore. Most, if not all, relate
to large and well known temples and their associated townships in
the South.
The Sthala Puranas in Tamil Nadu find mention in the
basic texts of the Shaivas and Vaishnavas—the Tevaram and the
Divyaprabandham—which belong to the period around 600 AD
or later.
They explain the special characteristics of the temple and the
deity and these are related to mythology. In addition, they also
explain the relationships to other temples in the region. The stories
that form part of these Puranas are well known to the devotees.
Others not aware of the context in which the deity is to be
worshipped can get copies of the Sthala Puranas in the bookstores
near the temple premises. They are mostly in the vernacular
language or in English. These printed versions are not to be taken as
the original; they are only recent adaptations. A more valid source
is the Agama sastras relating to the temple. The later Tamil bhakti
texts are full of references to Sthala Puranas of various temples in
the state. The Sthala Puranas are pure mythology and have nothing
to do with local history or history of the temples.
The major Puranas and the minor Puranas also deal with the
holiness of rivers—the Ganga, Narmada and Kaveri. An interesting
point here is that the Puranas cover the South and the North.
Kriya Yoga
Kriya yoga is a new concept introduced for the first time in Bhagavata
Purana (Part 11, Chapter 27–consisting of 55 verses). Bhagavatham
(another name for Bhagavata Purana) is all about bhakti yoga and
this term is mentioned throughout the text consisting of 12 parts,
a variable number of chapters in each, and about 25,000 verses in
all. Kriya yoga is only a miniscule segment of this work and has not
147
attracted much attention. The author was not even aware of this
term until recently.
What is kriya yoga? It is explained by Lord Krishna in answer to
a request made by Udhava in Bhagavatham. The Lord’s explanation
is summarized below.
At the outset, Lord Krishna says that he may be worshipped in
any one of three ways: the vaidika method, the tantric method, or
a mixture of the two. Any form of worship is acceptable provided
it is done with devotion and according to prescribed rules for
rituals. These rules are given in texts generally known as nigamas
and agamas.
Kriya yoga is essentially idol worship, and for this reason the
more detailed explanation starts with eight different types of statues
or images of God. Of these, six are made of materials such as stone,
wood, metal, clay, sand, and crystal; the seventh is a drawing or
painting, while the eighth is a mental image or an image of the
Lord in one’s mind. The bhakta may use any one of these images
for daily worship.
शैली दारुमयी लौही लेप्या लेख्या च सैकती ।

मनोमयी मणिमयी प्रतिमाष्ठविथा स्मृता ।।
Stone, wood, metal, clay, sand, and crystal.
Mental image and a drawing are the eight types of idols.
(Srimad Bhagavatham, Part 11, Chapter 27, sloka 12).
Further, idols are of two kinds: those that are immovable and the
ones that can be moved. The immovable ones are established in
temples of the Lord. The movable ones are found in homes. It
is interesting to note that for Hindus, it is not necessary or even
important to go to a temple to worship their God; they can do it
at home. Most people follow the latter method and go to temples
only occasionally.
Much of the discussion on the subject in this Purana focuses
on the worship of the Lord at home. In the Mimamsa religion all
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Puranas
rituals are to be performed only at home. There is continuity here

in basic principles.
Before performing the worship of the Lord, one should take
a bath and perform sandhya vandana or other prescribed nitya
karmas. This has to do with Mimamsa religion.
The next step is to wash and anoint the idol with sandal
paste, followed by clothing of the idol. Further, the idol should
be decorated according to individual taste. For this flowers may be
used, in addition to ornaments.
Prayers may be in the form of mantras or slokas in praise of
the Lord; to start with the gayatri mantra should be recited. While
reciting the slokas, the devotee must remember that the Lord is both
Saguna as well as Nirguna Brahman. The Lord is one’s own atman
and he also exists in all living things. It is important to remember
this always. The Lord gives far more details about what should be
done during the performance of the daily puja. It is important to
note that the Bhagavata Purana recognizes the Nirguna Brahman as
higher than the Saguna Brahman.
At the end of the puja, modakam or payasam made from cane
sugar may be offered to the Lord.
The rituals described above and further details given in the text
in the Lord’s own words are the ones that are normally performed
by devotees even today, and in this sense the Lord’s prescriptions
are followed to the letter by all devotees. Kriya yoga, as such, is
nothing special or out of the way. For this reason it is very popular
even today. It is a ritual that is easy to follow at home and it is more
than adequate to serve one’s religious requirements for salvation.
One may note that in popular practice, the Mimamsa components,
such as nitya karmas, are generally ignored. Indeed, most people
have no idea of nitya karmas as prescribed in the Mimamsa texts.
At the end, mention is made about the need to construct
temples of the Lord outside the village perimeter and to maintain
flower gardens to support the daily rituals. In Shiva Purana, there
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are detailed prescriptions for the worship of the linga, somewhat

similar to the description in the Bhagavata Purana.
What is interesting is that ‘idol worship’ is not mentioned in
any of our religious texts written before the Puranas. This includes
all four Vedas, the Brahmanas attached to each of the four Vedas, the
Upanishads, Manusmriti, and even Valmiki Ramayana.
However, idol worship had always been practiced, long before
the Puranas were written, by common people–designated as
Shudras and Mlechhas in Sanskrit texts. The worship of idols by
Shudras in temples outside main villages is indirectly indicated in
Manusmriti.
Kriya yoga, from a technical point of view, is not yoga at all.
Its focus is on daily rituals, and in this sense, it corresponds to
the pancha yajnas of the Purva Mimamsa School as defined in
Manusmriti. It is, in fact, a substitute for daiva yajna—the daily
ritual to be performed by all grihasthas. In Manusmriti, daiva
yajna means a homa in which Vedic mantras are recited. The Gods
worshipped here are Vedic Gods, namely, Indra, Varuna, Agni and
so on. In Kriya yoga, Vedic Gods have no role at all. Instead, one
worships one’s ishta devta—usually Krishna, Rama, Shiva, Parvati,
Vinayaka, or Lakshmi. Mantras are replaced by slokas in praise
of one’s favourite God. One usually offers flowers to the deity in
the form of an idol and also cooked food. While homa for Vedic
Gods is hardly ever performed even by Brahmanas today, the daily
puja for one’s ishta devta is very commonly performed at home by
most bhaktas.
Temples and Agamas

The magnificent Hindu temples of peninsular India belong to the
Puranic period. It may be noted that temple construction by kings
began with the Guptas probably in the 5th century AD; however,
there are no temples belonging to this period at the present time in
North India, with the rare exception of a small temple in Deogarh,
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Puranas
south of Jhansi. From the 5th century AD onwards, temples were

cut into rocks or built as free standing temples. Temple construction
on a grand scale peaked during the reign of the Cholas between the
11th and 13th centuries and these temples are still functional.
During the later Puranic period—from the 10th century
onwards, temples became centres of pilgrimage and people flocked
to them from far and near. The Puranas mention various places of
pilgrimage throughout India—a great majority of them are tirthas
and a few are associated with temples. Some of these temples were
located on the banks of the rivers. The sacred rivers mentioned are
Ganga, Yamuna, Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri. These
rivers were glorified in the later Puranas and bathing in them was
considered to be particularly beneficial.
Agamas are texts in Sanskrit that serve as the foundation for
the building of temples, their day to day management and all
matters connected with the performance of rituals and temple
festivals. There are 108 Agamas, most of which belong to the Shaiva
sects. The Vaishnava Agamas are few in number; still they are very
important. The Agamas cover a great variety of issues, including
Sthala Puranas and even Vedic philosophy. From the view point of
religious sects, the Agamas are far more important than even the
Vedas. This is particularly so in the case of Shaivite sects.
Mimamsa in the Puranic Age

During the Puranic period, the practice of Mimamsa religion had
been considerably weakened in the North with the advent of the
Yavanas and the rise of a newer class of kings who were not used to
this religion. The emergence of Buddhism and Jainism was another
contributing factor to the decline of the Mimamsa religion in the
North. The Guptas, however, patronized Brahmanas and thus
promoted the Mimamsa religion during the 3rd to 5th centuries.
By the end of the 5th century, Brahmanas migrated to the South in
larger numbers in search of newer pastures.
151
While the practice of the Purva Mimamsa religion declined

in the North, it was practiced in a rigorous way by a very select
group of Brahmanas who lived in the agraharams of the South.
The Uttara Mimamsa religion regained some vigor in a new format
with the growing popularity of Bhagavad Gita. Uttara Mimamsa,
because of its intellectual content, was always practiced by rare
persons. Its practice did not require any support from kings or the
ruling class for its survival.
The Vedic religion and the two Mimamsas flourished in the
deep South, where they were encouraged by Cholas, Pandyas,
Cheras, and other southern dynasties of Hindu kings. They gave
large land grants to groups of Brahmanas from the North and
settled them in villages known as agraharams. This process had
begun from the 2nd century AD and was further expanded by later
dynasties. There are thousands of agraharams in the South today.
The agraharams laid the foundation for the Sankritisation of
the South and the preservation of the Vedic traditions under the
aegis of Hindu rulers until very recent times. Much of what we
now know of the Vedas was actually obtained from manuscripts
maintained by Brahmanas in the deep South. The agraharams have
played an outstanding role in the protection and preservation of
the Vedas and Vedic literature. In the Ganga Plains, where it all
began, the study of the Vedas and the practice of Mimamsa religion
all but vanished over centuries of Muslim rule.
The Growth of Agraharams in the South

Agraharam is a Sanskrit word which means a large tract of land given
as gift to a group of Brahmanas to establish a village settlement.
Eventually, it becomes a village settlement inhabited exclusively
by families of Brahmanas. The lands surrounding the village
are owned by Brahmanas in the village but cultivated by tenant
farmers from the Shudra Varna. Within the village land, there may
be one or more smaller settlements for tenant farmers and at least
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Puranas
one for the landless labourers, who normally belong to the Dalit
group. The Brahmanas lived on the income from the agricultural
lands; these were exempted from tax by the Hindu kings. Under
the Cholas, these land grants were legally sanctified in copper
plate charters. A number of these charters are still in existence.
Some, if not most of these Brahmana villages were self-governed
and the kings did not interfere in their internal administration.
These villages were administered by small committees elected by
the Brahmanas themselves. The details of village administration are
explained in the copper plate charters. Some of these are available in
published form.
A plot of land given to a Brahmana is known as brahmadeyam.
This is in addition to the above or apart from it. In other words,
with time the Brahmana population increased and the number of
agraharams increased. These newer Brahmana settlements, however,
were not strictly land grant villages. They were villages established
by Brahmanas using the brahmadeyam lands as a source of income.
Whenever a scholarly Brahmana obtained a large land grant, it was
shared among many Brahmana families to establish a new village.
The rationale is that receiving a gift involves ‘sin’ and the sin can be
washed away by sharing it with others (a value system that has its
roots in Rigveda).
Entire villages given away to support a temple is a daivadeyam.
These lands are also exempt from taxation. Most temples in
South India were supported in this way. The temples also received
donations of land and even gold and jewellery from the rich. These
are often recorded by means of inscriptions on temple walls. In the
1950s, the temple lands reverted to the tenant farmers. Likewise,
the agricultural lands in the villages also reverted to the tenants,
especially in the case of absentee landlords. Most Brahmanas, who
were absentee landlords, lost their lands in this way.
During the period from 4th century AD to 6th century AD,
the Guptas started the custom of giving large grants of land for
153
three purposes: as a gift to Brahmanas, as a gift to temples, both of

which earned religious merit; thirdly, they gave land as salary for
officials. The first and second were not taxable, the third was.
The practice of giving large grants of tax free land to
Brahmanas became very popular south of the Vindhyas. The process
was probably initiated by the Satavahanas, and later followed by
Vakatakas, and Rashtrakutas, and others who established dynasties
in North Deccan.
Further south, the Chalukyas of Vatapi (modern Badami)
continued the tradition. In Tamil Nadu, Pallavas were the first to
initiate this model around the 6th century AD. They were followed
by the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras. In Karnataka and Andhra,
the Hoysalas, Gangas, the Ikshvakus of Guntur and Kakatiyas
of Warrangal followed the tradition. The most recent practice
of agrahara land grants relate to Kerala, where the Zamorins of
Calicut, the kings of Kochi and Travancore or their vassals brought
in groups of Brahmanas from Tamil Nadu and settled them in their
respective territories in the 17th and 18th centuries AD.
The British period saw an end to this tradition; further, the
agraharam lands were taxed much the same way as other lands. The
Brahmanas did not enjoy any special privileges as they used to with
the Hindu kings.
Among the southern states, Kerala has an entirely different
system of Brahmana settlements. The Nairs, who had the highest
rank among the locals, were matrilineal until recently. It was with
this social class that the Nambudiri Brahmanas closely interacted.
The rural settlements were of the dispersed type with each
individual house surrounded by land in which coconut, mango,
jackfruit and various others trees were planted, along with small
gardens for vegetables and spices. While these gardens were on the
slopes of small hills, the valleys served as fields for rice cultivation.
When Brahmanas first came to this region around the 5th
century AD, the local kings and chieftains gave them large tracts of
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Puranas
land—2,000 acres or more. The Nambudiri Brahmanas built

illams––large houses which could accommodate fifty or more
persons. The surrounding agricultural lands were cultivated by
tenant farmers. The large Nambudiri household had a male head,
several wives and children, unmarried sisters and brothers, widows
and so on. The Nambudiries applied the law of primogeniture
in a strict way. In this system, the eldest son inherited the entire
property. In this way, the original land grant remained intact for
generations. The younger brothers were not allowed to marry other
Nambudiri girls, but they had alliances with Nair women, who
followed a matrilineal system.
Kerala had, and still has, remnants of thousands of such Illams.
However, the system broke down during the British period and the
joint family system and the practice of primogeniture have come
to an end. The matrilineal system among Nairs also underwent
changes and is no longer relevant today.
Agraharam: A Case Study

What is an agraharam? I shall try to explain this using my native
agraharam—Chandrasekharapuram, in the Palakkad district of
Kerala State (see Figure 6). For visual images of this village one can
go to: www.cspuram.in, which is quite informative. This website
is maintained by the Chandrasekharapuram Welfare Association.
Located on the banks of the Kunnadi Aar (or Kannadi Puzha
as it is popularly known), a tributary of the Bharata Puzha in the
district of Palakkad, Chandrasekharapuram is a small but beautiful
agraharam—a village inhabited solely by Smarta Brahmanas. It
is approached from Palakkad by travelling along the Palakkad-
Shoranur road for about 8 kms and at Edathara by taking a narrow
side road. This tarred road passing through paddy fields and gardens
ends at the village of Chandrasekharapuram.
Chandrasekharapuram village impressed me with its very
beautiful rural setting on a small rocky hill beside a river with a
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Approx scale
Figure 6 Palakkad Agraharams

Note: This figure is not to scale. It does not represent any authentic national or international boundaries and is
used for illustrative purposes only.
Puranas
rocky bed, where water flowed in cascades in short stretches, while

small pools of water suitable for bathing and even swimming were
present at intervals. There are two approaches to the river from the
agraharam. The one to the west, behind the Krishna temple has
paved steps for the most part and is commonly used, while the
approach from near the Chandrasekharaswami temple in the east
is a katcha path which can be used by those who are familiar with
the place; this approach may have snakes on the way. The river with
flowing water is indeed beautiful to look at from sections of the
village perimeter. When the river is in flood, the waters can reach
very close to the Krishna and Chandrasekharaswami temples. It is
then an awesome sight.
Unlike most other agraharams, this village consists of a
single street of row houses on either side; there are some eighty-
four houses in all. All the inhabitants of the village, at present,
are Brahmanas and hence it is able to retain most of its cultural
attributes. However, only a third of the residents are descendants of
original settlers; others are from nearby agraharams, who chose to
settle down in this village. There are twelve houses which are locked
and unoccupied.
The Brahmanas here belong to a group known as Smartas,
also popularly known as Iyers. The Smarta Brahmanas practiced
the Mimamsa form of Vedic religion and they were in the past
strict followers of the rules laid down in the Smrities. It is for this
reason that they were known as Smartas—this word is derived from
Smriti. They were also followers of Adi Sankara and his philosophy
of advaita. They accept the Sankaracharya of Sringeri Mutt as their
parama guru. Important functions like marriage were performed
with his blessings. In course of time, Smarta Brahmanas gave up
the Mimamsa religion while giving more importance to Puranic
modes of worship, and the study of the Puranas and Epics in
preference to the Vedas and Upanishads. They also accepted local
157
Gods as their kula deivam. About 200 years ago, the Mimamsa
religion was dominant; today it is the other way round.
In Chandrasekharapuram, the Smarta Brahmanas belong
to the Vadama Jati. Among Smartas there were several Jaties—
endogamous groups. In most villages, Brahmanas belong to the
same Jati. There are about ten such Jaties of Brahmanas in this
region. How did these Jaties come about? I would think that
they came about as a result of the emigrational process through
the centuries.
On the other hand, in this village, there are families belonging
to several gotras; a gotra is an exogamous group of families. Almost
all agraharams are homogenous with regard to Jati but have families
belonging to different gotras.
The village has a well at its eastern end—a relic of the past;
in fact, most houses have their own wells to provide good water.
The water has to be pulled up with rope and pulleys but the
depth of water is only about twenty feet. However, even the wells
inside houses have become obsolete with piped water supply from
Malampuzha scheme; most villages in Palakkad area have piped
water from this scheme. The wells are still there and some people
still use them. Waste disposal and drainage is through the septic
tank system built in the backyard of each house. In the olden times,
the water just drained off into the river or the fields.
A typical house in the agraharam has a 30 foot frontage
(sometimes 20 feet) and a depth of 120 feet (see Figure 7). The
entrance is through an open veranda with a very heavy but small
front door measuring 5˝ by 2.5˝. The heavy wooden door and small
entrance is a security measure adopted during medieval times. The
entrance opens into a long passageway which leads to the backyard.
Immediately upon entry, to the left of the doorway, is the wooden
granary with a staircase leading to the first floor and also the top of
the granary. The granary is where paddy (unhusked rice) is stored.
We may note here that the main source of income of families was
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Puranas
Approx scale
Figure 7 Agraharam House Plan

159
the paddy given to them by the tenant farmer after harvest. The
wealth of families was judged in those days by the quantum of
paddy that the family was entitled to receive from their tenants
every year.
The first floor of the house is an elongated hall measuring
20/30 feet by 15 feet; the hall is used as a common bedroom. There
are no other bedrooms in the house.
Beyond the entrance passage is a dining hall to the left and a
kottathalam—an open air space where rain water comes in directly,
thus providing cool air and ventilation to the inner area of the
house. From the dining hall one can enter the kitchen and beyond
the kitchen is an open courtyard with a well which can also be
accessed from the kitchen area (plus a small bath as well). The
courtyard is fairly large, 30 × 30 feet; beyond this is the inner house
(randam kettu) where the cows are housed. This area is also used as
a multipurpose storage of fuel wood and a number of odd items.
It was also the place where women spent most of their time during
the monthly cycle.
Further beyond is the open kitchen garden and the lavatories,
now furnished with Indian commodes and a septic tank. The
backyard may lead to the river directly in houses that are on the
southern side of the street. On the northern side, the backyard will
merge with agricultural land mainly used for rice cultivation.
Cows used to be ubiquitous in all households a century ago,
but now, there are no cows in any household. The cows used to
walk out of the house each morning to assemble outside the village,
from where they were led to the pastures for grazing by boys and
they would return to their respective houses in the evening on their
own. A cow was always a very important member of a Brahmana
household.
Agraharam life is now altogether different; in the past the
emphasis was on performance of daily rituals (nitya karmas) and
the five daily yajnas as mentioned in Manusmriti. Today the focus
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Puranas
is on worship at the temples in the morning and evening hours.

There are three temples in the village. The most important is the
Chandrasekharaswami temple located outside the agraharam to the
east. It is a large temple (covering about two acres of land) and
the village itself derives its name from the presiding deity. There
is a large Krishna temple at the western end of the agraharam. It
is an impressive temple whose frontage is visible throughout the
agraharam. A third temple is for Vinayaka; it is a small and rather
unimpressive temple located in the east of the village. Village life
nowadays is centered on these temples and the festivals associated
with them. The study of Vedas and Vedic rituals play only a minor
role in the lives of the Brahmanas of the village.
Summing Up
The village of Chandrasekharapuram highlights the transition from
Mimamsa religion to the Puranic religion in a matter of centuries.
From 5th century onwards temples have come to play an important
role in the lives of Brahmanas, not only in Chandrasekharapuram
but throughout India. In the following chapter we shall look into
the history of Hindu temples.
161
Hindu Temples: Their Origin
and Growth
• Introduction • Origin • Early Temples • The Mature

Phase—South and North • The Peak of Temple Building
• Regional Patterns • Temples and Pilgrimage
Introduction
Hindu Temples are a product of the Puranic age. The earliest
temples, in the Puranic mould, belong to the 5th century AD,
while the most impressive examples of Hindu temples belong to
the 11th to 13th centuries AD. Many old temples were rebuilt after
their partial or total destruction on account of wars, invasions,
or by some Muslim rulers. New temples were also built in more
recent times and they continue to be built even at present. The
art of temple building and sculpturing is still in vogue. There has
been, in fact, a spurt in temple building and renovation activity in
the recent past. The history of Hindu temples is indeed the history
of Hinduism from around the 5th century AD onwards.
Unlike the Epics and Puranas in text form, temples are more
accessible and have always been the focal points of religious
activity, both at the village and regional levels. Hindus were
never tied to a specific temple; on the other hand, they always
worshipped in several temples. The relationship between temples
and the people is quite unlike that between the layman and the
church in Christianity or between the layman and the mosque in
Islam. The Hindu temples never exercised any control over the
people; it is the people who patronized the temples of their own

free will.
The larger temples were invariably built by the kings while
the smaller ones were built by wealthy people or collectively by
the people of a village. Temples are most often managed by a
committee, especially the smaller ones. These are representatives
of the devotees and major donors. In the South, the big temples
were supported by land grants from kings and landlords. The well-
known temples were indeed rich in terms of the revenue from
these lands and the kitchens attached to these temples provided
one meal a day free to Brahmanas and others. Temples also receive
donations in cash and kind from devotees on a regular basis. In the
North, most small temples are privately owned by families and the
income from the temple goes to support the families.
The priests who perform rituals in the bigger temples in the
South are just employees or part-time priests who are engaged in
some other occupation. As a rule, they do not enjoy the status of the
priest in a church or an imam in a mosque. They have no religious
duties beyond the temple and their contact with the devotees is
purely a formal one—not very significant in religious terms. In
general, the temple priests are not only relatively poor and ill-paid
but are also ill-trained. Their knowledge of the scriptures is non-
existent. There may be a few exceptions—those who have learned
the scriptures on their own.
Hindu temples, particularly the more important ones, function
on all days but some are open in the morning and evening for
two to three hours only. Generally, temples are active in the early
mornings and at sunset when local devotees come to the temple to
worship. The priests in the temple perform rituals but do not give
sermons or speeches as in Churches or Mosques.
All temples of antiquity, whether active at present or not, are
maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India. They usually
have an office near the major temples. The historical data on
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Hindu Temples: Their Origin and Growth
temples is collected and preserved by them. The major temples

often had collections of palm leaf manuscripts and records of
various kings engraved into stones, besides valuables in terms of
gold and jewellery stored in underground vaults. The epigraphical
material is indeed very voluminous and valuable. The approximate
age of the temples is inferred from these documents. Generally,
the origin of the older temples is approximate while for the more
recent temples it is fairly accurate.
Origin
Temples of a very rudimentary character existed from pre-
Rigvedic times and were worshipped by small tribal communities,
which later came to be known as Jaties. Temples on the outskirts
of villages are mentioned in Manusmriti. The concept of God
in the form of an idol—a stone, a plant, or a tree is not the
creation of Brahmanas. For Brahmanas, Agni was the only God
to be worshipped in physical form. Temples, as a rule, belong to
communities or Jaties, classified as Shudras in Sanskrit literature.
The term Shudra is a creation of Brahmanas, but Jati, with a specific
name for identification, has always existed. The Jaties worshipped
their Gods in small makeshift temples from very early times—may
be from the time they came to India, thousands of years ago.
The Buddhists were the first to accept the concept of temple
from the Jaties. They called them chaityas. Chaityas are places away
from the villages with groves of trees where the Buddhist monks
could meditate in a peaceful setting; there were no images here.
After the death of Gautama Buddha, his remains were reburied
and small structures erected over them. These were known as
stupas. The stupas became places of worship. The priests offered
flowers, went round the stupa and prostrated in front of it as forms
of worship, very much in the same way the Hindus worship idols
now. During the time of Asoka, stupas were built in many places
and these became the focal points of Buddhist monasteries.
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Images of Buddha were added on to the stupas and chaityas;

the process started in the Gandhara region (probably around
the second century AD), in Northwest India, where the Greek
influence on sculpture and image worship was strong and from
there it spread to Mathura on Yamuna River and beyond. From the
time of Asoka, caves (mostly man-made and some natural) began
to be used for religious purposes, mainly by ascetics belonging to
various sects. Asoka himself ordered caves to be carved out for
this purpose near Gaya in the Barabar Hills. Later, Buddhist
monasteries preferred a cave location in remote areas.
It is from these beginnings that the modern day Hindu
temples evolved from around 5th century AD. However, there is
still a huge time gap before temples of considerable magnitude
emerged around the 7th century AD.
Early Temples
The earliest mention of temples being built by kings is during the
age of the early Guptas, who ruled the whole of northern India
from around the latter half of 4th century AD. However, there is
no archaeological evidence of structures that could be thought of as
temples during this period, with perhaps one exception in Deogarh
near Jhansi. This temple was built of masonry with iron supports. It
has a small tower above the sanctorum with a covered walk around
the sanctum, much like the later temples of this region.
Hindu Temples cut into caves probably emerged for the first
time around the 5th century AD. The rock cut caves in Udayigiri
near Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh) contain small temples—an image
of Vishnu in boar incarnation is notable. The origins of this
cave temple could be any time between 320 to 600 AD. Caves
with statues of Shiva were carved out in the Elephanta caves
near Mumbai in 550-575 AD. Likewise, there are cave temples
in Badami, in north Karnataka, roughly belonging to the same
period. These caves were built by the early Chalukyas.
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The earliest Hindu Temples with very substantive relics belong

to the early Chalukya Dynasty at Aihole, Badami, and later at
Pattadakkal in Karnataka. Around the same time, the Pallava
Dynasty of Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu constructed well known
rock temples which date to 400-650 AD. While early temples
were carved out of caves on small granitic hills, later ones were
free standing ones. At Aihole we have the prototypes of small free
standing temples, in well preserved form, that inspired the larger
temples of later time periods.
The credit for the earliest Hindu temples with Puranic motifs
should go to the cave temples of Aihole in North Karnataka in the
5th century AD, when it was the capital city of the Chalukyas.
The Temple sites are at three locations—Ladkhan, Kunligudi and
Durgigudi; there are over 70 structures around these three sites. The
Chalukyas supported Brahminical Hinduism, but were not opposed
to Buddhism or Jainism. While Shaivite and Vaishnavite temples
predominate, one can also discover Jaina and Buddhist sculptures
in some of the caves of this period. The cave temples near Badami
belong to a slightly later period (540-757 AD), while the bigger free
standing temple at Pattadakkal belongs to a still later period. All
three were capitals of the Chalukyas at different times but are all in
very close proximity to each other, forming a triangle.
The Chalukyas of North Karnataka and the Pallavas of
Kanchipuram were formidable rivals and each triumphed over the
other at different times. While they were great temple builders,
they also caused the destruction of some of their rival’s temples.
Nevertheless, a lot remains, especially of the Pallava temple
complexes.
The rock cut temples of Mamallapuram (later renamed as
Mahabalipuram) date to the 7th century AD and these took advantage
of a series of granitic hills near the shoreline in Mahabalipuram.
While most temples and smaller raths used small rocky outcrops,
one large granitic hill is the venue of a number of caves called halls
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or mandapams. There is a large rock carving on the east side of this

hill, which has attracted a lot of attention for its portrayal of Arjuna
doing penance, besides a great number of engravings of ordinary
folk.
The raths, eight in all, are all on independent rocks and each
one of them represents a temple in miniature which formed the
prototypes of temples built on much larger scale in later time
periods and at other locations. The seven shore temples—a few of
them now submerged under water, are considered to be the most
outstanding work of art of this period. Equally famous is the scene
depicting Arjuna’s penance to obtain weapons from Lord Shiva,
which is engraved on an open rock surface of the large hill. This
interpretation has been contested by some scholars.
The temples in Mahabalipuram are either for Shiva or
Vishnu and they represent legends from Mahabharata or the early
Puranas. There are no sculptures based on Ramayana. There are,
in addition to the above, rock carvings depicting day to day life of
men women and children, besides carvings of animals, plants, and
imaginary creatures. The rock carvings of Mahabalipuram provided
the stepping stone for the well-known free standing temples of
Kanchipuram, which was the inland capital of the Pallavas.
Another notable example of an early temple complex is the
famous Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora, built during the reign of the
Rashtrakuta Emperor Krishna II (756-773). This is a free standing
temple which is unique in the mode of its construction. It was cut
out from the side of a cliff from the top. The whole complex is
enormous in its extent and height; it is reckoned to be the largest
of its kind in the world. The temple complex consists of a towering
shikhara, along with pathways, pillars, and halls in the main temple.
Also included are a number of smaller temples within the complex.
All the exposed rock surfaces contain intricate engravings of scenes
from mythology and images of Gods, besides representation of
ordinary folk.
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Elephanta caves are located on an island about 10 km from the

Mumbai port. It has four cave temples. These involve steep climbs
from the edges of the rocky island. Originally known as Gharapuri,
the Portuguese renamed it as Elephanta on account of the presence
of a huge rock cut elephant near the entrance to the cave. These
caves are all devoted to carved images of Shiva and Parvati and also
their son Ganesh. In one of the sculptures, Shiva takes the form
of trimurti—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. In another sculpture, he
takes the form of ardhanareswara—half male and half female. The
carved panels in the rock faces are of very high artistic merit. The
location of the temple in an island cut off from the mainland raises
the question as to whether it was ever a functional temple.
The Mature Phase—South and North

In this phase, we come across two contrasting styles of temple
architecture—the Southern and the Northern. In terms of time
periods there are overlaps. The Southern temples extend over a
longer period of time from 8th century to 13th century AD, while
the northern temples belong to the 11th and 12th centuries.
Southern temples: Kanchipuram is a temple city par excellence.
It comes first in terms of the antiquity of its active temples, their
number (over 70), and the range of sects that are represented.
While some of the temples were built by Pallavas, others were built
by Cholas, and still others by Vijayanagar Kings. The gopurams of
temples in Kanchipuram can be seen from a distance of 20 km and
this is also true of most of the temple towns of Tamil Nadu.
The Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram was built by the
Pallava King Rayasimha in the late 7th century; this temple is
dedicated to Shiva. It is the oldest temple in Kanchipuram, which
has remained more or less intact without additions in later periods.
It is a classic example of early southern temple architecture. The
name Kailasanatha reminds us of the famous temple in Ellora with
the same name. The Kanchipuram temple was probably built a
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little earlier than the one at Ellora. The two have no commonalities
except the deity to which they are dedicated.
Next in importance is the Vaikuntaperumal temple built
during 674-800 AD, known for its suggestive multi-pillar
mandapams (halls). The Ekambareswara Temple was constructed by
Krishnadevaraya of Vijayanagar Empire and it is very large covering
several hectares of land. It has a gopuram which is 59 metres tall. It
has a 1,000 pillar hall as well—a characteristic feature of temples of
later time periods (the actual number of pillars may be slightly less
than a thousand).
Kanchipuram is generally identified by the Kamakshiamman
temple. This temple is the focus of the annual car festival
in Kanchipuram. There are several other major temples but
it is impossible to describe them all here. Kanchi is also the
seat of the ancient mutt of Adi Sankara, whose Acharya, Shri
Cahandrasekharendra Saraswati, was highly respected by the
Brahmanas of the State.
The southern temples follow a similar architectural pattern.
The temples are generally built outwards from the centre, which
houses the original garbhagriha. The original garbhagriha may be
small in most cases because of its antiquity but this is compensated
by later constructions. These follow a pattern of concentric squares.
Each square is enclosed by walls having four entrance passageways
over which towering gopurams are erected. The outermost square
generally has the largest gopuram. The four gateways may have
gopurams of unequal height. Within each square are several smaller
temples and halls.
Temple towns in the South follow a classic spatial model of
concentric squares, as prescribed in the Vastu Shastras with the
temple located at the centre. Immediately outside the temple
wall are four streets where Brahmanas live; these are generally
designated as the ‘north matha street’, ‘south matha street’, and so
on. The following concentric squares house the Kshatriyas (landed
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aristocracy), followed by Vaishyas, and Shudras. This spatial model

is still, by and large, intact.
Northern Temples: The classic examples of the mature northern
style of temple construction are found at Khajuraho in Madhya
Pradesh and in Odisha in the temple triangle of Bhubaneswar,
Puri, and Konarak. Of these, the first and the last—Kajuraho
and Konarak—are no longer in use, while the others play a very
important role, particularly in Odisha.
The temple complex in Khajuraho is a major tourist attraction
and it is well maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India.
These temples were built by the Chandella kings during the period
950-1050 AD. The earlier temples used granite while the later ones
used sandstone for construction and rock carvings. The temple
complex escaped destruction probably because of its remoteness
(from Delhi).
The temples here, and in the North, in general, follow a five
part plan—the smaller temples follow an abridged three part
plan. The entrance passageway (ardhamandapa) is followed by a
hall (mandapa) which leads to the large hall (mahamandapa); the
mahamandapa is supported by pillars with a corridor around it. The
garbhagriha where the deity is placed is approached from a small
room or antarala. A passageway runs around the garbhagriha so
that one can perform the pradakshina around the deity. The towers
that stand out from the outside are all built over the passageways
and the one on top of the garbhagriha is the tallest of all. Unlike the
southern temples, the height of the towers declines sharply from
the back to the front. The central tower—the shikhara is curvilinear
while others are pyramidal in shape.
The entire temple is built on an elevated platform—adisthana.
There are no enclosing walls as in the South. The alignment of the
temples is east-west, with the entry from the east. This is a standard
practice for temples all over India.
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Khajuraho has several temples devoted to Shiva and some

to Vishnu. The Kandariya Mahadeo temple is the largest and
the best of all. Only one temple, the Matangesvara temple, is
currently in use. Other notable temples are the Lakshmana temple
(930-950 AD) which is perhaps the oldest, the Vishvanath temple,
Devi Jagathamba temple, the Parvati temple, the Chitragupta
temple, and the Lakshmi and Varaha temple.
The most significant aspect of all the temples is the exquisite
sculptures of great variety. There are representations of Gods and
Goddesses, mythology, and ordinary people engaged in day to day
life. What is more is the artistic representation of the mithuna act
and the erotic that pervades the representation of men and women
(the latter in particular). The emphasis on the erotic aspect is even
more vivid in the Konarak temple. I think that these artistic forays
are part of the bhakti movement that had reached its pinnacle around
this period in the South and to some extent in the North as well.
The erotic dimension has more interest among the foreign tourists
than among Hindus, who cannot often understand this aberration.
In Odisha, the Konarak temple (not in use) is more popular
among tourists for its explicit sculptural representation of the
sexual act based on Kamasutra. From a religious point of view it is
irrelevant. The temples in Bhubaneshwar, in particular the Lingaraj
Temple (1090-1114 AD), are indeed important from a historical
and archaeological view point. The original Lingaraj temple is
attributed to the 7th century AD. Bhubaneshwar is a temple city
with a large number of temples though not on a scale comparable
to Kanchipuram. The Jagannath temple in Puri has a wider regional
role and it is most important from the point of view of religion
as practiced in Odisha now. The Jagannath cult is at the core of
Odisha’s cultural ethos. The annual car festival in Puri attracts
millions and it is one of the major religious events of the country.
The Jagannath temple was built, in its present form, around
1198 AD. The temples in Odisha follow a different model from the
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one described earlier for Khajuraho. Here, the temples have two
basic components—the deul, where the image of the deity is kept
and over which the tallest tower is built, and jaga-mohana—an
entrance hall; it may have a smaller tower over it. In addition, the
larger temples have one or more halls meant for specific purposes—
the nata-mandira or the dancing hall and bhoga-mandapa, where
the offerings to deity are made. The entire temple complex along
with the smaller temples is enclosed within an outer wall, as in the
case of the southern temples.
As in Khajuraho, there are intricate carvings everywhere
showing figures of Gods and Goddesses, plants, trees, flowers,
animals, sculptures of men and women in day to day life and in
erotic postures. The latter aspect is best highlighted in the Konarak
temple, a few km north of Puri. This temple is not presently in
use but is a major tourist attraction for non-religious reasons. The
temple is enclosed within an outer wall and a few other smaller
temples as well. The largest towers in these temples reach a height
of over 40 metres. Konarak temple is actually a recent discovery—
around 1900 AD. It was buried in sand at the time it was discovered.
Obviously, it is a historical relic that escaped vandalism through
neglect and natural burial.
The Peak of Temple Building

The largest and most lavish temples belong to the period of the
Cholas, who were great temple builders in the Tanjavur delta. The
reign of the Cholas (800-1300 AD) is accepted as the golden age
of South Indian History. It stands on an equal footing as compared
to the golden ages in the North. Equally important are the temples
built by Hoysalas of central Karnataka. These temples belong to the
period from 11th to 13th centuries.
The largest and the tallest temple in India is undoubtedly the
Brihadeshwara temple in Tanjavur built by Rajaraja Chola between
985 and 1015 AD. Its gopuram is the tallest in India—63 metres or
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206 feet. Its dome made of a single stone of granite weighs over 80
tons. It has the tallest Nandi (bull) and the tallest Shiva linga. This
idol is worshipped by using ladders because it is over 3 metres tall.
The surfaces of the temple are all intricately carved. Rajaraja Chola
and his sons spared nothing to make this temple an incomparable
one. In addition to the stone sculptures, there are frescos on the
interior walls, made with great skill. The Shiva linga in this temple
(and other deities as well) have been worshipped continuously for
over a thousand years.
Apart from the Brihadeshwara temple, the Cholas covered
their large empire with temples of both Shaivite and Vaishnavite
deities. Every town in Tanjavur district can boast of temples of
antiquity. Kumbakonam has over a 100 temples, while Tiruvarur,
Trikandiyiur, Tiruvaiyaru, Darasuram, Gangaicondacholapuram,
and above all Chidambaram have magnificent temples. The
Cholas have made Tanjavur and the adjoining areas a citadel of
Puranic Hinduism.
Among other temples in Tamil Nadu, the temple at
Chidambaram and the huge temple complex in Srirangam on an
island in the Kaveri River deserve special mention. Chidambaram
has the famous dancing Nataraja—the icon of classical dancing in
the South. Srirangam is a hallowed name for Srivaishnavites. It is
the largest temple complex in Tamil Nadu and perhaps the whole
of India, having seven concentric walls and 21 gopurams—in all
covering about 14 hectares of land.
There are literally hundreds of temples of importance in
Tamil Nadu and it is impossible to list them all here. There can
be no doubt that Tamil Nadu is way ahead of other states in the
matter of the scale and number of temples of antiquity.
There is yet another region in the south that has temples
of exquisite beauty and architectural merit. These were built by
the Hoysala kings who ruled south-central parts of Karnataka
between the 11th and 13th centuries. The Hoysalas are essentially
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a local dynasty when compared to the Cholas. However, the three

temples at Belur, Halebid and Somnathpur are unrivalled in terms
of the intricacy of the art of sculpturing and they stand apart as
examples of great art. Of the three temples, the ones at Halebid and
Somnathpur were desecrated and are no longer functional, while
the temple in Belur is still in active use. Halebid was the capital of
the Hoysalas and its earlier name was Dorasamudra.
The three temples built by the Hoysala kings have unique
architecture of their own; these temples are nowhere as tall as the
temples of Cholas. But for what they lack in height they make good
in the beauty and intricacy of their architecture. It is impossible to
describe the beauty of these temples.
Regional Patterns
Temples are more or less ubiquitous throughout India, except
perhaps the north-east and a few other pockets in the Punjab
and elsewhere. The great majority of these temples are of recent
origin. They are small, unimpressive, and often constrained in
limited space, and managed by individuals or families. They do,
however, serve the people who are devoted to God and help to
support a priestly class. These are altogether different from the
temples mentioned in the previous sections; those are the historical
temples having roots in the past. What follows is an analysis of
the distribution of historical temples in India to provide a spatial
perspective (see Figure 8).
The single most remarkable point is that there are no temples
of historical antiquity in the entire region extending from Punjab
in the west to West Bengal in the east. This is not to say that there
were no temples there in the historical past, but those temples
ceased to exist during the long period of Muslim rule in the north.
All the temples, including those in the holy city of Varanasi, belong
to the post Aurangzeb period. This is one of the tragic consequences
of Muslim rule over six centuries.
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Approx scale
Figure 8 Hindu Temples: Regional Patterns

176
Further north in the Himalayan belt—Himachal Pradesh and

Uttarakhand—we have smaller temples which have their origins
from 8th century to about the 10th, apart from the more recent
ones. These Hindu temples have very special characteristics. While
most temples follow the basic northern pattern of shikhara over the
garbhagriha with a hall leading to this, some temples follow the
Tibetan style. These ancient temples are especially notable for their
exquisite wood carvings. Perhaps the most ancient of the temples in
this region is the one at Marthand in Kashmir. There are also temples
which are old but without any architectural merit; for example the
temples in Kedarnath and Badrinath, which according to tradition
were consecrated by Adi Sankaracharya in the early 9th century.
In the middle belt, between the Ganga plains and the deep
South, extending from Gujarat in the west, through Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh and Odisha and further down to Maharashtra
and even the northern parts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh and
Telangana, we have a few historical temples. Many of these are in
ruins or have become non-functional by partial destruction and
abuse. There are indications of the existence of many more temples
in this region.
A good example of temples belonging to the 8th century
but now in total ruins are found near Kota in Rajasthan. On the
other hand, there are a few isolated cases of temples that have
survived and are still in active use. The best examples of these are
from Odisha. The truly historical temples in this region of great
architectural merit—Khajuraho, Konarak, Kailasanatha temple
in Ellora, Halebid and Somnathpur temples in Karnataka are no
longer in active use.
In the deep South, historical temples are still very active, as they
have been through history. Tamil Nadu is clearly an outstanding
example where temples have continued to play their role throughout
history. The landscape of Tamil Nadu is clearly distinguishable with
dominating temple towers and hill temples all over the state.
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Kerala has many temples with a long history, the most notable
among them being the Shiva temple (known as Vadakkanathar
temple) in Trissur, where the annual festival (Thrissur pooram)
attracts huge crowds. The temples in Kerala have an entirely
different architecture from those of Tamil Nadu. They are small and
unique. Almost all of them have tiled roofs, and in some respects
they resemble the Buddhist temples of China and Japan. Most
temples in Kerala have a large compound with enclosing walls and
a separate building for kitchen and a huge dining hall. They usually
have a huge tank in front of the temple compound which is used
for bathing. There are temples for Shiva, Vishnu and Bhagavati and
many other Gods. They are very well maintained and extremely
clean, and the people of Kerala are very proud of them.
Temples and Pilgrimage

Religious pilgrimage is of two types: tirthas and temples. The major
tirthas are at: Prayaga, the confluence of Yamuna and Ganga rivers,
Haridwar, where the Ganga finally descends to the plains from the
mountains, Ujjain on the river Sipra, and at Nasik on the river
Narmada. The Puranas mention several rivers as being holy and
where Hindus may bathe to purify themselves. These rivers are:
Ganga, Yamuna, Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri.
Among temples, Kasi Viswanatha temple takes the pride of
place as a place of pilgrimage, although the present temple is less
than 300 years old. The temples at Badrinath, Kedarnath come
next, followed by a host of temples all over India—their number
goes into hundreds. At present, the most popular temples are at
Tirupati, which is the richest temple in India today, and Guruvayoor
in Kerala. In both, the presiding deity is Krishna. People also throng
to temples of Gods that are not mentioned in the Puranas, for
example, the Ayyappa temple in the Western Ghats in Kerala and
Vaishno Devi temple in Jammu region. The Saibaba temple near
Shirdi is another noted centre of pilgrimage in Maharashtra. The
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last three are really religious cults rather than recognized religious
sects. Yet, they do attract millions every year. At the regional level,
there are many temples that attract huge crowds during festival
days; they are too numerous to be listed here.
Temples exist because of patronage from bhaktas. The origin
and growth of temples in India is closely related to the origin and
growth of the bhakti movement; this aspect will be looked into in
another chapter. In the meanwhile, it is important to look at the
life and times of the greatest of all religious leaders of historical
times, who lived in the 8th–9th century AD—Adi Sankaracharya.
(Hinduism owes a lot to this great religious teacher.)
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Adi Sankaracharya
• Introduction • Early Life • Later Life • Four Disciples

and Four Mutts • Adi Sankara’s Bhashyams • His Own
Works • His Message
Introduction
Adi Sankaracharya holds a very special place in Hinduism. He is
the link between the intellectual Upanishadic religion, the Puranic
religion, and the Bhakti movement. An aspect that is ignored here
is Mimamsa, in which he was well trained and yet, as a sanyasi,
he was not supposed to practice it. His Brahmana followers or
grihasthas, however, actually practiced the Mimamsa religion. He
is the architect of present day view of Hinduism in eyes of the elite,
especially those with a spiritual bent of mind.
Sankaracharya was born in a place called Kaladi near Alwaye
and Kochi, in Kerala, in 788 AD and died in 820 AD. While most
people believe that he died at the age of 32, some historians say
that he lived till the age of 54. It is a fairly well established fact that
he died in Kedarnath in Uttarakhand State, near the Shiva temple
there. There is a small commemorative stone memorial to mark
this event near the Kedarnath temple premises. He probably died
of pneumonia, under very cold and harsh weather conditions.
There is a view that Sankaracharya was born in Valianad, which
is a little distance from Kaladi. In support of this, it is said that
the first child was always born in the mother’s family residence,
which, in this case, was in Valianad. Both his parents came from
Nambudiri Illams—father from Kaladi and mother from Valianad.
Swami Chinmayananda, who is a well-known Vedantin of the 20th
century, comes from a Nayar Tharavad (joint family) near Valianad.
He claims descent from the Nambudiries in the Valianad Illam. In
his later life, the Swamiji purchased the Valianad Illam and located
a Vedic study centre there under the Central Chinmaya Mission
Trust, which he had founded earlier.
As with everything in Hinduism, historical dating is a difficult
task. The religious viewpoint is often based on astrology and the
Puranas, with little or no support from contemporary events or
archaeological evidence. Mahadevan, in his book on Adi Sankara,
gives some credence to the religious view which places his time as
509–477 BC. In the book on Sankara by the Chinmaya Mission
Trust, a more realistic assessment is made using Sanskrit works of
the 7th and 8th centuries; accordingly, Sankara’s year of birth is
put at 788 AD. Almost everyone seems to agree that he lived for
only thirty-two years. My contention is whether it was humanly
possible to accomplish all that is attributed to him in such a short
span of life.
Adi Sankaracharya should be judged by his works and not by
the span of his life. They are the real testimony to his greatness.
Early Life
Not much is known about the early life of the Acharya. His mother
became a widow when he was a small boy. According to a legend,
his mother took him to the valley of Narmada to the ashram of
Sri Govindapada, a disciple of Gaudapada, a very well-known
teacher and scholar of that time. Sri Govindapada accepted him
as a student, even though he did not know his gotra or lineage;
nor did his mother know. This legend seems to be unrealistic, as
women in Brahmana households did know their gotra and various
other details very well even in ancient times, perhaps even more so
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Adi Sankaracharya
at that time than at present. However, there is a parallel story in

Chandogyopanishad:
तं होवाच किङ्गोत्रो नु सोम्यासीति स होवाच नाहमेतव्देद भो

यद्गोत्रो अहमस्भ्यपृच्छं मातरं सा मा प्रत्यब्रवीद्दव्हहं चरन्ती
परिचरिणी यौवने त्वामलभे साहमेतन्न वेद यद्गोत्रस्त्वमसि जबला
तु नामाहमस्मि सत्यकामो नाम त्वमसीति सोअहं सत्यकामो
जबालो अस्मि भो इति ।।
Once Satyakama, son of Jabala, went to Gautama Haridrumata
and asked if he could become his student. The teacher asked him
to which gotra he belonged. Satyakama said that when he put this
question to his mother she said that when she was young and a
servant maid, she had slept with many men and that she did not
know who his father was. However, she said: ‘My name is Jabala and
your name is Satyakama and therefore, you are Satyakama Jabala’.
The teacher accepted him as his student saying that only a Brahmana
would tell the truth. (Chandogya Upanishad, part IV. 4.4).
We should note the rawness of the Sanskrit prose in this text and
compare it with the more modern prose of Sankara in his bhashyam;
examples are given later in this chapter. One may also note the
broad-mindedness of the teacher in accepting a student without
proper credentials entirely on the basis of an interview.
The legend of Sankara being taken to his guru Govindapada by
his mother may have its roots in this story from Chandogyopanishad.
However, Nambudiri women never moved out of their house
and it is more likely that his uncles took him to his guru and the
story is a mere concoction. I have narrated the above story for two
reasons: first, because the Upanishadic story has an intrinsic value
to it; secondly, because, it shows the way the Vedic lore is used in
Puranas and other legends.
When Sankara’s father passed away, he was barely three years
of age and his mother sent him to a patasala (school). Such schools
existed even when I was a young boy and the Nambudiri boys used
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to be sent to these schools, while other Brahmanas sent their boys

and girls to schools established by the British. In any case, Sankara
proved to be a brilliant student and he completed his studies far
ahead of others of his age.
At eight years of age he took sanyas, against the wishes of
his mother who gave her consent reluctantly. He went towards
the north, passing through the beautiful coastal plain of North
Kannada. He walked for two months before he reached the banks
of the Narmada River at Omkaranatha (this is an island in the
Narmada River where we can still find the ruins of a Shiva temple).
His intention was to seek studentship under Govindapada, who
was known to be a great scholar and ascetic. Govindapada was a
disciple of Gaudapada, an even greater scholar. Gaudapada had
an enormous influence on Sankara’s scholarship. Gaudapada
was an expert on the Upanishads and he had written a karika
(glossary) on Mandukya Upanishad. In his later life, Sankara not
only wrote a bhashyam on the Upanishad but also a bhashyam
on Gaudapada’s karika. The Mandukya Upanishad holds a very
special place in the study of Vedanta even today. Mastery over this
text is a must for a Vedantin.
Sankara stayed with his guru for three years and then on his
advice he went to Kasi to meet the eminent Kumarilla Bhatta—an
exponent of Mimamsa.
Kumarilla Bhatta had debated with the Buddhist scholars and
had been most successful in refuting Buddhist doctrines; he earned
fame and name as a result. He did not teach or engage in debate
with Sankara but sent him to his student Mandana Misra, who
was also a brilliant exponent of the Mimamsa doctrine. Eventually,
Sankara met Mandana Misra at Mahishmati, on the northern banks
of the Narmada River, and defeated him with his own exposition of
Vedanta. Mandana Misra became his student and later the head of
the Sharada Peetham at Sringeri in the South. He assumed a new
name as Sureshvaracharya.
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Adi Sankaracharya
Later Life
After returning to Kasi from his encounter with Mandana Misra,
Adi Sankara moved north to Badrinath with his disciples; he
actually settled down in Jyotirmath (known as Joshimath today)—a
few miles south of Badrinath. Later, he consecrated the temple
of Badrinarayana at its present site and arranged for Nambudiri
Brahmanas to perform pujas there. All these were made possible by
the support of the local king. Adi Sankara and his students stayed
in Jyotirmath for four years, in which time he wrote the bhashyams
on the 10 Upanishads, Brahmasutra, and Bhagavad Gita; in short,
his prasthana thrayam.
From Jyotirmath, he visited Kedarnath where he consecrated a
temple for Shiva and later another temple at Uttarkashi. Wherever
the Acharya went he obtained full support of the local Hindu kings.
He moved south along the Yamuna River to Kurukshetra,
Indraprastha, Brindavana and Mathura before proceeding to
Prayaga. From Prayaga, the Acharya moved further south to
Mahishmati on the Narmada River.
From Mahishmati, he travelled to Nasik, Pandaripura, and
then Srisailam, famous for its Shiva temple. There, he had an
encounter with the sect of Kapalikas, who were Shaivites practicing
Tantrism and human sacrifice. The Acharya is believed to have
reformed this cult. Throughout his journeys into the four corners
of India, the Acharya met with several strange cults—as many as
70, and in each encounter he succeeded in converting them to
more humane modes of worship.
From Srisailam, the Acharya and his students went west
to Gokarna on the west coast and from there to Mukambika
and Sringeri. At Sringeri he acquired another student who later
was known as Totakacharya. With the help of the local king,
Sankaracharya constructed a temple for Sarada Devi in Sringeri
with accommodation for several ascetics and established a centre
of learning.
185
From Sringeri, the Acharya proceeded to Kaladi, his birth

place, where his mother was ailing. He was present at the time
of her death and he performed the dahana kriya for his mother
(although sannyasins are not supposed to do this).
From Kaladi the Acharya and his students (by this time he
had acquired his full complement of students numbering more
than a dozen), travelled to Rameshwaram, Srirangam, and then
to Kanchipuram. From Kanchipuram the group moved north to
Tirupati, and from there through Karnataka and Vidharba and
back to Andhra coast to Rajamahendri and from there to Puri
where he consecrated the famous temple for Jagannath. From
Kalinga, the Acharya and his followers went to Magadha and Kasi.
It is in Kasi (actually Varanasi) that he composed his well-known
work, Bhaja Govindam.
From Kasi, the Acharya went west towards Saurashtra, passing
through Ujjaini, and then Girnar, Somnath and finally Dwaraka.
From Dwaraka the group proceeded north to Pushkara lake and
from there to the Indus river through a stretch of desert. They
reached the confluence of the Indus with Sutlej. Following the
river Indus, they proceeded further north to Purushapura in the
North-West. From Purushapura, the Acharya visited Kashmir,
and stayed near an ancient Shiva temple on a hill near Srinagar.
Here he had several debates with the pundits of Kashmir belonging
to Shiva and Sakta sects. He is said to have composed the stotra,
Soundarya Lahari, in praise of the Goddess Bhavani at this location.
Soundarya Lahari is one of the most beautiful poems composed by
the Acharya.
He then moved to Taxshila and from there he turned east to
the Yamuna and Ganga rivers and reached Hardwar. Later he went
further east to Pataliputra, Nalanda and Gaya. From Gaya, he went
to the kingdoms of Vanga and Prak-Jyotisha and to the town of
Kamarupa, famous for its temple for Kamakhya.
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Adi Sankaracharya
From Assam, the group returned to the River Ganga near Kasi
and then proceeded to Pasupatinatha temple in Kathmandu in Nepal
to restore the temple to its former glory by advising the king to follow
prescribed rules and not to depend on heretics such as Buddhists.
From Nepal the Acharya returned to Jyotirmath. After a short
stay, they proceeded to Kedarnath, where the Acharya attained his
samadhi.
The greatness of the Acharya is seen not only in his scholarship
and advocacy of advaita philosophy but his travels from Kaladi to
Kashmir and from the Indus valley to the Brahmaputra (see Figure
9). We may get the impression that he travelled all the time; this
is not true. All his trips covered a period of over two decades at
least but he had plenty of time to rest and to compose his works.
Further, it is the students who did much of the laborious work
of copying from the manuscripts and even preparing the original
palm leaf manuscripts of his works.
A very interesting comparison comes to my mind. If we
compare Figure 8 with Figure 3, which shows Buddha’s world of
travel, there is indeed a huge difference. Buddha travelled within
a comparatively small area of the Middle Ganga Plains. This
he did almost on an annual basis for over four decades, while
Sankaracharya covered the whole length and breadth of India in
about two decades. I would give Sankaracharya’s visits far greater
importance for his impact on Hinduism is indeed of a lasting
kind. One reason for this big difference is that Buddha never wrote
anything, while Sankara has many scholarly works to his credit.
Four Disciples and Four Mutts

The most impressive and long lasting tribute to Sankaracharya
comes from the four religious mutts that he established in roughly
the four corners of Hindu India at that time (early 9th century
AD): Jyotir Mutt near Badrinath, the Govardhan Mutt in Puri,
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Approx scale
Figure 9 Places Visited by Adi Sankaracharya

188
Adi Sankaracharya
the Kalika Mutt in Dwaraka, and the Sharada Peetham in Sringeri

in Karnataka. In addition, he had also established the Kanchi
Kamakoti Peedam in Kanchipuram. Some people claim that this
is the original Mutt established by Sankaracharya. However, this is
unlikely to be true. The followers of Adi Sankaracharya are known
as Smartas, and in the South they recognize the Sringeri Acharya
as their parama guru. Nevertheless, Kanchi Peedam acquired
great fame under the leadership of Acharya Chandrasekharendra
Saraswati (1894-1994).
According to tradition, before his death, the Acharya instituted the
four Mutts and prepared detailed instructions for their upkeep and
continuation of tradition. He asked Padmapada to be in charge
of the Govardhan Mutt at Puri, Sureshvaracharya to be in charge
of the Sarada Peedam at Sringeri, Hasthamalaka was to take over
Dvaraka Mutt, while Totakacharya would be in charge of the Jyotir
Mutt near Badrinath. In course of time, the heads of the four Mutts
were themselves known as Sankaracharyas.
These Mutts have been in existence for 1,200 years and are
still very active. They continue to play a very important role in
providing leadership to all Hindus in their respective regions. The
Mutts have also promoted the study of Vedas and the practice of
Mimamsa religion and if the latter is alive today, it is due to the
strength of these mutts.
Adi Sankara’s Bhashyams

Adi Sankaracharya is best known for his bhashyam on Bhagavad
Gita; he also wrote bhashyams on ten of the major Upanishads and
on Brahmasutra. He called the Bhagavad Gita, the ten Upanishads,
and Brahmasutra as the prasthana thrayam. He laid down the
condition that one should have written a gloss on any one of these
in order to qualify to debate issues with him. He was very rigorous
and strict in his analysis and interpretation of the original texts. The
Vedantins consider the prasthana thrayam as constituting the Veda.
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It is notable that Sankaracharya did not include any of the four

Vedas in his prasthana thrayam. He does mention Mimamsa, which
actually means the Vedas, especially the Yajurveda and Samaveda,
but they stand on a different level—a lower one.
He always used prose in his bhashyams. Invariably, he used the
question and answer format—the basic style used in the Upanishads.
The questions probably related to other bhashyams on the same text
which are no longer extant. His prose is simple, elegant and lucid;
he was a master of clarity in expression and sharpness of wit.
Bhashyams on each and every verse in the Bhagavad Gita begin
with the meaning of words, explanation of sandhies and samasams,
especially the difficult ones, and a rendering of the meaning of the
verse in simple Sanskrit prose, pointing out grammatical errors and
the reasons for it. For the most part, it is the lucid counter arguments
that steal the show. He has a method of showing the opponent’s
weak reasoning by counter arguments. He was a master of debate.
Examples of his style of writing can be inferred from the quotes
below:
यतः तदर्थे विज्ञाते समस्तपुरुषार्थसिध्दिः अतः तव्दिवरणे यत्नः क्रीयते मया।

Because understanding the meaning of Gita leads to the realization of
the four purusharthas; therefore, in explaining this work, an effort is
being made by me.
(Note: This is the very last sentence of his preface to his bhashyam on
Bhagavad Gita.)
अस्मिन् हि गीताशास्त्रे परं निःश्रेयससाधनं निश्चितं किं ज्ञानं किं कर्म वा

आहोस्विद् उभयं इति। कु तः सन्देहः?
Which is the most beneficial method for moksha, as determined in
this Gitasastra: Jnana, Karma, or both?
Why this doubt?
(Note: This is the opening sentence to his concluding remarks on
Bhagavad Gita which run into several pages; there is no mention of
bhakti in his concluding remarks.)
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Adi Sankaracharya
His preface to Bhagavad Gita, although very short, is something

that any modern writer can and should emulate, and so also his
concluding remarks on the Gita. Nothing can be more lucid and
precise. He was always very sharp in his observations. There is
no verbiage.
Unlike most religious literature, he never went around in
circles while making his points; never engaged in platitudes and
naïve statements. His style was something that earns respect on its
own. He was quite unlike the modern day religious leaders who
exaggerate and glorify and make tall claims, which are untenable.
He did no such thing.
For all the simplicity of language and mode of explanation, the
subject matter of the texts that he explained are among the most
difficult to understand and explain; among these Brahmasutra is
especially very difficult.
However, he showed no interest at all in contemporary life.
Although he travelled on foot all over India, he had nothing to say
about the life of ordinary people, except perhaps that it was pretty
miserable. He says:
विध्दि व्याध्यभिमानग्रस्तं लोकं शोकहतं च समस्तम् ।

Gripped with diseases and false pride the whole world is down with
misery.
(Bhaja Govindam, verse 4)
He had no admiration for the rich and the powerful, a few of

whom he actually met but never mentioned anywhere. To him the
contemporary world was but an illusion—maya, and therefore why
bother about it. This is the view of a sanyasin and he did not deviate
from his high pedestal of enlightenment.
The result is that we know very little about the India of that
time, although he travelled all over the country on foot.
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His Own Works

Adi Sankara was a teacher, scholar, writer and poet and he excelled
in every one of these fields. There are many things that he wrote
that are well known and quoted in subsequent texts; they are also
very popular and known to ordinary people.
I would think that his masterpiece is Vivekachoodamani,
which is essentially a textbook on Vedanta. No one can claim to
know Vedanta without reading this text. Swami Chinmayananda,
who knew Sanskrit and wrote well in English, has translated and
written his own commentaries on all of Adi Sankara’s works; they
are easily available in Chinmaya Mission institutions. Swami
Chinmayananda had, as I mentioned earlier, a special attachment
to Adi Sankaracharya. Swami Chinmayananda’s works are highly
readable and they do justice to the original texts.
Using a question and answer format, Vivekachoodamani—the
crown jewel of discrimination—is in the form of verses; there are
581 verses in all. It lays down the qualifications for a student of
Vedanta: he must be able to discriminate between real and unreal;
must have a spirit of detachment from this world, must have control
over sensory perceptions, and finally a burning desire for salvation.
आदौ नित्यानित्यवस्तुविवेकः परिगण्यते

इहामुत्रफलभोगविरागस्तदनन्तरम् ।
शमादिषट्कसम्पत्तिर्मुमुक्षुत्वमिती स्पुटम् ।।
Knowledge of what is real and unreal comes first;
Giving up enjoyment of fruits of action in this and the next world
comes next; the six controls followed by the clear commitment to
moksha.
(Vivekachoodamani, verse 19)
The text however is comprehensive; it covers the whole spectrum

of spiritual pursuit from the Upanishads and Sankhya and other
schools of thought to Bhagavad Gita.
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Adi Sankaracharya
While few people today read Vivekachoodamani, the Acharya’s

other works are very well read. These works are in the form of
stotras—a stotra is to a bhakta what a mantra is to a mimamsaka.
A stotra (derived from stuti meaning praise) is a verse composed
in a specific meter and can be sung as a bhajan by the bhakta. The
Acharya has written one hundred such stotras, some fairly long as
Bhaja Govindam, while others are very short. Among the hundred
stotras, seventy-five relate to the worship of principal Gods of the
Puranic age, while twenty-five focus on spiritual themes—on jnana
and moksha. Interestingly, the final stotra of the first part is called
nirguna manasa stotra; it is about Nirguna Brahman.
Adi Sankara lived in an age when the Bhakti movement was
in full swing, especially in Tamil Nadu from where he started his
journeys. While he was a true jnani and upheld jnana yoga as the
real objective of life, he was well aware that a personal God and
bhakti to one’s personal God were important to the common man.
He recognized bhakti yoga as an important step towards jnana
yoga. It is with this in view that he consecrated temples for Shiva
and Vishnu in the form of Krishna and wrote stotras or bhajans.
Among seventy-five stotras on bhakti, only one each are devoted
to Vinayaka and Skanda, while 19 are devoted to Shiva, 10 are
for Vishnu and his avatars. Even more surprising is the fact that
he devoted as many as 23 stotras to Sakti; the worship of Sakti
is far more widespread all over India than the other two. Sakti
is India’s number one God and Shiva, Krishna, and Rama come
way down the list in terms of popularity. We can measure the
popularity of these Gods from the number of temples devoted to
them. One may argue that almost all the well-known temples are
for male Gods, but one has to look at the lower levels, which are
far more numerous and it is these smaller temples that matter to
the common people.
The Acharya has also written stotras in praise of rivers of India:
namely, Ganga, Yamuna, Mandakini, and above all Narmada, with
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which he had a special connection. The place of Hindu pilgrimage

on which he has written a stotra is Kasi—which is the holiest of all
Indian places of pilgrimage.
The Acharya’s stotras include Moha Mudgara consisting of
31 slokas, which is in the nature of advice to all Hindu grihasthas
to pursue the path of bhakti and in later life mature to dhyana
yoga as prescribed by Patanjali. This stotra is now known as Bhaja
Govindam. Yet, the poet saint laments about the lack of interest in
spiritual matters thus:
बालस्तावत् क्रीडासक्तः तरुणस्तावत् तरुणीसक्तः ।

वृध्दस्तावत् चिन्तासक्तः परमे ब्रह्मणि कोअपि न सक्तः ।।
Children are attached to games; the young men are attracted
to girls.
The old are a worried lot; no one is interested in the absolute God.
(Bhaja Govindam Verse 7)
The 25 stotras devoted to spiritual matters make things somewhat

easier for new entrants into spiritualism as they fully reflect his
concept of God—the Nirguna Brahman which resides in all of us.
Quoted below is a stotra by Totakacharya in praise of his guru Sri
Sankara Bhagavadpada:
भवता जनता सुहिता भविता निजबोधविचारणचारुमते ।

कलयेश्वरजीवविवेकविदं भव शं कर देशिक मे शरणम् ।।
Let people be well sustained; Exponent of the knowledge of the self
Lord of the arts and of life principles; Oh Sankara, spiritual teacher, I
seek refuge in you.
(From Todakashtakam–verse 3)
His Message
Adi Sankaracharya was a great scholar and a great religious leader—
perhaps the greatest. Having read almost all his works and those of
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Adi Sankaracharya
his translators and interpreters of the present day, I see some basic
contradictions unfold.
Sankaracharya is best known for his unequivocal assertion of
the soundness of advaita philosophy. However, while maintaining
his commitment to advaita, he did make concessions to popular
beliefs and faith. His bhashyams, his text book on Vedanta—
Vivekachoodamani, and also some 25 stotras are firmly rooted to
advaita. The rest of his work is devoted to bhakti. As we saw
earlier, he wrote very popular works praising the principal Gods–
Shiva, Vishnu and Sakti. As a sanyasi he was exempted from
rituals; but present day Sankaracharyas are rooted to rituals—
both srauta and smarta karmas. He did not object to this practice
even in his time.
The contradiction between pure advaita and bhakti cannot
be easily resolved. Later religious leaders used the concepts of
Saguna Brahman, maya and avatars to legitimize bhakti. While
Adi Sankara did not agree to this legitimization, he conceded the
power of bhakti. He wanted bhakti to be combined with jnana.
He considered bhakti as a pathway to jnana and jnana yoga. Later
leaders and particularly Ramanujacharya have altogether given up
the concept of Nirguna Brahman in favour of Saguna Brahman and
jnana yoga is replaced by bhakti yoga. This would totally negate Adi
Sankara’s advaita philosophy.
Why this ambivalence? The problem is that in 8th century
there were hundreds of Hindu kings all over India and even
Sankaracharya had to depend on their patronage to establish Mutts
and for facilitating his travels. The life of Brahmanas and ascetics
has always depended on the gifts from the rich and the powerful.
Puranic religion which eulogizes the rich and powerful was more
relevant to the masses because it fitted nicely with the social milieu
of the time. Adi Sankara could not escape from this reality. He
made his compromises saying—follow bhakti initially and switch
to jnana yoga in later life. Brahmanas today are no longer dependent
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on kings and one can proceed to jnana yoga directly and ignore
bhakti altogether. Bhakti and bhakti yoga are now meant for those
who do not want to study the Upanishads.
The context and the social milieu have changed in the 21st
century. There are no Hindu kings anymore in India or anywhere
else. The Puranic religion, with its emphasis on kings and queens
is no longer relevant. Nor do Gods in human form make much
sense; all these belong to a bygone age. Nevertheless, Adi Sankara’s
advaita, in pure form, is still relevant; it does not depend on the
social milieu for its existence. It goes beyond the social context. It is
this that makes Adi Sankara relevant in the 21st century.
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Bhakti Movement
• Introduction • India in Circa 600 AD to 1300 AD

• Origins of Bhakti • Brahmana Influence • Nayanmars
• Alvars • The Later Exponents of Bhakti • Ramayana
and Bhagavad Gita • Bhakti, Temples and the Arts
Introduction
Bhakti or devotion to one’s personal God is the backbone of
Hinduism today. A number of new developments mark the
beginning of the bhakti movement around 600 AD in Tamil Nadu.
l The Sangam literature in Tamil (which goes back to around
2nd century AD), had laid the foundation for worship based
on love and attachment to a God or supernatural force.
l The Tamil bards had already popularised songs in praise of
their personal God Murugan.
l The Brahmanas from the North started migrating to the South
in large numbers at the end of the Gupta period around 500
AD; they lived and flourished in land-grant villages known as
agraharams.
l The vernacular languages began to play a major role, in
addition to Sanskrit.
l While Brahmanas continued to dominate the literary scene
both in Sanskrit and the Vernacular languages, the Shudras, in
particular, also played a major role, especially in the South.
l The Vedic religions were more or less confined to Brahmanas

alone and they declined slowly; their domain was largely
confined to agraharams.
l The folk cultures, with their legends and their modified
Sanskrit versions in the Puranas became the popular religions.
l Temples became the major focus of religious activities.
While the Shaivite and Vaishnavite temples were patronized
both by Brahmanas and others, the temples for village and
regional Gods continued to be patronized exclusively by non-
Brahmanas.
l The tribal and village Gods, along with legends, continued to
exist in pure form or were slightly modified but rarely taken
over by the overarching Puranic lore under the Brahmanas.
Brahmanas were not the originators of the bhakti movement;
but they soon took over the movement. Temples, small and big,
provided the institutional framework for the bhakti movement.
While a visit to the temple was a daily affair, festivals, held on a
few days a year, attracted large numbers of people. People also
performed pujas and bhajans at home, sometimes on a daily basis.
Music, in all its varied forms, both classical and otherwise, plays
an important part in rituals associated with bhakti. The other arts:
dance, drama, painting, sculpture and many other folk arts also
played an important role. The focus of bhakti or devotion can be
any God. While Shiva, Vishnu or his incarnations, principally
Krishna and Rama, and Bhagavati in various forms as Amman,
Kali, and Durga are the principal deities worshipped, there are
many other lesser Gods, besides local Gods.
India in Circa 600 AD to 1300 AD

At this time, the Gupta Empire had come to an end and with it
the golden age of Hinduism in the North. On the ruins of the
Gupta Empire, Buddhism again thrived under the rule of Harsha
with his capital in Kanauj (606-647 AD). Harsha suffered defeat
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Bhakti Movement
by the Chalukyas of Vatapi (543-880 AD). They were followed in

the northern parts of peninsular India by the Rashtrakutas (750-
900 AD), Vakatakas (460-477 AD), Pratiharas (780-840 AD), the
Yadavas of Devagiri, the Chalukyas of Kalyani (973-1189 AD),
Chandellas of Bundelkhand (900-1150 AD) and so on.
The focus in this chapter, however, shifts further to the South.
The Pallavas of Kanchipuram (375-800 AD) and Chalukyas
of Badami (543-880 AD) were on their ascent and they played
a very important role during this period. They were followed
by the Cholas who dominated the South between 8th and 12th
centuries AD. They were supplanted by the later Pandyas (1200-
1400 AD). In Karnataka, apart from the Chalukyas of Vatapi, the
other prominent dynasties were: Hoysalas in Dorasamudra (1000-
1300 AD), the Gangas, and the Ishvakus in the Guntur region of
Andhra Pradesh. Another branch of the Gangas and Kesaris ruled
over Odisha.
Origins of Bhakti
Although bhakti movement had its origins around 6th century AD
in Tamil Nadu, its roots go back to the Sangam age which could be
anything from 300 BC to 200 AD. According to Tamil tradition,
there were three literary councils of poets or Sangams that met in
Madurai, the principal city of this age in the South. The surviving
literature of this period is attributed to the third council, although
Tolkappiyam is said to belong to the second council. Tolkappiyam
is a grammatical work and it could not have existed without a
literature. Presumably these literary works are now lost.
The existence of towns and cities is mentioned in the Sangam
literature. When and how did they come up? Lack of archaeological
evidence prior to 2nd century AD is cited as the reason for denying
the existence of these cities; on the other hand, there is considerable
circumstantial evidence to conclude that towns and cities did exist
in earlier time periods. The emergence of cities in Tamil country
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was a product of tank irrigation which was very highly developed

in this region. Tanks are small reservoirs built by earthen dams
across small streams. There are thousands of such tanks (known
as eri in Tamil) in Tamil Nadu. The probability that some existed
even prior to the Sangam age, cannot be dismissed out of hand.
The construction, maintenance, and the distribution of water
for cultivation from the tanks would involve an administrative
framework. The surplus generated from more intensive and
productive agriculture would have resulted in the emergence of
small chiefdoms. Thus, the Sangam literature should be viewed
in the context of an urban civilization which had an independent
origin. This is supported by the fact that the Tamil literature of this
period does not contain Sanskrit or other borrowed words. The
language itself is archaic, very different from the language used in
the classical literature; much like the fact that Rigvedic Sanskrit is
different from Sanskrit in later time periods.
The main works of the Sangam period are collectively known
as Ettutogai—an anthology of poems written by many poets. These
are of a secular nature with beautiful descriptions of life in villages
and towns in very realistic terms. There are well over 2000 poems,
involving about 200 poets. A second major work of this period is
Pathupattu; it contains fewer but longer poems.
A unique characteristic of Tamil literature is that all poems
are classified into two categories: agam meaning ‘inside’ and
purram meaning ‘outside’. The agam literature deals with love and
emotions, while the purram literature is about the kings. The Tamil
works classified as Purananuru, form part of Ettutogai, containing
400 songs that describe aspects of politics, religion, trade and
society. They also tell stories of philanthropists of the time.
Poems were further classified on the basis of the landscape that
they described. There are five landscape types: kurunji, the hills;
palai, the dry lands; mullai, the scrubland and the forest; marudam,
the cultivated lands; and neydal, the coastal belt. Landscapes are
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linked to emotions. Hills provide the background to romance or

herding of cattle; dryland landscapes are linked to separation of
lovers and devastation, the scrubland is the setting for raiding and
hunting; coastal landscape for the travails of fishermen and war.
Further classifications are based on animals, flowers etc. Altogether,
it was a mosaic of highly emotional life that was savoured by the
poets, and the public before whom they were sung.
The later texts of the Sangam period show influence of Jainas.
The Jainas had come to Tamil Nadu as early as 3rd century BC.
Jaina influence in Tamil literature is most visible in the classic
Tirukkural, a work containing 1,300 verses or aphorisms of a
philosophical nature by Tiruvalluvar. This is considered to be a
sacred text by recent enthusiasts of Tamil language; it was always
held in very high esteem by everyone. Naladiyar is another work of
even greater merit, but its content is more secular, while its poetry
is of very high standard.
From these early beginnings, two major Epics in Tamil were
produced. The content of these Epics is entirely a product of Tamil
culture. However, there are certain influences from the North as
well. The best known among these is Silappadigaram. It tells the
story of Kannagi and her lover Kovalan. Kovalan was killed unjustly
by the king of Madurai, mistaking him to be the thief who stole
the queen’s anklets. Kannagi comes to the court and proves that her
husband is innocent. The king’s admission of guilt and his death
out of remorse did not quench her anger at the injustice done. She
felt that the people of Madurai deserved to be to be punished as
well. Gods answered her curse and the city was burned down. Both
the storyline and the sense of justice are unique to the Tamils and
different from the ones portrayed in the Sanskrit texts (compare
this to the scene in Mahabharata in which Draupati explodes into
rage against Dushasan).
Buddhists, who came much later than Jains, also influenced the
literature in Tamil. Among the notable works that show profound
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effect of Buddhism is Manimeghalai. It is a sequel to Silappadigaram.

It is the story of two women who, after a tumultuous life, become
Buddhist nuns. Buddhist principles are presented as discussion
between these women, much in the same way as in the Puranas.
The earliest devotional songs in Tamil are about the Tamil
God Murugan. Examples of these songs are found in Pathupattu
(meaning ten songs). A later work of the Sangam period,
Tirumurugarrarupadai, is the first part of Pathupattu and it consists
of songs in praise of Lord Murugan. It was composed by Nakkirar.
Murugan is still the chief Tamil God. The rationale of worship by
songs in praise of one’s God is one of mutual love—if you love your
God, he would love you and all your problems would get solved
eventually. For this, love must be pure. Such unblemished love is
possible only by those who are blameless or pure themselves and
hence the need to follow the correct code of conduct in life.
Brahmana Influence
Shaivism and Vaishnavism were brought to Tamil Nadu by
Brahmanas from the North. Brahmanas were the last to come to
Tamil Nadu, after the Jainas and the Buddhists. They came around
5th century AD and settled in agraharams through land grants
given to them by the Pallava Kings of Kanchipuram. This was
the beginning of Brahmana migrations to the South. The earliest
streams of migration were from the Deccan region (see stage IV,
Figure 2). This was followed by migrations along the east coast
and west coasts from regions further north. The Cholas gave very
liberal land grants and hundreds of agraharams came into being
in the Kaveri Delta and elsewhere. These migrants probably came
from the Ganga Plains as one of the Chola kings took his army as
far north as the Ganga River. The Sri Vaishnavite Brahmanas in
the South probably had their roots in Bengal, while a number of
Brahmana groups along the west coast may trace their roots as far
north as Kashmir. Most of these Brahmanas were Shaivites.
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The impact of the new Brahmana settlements is seen in the

subsequent Bhakti literature. This literature is pure Hinduism with
little or no influence of Jainas or Buddhists. At the time Brahmanas
migrated from the North, the cult of the Bhagavatas and Pancharatras
was already there in North-West India; a counter to this was the
cult of the Pasupatas. The former has its origins in what is known
as the Vasudeva cult and the Narayana cult; these names were later
incorporated into the Puranas, mixing with other cults and legends,
like the legends of the cow boy by the name Krishna. The names
Krishna and Devaki appear in the Upanishads in a different context.
Pasupati is the lord of animals and this is a very ancient cult, which
gets transformed into worship of Shiva and of linga and so on. From
early Vedic times, the local religions, legends, and cults were in
constant ferment with additions and mixtures, and from this new
cults emerged. Even in the last century, we have seen the emergence
of new Gods like Santoshi Maa and Ayyappan. Hinduism is
constantly evolving and new Gods emerge from time to time.
There were two very different streams of Brahmana immigration
to the region of Tamil Nadu—the Smartas, who were specialists
in Smrities (they were rooted to the Mimamsa religion) but with
a slight leaning towards Shaivism, and the Sri Vaishnavites who
were bhaktas of Vishnu. The two divisions of Nayanmars and Alvars
reflect this dichotomy. I would think that the Smarta Brahmanas
were the first to arrive in Tamil Nadu, while the Sri Vaishnavites
came later. In both cases, there were not one but several streams of
migration. This is indicated in the names of Jaties among Smarta
Brahmanas—Ashtasahasram, Brihacharanam, Vadama, Vadhyama,
and Mangudi.
The Brahmana agraharams brought about a new vigour in the
poetry of the Tamil bards, who were, for the most part, from non-
Brahmana communities of Tamil Nadu, including, in a few cases,
people from the lowest classes. Two groups of bards emerged from
this cross cultural contact—Nayanmars and Alvars.
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Nayanmars
The Nayanmars, who were Shaivites, composed songs in praise
of Shiva; they were sixty-three in number and they lived from
6th century AD to 12th century AD. Shaivites in Tamil Nadu
consider Tirumurai as their most sacred text. Marai in Tamil
is equivalent to Veda in Sanskrit. Tirumurai means ‘the sacred
book of God’. It consists of the Tevaram, the Tiruvachakam, the
Tirumantiram, and Periapuranam. These component texts were
composed by different Nayanmars. The word tevaram means
a garland worn around a deity. It is the work of three of the
early Shaivite poets: Tirujnanasambadhar, Appar, and Sundarar.
Tirumantiram is a work on spiritual pursuits and it was
composed by Tirumular, who was a siddha and a mystic. Siddha
is actually a medicine man and an ascetic. Eighteen original
Siddhas are mentioned in the texts. One of whom, the Pampatti
Siddhar, has already been mentioned in the chapter on roots.
Tiruvachakam was composed by Manikavachakar, a minister in
the court of the Pandya kings. His other works are: Tirukovaiyar
and Tirvembavai. He was an exponent of a special kind of
mysticism in which the devotee becomes the bride and God
her beloved lover; the ecstasy of being with the lord and pangs
of separation form the main theme. Periapuranam is the last of
the works in the Tirumurai. It was composed by Sekkizhar. It
narrates the life story of the Nayanmars or the 63 Shaiva saints.
However, Sekkizhar was not one of them. Nevertheless, his
contribution to Shaivite hagiography and canon is considered
to be very important and hence he is often thought as the 64th
Nayanar (Nayanmar is the plural of Nayanar in Tamil).
Shaivism was dominated by non-Brahmanas from the beginning.
It is also true that Shaivism is far more popular among the masses
in South India, while Vaishnavism is more or less confined to the
Brahmanas and a few upper caste Hindus. The Smarta Brahmanas, who
probably brought Shaivism to Tamil Nadu, did not consider themselves
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as Shaivites; instead, they thought of themselves as Mimamsakas. Even

today they are open to Shaivism, Vaishnavism, or any other sect.
Alvars
The bards who composed songs in praise of Vishnu and his avatars
are known in Tamil as Alvars—meaning ‘immersed in the Lord’.
There were only 12 Alvars as against 63 Nayanmars. While almost
all Nayanmars were from the non-Brahmana community, almost
all the Alvars were Brahmanas.
It is, however, ironical that the sacred text of the Vaishnavites—
the Nalayira Divya Prabhandam—is in Tamil. It shows the extent
to which Brahmanas adjusted to the local language and culture.
This text represents the collected works of all the 12 Alvars, who
lived during 6th century AD to 11th century AD. Among them,
Namalvar was the greatest. He was not from among the Brahmanas.
His original name was Maran. He is the author of Tiruvaimozhi, a
sacred text. It is considered to be the basis of Vaishnava siddhanta—a
doctrinal work of great importance.
There are 108 places in the South sacred to the Vaishnavas;
these places have been mentioned by the Alvars and songs written by
them in praise of the deities there. The Sri Vaishnavite Brahmanas
give greater importance to Bhagavata Purana and the basic texts in
Tamil, while attaching secondary importance to the Vedas. They
are also more at home with puja rather than homa.
The Later Exponents of Bhakti

The Alvars and Nayanmars dominated the scene in Tamil Nadu
for nearly five centuries. At the very end of this period, we see the
emergence of three great Acharyas who reinvigorated the bhakti
scene with their new formulations of the relationship between God
and the soul. All the three were Brahmanas.
Ramanujacharya (1017–1137 AD): Ramanujacharya was
born into a Vaishnava family near Chennai in Tamil Nadu. He had
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his early training under a guru in Kanchipuram. His brilliance and

his tendency to correct his teacher did not endear him to the guru.
However, Ramanuja eventually did become the head of the Kanchi
Mutt (of Vaishnavites) and later on the Head of the Visishtadvaita
Mutt, in Srirangam, which was and continues to be the most
important Mutt of Sri Vaishnavites. Ramanuja visited a number of
places in North India, including Kasi, Badrinath, and Kashmir. He
actively propagated his views in all these places. Today, he is best
known for his four books: Bhashyam on Brahmasutra, Vedanta Sara,
Vedanta Sagara, and Vedanta Deepa.
He was a reformist and he broke Varna and Jati barriers and
enrolled many newcomers to his sect. As a consequence of this
policy, in the 13th century, the Sri Vaishnavites split into the
northern (Vadakalai) and southern (Thenkalai) branches.
During his headship of the Mutt in Srirangam, he incurred
the displeasure of the Chola King, who was a staunch Shaivite.
Ramanuja managed to escape to Mysore where he made friends
with the Hoysala King by curing the illness of his daughter. He
then established a temple and a Mutt in Melkote on top of a hill.
Later, when the Chola king died, the new king was far more lenient
towards Vaishnavites and Ramanuja returned to Srirangam. After
many years of peaceful life he died there at the age of 120(?).
Vaishnavism in Tamil Nadu followed the Pancharatra division
of Vaishnavism of the North (as opposed to the Bhagavatas).
Further, Ramanuja’s philosophy is based on the concept of Saguna
Brahman or Brahman with attributes which are real and permanent.
Jiva is the individual self and it is a servant and worshipper. The Jiva
should surrender himself to the Lord. Oneness of God and Jiva is
justified on the ground that all attributes are products of divine
grace. All depend on Narayana for their existence. This is his theory
of qualified non-dualism.
According to Sri Vaishnavism, bhakti towards their God,
Narayana, is adequate to attain moksha. There is no difference
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between jnana yoga and bhakti yoga—both are one and the same’
a proposition that is intrinsically different from Adi Sankara’s
viewpoint.
Basavanna (1131-1167 AD): Basava or Basavanna, as he is
more popularly known, was the founder of Lingayat or Veerashaivite
sect. It is the single largest group among Hindus in Karnataka; they
are a minor group in Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra as well.
The Lingayats as a community or sect are very well organized and
the heads of the various Lingayat Mutts carry enormous influence
among the people. As a result, the Mutt heads wield political
influence as well.
Basavanna was originally a Brahmana hailing from North
Kannada District. He was a minister under a Jaina King in Kalyani
in Maharashtra. Later, he became a monk and organized a new
sect; this sect shows clear influence of Jaina religion. Basavanna
rejected Brahmana dominance and the Varna and Jati systems.
Like the Jains, he advocated strict vegetarianism. Again, like Jains,
he rejected idol worship. However, he was a staunch Shaivite. His
followers wore the sacred thread with a linga knotted along it. This
is the most sacrosanct symbol that every Lingayat—both men and
women—are expected to wear at all times. The belief is that this
will protect them from evil at all times.
Basava was a social reformer, rather than a religious leader. He
believed in Visishtadvaita in which Shiva is equated with Brahman.
The Mutts, fairly large in number, are the main focus of worship,
where the head of the Mutt is someone who is to be revered and
even worshipped. The Mutts followed a fundamentalist philosophy
and enforced rules. The life of a Lingayat, therefore, was very much
controlled by the Mutts.
Madvacharya (1199-1294 AD): Like his predecessor Basavanna,
Madvacharya also came from a Brahmana family. The philosophy of
Madvacharya differs in very basic terms from those of Adi Sankara
and Ramanuja. He believed in dualism. Brahman and Jiva are
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different on a permanent basis. His Brahman is Saguna Brahman in

the form of Lord Krishna. He justified his stand of dualism on the
basis of rather far fetched arguments based on the Upanishads; in
other words, he interpreted the Upanishads in a different way and
justified dualism.
The focal centre of Madvacharya’s dualism continues to be
the Krishna temple in Udupi. His followers are known as Madva
Brahmanas, who are largely confined to the South Kannada
district of Karnataka. Western scholars see a strong influence of
Christianity in Madvacharya’s life and philosophy. Madvacharya
is believed to have performed many miracles during his lifetime,
which reinforces the above statement.
Ramayana and Bhagavad Gita

In the 9th century AD, Kamban composed Ramayana in Tamil. His
version of Ramayana was in many ways different from the original.
It had an element of bhakti, while at the same time Ravana was not
shown as an archetype villain. Even in Valmiki Ramayana, Ravana
comes out as being kind and generous to women. Hanuman said
that all women in his harem were well taken care of and everyone
was happy—he did not find a single unhappy woman there and
hence he moved to the Asoka vana to find Sita. The question in
Ramayana has to do with rajadharma and not the personal character
of Ravana. There is no element of bhakti in Valmiki’s Ramayana,
for Rama is not shown as a God there. In Kamban’s Ramayana,
Rama is God incarnate and the element of bhakti comes into play.
Later, in Tulsidas’s Ramacharitamanas in Hindi, bhakti attains a
climax. Everything is seen in black and white—evil and good. All
later adaptations of Valmiki Ramayana, either in Sanskrit or in
vernacular languages, are all steeped in bhakti.
The Bhagavad Gita, probably composed in the 4th century AD
and added on to the Mahabharata, has a very important role in the
bhakti movement. Although the main thrust of the Bhagavad Gita
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is about karma yoga and jnana yoga, it lays an equally important

stress on bhakti yoga. In reality, while the first two are generally
ignored by common people, it is bhakti that stands out as the most
important teaching of this highly regarded text.
The Lord himself says:
पत्रं पुष्पं फलं तोयं यो मे भक्त्या प्रयच्छति।

तदहं भक्त्युपहृतमश्नामि प्रयतात्मनः।।
I accept leaves, flowers, fruits, or water offered to me by sincere
and devoted bhaktas with a clean heart.
(Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 9, verse 26)
Further, the last and concluding verse quoted below of the Bhagavad
Gita is often cited by bhaktas to reinforce their faith:
सर्वधर्मान् परित्यज्य मामेकं शरणं व्रज।

अहं त्वा सर्वपापेभ्यो मोक्षयिष्यामि मा शुचः।।
Discarding all moral codes, take refuge in me alone.
I shall cause you to be released from all sins.
Lord Krishna is everything for the bhakta who craves for the
empirical experience (vijnana) of the Lord. The repeated assertions
in the text—to see Brahman in Lord Krishna—are all but forgotten.
Even Adi Sankara conceded defeat by asking the question at the
end: where is the doubt? The fact is that doubt persists and it is
bhakti yoga that triumphs over jnana yoga.
Bhakti, Temples, and the Arts

From around the 5th century AD, India witnessed a blossoming of
culture which covered a variety of fields which were blended into a
harmonic whole by the bhakti movement. The origin and growth of
temples described in the previous chapter provided the institutional
foundation, and in itself represents the development of the arts of
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architecture and sculpturing to a high degree of perfection over the

centuries. The inspiration for this came from Buddhist stupas and
Buddhist and Jaina cave arts. In turn, these were based on long
forgotten Harappan artefacts and figurines of female goddesses,
besides Gandharan sculptures which reflect Hellenist influences.
Hindu temples and their architecture, I think, are firmly rooted
in the bhakti movement, both in the North and the South. Various
Hindu art forms such as sculptures, murals and frescos in caves and
temples, and above all, music, dance, and drama were all based on
temples with the bhakti movement providing the emotional and
artistic inspiration.
Bhakti movement is not an isolated event and it is rooted
in religion and mythology. On a visit to any of the well-known
temples in India, whether it is the Puri Jagannath temple or the
Brihadeeswara temple in Tanjavur, one would not fail to notice
the blending of all these art forms into a cohesive and inseparable
whole.
A notable feature of Hindu temples is the presentation of
legends from Hindu mythology in the form of sculptures in the
shikharas and gopurams, on the walls and on every available surface
inside a temple. People who visit the temple understand and
appreciate these legends and their visual representation and they
believe these to be true representations of their past. It reinforces
their faith.
Music was originally introduced by the bards who sang in
praise of their favourite God in chosen temples. This is particularly
true of Nayanmars and Alvars; their lyrics are all temple centric.
Music combined well with dance and drama. These were staged in
one of the mandapams within the temple premises. In the Orissa
temples there is a nata mandira as part of the temple complex. The
temple also supported the artists (by giving them a salary besides
gifts in kind) whether they were musicians or exponents of dance
or drama. The specific forms of art varied from region to region. In
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Kerala, the well-known kathakali dance-drama art form was based

on temples, so also the classical dance forms of Bhartanatyam, Odissi
or Kuchipudi dance. The doyen of Carnatic music, Sri Thyagaraja,
lived near the temple in Tiruvaiyaru in Tanjavur District practicing
uncha vritti (livelihood by seeking alms). At noon every day, he
went round the temple singing his kirtans with a bowl in his hand.
He did not accept gifts even from the king of Tanjavur. He was a
well-known Rama bhakta. Today, it is impossible for a non-bhakta
to render a performance of classical music. The very essence of
Carnatic music is in its bhakti bhava. It sharply differs from classical
music and dance in North India, where these are performed for the
most part in a secular spirit, especially by Muslim exponents.
What is true of music is equally true of sculpture, drama,
painting, dance, or any other art form in India. Whatever secular
art exists in India today is of recent origin and is based on
foreign influences.
The temple arts in the South are primarily a contribution of
non-Brahmanas. Only in the area of classical music from 17th
century onwards, and in the 20th century in classical dance have
Brahmanas contributed to its growth in any significant way. Art is
common to all; temples are also common to all. If discrimination
existed in the well-known temples, those discriminated developed
their folk arts independently in their own temples while focusing
on their Gods. Such discrimination was confined to the Dalits
alone and not the other Jaties. Even this is a thing of the past now.
In general, the temples, both big and small, were focal points of
bhakti and the arts, throughout the medieval period and at present.
The bhakti movement that originated in the South reached
the North somewhat late; by that time the North had come under
Muslim rule. Yet, bhakti did spread in the North in a very subdued
fashion, as we will see in the following chapter.
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Hinduism under
Muslim Rule
• Early Inroads • India in 1200 AD • Hinduism under

the Delhi Sultanate • Hinduism under the Mughals •
The Issue of Religious Conversion • Hinduism at the End
of Muslim Rule in the North • The South and Muslim
Inroads • The Bahmani Kingdoms • Vijayanagar and
Warrangal • The Tipu Interlude • Summary
Early Inroads
Although, Islam originated in Arabia in the early 7th century AD,
the Arabs had come to India as traders from 2nd century AD
itself. Some of them married local women and established
small communities along the west and the east coast of India,
especially in their southern segments. The established quasi-Arab
communities in the coastal belt were easily converted to Islam
early in the 8th century. In the late 7th century, Arabs under
the leadership of the Caliphs of Baghdad invaded Sindh and
established Islam there; later they also invaded North-West India,
leading to the conversion of some at least of the local population
to Islam. This invasion had some positive contributions, in
the sense that the Arabs learned about Hindu religion and its
knowledge in such areas as mathematics, astronomy and so on;
it is this knowledge about India that they passed on to Europe.
These early Muslim communities hardly had any significant
impact on Hinduism and Hindus and Muslims lived side by side.
There were no conflicts either. It is the early converts to Islam who

account for about 20 percent of Kerala’s population. They are
generally known as ‘Mapla’ and they speak the local vernacular
language—Malayalam. The Islam that they follow is closer to the
Arabs than to their north Indian counterparts. Similarly, Muslims
in Tamil Nadu, a majority of them, speak Tamil and have no
knowledge of Urdu—their culture is akin to that of their Tamil
brothers. In the South, the presence of Muslim communities in
the coastal areas did not have any significant influence on the
practice of Hinduism. The two communities followed a ‘live and
let live policy’ with no great religious significance.
Muslims in Pakistan can claim that their religion came
directly from Arabia almost from its very inception in the 8th
century AD. Nevertheless, the majority of the Hindus there were
converted to Islam after 1000 AD with the influx of Afghans
from the North. Muslims in northern India were either the new
migrants from Afghanistan or converts from the local population
from 1200 AD when the Delhi Sultanate was firmly established.
Eventually, Muslims in the northern parts of the country
developed their own language Urdu—a hybrid language. Further,
the Islam practiced in Northern India is significantly different
from the one practiced in Arabia; it has some common elements
with Hinduism. Hinduism in North India also shows significant
influences of Islam.
The interaction of Islam and Hinduism in Northern India
is of a different kind compared with that in the coastal belt
described earlier. In the North, Muslims were rulers and the
Hindus were their subjects; it made a lot of difference. While
Hindus as a ruling class never interfered or imposed their
religion on others (Kerala is a very good example of this kind of
tolerance), Muslim rulers had no hesitation in doing so if it was
politically expedient. Hinduism in the North suffered most from
this unequal relationship.
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Hinduism under Muslim Rule
India in 1200 AD
The North-Western parts of India were mostly under small Hindu
kingdoms. The Rajputs had by this time established themselves
around Delhi and the whole region of Rajasthan. They were a force
to reckon with; although internal divisions among them made it
impossible for them to unite and fight the common enemy from
the North-West.
In Kashmir, Abhinava Gupta had established a new brand of
Shaivism, while Kalhana had written his well-known historical
work in Sanskrit—Rajatarangani, the story of the kings of Kashmir.
Jayadeva, who lived in Bengal, had composed Gita Govindam—a
work that would produce a whole new sect in North India at a later
point in time.
The well-known temple of Konarak in Odisha was yet to be
built (1238–1258 AD). On the other hand, the Somnath temple
was destroyed repeatedly by Mohammed Ghazni (1001-1027 AD).
Lahore had already become a provincial capital of the Ghors.
Islam was establishing itself in the Indus valley.
In the South, the great Chola Empire had disappeared and
was yet to be supplanted by the Pandyas of Madurai. Nevertheless,
Hinduism was flourishing in the South. Ramanujacharya (1056-
1137 AD) had given Sri Vaishnavites under the Alvars a new
impetus, while Sekkizhar (1133-1150 AD) had written his
Periapuranam, telling stories about the great Shaiva saints in Tamil.
Madvacharya, in coastal Karnataka (1119-1294 AD), was creating
a new wave among Vaishnavites based on his dualist philosophy
and the worship of Lord Krishna. At the same time, Basava (1106-
1167 AD) had created an altogether new sect of Shaivites, who
refused to worship idols and Gods in human form, but retained
the linga as a sacred object worn by men and women on their body,
tied to the sacred thread.
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The Muslim rule in the Indo-Gangetic plains was preceded by

military forays mainly for the purposes of plundering; the most
infamous example of this is the destruction of the Somanth temple
in Kathiavar in 1026 AD and the destruction of the temple in
Mathura in 1014 AD by Mohammed of Ghazni. Later, Malik
Kafur destroyed the famous temple at Madurai in 13th century AD,
while still later Aurangzeb razed the city of Varanasi to the ground
(17th century AD). The Meenakshi temple in Madurai was rebuilt
on an adjacent site by the Naiks (a remnant of the Vijayanagar
empire), while the new temples in Varanasi were built by the
Holkars after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 AD. These three
events left a strong impression on the minds of the Hindu elite
in the 20th century, and much of their negative attitude towards
Muslims arises from these impressions. The rule of Aurangzeb
(1656-1707 AD) is often regarded by Hindus as the worst period
of Muslim rule in India. Aurangzeb destroyed whatever goodwill
Hindus had for their Muslim brethren and he laid the foundation
for the eventual disappearance of Muslim rule in India.
There were no powerful kingdoms anywhere in the North
in 12th century; this had particularly important consequences.
The Delhi Sultanate was established to fill this vacuum
(1192-1206 AD).
Hinduism Under the Delhi Sultanate

From 1200 AD to 1800 AD, the whole of Northern India was
ruled by Muslim kings. During this period of 600 years, millions
of Hindus were converted to Islam. Ninety-eight percent of the
population of Pakistan and ninety percent of the population of
Bangladesh are now Muslims. In India, about 172 million people
are Muslims, forming about 14 percent of the population (in 2011).
The impact on Hinduism from Muslim influx had far reaching
consequences. The practice of Vedic religion was practically
impossible under Muslim rule. As a result, Vedic Hinduism all
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but vanished from the Indo-Gangetic Plains. However, a subdued

form of Puranic Hinduism based on vernacular, bhakti and puja
did survive intact in North India. The South was almost, and in
the extreme South wholly, free from Muslim rule and here the old
Vedic traditions were followed by Brahmanas, under the aegis of
Hindu rulers.
In North India, in rural areas, the local cults and local Gods
and Goddesses continued to be worshipped. The Mimamsa
religions and the study of Vedas survived in a few pockets here and
there. It reappeared after the Muslim rule and re-established itself
in Varanasi, where the Mimamsa religion is practiced by a few even
today. Sanskrit and Mimamsa religion, to some extent, survived in
the Himalayan belt where the Muslim influence was non-existent.
The Vedic religion even in these areas was confined to a select few,
while the majority followed the Puranic modes of worship.
Hinduism under the Mughals

The Mughal period began in 1526 AD. The Mughals were Turks
and they were very suspicious of Afghans from whom they had
taken over. As a result, they were more conciliatory towards Hindus
in general. On the political front, they entered into marriage
alliances with Rajputs—a great majority of the smaller kingdoms
around Delhi were ruled by Rajputs then. Akbar the Great took
over in 1556 AD and thereafter Hinduism went through a new
phase for the next fifty years.
Despite the slightly favourable conditions under Akbar’s
liberalism, the Vedic religion could not be revived for the simple
reason that the Brahmanas who knew Sanskrit and practiced Vedic
religion had already migrated to the South, from the 2nd century
AD or even earlier. The Brahmanas who stayed back had given
up the practice of the Mimamsa religion and they were hardly
in a position to revive it. By its very nature, Mimamsa religion is
something that cannot be revived. It requires a very special social
217
environment and social stability and continuity. It survived only

in the Brahmana agraharams in the South, where such conditions
prevailed until recently.
The revival of Hinduism in the North during the medieval
period is of a different kind altogether. Even here, the impetus for
the new developments came from the South. Swami Ramananda
(1410-1510 AD), a disciple of Vallabhacharya (who hailed from
Andhra Pradesh) and a follower of Ramanuja’s school revived
Vaishnavism in Varanasi. He inspired a new trend in the vernacular
literature in Hindi. Among those inspired by the new trend were
Surdas (1478-1583 AD), Kabir (1440-1510 AD), and Tulsidas
(1532-1623 AD).
The Krishna cult grew in Brajbhumi. Surdas ‘the blind bard
of Agra’, who was a disciple of Vallabhacharya (1479 AD), wrote
lyrics in praise of Lord Krishna and his favourite damsel Radha;
these promoted the Krishna cult in Brajbhumi around Mathura,
near Agra. Mathura became a holy place. In the early centuries of
the Christian era, Mathura was a centre for Buddhism and it is here
that an independent school of sculpture arose. The original temple
for Krishna in Mathura was built over the ruins of a Buddhist
monastery; this temple was demolished by the Muslim rulers and
a mosque built over it. Still later, in the 18th century AD, a new
temple for Krishna was built near the mosque.
There were many others who contributed to the growth of the
Krishna cult at this time—special mention may be made of Mirabai
(1498-1597 AD), whose bhajans are loved all over India today.
The revival of the Rama cult is, by and large, due to the
famous work of Tulsidas, the Ramacharitamanas. This work
became the bible of the masses in the Hindi speaking world of
the Ganga Plains and it is still the most important religious text
read by the common man. Tulsidas was based in Varanasi. He was
a contemporary of Akbar. No other work in Hinduism attained
such a measure of popularity and acceptance as Ramacharitamanas.
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However, its influence remains limited to the Hindi speaking

world. There were equally important works on Ramayana in all
the vernacular languages of India. Indeed, the first translation or
re-telling of Ramayana was in Tamil by Kamban in the 9th century
AD, although this text is not popular today.
To the East, Bengal saw a resurgence of bhakti literature in
Bangla. This focused mainly on Chaitanya Deva, a Vaishnavite
who sang songs in praise of Vaishnava Gods. The 16th century
saw a profusion of religious literature in all vernacular languages of
India. Chaitanya (1486 AD-1533 AD) was born in Nadia district
in Bengal. He preached love and devotion and travelled widely in
North India. He spent eighteen years in Odisha and six years in
the Deccan and Brindavan and other places preaching his form of
bhakti towards his favourite God, Krishna. He was against rituals
and paid no attention to caste or creed. His message was that by
sheer devotion, song and dance, one could attain bliss, lasting bliss.
In Maharashtra, revival of Hinduism took a new turn; here the
saints came not from Brahmana families but from among the lower
Jaties. Namadeva, a well-known bard, again preached the path of
bhakti and love of one’s favourite God. However, he believed in the
unity of God and hence was not a follower of the sects.
Among the royalty at the Mughal court, Dara Shikoh holds
a special place for Hindus. He learnt Sanskrit from scholars in
Varanasi. However, he lost the war of succession against his younger
brother and was killed. Thereafter, Aurangzeb rose to power and
ruled northern India for 50 years.
Ramacharitamanas in Hindi, after the death of Aurangzeb,
became the foundation for the worship of Sri Ram in North India,
while Surdas made notable contributions to the bhakti school
in the 14th to 16th centuries. Jayadeva’s Gita Govindam and
Chaitanya’s propagation of Krishna worship in Bengal are other
notable contributions of this period. They laid the foundation for
the practice of Hinduism in its current form in northern India.
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Kabir (1440 AD-1510 AD) had a different view of religions.

He wanted to unify all religions into a common mould. With
this in view, he was equally critical and appreciative of different
aspects of Hinduism and Islam. Despite his good intentions, the
gap between the two cultures was impossible to bridge. Guru
Nanak was the other religious leader who strived towards the same
end; he also failed in achieving a lasting compromise. The trend in
mainstream Islam was always against any compromise—the Quran
was sacrosanct and could not be tampered with.
Among Hindus, nothing is really sacrosanct. Hindus accept
aspects of any religion if it appeals to them. West Asian religions
are different—there is no room for accommodating other points
of view. This explains the impossibility of even sects within those
religions coming to terms with each other. They are dogmatic
to the core. The situation has not changed even a wee bit in the
21st century.
Guru Nanak (1469 AD-1539 AD) was born in the Punjab,
now in Pakistan. He was a contemporary of Kabir, Surdas, and
Mirabai, but a little earlier than Tulsidas. He belonged to a period
of religious revival under the early Mughals. While Kabir was very
critical of both Hinduism and Islam, Nanak wanted to combine
the good aspects of both the major religions and bring about unity.
He travelled widely —he went to Mecca for haj; his closest friend
was a Muslim from Lahore; he toured Iraq and Afghanistan. He
had a special affinity to Sufism, especially that branch of Sufism
propagated by Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti. Moinuddin Chishti
belonged to a place called Chishti near Herat in Afghanistan.
He came to India and established himself in Ajmer. The Dargah
of Ajmer has become a sacred place for both Muslims and
Hindus alike.
Guru Nanak lived a very simple life and preached harmony,
love, co-existence, and tolerance among followers of all religions.
He preached human service, generosity, and hospitality to one and
220
all. The Sikh gurudwaras even today offer food to everyone and
do not discriminate against anyone on the basis of religion, race,
or caste.
When Guru Nanak passed away in 1539 AD, his nominee
became the second Guru. His message continued to be propagated
by his able followers. The fourth Guru, Guru Ramdas was highly
respected by the Mughal King Akbar and he donated a piece of
land in Amritsar to him. This became the present day Golden
Temple, the sacred abode of Sikh religion in India. His son and
the next Guru compiled the Adi Granth, the sacred book of the
Sikhs. The sacred text of the Sikhs contains many verses from
Sufi saints; it gives due importance to Hindu mythology as well.
A great organizer, Guru Arjan Dev ji preached the message of
Guru Nanak. However, his forays into politics of the Mughals
cost him his life. Later, the tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh Ji,
organized the Khalsa—a band of brave soldiers willing to sacrifice
their lives for the cause of humanity. They became fighters and
fought battles with various rulers including the Mughals; but the
Mughals were still very powerful and Guru Gobind Singh Ji’s life
ended in a tragedy. The martyrdom of the 9th guru, Guru Tegh
Bahadur under the orders of Aurangzeb (when he was given the
choice between martyrdom and conversion to Islam, he chose
martyrdom), inspired the Sikhs even more.
Guru Tegh Bahadur’s son, Guru Gobind, was a very capable
leader. He organized the Khalsa and prepared additions to the Adi
Granth. He was the tenth and the last Guru of the Sikhs. Thereafter,
the leadership of the Sikhs passed on to their holy book Guru
Granth Sahib. Nevertheless, the Sikh religion is still very strong
and vibrant. The majority of the people in the Indian Punjab are
Sikhs.
The death of Aurangzeb in 1707 AD saw a revival of Hinduism
in the North. The decline of the Mughal Empire was brought about
by the religious fanaticism of Aurangzeb on the one hand, and
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equally strong religious convictions of Shivaji and his successors,

who fought bravely to weaken the Mughal rule.
The resurgent Hinduism in the Ganga plains was focused on
the Ramacharitamanas of Tulsidas in Hindi; thus the Rama cult
was born in the North. The North has remained firmly rooted in
the Epics and Puranas. The situation has not in any way changed
after independence. The Mimamsa religion continues to remain
irrelevant in the North.
The Issue of Religious Conversion

Hinduism never entertained the concept of ‘conversion’. As a result,
the tribal and village communities in India were able to preserve,
protect, and practice their religions without any hindrance. This
is a highly civilized and very liberal policy. The religions of the
Middle East, in particular, Islam and Christianity, have a different
viewpoint that is diametrically opposed to this.
In this chapter, we shall deal only with Islam; conversions
to Christianity will be discussed in the next chapter. There are
differences in the methods used by both.
Conversions to Islam in Northern India sometimes had an
element of compulsion or threat of violence. This is dramatically
illustrated in the case of Guru Tegh Bahadur who was offered the
choice between death by decapitation and conversion to Islam.
He preferred death to conversion. However, in reality, most
people, if not all, would accept conversion to save their lives. The
use of force or threats was often made at three levels: individual,
family, entire village, or community of artisans like weavers,
metal workers or other artisans. Most Muslim converts in the
Ganga plains were from the artisan group. The threat to them
came in the form of withdrawal of patronage by the ruling class,
who were Muslims. Threats of loss of property or violation of
women and young girls were also made to convert entire families
to Islam.
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There are limits to forceful conversions when the rulers are

aliens from a different land. This is an aspect that inhibited the
use of force by the kings of the Delhi Sultanate and later the
Mughals. Also, a number of Muslim kings were not religious
minded and they did not want forced conversions. On the other
hand, forced conversions could occur at the local level at the
insistence of the local clergy or the local militia.
Armed resistance by Hindus did take place in the form of
peasant revolts. These revolts occurred even during the rule of
Akbar, for the people who wielded power at lower levels were
not as tolerant as the king. At a still later stage, the Vijayanagar
Empire in the South and the Marathas under Shivaji and his
successors waged wars against the Muslim ruling class.
Hinduism at the End of Muslim Rule in the North

By 1800 AD, Brahminical Hinduism, by which I mean the
performance of Vedic rites at home, at least by Brahmanas and
a modicum of knowledge of Vedic mantras among them had
come to an end. It did survive among the few priestly groups in
cities like Varanasi and a few isolated centres. These priests lived
by providing services to pilgrims and those families claiming
Kshatriya lineage, real or false. Unlike the South, there are no
land grant villages in the North, nor could they practice Vedic
rituals and perform Vedic yagas under Muslim rule. The local
Muslim clerics often prompted the Muslim military leaders to
put a stop to such practices in their area of influence. This is well
illustrated by Gokhale in his study of Surat in the 17th century.
By 1730 AD, the Mughal Empire existed only in name.
It was destroyed by the fundamentalist and fanatical rule of
Aurangzeb combined with bravery of the Marathas under Shivaji
(1630 AD-1680 AD) and his successors. Aurangzeb destroyed
the Mughal Empire by zealous pursuit of a religion that did
not belong to him.
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The South and Muslim Inroads

The far south—Tamil Nadu and Kerala—were never ruled by
Muslims, even though there were brief encounters especially
during the time of Tipu Sultan which lasted for eighteen years.
Muslim nabobs ruled the Arcot region in Tamil Nadu for a short
period before 1800 AD. Kerala was, during this period, under three
kingdoms—those of Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar (under the
Zamorins of Calicut). Malabar came under British rule; the other
two remained as Hindu kingdoms until Independence.
Further north, there were three important Muslim Kingdoms
during the medieval period—Ahmednagar in Maharashtra,
Golkonda in Telangana and adjoining parts of Maharashtra
(Marathwada) and Karnataka (Hyderabad Karnataka), and finally
the kingdom in Bijapur in north Karnataka. They were in constant
wars with each other and the Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1565 AD).
Of these, only the Hyderabad State survived during British rule, but
under a new dynasty—a by product of Moghul disintegration. The
Bahmani kingdoms also had to contend with the Marathas based
in Pune. Later, the Marathas split into five groups and extended
their rule to Gwalior (Sindhias), Indore (Holkars) in Madhya
Pradesh; Baroda (Gaikwads) in Gujarat, Nagpur (Bhonsle) and
Pune (Peshwas) in Maharashtra. A small branch of the Maratha
royalty ruled Tanjavur during the 17th century; they however,
promoted Hinduism. The Marathas under Shivaji always respected
Brahmanas and Pune became an important centre of Sanskrit based
Vedic Hinduism in medieval and later periods.
The Bahmani Kingdoms

The Muslim kingdoms of the South have their origin in the
misadventure of Tuglak who shifted his capital from Delhi to
Daulatabad (earlier known as Devagiri) and back. The southern
commanders combined to throw the Tuglak regime out of the
Deccan and in its place the Bahmani kingdom was established with
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Gulbarga as its capital in 1347 AD. This kingdom lasted for over a
century and in 1489 AD it broke up into five kingdoms (together
known as Bahmani kingdoms with their respective capitals in
Ahmednagar and Berar in Maharashtra, Golkonda in Telangana,
Bidar and Bijapur in North Karnataka). Muslim rule in the Deccan
thus came two centuries later than in Delhi. The Bahmani kingdoms
were constantly tormented by Mughal armies from the north and
the armies of Vijayanagar, Warangal, the Konkan, and other Hindu
kingdoms. They were eventually overrun by Shivaji and his Maratha
warriors. Only Hyderabad under the Nizam (who was a governor
under the Mughals) survived till India’s Independence in 1947.
On the whole, the Bahmani rulers came from the lower rungs
of society—their origin can be traced to slaves, and servants. They
were made ineffective by palace intrigue and constant wars with
neighbors and often by incompetent rulers. Most of them were
given to pomp and luxury and wasted their resources. There were
a few, may be two or three, who were inclined towards scholarship
and the arts, but they did not make much of an impression. They
did build a few spectacular mosques, for example, the Bijapur
mosque with its large dome.
Muslim rule in the Deccan and adjoining areas did not do
much damage to Hinduism, although the Vedic form of Hinduism
was impossible to practice under these conditions. However, small
communities of Brahmanas did manage to keep it alive. The
Puranic form of Hinduism, under the circumstances, replaced the
Vedic religion, which as we noted earlier needs special conditions
for its practice. The Puranic religion was easier to practice and did
not require the services of priests, nor even temples. The slow but
steady emergence of vernacular translations of Epics and Puranas
was adequate compensation for the absence of the Vedic religion.
These thrived with bhakti or devotion as the primary forms of
worship and belief.
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An interesting aspect of this development is the emergence of

religious leaders from among the lower classes of society; notable
among them were Namdev in Maharashtra (1400 AD-1450 AD),
Kshetrayya (1622 AD-1673 AD) in Andhra, Tukaram (1608 AD-
1649 AD), a Dalit poet from Maharashtra and so on.
Conversion of Hindus to Islam did take place during this
period; nevertheless, the proportion of population converted
was only around 10 percent; this percentage has remained nearly
constant ever since.
Vijayanagar and Warangal

We have already noted the emergence of Shivaji motivated
by the desire to defend Hinduism from the onslaught of Islam
further north. However, Shivaji was preceded by others further
south. Harihara and Bukka, who had the same religious fervour
had established the Vijayanagar Empire (1336 AD-1569 AD) in
Hampi and to a large extent blocked the advance of Islam into the
deep South. Similarly, the Kakatiyas of Warangal (13th and 14th
centuries) also held on to power neutralising the advance of the
Bahmani kingdoms. Vijayanagar was the most powerful kingdom
in the South in the 15th century and its capital was noted for its
architectural beauty.
Still, commanders of the Muslim kingdoms managed to come
as far as Madurai and they did establish a small kingdom in the
Arcot district of Tamil Nadu, which survived till the British period.
Hampi, the capital of Vijayanagar, was eventually destroyed
by Muslim invaders in1569 AD. But by that time Shivaji and his
forces were active in the north and Aurangzeb was bogged down
in war with them.
People of Vijayanagar survived and established themselves in
Madurai; they rebuilt the Madurai Meenakshi temple, destroyed
by Malik Kafur in the 13th century. The new temple is a
magnificent monument, and exists in its original form even today.
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Almost all other temples in the deep South remain intact and so
also Hinduism of all shades remained very much alive there.
The Vijayanagar Empire encouraged Hinduism, art, and
literature. For the vernacular languages of Kannada and Telugu,
it was a golden period. Notable contributions were made to the
literature of these languages during this period.
The Tipu Interlude

In Mysore, where Hindu kings had ruled for a long time, Hyder
Ali, an ordinary soldier under the Hindu King, managed to usurp
the throne. He and his son ruled from Srirangapatnam, a very
small island on the Kaveri River near Mysore for about 40 years.
During this period, they were in constant war with the Nizam
of Hyderabad and the British. They sided with the French, who
were, on most occasions, outwitted by the British. Eventually,
Tipu Sultan was killed in an operation in Srirangapatnam (killed
by a sniper’s stray bullet) and his rule came to an end. The Hindu
kings of Mysore were restored to power again.
Summary
The impact of Muslim rule differs sharply between the North and
the extreme South. In the extreme South, Islam had no impact
whatsoever on Hinduism, while the North-West came entirely
under its sway (this includes the whole of the Indus basin,
except the Indian Punjab). Elsewhere in the North, in the Ganga
Plains, the Muslim impact meant practically the elimination
of Vedic religion. However, Hinduism survived in the form of
Puranic religion with idol worship, bhakti and bhajans as forms
of worship. The situation in Bengal is somewhat unexplainable.
Here, in the extreme east, 90 percent of the people were converted
to Islam; while the part of Bengal in India was predominantly
Hindu. While one does understand the conversion of Hindus in
the Indus basin from around 7th century, the conversion to Islam
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in Bangladesh could only be because of extreme poverty and an

exploitative feudalism that existed there.
Perhaps the most notable contribution of Muslim rule in
the North was the emergence of a common language—a lingua
franca—in the form of Hindustani. This language, in its oral
form, is understood all over India and Pakistan and even beyond.
It established a firm cultural bond in South Asia. To this we may
add Sufism which dominates Islam in the subcontinent and which
is closely linked to mysticism of the Hindu variety.
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Hinduism under
British Rule
• India in 1800 AD • Christianity in India • The

Indologists • Raja Ram Mohan Roy—the Father of
Hindu Reforms • Swami Dayananda Saraswati • Swami
Vivekananda • Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan • Brahmanas
in the South • Hindu Diaspora • Mahatma Gandhi
• Hindu Muslim Rivalry and Partition
India in 1800 AD
In 1800 AD, the political map of India was highly fragmented
with hundreds of small kingdoms, both Hindu and Muslim,
dispersed across the length and breadth of the sub-continent with
a British presence almost everywhere. The British had come to
India for commercial gain. Their presence in India started with
trading posts at first in Surat, later in Madras in 1639 AD, Bombay
in 1688 AD and Calcutta in 1698 AD. These places formed the
nuclei of British rule in India. The British East India Company
had by 1800 AD established itself firmly in Bengal, Madras, and
much of the east coast region, and they were in a position to
extend their territorial control over the rest of India. However,
this took a few decades more. The Marathas under the Sindhias,
Holkars, Gaikwads still held on to power and the Sikhs under
their powerful leader, Raja Ranjit Singh, were still ruling over a
greater part of the present day Pakistan with the capital at Lahore.
The Mughal king had been reduced to a puppet under the
British East India Company. The power and prestige of the
Mughals had long since vanished after the death of Aurangzeb in

1707 AD; a number of governors and jagirdars under the Mughals
(both Hindus and Muslims) had declared their independence and
established their rule in their respective territories. The Nizam
of Hyderabad was among the prominent members of this group
and he played politics with the Company to his disadvantage, so
also did most of the rulers of this period. The main rivalry at this
stage was between the British and French East India companies.
In this rivalry the British had the upper hand, mostly because of
sheer luck.
The Gurkhas of Nepal were subdued by 1814 AD and vital
Himalayan territory was secured for the hill stations of which
Shimla became the summer capital of the British. Tipu Sultan was
vanquished in 1800 AD, and with the taming of the Nizam of
Hyderabad around 1818 AD, the French role in India also came
to an end, except in a few very small pockets of Pondicherry,
Karaikkal, and Chandranagore. Goa and Daman and Diu were
under Portuguese rule since 1510 AD (The Portuguese had a
special relationship with the British and hence their survival).
Much of India was in a state of anarchy with no competent rulers
anywhere. The British, at this stage, saw the possibility of a much
bigger role for them. By 1840 AD, the Sikh rule in Lahore came to
an end and the whole of the Indus basin was under British control.
India had fully become a British colony.
The Indian sub-continent, in effect, was directly or indirectly
under British control. The power of the British, both in territories
directly administered by them and those which were under
petty rulers, was growing with the passage of time. The British
East India company framed rules by which they could annex the
Indian kingdoms in case of disputes over succession or misrule.
In spite of all this, the British and the English language were in
the process of unifying the entire sub-continent; new institutions,
both administrative and judicial, were coming into play.
230
Hinduism under British Rule
With the East India Company, Christian missionaries had just

begun to come to India in the latter half of the 18th century,
to convert the local population to Christianity. Eventually, in the
early part of the 19th century, the missionaries created considerable
friction and it had far reaching consequences for the British and
the Hindu population. The Muslims, however, were not affected
at all for two reasons—Islam was seen as a sister religion which
the Christian missionaries were well aware of and respected, while
they had no understanding of Hinduism. It was to them a very
primitive religion badly in need of reform and help.
The introduction of paper and the printing machines in the
second half of the 18th century had far-reaching implications for
the dissemination of information in general, and for education.
It helped Hindus to discover their religion through the original
texts or vernacular translations which were then printed and made
available in the form of books as we know them today. In medieval
times, this facility did not exist and paper for writing was not
known even during the Mughal period. The developments during
the British period, therefore, should be viewed in the context of
the revolution brought about by the use of paper for writing and
the printing press.
Christianity in India
Christianity came to India (in Kerala) as early as 2nd century AD
according to one tradition. It is said that St Thomas, a disciple of
Jesus Christ, came to India and converted people to Christianity.
It is also believed that he died in Santhome near Mylapore in
Chennai. According to another view, Christianity came to India
via Persia in the 6th century AD; this stream accounts for Syrian
Christians, for the Christians who came from Persia with trading
ships were affiliated to the Church of Antioch in Syria. In the
16th century AD, Jesuit missionaries came to Kerala and found
Christian communities there. However, these communities
231
practiced a form of Christianity which was little different from

Hinduism. The Jesuits tried to reform the existing Christian
communities—a section of whom were fully converted to the
Roman Catholic Church, while the other continued to be known
as Syrian Christians. These people perhaps gave up some of their
old Hindu practices as a result of the contact with the Jesuits. The
Christian Community in Kerala is very strong economically and
educationally, unlike Christian communities elsewhere in India
where they carry a low caste or tribal tag.
Christian Missionary activity was most pronounced in
Tamil Nadu in the 19th century where they met with success in
converting the less privileged classes of society. Christianity could
not convert persons belonging to the Brahmana or other upper
class non-Brahmanas except in rare cases.
In the 19th century, Christian missionaries initially adopted
a very aggressive posture. They used the newly translated Hindu
scriptures, using selected passages, to show the decadent nature
of Hindu society and highlighted the inequalities and the
discrimination of people of low caste. They even ridiculed Hindu
mythology pointing out the contradictions and absurdities. Upper
caste Hindus took the fight back to them and pointed out the
absurdities in Christian beliefs. In general, the upper castes in
India did not have a high opinion of either Christianity or Islam.
In other words, they felt that Hindu religious doctrines, as outlined
in the Upanishads, were far superior to those of Christianity
or Islam.
The impact of the missionary activity is seen in educational
institutions which were established in all the big towns and cities.
These were, for the most part, patronized by Brahmanas and
other upper castes. However, this did not lead to conversion of
these classes.
If we bypass the issue of conversion, everyone including
Brahmanas would agree that the Christian missions in the South
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performed good service for the people of all classes, not only in
the field of education but also in medicine and in orphanages and
similar institutions for the poor and disabled.
Christian missionary activity in North India met with even
lesser success; but the pattern was much the same—a greater
impact on the poor and lower strata of society and far less on the
upper Varnas.
In the 20th century, the Christian missionaries focused more
on tribal areas in Bihar and Odisha and in the North-East. In the
North-East they met with great success; the majority of the people
of Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland are now Christians. Their
degree of success in Jharkhand and Odisha was far less.
The Indologists
Unlike the Christian missionaries who came to India in late 18th
century, there were a few British and even Europeans who were
genuinely interested in learning Sanskrit and knowing more about
the ancient texts in this language. These gentlemen were the first
Indologists, who discovered the linguistic connections between
European languages and Sanskrit. From this first step it was held
that Sanskrit and European languages had a common origin;
hundreds of words in Sanskrit had similarities with German and
English words. The common origin of languages led to the theory
of the common origin of people and a common race; the latter
came to be known as the ‘Aryan’ race. However, the connection
between language and race is now totally discredited and the
concept of the ‘Aryan’ race totally abandoned.
Among the Indologists, Charles Wilkins was the first to learn
Sanskrit from local pundits; he was an administrator under the
company. He was later joined by William Jones, who came to
India as a judge of the Supreme Court in Calcutta. He was a great
scholar and linguist. He learnt Sanskrit with help from Wilkins
and the Pundits. Together, they established the Asiatic society of
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Bengal in Calcutta. Wilkins translated the Bhagavad Gita and

later the Hitopadesa into English, while Jones translated Kalidas’s
Sakuntalam and Jayadeva’s Gita Govindam and finally Manusmriti
(The Institutes of Hindoo Law). These leading Indologists were
later joined by equally eminent scholars: Henry Colebrooke and
Horace H Wilson. The latter became the first professor of Sanskrit
in Oxford University. Universities in the United Kingdom and
European countries appointed professors in Sanskrit and Indian
studies. Interest in Sanskrit and study of Sanskrit and Hindu
religion and philosophy expanded in Europe and led to translations
of a great many texts including the Rigveda, the Upanishads, and a
host of others. Max Mueller, who never set foot in India, translated
Rigveda; he was based in Oxford in England, although he was a
German by birth.
The extraordinary interest in Sanskrit in Britain and Europe
was motivated by the desire to claim antiquity for their civilization.
Northern Europe had little to boast of by way of culture or civilization
in comparison with southern Europe. The discovery of a common
link to the east which had an ancient civilization boosted their
morale and the claim of a common superior ‘Aryan’ race enhanced
their self-respect. This lasted for only a few decades; it was then
discovered that Sanskrit and Indian civilization had close links with
Greek and Latin as well. Besides, Alexander had come to India in 327
BC and in the process established a deeper civilisational contact and
cross fertilization.
The discoveries of the Indologists were made possible by the
collection of original manuscripts in Sanskrit of the Vedas and other
texts from various parts of India, both the South and the North.
Seventy-five percent of the original manuscripts, numbering over
fifty thousand, came from South India, while the rest came from the
remote Himalayan belt including Nepal. These manuscripts were
written on palm leaves or in bhurja-patra (the bark of the birch tree)
and were in different scripts, according to the region from where
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they were obtained. In Tamil Nadu, the manuscripts were in the

grantham script.
The Brahmi script was deciphered in 1837; this was made
possible by the work of Alexander Cunningham. Although he was a
military man, he devoted all his time to the study of ancient works
of art, sculpture and engravings. Thus, a new dimension was opened
up and new evidence of the past became available. Ultimately, this
resulted in the establishment of the Archaeological Survey of India
with very meagre funds; nevertheless progress was made. The final
chapter during the British period was the discovery of the Harappan
culture by Sir John Marshall and further excavation by Mortimer
Wheeler after the Second World War. Independent India has vastly
expanded its knowledge with recent excavations.
In the latter half of the 19th century, many Indians with a
background in Sanskrit and English joined the group of Indologists.
Among these, the most well-known was RG Bhandarkar, who wrote
books on Sanskrit grammar in English and it became the standard
text used for the study of Sanskrit in Indian Universities in the 20th
century. Apart from the Asiatic society of Bengal, new institutions
came into being in Pune, Banaras, Chennai and other places. These
institutions also specialized in the procurement and preservation of
manuscripts and their study. This gave birth to a number of Indian
scholars who were recognized as Indologists the world over.
The interest in Sanskrit and the rise of Indology is only part
of the story. In the South, we had another kind of discovery. The
initiative for this was provided by the Christian missionary, Sir
Robert Caldwell, who spent all his life in the district of Tirunelveli
and wrote a classic work on Dravidian languages. This opened up a
new vista, generating interest in the Tamil language and its ancient
literature and culture and the links between the Northern Sanskrit
culture and the Southern Tamil culture.
Perhaps, the most important contribution of Indology is that
the Indian elite became aware of the greatness of their religion and
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its significance in a global context. It had important implications for

the way in which the English educated Indian elite began to view
their ancient heritage and take pride in their past, and that in turn
spurred a nationalistic ferment, something that was totally absent in
India in the past. Unfortunately, the new fervour included a racist
interpretation of Indian history, something that the Indian scholars
imbibed from their western counterparts and peers.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy—the Father of Hindu Reforms

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the first Hindu to react in a positive
way to the criticism by Christian missionaries of Hindu society and
Hindu religion. He was, and he remained a Hindu. He was equally
staunch in his determination to eliminate certain negative social
practices, which had no sanction in our religious texts, but were still
followed. It is notable that he articulated his strong views on various
issues and pleaded for legal reforms but the East India Company at
that time (around 1800 AD) was not willing to oblige. The policy
of the company at that time was not to interfere in religious matters,
while allowing Christian missionaries a free hand to have their way
and criticize Hinduism by making very aggressive statements.
Ram Mohan Roy knew English, Sanskrit, and Bengali well. He
published Bengali translations of extracts from Hindu scriptures to
support his views on Hindu social reforms. He thought highly of
the Vedas. He advocated the principle of one God—Brahman and
rejected all other Gods. He rejected the worship of Puranic Gods
and idol worship in particular. He opposed all rituals—Vedic and
non-Vedic, although he wore the sacred thread throughout his life.
In 1828, he founded the Brahma Sabha to propagate his views. This
was, as a practical measure, confined to the elite. The other sections
were in no position to understand his viewpoint.
Ram Mohan Roy emphasized the need for English education
for the younger generation, and towards this end he established
educational institutions and encouraged others to do so.
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He was a great social reformer. He opposed the practice of sati,

saying that it had no sanction in Hindu scriptures. He was against
the caste system and discrimination based on it. He advocated
widow remarriage and pleaded for a share of the inheritance for
women so that they could live a life of dignity. He was against
polygamy.
He believed in freedom of speech and believed that education
was the key to uplift India into the age of modernity. Ram Mohan
Roy fought for the freedom of the press in 1790s, while it was
eventually granted in 1817, with few restrictions. All restrictions
were totally abolished in 1835.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a pioneer and the greatest leader
of Hindu reforms. There has not been a personality like him since,
with the exception of Swami Vivekananda. Ram Mohan Roy stood
firm for an enlightened Hindu society, complete freedom, the
upliftment of women and all the weaker sections of Hindu society.
His views are still relevant in the 21st century.
The Brahma Sabha that he founded did not survive very long. It
was renamed as Brahmo Samaj. This institution split several times.
The men who took over were in no way comparable in stature to
Ram Mohan Roy. They retained some irrelevant vestiges of the past
while claiming to be reformers and the society eventually passed
into irrelevance.
Swami Dayananda Saraswati

A great Hindu reformer of the latter half of the 19th century was
Swami Dayananda Saraswati (1824 AD-1883 AD) who founded
the Arya Samaj. The Swami was well versed in Sanskrit but did not
have an English education. He believed that the evil practices of the
Hindus, as pointed out by Christian missionaries, were all due to
corruption brought about by later additions to Hindu scriptures in
the form of Puranas. He declared them to be the work of ignorant
men who did not understand the Vedas.
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Much like Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayananda believed in

the principle of one God as formulated in the Upanishads. He
opposed Puranic Gods and idol worship. He was against caste
discrimination and restrictions based on caste. The Arya Samaj
institutions and the Vedic rituals they advocate are open to all
Hindus without any distinction. This includes the most important
lifecycle ritual, namely, marriage. Arya Samaj weddings are still very
popular among the educated classes in India and outside. They are
recommended for those young Hindu couples who want to break
away from the expensive traditional marriages with their irrelevant
rituals and ostentation. The Arya Samaj weddings are strictly based
on Vedic prescriptions (that is, as prescribed in the Brahmanas
of Yajurveda).
An even more important ritual is the shudhi ceremony by which
non-Hindus may be converted to Hinduism. This is considered to
be a major vehicle for unifying all Hindus and even non-Hindus,
if they are willing to join. Nevertheless, the shudhi is indeed an
imitation of the Christian practices of baptism and communion.
Dayananda propagated his views through his work—Satyartha
Prakas. This is the basic text for the followers of Arya Samaj. The
Arya Samaj found large followers in the Punjab and western Uttar
Pradesh. Outside of this, it exists only in the larger cities of India.
In the North, the Arya Samaj is opposed by those who follow
sanatana dharma. The latter believe that Hinduism is a revealed
religion, much the same way as Christianity. All Hindu scriptures
were revealed to Veda Vyasa, whom the Sanatanis’ consider as
the founding father of Hinduism. They believe in the Epics and
Puranas. These two schools had a running feud in the Punjab and
Delhi for decades.
Arya Samaj found many leaders to take it forward; among them
were: Lala Lajpat Rai, Lala Hansraj and Swami Shraddhanand. All
three are well known figures in Punjab. These leaders promoted
educational institutions in Lahore and other places.
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A few negative aspects of Dayananda Saraswati’s philosophy

need to be mentioned. His lack of knowledge beyond Sanskrit
texts led him to believe that the Vedas contained everything that
mankind knew in his time. He believed all the scientific knowledge
already existed in Vedic times. He was for the protection of cows
and against cow slaughter. However, this is not mentioned as sacred
in the Vedic texts. The sanctity of the cow is of Puranic origin and
has nothing to do with the Vedas. Having rejected the Puranas, the
excessive zeal for cow protection is not justified.
The unfortunate outcome of the activities of the Arya Samaj
and the followers of Sanatana Dharma is that the negative aspects
of the movements are now stressed more while the positive aspects
are ignored.
Swami Vivekananda
In the late 19th century, Swami Vivekananda electrified Hinduism
by infusing the spirit of nationalism and patriotism in it. He spoke
eloquently about the greatness of the Vedas and Upanishads. Swami
Vivekananda was born as Narendranath Dutta in 1863 AD. He was
not a Brahmana, unlike Ram Mohan Roy or Dayananda Saraswati.
He graduated from the Presidency College, Calcutta University, in
1884 AD. He was a brilliant student and a great orator.
As a student he had already come under the influence of
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836 AD-1886 AD), an obscure
priest in an obscure temple for Kali in Dakshineswar, situated
north of Calcutta. But for the eminence of his disciple, the guru
would perhaps never have attained name or fame. Ramakrishna
was illiterate but he displayed great wisdom and had a storehouse
of parables to illustrate his viewpoints on Hindu religion. He had
a broad outlook and believed that all religions and all Gods are
one and same, much like Kabir or Guru Nanak before him. He
had a knack for telling stories with great effect and this is what
attracted the attention of young Narendranath who became an
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ardent follower of Ramakrishna, and in later years, compiled the

stories told by his master into a text.
Upon the death of his guru in 1886 AD, Narendranath
withdrew into his Mutt in Baranagar and took sanyas in 1887
AD. This was the beginning of his spiritual journey. He travelled
to Kanyakumari and by meditating on the rock at the southern
extremity of India, he received enlightenment. Thereafter, he lived as
a monk, preached to the masses and attracted followers. His oratory
and erudition won him many followers from high and low society
and he travelled widely to publicize his views. He had, by this time,
established himself as a true Vedantin. He wrote commentaries
on Upanishads. He loved to sing in public and thus enhanced the
power of his oratory. More importantly, it is the eloquent manner in
which he highlighted the message of the Vedas and Upanishads that
earned him a name as perhaps the greatest Hindu sage of his time.
Vivekananda believed that all religions are valid and equal. He was
vehemently opposed to obscurantism and blind faith.
With considerable difficulty and with help from friends,
he managed to travel to the United States to attend the World
Conference of Religions in 1893 AD. When his turn came, he gave
a rousing speech that made him instantly famous. He returned to
India and established the Ramakrishna Mission with the objective
of advancing education and to help the weaker sections of society.
The Ramakrishna Mission is now a worldwide organization with
branches in all cities of India. Its educational institutions are well
known and highly rated.
Swami Vivekananda’s popularity spread very widely among
the educated elite in India. He is the founder of the new brand
of nationalistic Hinduism. The growth of nationalistic Hindu
organizations of the 20th century is a direct outcome of Swami
Vivekananda’s influence. It should, however, be noted that
Vivekananda was greatly influenced by the West also. Nationalism,
racism and patriotism are 19th century European concepts. They
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are alien to the ethos of Hinduism; yet, they were readily accepted
by the Indian elite. Hindus began to glorify their religion and their
past, a trend that has continued to dominate religious thinking in
India to the present. Swami Vivekananda passed away at a young
age in 1902.
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
Another influential figure was Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. He was
a philosopher and an Oxford professor. He wrote many books on
Hinduism from a religious and philosophical angle; the historical
aspect was ignored. His most famous book is: The Hindu View of
Life. A characteristic of his work was his keenness to show to the
West the similarities between Hindu and Christian doctrines. In
his comments on Bhagavad Gita he quotes extensively from Biblical
cannons. Radhakrishnan’s interpretation of Bhagavad Gita differs
significantly from Adi Sankara’s. Radhakrishnan follows Ramanuja’s
Visishtadvaita, in which Lord Krishna is seen as Saguna Brahman. It
is this interpretation that facilitated his comparisons with Christian
cannons.
An offshoot of this line of thinking was that many influential
Hindus began to accept that Hinduism is a revealed religion much
the same way as Christianity. It is claimed that the Vedas were
revealed to the rishies by God. In the same way, others assert that
the Vedas, Upanishads, Epics and even Puranas were revealed to Veda
Vyasa. Textual evidence does not support this view.
Some among us think that Hinduism is not a religion but a
way of life and this conclusion is attributed to Radhakrishnan. The
problem is that this statement is just a platitude—it means nothing.
Christianity and Islam, or for that matter any religion, is a way of
life. By saying that Hinduism is a way of life we convey nothing
at all.
The philosophical content in Radhakrishnan’s work is of great
academic value, but it has no significance when it comes to the
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practice of Hinduism by the lay people who are totally uninfluenced

and ignorant of his work.
Brahmanas in the South

Perhaps, the greatest adverse impact of British rule over India was
an indirect one. It attracted Brahmanas and converted them into
clerks both in government and private trading companies, and
above all the railways. The lure of jobs made even the most orthodox
Brahmanas send their children to schools where English was taught
and many, after 1857, went to colleges and obtained degrees. Ram
Mohan Roy went to England to plead for initiating reforms; he did
not succeed and he died in England. Many others went to England
for higher education. The lure of office took young Brahmanas out
of their religion and out of orthodoxy. This was a shattering blow
from which the old fashioned Vedic religion which was still being
practiced in the agraharams in the South would never recover.
Brahmanas, living comfortably in agraharams in the South,
had to face newer problems. They lived on income from land
cultivated by tenants. While the Hindu kings exempted Brahmanas
from all kinds of taxation including land revenue, the British did
not recognize this age old arrangement. The relationship between
landlord and tenant was now subject to the jurisdiction of the courts
and this had adverse consequences for Brahmanas.
They lost income from gifts for rituals performed in the
houses of the kings and nobles under the old system. Above all,
they could not hope for fresh land grants to accommodate their
increasing numbers. The last agraharams, to my knowledge, are the
ones established in the kingdom of the Zamorins of Calicut, the
kingdom of Kochi, and kingdom of Travancore in the 18th century.
No agraharams came up after this period, although Brahmanas did
build houses and even groups of houses known as mathas (a matha is
simply a house of a Brahmana in the South) for a variety of reasons.
These were all done with private income and not gifts. All these
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developments led to the neglect of Vedic learning and the practice

of Mimamsa religion.
Given below is a brief history of my family for five generations
to illustrate the changes that came over Brahmanas during
British rule.
In the agraharam of Chandrasekharapuram in Palakkad, my
grandfather’s grandfather was a village teacher in the early decades
of the 19th century. He taught young boys, who were initiated
into brahmacharya by upanayana ceremony, Sanskrit grammar
and language, as well as Vedas and Upanishads. If they wanted to
specialize in the performance of Vedic yajnas, they had to go to a
Vedic school some 20 kms away. His son was well read in the Smrities
and he practiced law in the vernacular language. The law at this time
meant Mitakshrara or Dayabhaga as far as property disputes were
concerned, while some general principles from Manusmriti were
also taken into account. He practiced law in the courts in Palakkad
town—a few km away. He would have learnt a little bit of English
in the course of his practice where the judges were British.
In early 1880s, he sent his only son to Chennai (then Madras)
for higher education in the Presidency College and later in the law
college. In those days there were neither railways nor any means of
travel except on foot, bullock carts or horseback in caravans that
periodically connected the towns. My grandfather took a bachelor’s
degree and a degree in law from the University of Madras. He
practiced law in sub-district court in Tirur, about 100 km from our
native village, where he built a house. By this time, the study of
Sanskrit and Vedas at home from one’s parents had almost stopped.
My grandfather, in later years, learnt Sanskrit by self-study using
RG Bhandarkar’s books on Sanskrit grammar in English. My father
and all his brothers graduated in the early 20th century. My father
became a teacher in a government run school and eventually became
a headmaster. While he taught English and mathematics at school,
he learned many languages, including Sanskrit on his own and read
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all the Vedas and Upanishads. He did not neglect the Vedic rituals
at home, although the more important ones were performed with
the help of a professional priest who had undergone training for
the purpose. By the time I was a boy of 11 years of age, India had
become independent. I was, however, initiated into brahmacharya
by my father and I learned to do the nitya karmas and Gayathri japa
and homa all by myself. I did study Sanskrit at school. In my adult
life, I became an agnostic and completely gave up rituals. I started
the study of Vedas in Sanskrit only after retirement at the age of
sixty. However, I never resumed Vedic rituals. I do not believe in
Puranic Gods and rituals like puja, nor do I go to temples. However,
my wife is a follower of Puranic Hinduism and she performs puja
daily at home.
While I was brought up in an environment where Sanskrit
played a part and Vedic rituals were performed, these were no longer
considered to be important in one’s life. With my generation, I
would assume, the Mimamsa religion has come to an end. I do not
think that it is being practiced by any family in a serious way. The
study of Sanskrit has ceased, except in a very non-serious way in
schools. There is no question of learning to recite the Vedic mantras
in a proper way. However, the study of Sanskrit and Vedas along
with Vedic rituals is taught and practiced in a few religious Mutts.
Hindu Diaspora
British rule in India should not be viewed in an isolated way, for
the British had many colonies, over fifty in number, covering the
whole world. They were the main world power during the 19th
and early part of the 20th centuries. They needed cheap labour to
work in sugarcane plantations in the West Indies and Fiji, in tea
plantations in Ceylon, and rubber plantations in Malaysia. Labour
was procured from villages in North India as well as the South—they
were the so called indentured labour, in short slaves. The majority
of them were Hindus, while Muslims were almost absent from this
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class. The Hindu agricultural workers toiled hard and earned little
and they were ill-treated by their white masters. Mahatma Gandhi
has described the lot of these poor Hindus in the province of Natal
in South Africa. He tried to help them through legal means and
succeeded to a large extent. Among the workers whom he helped
were Tamils, from the present day Tamil Nadu.
Agricultural labourers were not the only Hindus to go to distant
lands; the trading community went in large numbers to East and
South Africa and other countries as well. They were followed by
educated middle classes who sought administrative jobs as clerks
in government and private industry. In later decades, Hindus and
Muslims alike went to England as permanent residents and became
British citizens. The majority of the Hindus who thus migrated
to foreign lands still continue to be Hindus; thus we have a large
diaspora of Hindus all over the world. In the post-independence
period and especially at the end of the 20th century, highly educated
Indians have been migrating to the developed world, in particular
the United States, where their presence is fairly conspicuous now. I
also went to the US, under a US government scholarship, to earn
my doctoral degree in geography in the 1960s, but I returned back
home to teach at the University of Delhi, while many others did not
come back.
Mahatma Gandhi
In the second decade of the 20th century, Mahatma Gandhi
returned from South Africa to India to lead the independence
movement, which was weakening for want of proper leadership.
Gandhi ignited the freedom movement with his own brand of non-
violent passive resistance. He had admiration for the British and
he did not consider them as enemies; all he wanted for India was
dominion status under the British crown.
He was a passionate and devout Hindu. He was a Vaishnavite
to the core. To him Ramayana was the bible and Ram his favourite
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God. He did not believe in rituals or idol worship; his worship was
in the form of bhajans. The evening bhajan was his main expression
of the depth of his faith in God. His religion in a nutshell was
dharma, which in Ramayana is spelt out as satyam. Satyam and
dharma are one and the same. The word dharma in Hinduism
denotes dharma as prescribed in the Smrities; but to Gandhiji and
to most of the lay Hindus, dharma is Ramayana or Mahabharata.
They tell us about dharma in a story form. In Ramayana there is a
section on satya prasamsa which is considered to be the essence of
Ramayana. To Gandhiji, Ramayana and Ram were everything. He
devoted his life to the search for truth. His autobiography is titled:
My experiments with Truth. He called fasting a form of political
protest or Satyagraha. He was looking for the truth, for the right
path for everyone.
Gandhiji was quite unlike earlier reformers like Ram Mohan
Roy or Swami Dayananda, who based their religion on the Vedas and
Upanishads; even Swami Vivekananda was rooted to spiritualism
based on Upanishads. Gandhi was no savant like Sarvepalli
Radhakrishnan. His religion was the religion of the masses—direct
and simple.
One problem he had to face squarely on his return to India was
the status of the so called ‘untouchables’ in Hindu society. Gandhi
was opposed to this and other practices of a degrading nature among
Hindus. His solution was to live with them and like them. He called
the ‘untouchables’ Harijans—hari is Vishnu and therefore they are
the ‘children of Vishnu or God’.
The political aspect of the problem of Harijans cropped up in
the 1930s when there was discussion in the Congress party on a
tentative constitution for India. B R Ambedkar, who argued the
case of Harijans, was for separate electoral rolls for Harijans and
the freedom to choose their leaders by themselves. Gandhi was
rightly opposed to this, but he agreed to the concept of reservation
of seats for Harijans in legislatures and in government jobs. The
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representatives of the people from among the Harijans were to be

elected by all; and not just the Harijans. Gandhi won his point
on this score. However, on another issue he lost. Gandhi was
passionately for village autonomy – Ambedkar vehemently opposed
this on the ground that the Harijans under this system would
remain subordinated forever.
An even greater problem for Gandhi was the presence of large
numbers of Muslims in British India. Muslims constituted nearly
a third of the population of the sub-continent and Gandhi wanted
Hindus and Muslims to live together as one nation as they had done
for centuries. He believed in the unity of all religions—for Ishwar
and Allah were one and the same for him. While a substantial
number, perhaps even a majority believed in the concept of a
unified India, there were sections among Muslims who did not
believe that this was possible. Mahatma Gandhi had, eventually, to
accept the Partition of the sub-continent into two, against his basic
convictions.
Hindu Muslim Rivalry and Partition

As the independence movement picked up momentum, the British
sought ways to counter the force of the independence movement;
they encouraged the Muslims in various ways to assert their point of
view. The Muslims in India were sharply divided into the educated
and the rich and the very poor. The idea that Muslims would remain
poor and backward in a united India was used as an emotional plank
by Muslim political leaders encouraged by the British. By the time
of Independence, the Hindu-Muslim divide had assumed alarming
proportions. Partition followed with disastrous consequences for
Hindus and Muslims alike.
In the meanwhile, under the leadership of Savarkar and others,
a Hindu right wing was emerging in the political arena. In 1922,
Savarkar coined the word hindutva. The ideology of hindutva
united various right wing groups to oppose Gandhiji. In Gandhi
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they saw someone who would go to any extent to appease the

Muslim community at the expense of the Hindus. The British
encouraged the right wing group and they did not participate in the
freedom movement.
The after-effects of partition have left a lasting wound in the
psyche of both Muslims and Hindus that has not healed ever since.
Hindus, in general, have blamed the British for their divide
and rule policy and showing partiality to the Muslims. Even after
India and Pakistan became independent countries, there has been
a general conviction in India that the Western countries always
favoured Pakistan against India. This has always been a sore point
in India’s relations with the West. This is a legacy of the British rule
in India.
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The Present
• Introduction • India in the 21st Century • Religious

Composition • Hinduism at Present • The Collapse of
the Varna System • The Survival of Jaties • The Decline
of Agraharams • The Status of Brahmana Priests
• The Decline of Religious Values • The Lure of Money
• The Ancient Roots • Relevance of Vedanta
Introduction
Hinduism remains very lively, vibrant and yet enigmatic. There are
a handful of true religious leaders; none of them are great enough
to command the respect of all Hindus. The Sankaracharyas of
the four mutts in Sringeri, Puri, Jyotir Mutt, and Dwaraka still
command considerable following among the elite. They are still
accepted as the true authorities on Vedic Hinduism.
Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati of Kanchi Mutt (1894–
1994) was perhaps the most revered religious leader of India during
the 20th century. I have referred to him in the text several times as
he was the foremost authority on the Hindu scriptures.
In the 1950s, Rishikesh emerged as the spiritual capital of India.
A number of ashramas were established here on the banks of
the Ganga across the Lakshman Jhula. The Divine Life Society
established by Swami Shivananda is a premier institution from where
a new class of religious leaders emerged. Swami Chinmayananda
was one of them. He started his career as a journalist but was soon
attracted to the spiritual path. Eventually, he became a very well-

known Vedanta exponent. He knew both Sanskrit and English
and wrote well in the latter language. He translated all the original
Upanishads, Brahmasutra and Vivekachoodamani (in short all the
works for which Adi Sankara wrote bhashyams) and all his works
are available to the public. The Chinmaya Mission Trust has many
branches in India and abroad. Swami Dayananda Saraswati, an
associate of Swami Chinmayananda, who passed away recently
(1930-2015), was an equally erudite Vedic scholar. He founded the
Arsha Vidya Gurukulam which has branches in India and abroad.
Another leading personality was Maharishi Mahesh Yogi
whose Transcendental Meditation Centre in Rishikesh became
very popular especially among a few British and Americans. AC
Bhakta Vedanta Swami, the founder of ISKON, is another well-
known institution builder who had a very wide impact.
Saibaba of Puttaparthi rose to eminence from a very humble
background and established the Prasanti Nilayam in Puttaparthi.
He had a huge following among Indians and Puttaparthi has
become a centre of pilgrimage. He claimed to be an incarnation of
God, something that is unusual among religious leaders, and yet,
his followers believed him. In recent times, we have newer leaders
who are exponents of bhakti or its variants, the latter requiring
little or no spiritual knowledge. Mata Amritanandamayi is, to a
large extent, like Saibaba of Puttaparthi. She rose from very humble
origins and has built a very popular organization with educational
institutions of international standard in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and
Bangalore. Sri Sri Ravi Shankar is an exponent of spiritualism;
originally, a follower of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, he has built his
own religious institution—Art of Living Foundation. He is well
known in India and abroad.
At a still lower level, there are any number of religious mutts
with their heads; some of them are very well read and command
high respect locally. Nevertheless, Adi Sankara’s lament about the
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The Present
presence of fake sanyasins in the 8th century AD is still very true in

the 21st century.
There is a whole class of religious leaders with followers in
foreign lands; they serve the expatriates from India and a few
foreigners who are attracted to Hinduism. They have a style of
functioning which is quite different from the classic model of an
Indian sanyasi. Some have earned negative publicity—mention
may be made of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, founder of OSHO
in Pune.
In a democratic country, religious leaders and well known
politicians do interact, sometimes very closely. The reason for this
is not far to seek as both thrive on popular support. There is a
negative side to this interaction; mention may be made of religious
leaders like Dhirendra Brahmachari and Chandrasvami. However,
there are a number of interactions of a positive kind as well.
There is considerable advance towards a more liberal attitude
towards religion, leaning heavily towards secularism. Hindus are
indeed very happy to be totally free to practice their religion as
they wish, compared with Christians and Muslims, who are still
very much under a tight leash from their Churches and Mosques.
India in the 21st Century

A lot has happened since India became an independent country
in 1947. We are now a state with a written constitution which
provides fundamental rights to all citizens. India is a secular
democratic country where freedom of religion is guaranteed under
the constitution. All religions are equal in the eyes of the law of
the land. Although the constitution makes specific mention of a
common civil law, this has not come into being. Hindus, Muslims,
and Christian religious practices regarding marriage, adoption,
inheritance etc. are governed by separate laws—the Hindu marriage
and succession act, Muslim law and so on. The criminal law, on the
other hand, is entirely secular.
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Politics in India is based on the principles of secularism and

pluralism. There are provisions for affirmative action, especially in
the case of the Dalits (former untouchables) and other backward
classes as defined by laws. The constitution of India has stood the
test of time and people have full confidence in it; it has helped
to resolve many difficult social and political issues, including
religious ones.
India has made much progress in economic development. It is
now among the largest and fastest growing economies and it has a
diversified industrial base and well developed financial institutions.
The country is well set on the growth path. Above all, India has
maintained communal harmony, in spite of the persistent attempts
to disturb communal peace by external forces. No country is
perfect. The people of India are learning to live in peace, while
practicing their religion in whatever way they want; this includes
Hindus as well as Christians, Muslims, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains
and others.
Religious Composition
We have looked at the history of Hinduism in earlier chapters.
In this section, we explore the mix of religions that exist today in
India, their relative importance, and regional variations. These are
explained with reference to what happened in the past and what is
happening today.
The discussion in this section is entirely based on 2011 census
data. The appendix to the book contains the full information on
religious composition by states and union territories.
About 80 percent of India’s population is Hindus and about
14 percent Muslims, the second largest religion. The proportion of
Muslim population has steadily increased from about 11 percent to
14 percent after independence. The Christians account for slightly
over 2 percent of the population. The Sikhs follow next by less
than 2 percent, while Buddhists and Jains account for less than one
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The Present
percent of the population. Together, these 6 religions account for

over 99 percent of the population. Less than one percent belongs
to the ‘any other religion’ category and this includes those not
wanting to declare their religion (Census of India: Religion: Table
C-1-Population by Religious Community 2011).
The amazing thing about this data is that tribal religions are not
mentioned at all. At the time India’s constitution was written, 7.5
percent of our population was tribal and the constitution provided
for 7.5 percent reservation in legislative bodies and in government
jobs. Where did the tribal population with their distinctive religions
vanish? The answer is not simple. The fact is that before the census
enumerators they claimed to be either Hindus or Christians, while
at the same time claiming their tribal status for jobs. Religion, after
all, is a matter of convenience and expediency in the 21st century.
The political dimensions of tribe, caste and religion are
expanding while interest in their substantive meaning is dwindling.
The regional patterns of religious composition reveal both
historical and contemporary processes—some salient examples are
explored in brief. The method used here is to examine each of the
religions, other than Hinduism, and examine their regional variations.
This is a lot easier than taking one region at a time—there are far too
many complexities here and problems of repetition will naturally arise.
Let us take Muslims first, since they constitute the second
largest religion in India. Of the 172 million Muslims in India, over
60 percent are in the five states of Uttar Pradesh (over 38 million),
West Bengal (over 24 million), Bihar (17 million), Maharashtra
(over 13 million), and Assam (over 10 million). All these states
were the core regions of Muslim rule in the medieval period (except
Assam, where the Muslims are recent immigrants from Bangladesh
and elsewhere). It is in the Ganga Plains that the Indian Muslim
culture evolved and it is here that the Urdu language blossomed and
united the Hindu and Muslim populations alike with its eloquent
and flowery style. We may note here that the national language
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of Pakistan is Urdu. This language in the form it is spoken—

Hindustani—is understood widely throughout the sub-continent
and it is almost the lingua franca of the people of the subcontinent.
The Muslim populations of Kerala and Assam tell entirely
different stories. Over a quarter of the population of Kerala and
over a third of the population of Assam are Muslims; the former
has its roots in the Gulf region from the birth of Islam. In Assam,
the presence of Muslims is of recent origin, the post independence
period, when Muslims migrated to this region from Bangladesh
and also from West Bengal. This influx of Muslims is a vexing
problem in this region. In Jammu and Kashmir, there is an entirely
different situation. While the valley of Kashmir is now almost
entirely Muslim, the Ladakh region is Buddhist and the Jammu
region is predominantly Hindu. This is a product of medieval
Indian history.
There are a few small concentrations of Muslims with their
unique history. The Muslims of Hyderabad are inheritors of both
the Adil Shahi regime of Golkonda and the Turkish rulers—the
Nizams—who came from the Mughal capital to find a safe niche
in the South. Srirangapatnam and other parts of the old Mysore
tell the story of the rise of an illiterate Muslim Hyder Ali to
power and his brave and shrewd son Tipu who fought the British
against odds.
Christians are a very small minority in India and account
for only about 2 percent of its population and about 28 million
individuals. However, they have a very old story to tell. In Kerala,
which has the oldest Christian community in India, the Syrian
Christians or Nazranees as they were known locally, have their
own traditions. Names like Chacko, Kurian, Cherian, Ousep,
Anthony, tell their own story. Kerala Christians, like all other Indian
Christians, speak the local language and are at home in the regional
culture with Hindus and Muslims. While around 16 percent of
Kerala’s population is Christian accounting for 6 million persons,
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The Present
Tamil Nadu has fewer Christians (over 4 million), but in a relative

sense they are the second largest group accounting for 6 percent
of Tamil Nadu population. Most of the Tamil Nadu Christians
are recent converts, during the British period and even after
Independence; sometimes they tend to drift back into their old
Hindu caste domains.
In an altogether different cultural setting, Christian converts
from tribal population dominate the scene in Nagaland (nearly
90 percent), Meghalaya (over 70 percent), Manipur (40 percent),
Andaman and Nicobar Islands (21 percent), Arunachal Pradesh (30
percent) and to a far lesser extent in Jharkhand (only 4 percent).
These people were converted by Christian missionaries in the recent
past. The people here have not fully forgotten their tribal past and
in fact aspects of tribal culture are very much present. Goa is rather
unique. The Christians here have a mixed Portuguese and Indian
blood and they are staunch Roman Catholics. In Goa, 25 percent
of the population is Christian.
If we look at the length of British rule in India and compare
it with that of the Muslim rule—150 years as contrasted with
600 years—the small proportion of Christians as compared to
Muslims—2 percent to 14 percent, makes a lot of sense. The pace
of conversion to Christianity was definitely much slower and more
concentrated in small pockets.
The Sikh population of over 20 million is all concentrated in the
Punjab (about 60 percent), the adjacent Haryana (over 5 percent)
and Delhi (about 4 percent). The birthplace of Guru Nanak is now
in Pakistan and Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the most famous Sikh ruler,
actually ruled from Lahore. His kingdom included most of Pakistan.
The Sikh population is now found entirely in the adjoining Indian
Punjab; there are hardly any Sikhs left in Pakistan. As noted earlier,
the Sikh and Hindu populations are closely knit through marriage
and kinship over the centuries and Sikhs have made a unique
contribution to Hindu culture.
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There are 8 million Buddhists in India today. They can be

divided into two very different groups. The first, and traditionally
the most important group of Buddhists are from Ladakh in
Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim (28 percent), Arunachal Pradesh (13
percent), Mizoram (8 percent), and Tripura (3 percent). They have
a very long history behind them. However, the largest contribution
to Buddhists in India comes from Maharashtra—5.8 million
out of 8 million Buddhists in India. They constitute 6 percent
of Maharashtra’s population. These Buddhists are concentrated
in the regions of Vidharba and Marathwada of Maharashtra and
are converts from among Dalits. They are followers of Dr BR
Ambedkar, who converted to Buddhism later in his life (1950s).
Jains, along with Buddhists, have their origins in the Vedic age.
Unlike most Buddhists, Jains came originally from Vaishali in Bihar
and later migrated to the South, to Karnataka and Tamil Nadu;
others went west to Rajasthan and Gujarat. Besides, there were
some who converted to Jainism from the local population. Jain
religion is rather rigid when it comes to food and occupation and as
a result the number of Jains is indeed very small—about 4 million
or about 0.4 percent of our population.
Maharashtra has the largest number of Jains—1.4 million,
out of the total of 4 million Jains in India. Rajasthan has 6.2 lakh
Jains, followed by Madhya Pradesh (5.6 lakhs), Gujarat (5.8 lakhs),
and finally Karnataka (4 lakhs). In relative terms, Jains are well
represented in Gujarat (over 10 percent), Rajasthan (1.2 percent),
Maharashtra (1.2 percent), Madhya Pradesh (0.9 percent), and
Karnataka (0.8 percent). Jains are generally absent from rural areas
but are found in large numbers in the large cities as professionals
and traders.
Hinduism at Present
Describing Hinduism at present is much more difficult than
describing Hinduism of two thousand years ago. While dealing
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The Present
with the past one could be very selective, either by choice or because
of the absence of information. The present exists in different forms
right from the villages to the regions and the states. No one can
claim to know the whole story and even if it is written down it will
cover several volumes. I will highlight a few aspects and assume
that the reader has his own legitimate view of what Hinduism is
at present.
Hindus generally have a place for God or Gods in their homes.
If there are no idols, at least a picture of a God will be hung in one
or more places; just to remind one of God all the time. There are
homes where there are separate puja rooms and the idols of god are
worshipped on a daily basis by the family, with all the paraphernalia
of worship. What is missing is worship of Agni in a homa with the
chanting of Vedic mantras. This was a common practice a hundred
years ago in Brahmana homes but is no longer relevant today.
Temples are now very conspicuous in villages, towns and
metropolitan cities, particularly in the South. The daily puja takes
places in all temples everywhere. Only the scale of the puja varies
according to the number and wealth of the devotees. The busiest
and richest temple in India is the Venkatachalapathi temple in
Tirumala, Tirupati, in Andhra Pradesh. There are hundreds of
temples in the South that attract crowds in the thousands daily, in
the mornings and evenings.
In addition to temple festivals, there are many Hindu festivals
focusing on homes; these vary a lot and it is impossible to document
them here.
The annual temple festivals are a major attraction throughout
the South. In all agraharams, the main temple has a temple car or
rath, and the deity is taken around once a year with great fanfare.
The Kalpathi (see Figure 6) car festival is a well-known cultural
event. The annual rath yatra in Puri Jagannath temple attracts
huge crowds and is world famous. The annual festival in Thrissur
Vadakkanathar Temple with 22 decorated elephants and fireworks
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is another major event. Ramlila festival in the Ganga Plains,

Durga puja in Bengal, Dussehra or the navratri festival in the
South, and more specifically in Mysore, and the Ganesh festival
in Maharashtra are among the better known regional festivals. In
every village, the annual temple festival is celebrated with great
enthusiasm. The Holi festival is celebrated throughout the North
in the month of March. It is a very colourful event. Deepawali is
a national festival celebrated all over India now, albeit for different
reasons.
Hindus are fond of going on pilgrimages, sometimes to faraway
places. The annual yatra to Amarnath is indeed a huge affair; the
trips to Kedarnath, Badrinath and Gangotri and Yamunotri are
other major events. The largest crowds gather during the Kumbha
melas in Haridwar, Allahabad (Prayaga), Nasik, and Ujjain.
However, these happen once in 12 years at each location; but once
every three years if all four are taken together. In addition, people
go for bathing in the sea and at various locations in all the sacred
rivers from Ganga to the Kaveri river.
The Collapse of the Varna System

The Varna categories make sense only when two conditions are
satisfied: Firstly, if land is ruled by a Hindu Kshatriya king, and
second, if the King respects the advice of Brahmana ministers
and scholars. The first condition was broken when parts of India
came under Muslim rule. Under Muslim rule both Kshatriyas
and Brahmanas became non-entities and the Varna categories had
only notional value. There were areas where rule under Hindu
kings was sustained throughout history and even a few years after
Independence, for example, in Travancore and Kochi in Kerala.
Besides, there were nearly 500 Hindu kingdoms in India at the
time of Independence. Under Hindu kings, the Varna system
prevailed and sustained itself. After 1951, Hindu kingdoms in
India ceased to exist. The Varna system which was already irrelevant
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The Present
in areas ruled by the British and Muslim kings, ceased to exist in

any meaningful form anywhere in India.
At present, the claim to belong to any Varna is only notional,
based on birth alone. No one takes it seriously and it has hardly
any relevance in one’s daily life. Among the Varnas, the Brahmana
Varna alone had actual validity throughout the historical past as it
was fairly stable and testable—knowledge of Sanskrit and the Vedas
was a must. Manusmriti is emphatic in saying that one who has not
studied the Vedas is not a Brahmana. Both Vaidika and Loukika
Brahmanas had to satisfy this criterion; others were only notional
Brahmanas and according to Manusmriti they are to be considered
as Shudras. The Kshatriya Varna is irrelevant today as the age of the
kings is long over. Besides, most kings in India were hardly Kshatriyas
by birth or ancestry. The Vaishya Varna had greater stability over
time—they were, and are, recognized by their occupation, namely,
trade or vanijya. However, even here, knowledge of Sanskrit and
Vedas, even in rudimentary form, is a must, but that is now absent.
The fourth Varna—Shudra, is actually defined in a negative way. It
includes everyone who is not a Brahmana, Kshatriya, or a Vaishya.
It loses all meaning when the first three Varnas do not exist.
The study of the Vedas and the practice of Vedic religion exists
only in name. It started dying from the middle of the 19th century,
and in the 21st century it no longer exists. Non-Vedic, and in
particular Puranic, tribal, village and regional religions are still in
existence and are to some extent quite lively. They do not need
literacy or any knowledge other than what is obtained by word
of mouth.
The Survival of Jaties

While the Varna system has collapsed, Jaties (castes) continue to
exist. Jaties exist not only among Hindus, but also among Muslims,
Christians, Sikhs, and others. Religion has nothing to do with the
presence of Jaties in India. Why is this so?
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Jati is a Sanskrit word derived from Jata or jatam—birth.

The word Jati is not used in Manusmriti but it refers to Samkara
Varnas—mixed Varnas. The word samkara in Sanskrit literally
means unification and not division. This term is wrongly interpreted
as a process of Jati formation in recent times. This has led to the
conclusion that Jati is derived from Varna. This is not true. The
discussion of Samkara Varnas in Manusmriti is at best fanciful; it
does, however, indicate that there was considerable intermixing
of people of different Varnas. The fear at that time was about
the disappearance of the Varna system by intermixing, in which
both Brahmanas and Kshatriyas stood to lose. To be recognized
as a Kshatriya or Vaishya required approval from Brahmanas.
Recognition as belonging to a Jati does not require approval from
Brahmanas. It exists on its own. An alternate explanation of the
origin of Jati is given below.
Jati today denotes a group of people with a distinctive culture
of their own. This group is culturally homogenous as they speak
the same language or dialect, worship the same Gods, and have
lifecycle rituals that are common to all. They invariably marry
within the group to maintain their cultural and social identity—a
very legitimate objective. Cultural identity, and not birth, is the key
to the understanding of the concept of Jati.
Some intermixing takes place between Jaties for a variety
of reasons, just as it did between Varnas, for which Manusmriti
provides ample evidence. No Jati is ethnically pure and no one
cares for ethnic or racial purity. Jati is a cultural concept not an
ethnic or racial one.
Jati has its origins in the ancient past—at least some 3,500
years ago, when people in the sub-continent were divided into
small tribal communities with distinctive cultures. When new
groups came from outside, they brought their own culture and
they formed newer Jaties. As the population of the communities
increased they moved to new lands and often acquired new
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The Present
characteristics in terms of dialect and cultural practices, and thus

new Jaties were formed. Often, they also changed occupations as
well. The process of Jati formation has continued through centuries
by migration, adoption of new occupations, change to a new
language or dialect, and acceptance of new cultural practices. We
have currently about 6,000 Jaties in India. Even among Brahmanas
there are hundreds of Jaties; these Jaties are a product of migration
and settlement in newer regions and concomitantly acquisition of
newer cultural attributes.
When the Rigvedic people came to the sub-continent they
brought their own distinctive groups known as pancha jana—
the five tribes. However, around 1000 BC the tribal way of life
was abandoned by some of the people who took to farming and
sedentary living in permanent village settlements. At this stage, the
tribal community assumed the present day character of a Jati—a
community that is integrated into a larger social system and yet
remains as a semi-independent unit with a distinctive culture. The
Rigvedic people themselves were divided into Brahmanas (those
specializing in Vedic studies), Kshatriyas or warriors, and others
(Vaishyas). At first each of these conformed to our definition of
Jati. In the age of the Smrities they were recognized as Varnas. By
this time, they were considerably mixed with other ethnic groups
having similar occupations such as farming or cattle herding.
Today, Jaties are spatially segregated within village settlements
so that they can maintain and practice their religion and rituals
without any interference. It gives them a sense of security, both
cultural and physical. The segregation of Jaties existed right from
the beginning. It is a voluntary adaptation. In the community
where I live only Brahmanas are found; it has nothing to do with
ethnicity, or race, or discrimination. It is acceptable to all, both
within the community and outside. It is also interesting to note
that in this community, Brahmanas belong to different sects and
in each sect there are different Jaties. A hundred years ago, such a
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mixed community would be unthinkable, but today it is a reality.

Brahmana Jaties, by and large, disappeared by the end of the 20th
century, at least in Tamil Nadu.
In a peasant society, it is but natural for Jaties to acquire some
specialization in terms of occupations of their own choice. Thus
occupation, in addition to other cultural attributes, became a
feature of Jati definition. Thus, we have Jaties of potters, weavers,
smiths, carpenters, washermen, and barbers. In recent times, the
traditional occupations of some Jaties have become obsolete; for
example potters, as there is no demand for their products. They
have switched to other occupations. Yet, they retain their cultural
identity. In the same way, Brahmanas have lost touch with Vedas
but still they continue to think of themselves as Brahmanas. This
fits into the definition of Jati. It is not a Varna, because then one
would have to satisfy the conditions set out in Manusmriti.
The formation of kingdoms and their expansion led to greater
social inequalities; the kings and nobles of the warrior class became
very powerful and they exercised power by physical coercion and
taxation. The Brahmanas had a special place in society in view of
their knowledge of Vedas, and popular faith in rituals gave them
special privileges. It is the emergence of social inequalities that
explains the Varna system. The Varna system is really nothing but
the recognition of the stratification of society in a feudal system.
When the feudal system collapsed in the 20th century, the Varna
system became meaningless.
Jaties remain and they will continue to remain so long as
people believe in maintaining their distinctive culture. In the
21st century the desire to maintain one’s distinctive culture has
declined and will continue to decline further. Some Jaties have
begun to merge, as we noted earlier. Science and technology
are bringing about cultural homogenization. In an age of rapid
transport, communication, and learning, Jaties will not survive for
too long.
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The Present
The Decline of Agraharams

Nothing explains the decline of Vedic Hinduism more effectively
than the decline of the agraharams in the South. Centuries ago,
the agraharams were the focal points of Vedic Hinduism in the
South.
Agraharam life is now altogether different. In the past, the
emphasis was on performance of daily rituals (nitya karmas) and
the five daily yajnas as mentioned in Manusmriti; today the focus
is on worship at the temples in the morning and evening hours.
This is Hinduism as we understand it today. Nevertheless, it is
not the Vedic Hinduism that was in practice in agraharams two
hundred years ago. Village life nowadays is centered around the
village temples and the festivals associated with them. The study of
Vedas and Vedic rituals play, if at all, only a minor role in the lives
of the Brahmanas of the village.
Even more importantly, most agraharams have fewer people;
a great many houses are vacant. The houses in the agraharam
still have the granaries but no grain; the cowsheds are empty and
milk is procured in plastic bags from outside. A cow was indeed
an important component of a Brahmana household in the past.
In our family we had generations of cows with names; they
were like members of the family. No homa with the chanting of
Vedic mantras takes place in the homes, or only very rarely. In
many agraharams, non-Brahmanas now constitute a significant
proportion of the population. Chandrasekharapuram, my native
agraharam in Kerala, still remains as a Brahmana village, but it will
also eventually lose this character. The migration of Brahmanas
from agraharams in search of employment has destroyed the
cultural uniqueness of these settlements, which cannot be revived.
The Status of Brahmana Priests

The category of Loukika Brahmanas is no longer valid, although
most Brahmanas would like to claim this status. To be a Loukika
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Brahmana one must have studied the sastras and must have
performed the daily karmas prescribed in the Smrities. Employment
in government service will not entitle one to be called a Loukika
Brahmana. There are still a small category of Brahmanas who
specialize in helping others to perform Vedic lifecycle rituals and
earn a living by providing this service to the so called Loukika
Brahmanas and to others as well. Their number is declining. Most
of the schools that trained this priestly class of Brahmanas have
been closed down in recent decades and the remaining ones may
not last much longer.
There is yet another category of Brahmanas who specialize
in performing pujas in temples; they are either employed by
the Hindu Endowment Board of the state government as in the
southern states or work in private temples for a monthly salary.
They are invariably poor and their salaries have remained static
for long.
Among the self-employed well trained Brahmanas, a few
are now fairly well-off; but their children are unlikely to take up
the profession of their fathers. In the state of Tamil Nadu, non-
Brahmanas are being employed as priests in temples—a trend that
is likely to accelerate in the future.
While a majority of well-known religious leaders are from
among the Brahmanas, there are now many religious leaders who
do not belong to this class. This also reflects the trend towards
a non-Vedic Hinduism—by this I mean the absence of Vedic
mantras and Vedic rituals.
The Decline of Religious Values

The elite population of Hindus has lost touch with its religion; the
process began over a century ago. For the Brahmanas in the South,
who were well-versed in Vedic rituals, the degeneration started
from late 19th century, when the young boys took to education in
English and gained employment in the government or elsewhere.
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The Present
A few generations later, the younger boys and girls knew nothing
of daily rituals (which ironically, defines the Hindu way of life). In
the 21st century, the elite population, both elders and the young,
have no knowledge of the Hindu scriptures or of the rituals that
they are supposed to follow. This is true of all Hindus in every part
of India and abroad.
The decline of religious values has been pointed out by the
Kanchi Sankaracharya, whose life spans the whole of the 20th
century. The Kanchi Acharya is well known for his orthodox
and conservative views. In his discourses to the public, he has
lamented, time and again, on the sharp decline in the practice of
Vedic religion by Brahmanas, in particular, Smarta Brahmanas. He
has said that while he was much respected and listened to, no one
cared to follow his advice. The knowledge of Vedic religion is fast
disappearing and the number of priests who can recite the Vedas
is dwindling. He tried to revive Vedic learning through patasalas.
While money was forthcoming, there were a few competent
students, but the richer and middle classes never sent their children
to these schools. The Acharya has again and again said that he can
only advise his followers, who come in large numbers to listen
to him, but he has little or no authority to impose his views. He
lamented that although wherever he went people came in large
numbers and respected him, they did not in their lives implement
his advice. What is the future?
The Kanchi Acharya was much like Mahatma Gandhi, whom
he used to mention admiringly. The Acharya’s and Mahatma’s
words of advice, unfortunately, fell on deaf ears.
What is wrong with us? The problem is that both the
Acharya and the Mahatma underestimated the power of science
and technology and its impact on the lives of ordinary people.
What they talked about was relevant to the pre-industrial age, but
not in the 21st century. The present day religious leaders have
understood this reality and they do not ask people to restore age
265
old rituals and customs. There is no point in lamenting the decline

of religious values.
गतं तु गतं एव ह।
What is gone is gone indeed.
We need a more realistic assessment of the role of religion in

society.
The Lure of Money

The practice of Hinduism, at present, is more concerned with
money rather than with spiritual satisfaction. The lure of money is
all pervasive in all modern societies. Those who seek spiritualism
spend a lot of money; it goes to those religious leaders who offer
spiritualism for a price. The essence of Vedanta is that spiritualism
does not require any money. On the other hand, it is concerned
with giving up all desires and possessions, and this includes money.
The only way one can attain spiritualism is by self-study. The
age of the guruji teaching the truth is long over. In the Upanishads,
it is shown that the teacher does not teach; he guides the student
to learn by himself. One can think at home, meditate at home
and study at home. Manusmriti says—‘do not rely on others for
anything—do it yourself ’. This is the Hindu way of learning.
In recent decades, religious leaders and institutions have
grown and they display money on an extravagant scale. The
money comes from donations from the rich. A few well known
temples get donations on a daily basis which runs into crores of
rupees. Some say that this money, particularly the large donations,
have something to do with tax evasion or other illegal activities. In
the centuries past, money came from the kings and rich landlords
and merchants, but the scale of money flowing into India has
significantly increased in the recent past. Hindu religious leaders
266
The Present
are not the only beneficiaries of donations from India and abroad;
leaders of other religions also benefit.
There are two sources of substantive funding for religious
institutions from foreign countries; the first is from Christian
church organizations, particularly from the United States and
European countries, and the second is from the rich Gulf countries,
in particular Saudi Arabia. While most of the funds are used for
legitimate social services, some of them have gone into luring the
poor and weaker sections of society to convert to either Christianity
or Islam. This has created a backlash among the Hindu groups who
feel let down because they do not receive funds on such a scale.
The resulting frustration has led to violence against both Christian
and Muslim institutions, particularly the former, because they are
more vulnerable.
One positive aspect of more money for religion is the availability
of religious texts at very low prices. Hinduism has also benefited
from the flow of money. Hindu religious texts are now available,
especially the original texts in Sanskrit, either in the Devanagari or
the vernacular scripts. Explanatory texts on various aspects of the
practice of Hinduism are also easily available in all languages. There
is no reason why a Hindu should complain about non-availability
of religious texts. In general, religious texts are very low priced and
affordable for middle classes, yet very few buy them.
The Ancient Roots

All over India, the local religions of pre-Rigvedic vintage are still
alive and active. Their simplicity, without scriptural texts, their
effectiveness as a source of solace for the downtrodden, their total
integration with social life at the village level, have made them
survive. Their effectiveness is enhanced by the adoption of a few
basic concepts from the Upanishads and entertaining stories from
the Puranas. The local religions will remain as the bed-rock of
Hinduism for centuries to come.
267
The local religions have survived several millennia and I am

sure will survive for several centuries more. It is the religions with
written texts of a sacred nature that are under threat today. These
texts have become outdated and are inflexible. The religious leaders
have no authority to change these texts. Kanchi Acharya had time
and again pointed out that he had no authority to change the
sastras. He and others have no choice but to follow the sastras. One
has to find one’s own way out of this dilemma.
Relevance of Vedanta
Among the original Sanskrit based religions, Vedanta alone survives,
along with Yoga and various methods of meditation—both in their
original and adapted versions. This religion is popular among a
section of the elite in India and abroad. In the 21st century,
meditation and yoga could emerge as a universal religion—a
religion of individual choice; a religion that focuses on one’s mind
and intellect and does not bind one to social laws; a religion that
gives complete freedom to an individual to think and to meditate
on the true meaning of life. Religion of the future will be personal
and individualistic and it will be based on self-study.
268
A Peep into the Future
Hinduism is at the crossroads of history. Rapid changes are taking

place spurred by economic development, science, communication,
and technology. The Hindu society is far more mobile today
than ever before. In the bigger cities, where the population is
heterogeneous, life is more or less secular; one may have neighbours
who are from other religions or regions, and of different Varnas or
Jaties. In the village of Kempanur (referred to in Chapter 2), there
are many families from Assam, almost all are Muslims; they work
in the construction industry. Among elite families, at least one
member has gone abroad and some have taken foreign citizenships.
These changes are not just restricted to the elite but even to rural
folk. Change is perceptible.
The love of one’s religion is of a sentimental nature but lacking
in understanding. People have no time for learning the basics of
religion; instead they depend on quacks who try to create a false
image of the past, hiding their own superficial understanding of the
religion. Often money flows into the hands of those who are able to
manipulate publicity in the name of social service or in the name
of reviving some strange religious or quasi-religious practices. True
scholarship in religious texts in Sanskrit is now very rare and those
who know are a silent lot.
History is the sum of periods of turmoil and periods of
stability. Undoubtedly, we are in a period of turmoil and of rapid
change. What will be the outcome? It is hard to predict anything.
The problem is not confined to Hinduism alone; the same or

similar problems are there for other major religions of the world
as well. The future of Hinduism is tied to the larger destiny of all
major religions of the world. It is an unequal world, where money
power dominates; but things are changing. In the future, money
or physical force will not bring new followers to any religion. That
is a thing of the past. Nor will followers—old and new—allow
themselves to be abject slaves of religious leaders.
The leaders of major religions of the world are aware of the
problems and global nature of human society in the 21st century.
However, religious leaders the world over, despite some very weak
attempts, are in no position to come together, engage in a dialogue
and find ways of resolving conflicts between religions. They have,
in general, a very narrow view of religion and are, in fact, incapable
of finding solutions to global religious conflicts. They certainly will
not move towards a global religion.
The dilemma facing religions today is: On the one hand,
they have to maintain their uniqueness, otherwise why would
people follow one and not another. On the other hand, they have
to enable their followers to live in a global society and be able to
interact with people of other faiths. This requires some flexibility
and adaptability. It is difficult to walk this fine line. This is one
of the reasons why many religious leaders today are demanding
that their followers give up modern technology such as internet,
television etc. Their desperation is seen in attempts to influence
school curriculum in many countries. Finally, the horrible violence
perpetrated in the name of religion is due to the fanaticism of some
religious leaders who fear that they are losing out.
If you indoctrinate people from a young age into believing a
particular set of values, then it is tough for them to break out of
this. If you keep your ‘flock’ insulated from the rest of the world,
it may help to keep them in line with your views for some time.
However, the rest of the world is way too big and intrusive for
270
this to work in today’s world. We are no longer living in isolated

villages, needing to walk or ride in carts for days to reach the next
one. Trying to keep people in line using violence also works only
up to a point. At some point, people have nothing to lose and they
will fight back. The signs of this are already visible in the Muslim
world. This is why I believe that the days of religions as we know
them today are numbered.
A nebulous belief in a power called ‘God’ will persist for various
emotional reasons, but increasingly people will not be willing to
follow strict rules and belief systems. In the future, we will find
more and more people labelling themselves spiritual\humanist\free
thinker, etc. instead of Hindu, Christian, or Muslim.
There is no problem with people finding comfort in the idea of
God. The problem crops up when people blindly accept whatever
is written or said by someone or in some text or other.
In the final analysis, problems will have to be resolved by
people themselves. How can we do this? It is individuals who have
to shape their own religious thoughts; they should not delegate this
to religious leaders. By following an independent line, individuals
themselves can shape a new world.
In this context, Hinduism has certain advantages. Hinduism
has always been an individual or family affair—institutions and
religious leaders have played only a minor role. Hindus have always
been open in their approach to religion, willing to offer ideas to
others and also willing to accept ideas from others. They have
shown resilience in the context of social turmoil and have adapted
their religion to changing social and political environment.
Moreover, we enjoy greater religious freedom than any other
country in the world. I make this statement with total conviction.
There are blasphemy laws in Europe and America and in the
Islamic countries. They are enforced vigorously to negate religious
freedom not only for people of other faiths but also for their own
followers. In Christianity, the Church represents the body of
271
Christ—baptism and communion ensure that a Christian is firmly

rooted to the Church. The Church exercises power and is not a
silent spectator. It has often abused its power in the past. In Spain,
the control of the church over the lives of people is overwhelming.
There is considerable loss of religious freedom in Christianity. In
Islam, freedom does not exist. Yet, even in these countries, the
educated elite have risen above the narrow limits imposed on them
and have opted for a free thinking mode. In India, Muslims enjoy
complete religious freedom—something which is impossible even
to imagine in Islamic countries where Islam is the state religion. I
know of many Muslims in India who have a broad secular outlook;
this applies equally to men and women.
The intellectual explorations of the Upanishadic age provide us
a platform to rebuild the religion in a more rational and acceptable
form. There is no doubt that religion(s) will play a smaller role in
the future in the lives of ordinary people; yet, the need for God
and religion will continue to be felt. People will demand a religion
that is not divisive or aggressive and violent, but something that
everyone can share. It has to be absolutely non-violent. Violence
has no place in religion. The concept of God and principles should
apply and appeal to all. There should be no need to sell a religion. It
has to be accepted voluntarily without propaganda or persuasion.
The truth must reveal itself to all.
The population of the world is far more educated than before
and the intelligentsia is no longer slaves of the Church or the
Mullahs or other religious leaders. People are willing to think
and act on their own beliefs. I do believe that in the future more
and more people in the world will refuse to be tagged as Hindus,
Muslims, Christians or Buddhists and so on. There is no need to
carry a religious label on one’s person. This is an outdated concept.
Yet, one can believe in God and certain principles.
I recommend Vedanta and the methods of yoga and meditation
as the foundation for future religious practice. Adi Sankaracharya
272
is still relevant. He went beyond the advaita concept and included

bhakti as an integral component of religious practice. Bhakti can
involve any God and it can be practiced by anyone in his own way.
There are no hard and fast rules for bhakti and its practice. Its sole
object is to provide mental solace and no more.
We can, and should, go back to the method of the Upanishadic
saints. You can, and you must think, explore, and discover the
truths about life. This is the way of Hinduism. This method is
pithily described in the following description of the saint Narada
in Valmiki Ramayana:
स्वाध्यायनिरतः तपस्वी विव्दान्।

Dedicated to self-learning
Fully in control of the senses
Seeker of the truth
This is the path for intellectuals of the future.
273
Appendix
Religious composition by states and union territories in India 2011.
States and Population % of % of % of Percentage
Union in Millions Hindus Muslims Christians of Other
Territories Religions
Andhra 84.6 88.4 9.6 1.3 0.7
Pradesh
Arunachal 1.4 29 2 30.2 26.2 Others
Pradesh 11.8 Buddhists
Assam 31.2 61.5 34.3 3.8 0.4
Bihar 104.1 82.7 16.9 - 0.4
Chhattisgarh 25.5 93.3 2 2 2.7
Goa 1.5 66.1 8.3 25.1 0.5
Gujarat 60.4 88.6 9.6 0.5 1.0 Jains
0.3 Others
Haryana 25.4 87.4 7.1 - 4.7 Sikhs
0.8 Others
Himachal 6.9 95.2 2.2 - 1.1 Sikhs
Pradesh 1.1 Buddhists
0.4 Others
Jammu and 12.5 28.8 68.8 0.3 2.1 Others
Kashmir
Jharkhand 33 67.9 14.5 4.2 13.4 Others
Karnataka 61.1 84 12.9 1.8 1.3 Others
Kerala 33.4 54.8 26.6 18.3 0.3
Madhya 72.6 90.9 6.6 0.3 2.2
Pradesh
Maharashtra 112.4 79.8 11.6 1 6.0 Buddhists
1.2 Jains
Manipur 2.9 41.4 8.4 41.3 8.9
Meghalaya 3 11.5 4.4 74.6 9.5
Mizoram 1.1 2.7 1.3 87.1 8.9
(continued)
(continued)
Nagaland 2 8.7 3.4 87.9 -
Odisha 42 93.6 2.1 2.9 1.4
Punjab 27.7 38.6 1.8 1.1 57.8 Sikhs
0.7 Others
Rajasthan 68.5 88.6 9.1 1.3 Sikhs
1.0 Jains
Sikkim 0.6 57.7 1.5 9.8 27.4 Buddhists
3.6 Others
Tamil Nadu 72.1 87.7 5.8 6.1 0.4
Tripura 3.7 83.4 8.6 4.3 3.4 Buddhists
0.3 Others
Uttarakhand 10 84 14 - 2.0 Sikhs
Uttar 199.8 79.7 19.3 1
Pradesh
West Bengal 91.3 70.6 27 0.8 1.6
Andaman 0.4 69.3 8.4 21 1.3
& Nicobar
Islands
Chandigarh 1.1 80.8 4.8 0.8 13.1 Sikhs
0.5 Others
Dadra & 0.3 93.9 3.8 1.5 0.8
Nagar Haveli
Daman & 0.2 90.5 7.8 0.8 0.9
Diu
Delhi 16.8 81.5 13.1 0.6 3.6 Sikhs
1.2 Others
Lakshadweep 0.06 2.8 96.6 0.5 0.1
Pondicherry 1.2 87.3 6.1 6.3 0.3
India 1211 79.8 14.2 2.3 3.7
Source: Census of India: Religion: Table C-1: Population by Religious Community (2011).
276
Glossary
Aapa Godesses of water
Abhava Non-existence
Achara Customs
Acharya Teacher
Adharma Violation of dharma or moral code
Adhisthana Foundation or a raised platform
Adivasi Aboriginal or earliest settlers
Adhvaryu One among four categories of Vedic priests
Agamas Texts on temple management and rituals
Agni Fire God or just fire
Agraharam A land grant village of Brahmanas in South India
Ahimsa Non-violence
Akam Literally meaning inside in Tamil
Alvars Bards of the Sri vaishnavite sect in South India
Amman A Goddess in Tamil Nadu
Ananda Bliss
Annaprasam Initiation of an infant to eating rice
Annam Cooked rice or just food
Anthropomorphism God conceived in human form
Anumana Inference
Apara The phenomenal world including man
Aranyaka Texts in Sanskrit included in Brahmanas
Arhant A Jaina who has progressed to penultimate stage to
salvation
Artha Wealth
Arthasastra The science of wealth or material things
Arya Samaj A Hindu reformist organization (19th century)
Aryavartam The land where respected people live
Asana Sitting posture
Ashrama Stage in life
Ashrams Hermitages
Ashtanga Raja Yoga A Sanskrit text on dhyana yoga by Patanjali
Ashwamedha A yaga involving horse sacrifice performed by kings

Asura A class of demons of the underworld (Patala Loka)
Aswalayana A Rigvedic Brahmana—explanatory text
Atharvan A Purohit who composed the Atharvaveda
Atma suddhi Self-purification
Atman Soul—the absolute God present in all living things
AUM A representation of Brahman—it has two divergent
interpretations
Avatars Incarnations
Ayurveda The science of life or medicine
Ayyappa The God of the Ayyappa cult
Bhagavatas An ancient religious sect who worshipped
Vasudeva/Krishna
Bhagavati The Goddess Parvati
Bhaja Govindam A collection of 31 verses composed by
Adi Sankaracharya
Bhajan Devotional song
Bhakta or Bhaktas Those having faith in a God
Bhakti Devotion or simply faith
Bhakti Movement A religious movement originating in Tamil Nadu in
the 6th century AD
Bhakti yoga A combination of bhakti and jnana
Bharatnatyam A classical dance form of Tamil Nadu
Bhashyam Commentary
Bhutas or bhutagana A class of demons associated with Shiva
Bhiksha A gift or an offering
Brahma God of creation
Brahma yajnam The study of the Vedas
Brahmacharin A bachelor
Brahmacharya Observance of bachelorhood
Brahman The Absolute God
Brahman A chief priest in charge of a yagya
Brahmana A person belonging to the Brahmana varna
Brahmana A Sanskrit text accompanying any one of the four
Vedas
278
Glossary
Brahmi The mother of all Indian scripts

Brahmo Samaj A reformist forum of the 19th century
Bhrighu A Rigvedic poet as well as a legendary figure in
Smrities and Puranas
Brihaspathi The title given to Angiras, a Rigvedic poet
Chaityas A grove of trees used for worship by Buddhist monks
Caula/Chuda A ceremony involving the shaving of hair on the head
of a child
Chalcolithic culture Copper-stone age culture of 5,000 to 2,000 years ago
Chandas The term in Sanskrit for any meter used in prosody
Charana A Veda and Brahmana (text) in which a Brahmana is
proficient
Charvakam Literally sweet words or existentialism
Clans A form of social organization
Dahana kriya Cremation rituals
Daiva yajnam The daily worship of Vedic gods
Dakshina A payment made to Brahmanas for services rendered
Dalit The preferred name for Scheduled castes
Darba grass A type of long grass used in performing homa
Dayabhaga A Nibandana dealing with division of property
Deepavali The festival of lights
Deva Any God—originally a Rigvedic God
Devanagari A script used for writing Hindi and other Indian
languages
Devata Gods or spirits
Dharana Sixth stage in Raja Yoga—involves concentration
Dharma The moral code of the Hindus
Dharmasastra Any treatise on social laws or a treatise on secular
matters
Dharmasutra A text dealing with lifecycle rituals and other rituals
Dhyana Meditation; also the 7th stage in dhyana yoga
Divya Prabhandam A Vaishnava sacred text
Dravidian/Dravida A group of South Indian languages; or simply the
South
Dualism The doctrine that Brahman and atman are different
279
Durga A Goddess equated with Sakti

Dussehra Another name for Navratri festival in the South
Ettutokai A collection of literary works of the Sangam period in
Tamil
Gandarva An asteric class of people
Gandhara A region of North Western India
Garbha-Griha The sanctum sanctorum inside a temple
Gaudapada Adi Sankara’s teacher’s teacher
Gayatri The first meter used in Sanskrit prosody
Gayatri mantra The most sacred of all mantras in Rigveda
Gita Govindam Lyrics in praise of Lord Krishna by Jayadeva—12nd
century AD
Gopuram A temple tower built over entrance gates in the South
Gotra Brahmana lineage traceable to a Rigvedic poet or poets
Grihastha A householder
Grihasth-ashrama The householder stage of the lifecycle
Grihyasutras A Sanskrit text on family laws
Guru A teacher
Gurukula system A system where students live with the teacher’s family
Harijans The name used by Mahatma Gandhi for untouchable
castes
Havis Meat or cooked rice offered to Agni in a homa
Hindutva A concept outlined by Savarkar in 1922 meaning;
Hinduness
Hiranyam Gold
Homa A Vedic ritual performed in front of burning fire
Hotri A priest who specializes in reciting Vedic mantras
Hunas A Central Asian tribe who came to India in about 5th
century A
Illams Joint family households of Nambudiri Brahmanas
Indologist A scholar specializing in the study of ancient Indian
literature
Indra A Rigvedic God of rain, lightening, and thunder
Indriyas Includes limbs as well as sensory organs
Irulas Perhaps the earliest inhabitants of India: a forest tribe
280
Glossary
Ishta devta Favourite God

Isvara Supreme God
Itihasa Literally; as it happened—usually refers to Indian
Epics
Iyers Smarta Brahmanas; derived from arya+r showing respect
Ayyengars Srivaishnavite Brahmanas; derived from aryan to
ayyan etc
Jagannath The presiding deity of Puri temple
Janapadas Originally tribal territories; later used in the sense of
kingdoms
Japa Recitation of the name of a God, mantras, or slokas
Jataka stories Buddhist stories relating to the earlier lives of
Gautama Buddha
Jatakarma A ceremony performed on the birth of a child
Jati An endogamous community or a larger group (of
Jaties)
Jiva The impure soul or the outer crust of the impure soul
Jivatman The impure soul or the atman enslaved in it
Jnana Knowing atman and Brahman to be the same
Jnana yoga The state of self-realization attained by a few mystics
Jnanedriyas Sensory organs
Jnani One who knows atman and Brahman to be the same
Jyotisha Astrology
Kali yuga The present time phase
Kalpa A text on rituals
Kamya karma A ritual expressing a wish
Kanchi Acharya The late Chandrasekharendra Saraswati, a noted Vedic
scholar
Kapalikas A Shaivite sect whose members carry sculls
Karika A gloss
Karma Includes all types of human actions including rituals
Karma theory Theory about the consequences of good or bad actions
Karmendriyas The limbs used in physical action
Karthikeya Sanskritized name of Lord Murugan
Karupparayar A village God in Kongunadu of Tamil Nadu
281
Kathakali A dance drama performed in temples in Kerala

Kavadi A semicircular devise carried on shoulders by Muruga
bhaktas
Kirtans/Kirtanas A devotional song in a classical or semi classical format
Krishna An incarnation of Vishnu born in the Yadava clan
Kshatriya A warrior class
Kuchipudi A classical dance originating in Andhra Pradesh
Licchavis A major Kshatriya clan based on Vaishali in Bihar
Lingayats Name of Veerashaivite sect who wear a linga on their
body
Loukika Brahmanas Brahmanas who earn a living by expertise in any sastra
Mahabhutas The five elements
Maharishi The Puranic re-creations (legends) of Rigvedic poets
Mahavira The founder of the Jaina religion
Mallas A Kshatriya clan based in Kusinagara, North Bihar
Manas Mind
Mandapa A hall generally inside a temple
Mandir A Hindu temple
Mantra A Rigvedic verse
Manu The legendary author of Manusmriti
Mariamman A Tamil Goddess equated with Parvati
Marjanam The act of bathing
Maya The power to create an illusion
Megalithic culture A culture in which huge stone monuments were built
Mimamsa The theory and practice of Yajur and Sama Vedas
Mimamsakas Those who practice rituals as given in the Yajurveda
texts
Mitakshrara A Nibandana popular in Maharashtra; accepted as
Hindu law
Mleccha Anyone who does not belong to the four Varnas
Modakam Any sweet made of unprocessed cane sugar
Moksha Release of the atman from the cycle of births and
deaths
Muni A saint
Murugan The Tamil God who is later identified as a son of Shiva
282
Glossary
Mutt The house of a Brahmana or a religious monastery

Naimittika karma Ritual performed on specific occasions
Nairs A prominent Hindu community of Kerala
Nalayira Divya
Prabhandam A sacred work of Sri Vaishnavites in Tamil
Namakarana A ritual in which a child is given a name
Nambudiri A Brahmana community of Kerala
Nandi A statue of a bull usually placed in front of the Shiva
Linga
Navrathri A nine day festival in October—its interpretation
varies
Nayanmars Shaivite bards of Tamil Nadu
NBP Northern
Black Polished Ware An early urban culture in the Middle Ganga Plains in
600-300 BC
Neolithic culture New Stone age culture of 10,000 to 5,000 years ago
Nibandanas A text in Sanskrit detailing rules and regulations of
social conduct
Nigamas A text dealing with idol worship
Nirgranthas Ascetics who rejected all Vedic texts
Nirguna Brahman The Absolute God having no form or attributes
Nirukta A lexicon
Nirvana Literally disappearance—deliverance from this world
Nitya karma The daily ritual of sandhya vandana performed three
times a day
Niyama The five observances for healthy living and spiritual
enlightenment
Nyaya A school of philosophy of 5th century BC
Odissi A classical dance form of Odisha
Padarthas Includes substance, quality, action, association,
inherence, and non-existence
Pali The language of the common people of Magadh in
4th century BC
Pancha yajnas The five rituals prescribed for daily observance in
Mimamsa
Pancha jana The five tribes of Rigvedic times
283
Pancharatras An early Vaishnava sect

Para and apara Brahman and the phenomenal world
Parvati A Goddess; consort of Lord Shiva
Pasupatas A Shaivite sect and followers of the philosopher
Pasupatha
Patasala A Sanskrit based Vedic school for boys
Pattupattu A collection of long poems as part Ettutogai in Tamil
Payasam A sweet porridge made of milk and rice
PGW Painted
Grey Ware Culture A rural culture around the present day Delhi dating to
1200-800 BC
Pitr Karma/Pitr yajna Worship of ancestors
Pradakshina Going around a deity in a clockwise direction
Prakriti The phenomenal world
Pratyaksha What is seen or observed
Pramanas Bases–authority
Prana Life
Pranava The sound OM signifying the Absolute God Brahman
Pranayama A breathing exercise or Gayatri mantra japa
Prasada The offering from a deity to the bhaktas
Prasthana thrayam The ten Upanishads, Brahmasutra, and
Bhagavad Gita
Pratyahara The fourth stage of Dhyana yoga
Pravara Rigvedic rishies from whom a Brahmana claims descent
Prayopavesa Literally entering death on one’s own—not considered
as suicide
Preyas That which is desired in this life
Puja or Pooja Form of worship with offering of flowers to an idol or
image
Punya Merit for good act
Puranas A series of 18 Sanskrit texts from 2nd century AD
Purohit A common priest
Purram The outside in Tamil
Purusha Atman; also the cosmic man or creator
Purusha sukta A cluster of verses in Rigveda on the creation of man
284
Glossary
Purusharthas The four goals of life

Purva Mimamsa The ritual based religion of Krishna Yajurveda
Qualified non
dualism Brahman and atman are one and same, except that
Brahman takes human form
Rajadharma The moral code for kings and the state
Rajputs One of the Kshatriya groups of North India
Rakshasa A class of demons, for the most part but not wholly
evil
Ramlila A festival in which the Ramayana is re-enacted for
nine days and ends with burning of the effigies of
Ravana
Ras Leela The story of Lord Krishna and the gopies or damsels
Rath The temple car associated with temples in the South
Revelation Religion or sacred text believed to have originated
from God
Rishi A Rigvedic poet mentioned in the Rigveda
Ritwik A priest
Rudra A Rigvedic God equated with Shiva later
Sabda Sound or the Vedic texts
Saguna Brahman The Absolute God in human form with all attributes
Sahasranama The thousand names of Vishnu, Shiva, or Parvathi
Saibaba An 18th century ascetic based in Shirdi in
Maharashtra
Sakhas A recension of a Veda—a part of any Vedic text
actually memorized
Saktas/Shaktas Followers of the female God Shakti
Sakya A Kshatriya clan of Kapilavastu in North-East Uttar
Pradesh
Samadhi A state of bliss attained by dhyana yoga
Saman/ Samagana The chanting of the mantras of Samaveda
Samavaya Inherence
Samanya Association
Samasams A new word formed by joining two or more words
Samit Sticks of wood, especially of the Palasa tree—flame of
the forest
285
Samkara Unification through marriage of Varnas

Samskaras The 40 rituals prescribed in the Brahmanas
Sanatana Dharma A word used to denote Hinduism—literally means
eternal moral code
Sanatanis A sect opposed to Arya Samaj in Punjab and Delhi
Sandhi Rules governing suffixes and prefixes attached to a word
or a combination of two words
Sandhya vandana The daily ritual prescribed in the Sastras/Smrities
Sangam The association of early Tamil poets of 200 BC-200 AD
Sankara A name of Shiva
Sankhyas Followers of the Sankhya School of philosophy
Sankritisation The appropriation of local/regional Gods in the Sanskrit
literature
Sanyasa/Sanyas Withdrawal from worldly life
Sanyasi/sanyasin A person who has taken sanyas
Sastra Any Sanskrit text focusing on social aspects
Sati A woman who enters the funeral pyre of her husband
Satvasudhi Atma shudhi—purity of soul
Satya/Satyam Truth meaning Dharma according to Smrities; Brahman
in Vedanta
Satyagraha The search for truth or the right path through fasting
Scythians Also known as Sakas who came to India in the 2nd
century AD
Secularism A state not based on any religion
Shaivas/Shaivites Worshippers of Shiva, the God of destruction
Shraddha The formal worship of ancestors
Shikhara The tower over the garbha-griha in temples in the North
Shreyas That which is beneficial for the next life
Siddhanta Religious doctrine
Siddas Shaivite mystics
Sikhism A religion established by Guru Nanak in the 16th
century
Shiksha Teaching and learning
Silappadikaram An epic in Tamil
Simanta A ritual to ensure the welfare of mother and child during
pregnancy
286
Glossary
Sloka A verse in classical or later Sanskrit

Smartas A group of Brahmanas of the South who followed a
Smriti
Smarta karmas Ritual and non-ritual karmas prescribed in Smrities
Smriti Text belonging to 300 BC to 200 AD which defines
the moral code for society
Somayaga An optional ritual that involves somaras—an
intoxicating drink
Soundarya Lahari A stotra composed by Sankaracharya in praise of
Bhavani
Srivaishnavites A sect of Hindus who worship Vishnu and his
incarnations
Srowtha karmas Vedic rituals; rituals prescribed in the Brahmanas
Sthala Purana Local legends focusing on temple Gods
Stotra A Verse in praise of a God or Goddess
Stupa A monument built over the mortal remains of Buddha
Suddhi A ritual of conversion to Hinduism; literally refers to
purification
Sufism A Muslim religious sect or movement involving
mysticism
Sungas A Brahmana dynasty of kings of the Ganga Plains
Sutras Aphorisms in Sanskrit and also texts based on these
Svadharma Own dharma—dharma for the Varna that one belongs
to
Svadhyaya Self-learning
Tamizhakam The territory where Tamil was spoken in the Sangam
period
Tanmantras The five objects of the senses—sound, feeling, touch,
form, and taste
Tantriks A religious sect practicing black magic
Tapasvi One who has undergone penance; a disciplined person
Tarpanam A ritual offering to the ancestors
Tatvas Principles—according to the Sankhya school
Tevaram One of the three texts of Tirumurai in Tamil
Thaipusam A very important festival in Tamil Nadu connected
with God Murugan
287
thirthankar A Jain who has crossed the bridge and attained the
ultimate state
Tirthas A place of pilgrimage associated with bathing in a holy
river or the sea
Tirumurai The sacred texts of Shaivites in Tamil
Tirukkural A text containing 1300 aphorisms in Tamil of 2nd
century AD
Tolkappiyam A grammatical work of the Sangam period in Tamil
Trimurti Shiva represented as Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma
Trishtup A meter of Sanskrit prosody
Turiya The fourth state in which one merges with Brahman
Udgatas The priest trained in rendering mantras from Samaveda
Uncha vritti The mid-day procession of bhaktas seeking grains or
food
Upakarma The ceremony initiating Vedic studies during a year
Upamana Comparison
Upanayana The initiation into brahmacharya
Uttara Mimamsa Another name for Vedanta School
Vadama A Jati among Smarta Brahmanas (suggests Northern
origins)
Vaidika Brahmanas The priestly class among Brahmanas
Vaisesika A philosophical school of 4th century BC
Vaishnavas A religious sect who worship Vishnu and his
incarnations
Vaishno Devi A new Goddess or cult of Northern India
Vajapeya A major yaga
Valmiki A poet who wrote the Ramayana in Sanskrit
Vanaprastha The third stage in the lifecycle
Varna A category or class of men; there are only four Varnas
Varna ashrama
dharma Code of conduct based on Varna and stage in life
Varuna A Rigvedic God
Vasistha A Rigvedic poet; or a descendent of that poet
Veda Vyasa A legendary person to whom all the Vedas were revealed
by God
288
Glossary
Vedangas The six parts of Veda are: Siksha, Vyakarana, Nirukta,

Kalpa, Chandas, and Jyotisha
Vedanta One of the six Schools of Hindu philosophy
Vedas The first three Vedas; There are other definitions
Veerashaiva Another name for the Lingayat sect
Vettaikkaran The God of the Irulas—it means hunter in Tamil
Vibhuti Ash powder given as prasad in Shaivite temples
Vidwan A scholar—in religious texts a person who knows
Brahman
Viharas Buddhist monasteries
Vishishtadvaita Qualified non-dualism of Ramanujacharya
Vyakarana Grammar
Vyavahara Conduct or rules of conduct
Yajamana The person who performs a ritual by a trained priest
Yama The God of death
Yama The five disciplines: telling the truth, not-stealing etc.
Yatras Pilgrimages
Yavanas A term used to denote foreigners in 300 BC – Greeks
in particular
289
Selected References
Ali, S M: Geography of the Puranas, Peoples Publishing House, 1966.
Adharvaveda Samhita, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Prathistan, Delhi, 2006
(This volume contains 4000 mantras, organized into clusters according
to the purposes for which they are to be used).
Basham, A L: The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the History and
Culture of the Indian-Subcontinent before the coming of the Muslims, Third
revised edition, Picador, London, 2004.
Bhattacharya, Nagendranath: History of Tantric Religion, Munshiram
Manoharlal, Delhi, 1982.
Chakravarti, Uma: The Social Dimensions of Early Buddhism, Munshilal
Manoharlal, 1996.
Doniger, Wendy: The Hindus: An Alternative History, The Penguin Press,
London, 2009.
Eight Upanishads with the Commentary of Sankaracharya, Translated by
Swami Gambhirananda, Second Revised Edition, Volumess I and II,
Advaita Ashrama, Kolkatta, 1989, reprinted 2006.
Ghai, R H: Suddhi Movement in India: A Study of Its Socio-political
dimensions, Commonwealth Publishers, New Delhi, 1990.
Ghurye, G S: The Scheduled Tribes, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1963.
India—A Travel Survival Kit, Lonely Planet Publications, Australia
(latest edition).
Mahadevan, T M P: Sankaracharya, National Book Trust, India, 1990.
Manusmriti, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Puranattukara, Thrissur, Kerala
(This book presents 2700 verses of Manusmriti in the Malayalam script
with a commentary by Siddinadanandaswamy).
Narayanan, Vasudha: Hinduism: Origins, Beliefs, Practices, Holy texts,
Sacred Places, Oxford University Press, New York, 2004.
Nehru, Jawarharlal: The discovery of India, The Signet Press, Calcutta,
1946.
Neumayer, E: Pre-historic Indian Rock Paintings, Oxford University Press,
Delhi, 1983.
Omvedt, Gail: Dalit Visions: The Anti-caste Movement and the
construction of an Indian Identity, New Delhi, Orient Longman, 1995.
Pusalkar, A D: Studies in Epics and Puranas, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,
Mumbai.
Radhakrishnan, S: Hindu View of Life, Harper Collins, London, 1926
(reprint 2009).
Radhakrishnan, S: The Bhagavad Gita (with an Introductory essay,

Sanskrit text, English translation and Notes), George Allen and Unwin
Ltd, London, 1948.
Ramachandran, R Hinduism in the Context of Manusmriti, Vedas
&Bhagavad Gita, Vitasta Publishing Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 2009, 2013.
Rigveda Samhita, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Prathishtan, Delhi, reprinted
2008 (This volume contains 10,552 mantras in Devanagari script).
Samaveda Samhita, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Prathistan, Delhi, 2006 (This
volume contains 1,500 mantras in Devanagari script).
Sankaracharya: the Missionary, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust,
Mumbai, 2002.
Sarma, D S: The Upanishads: An Anthology, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,
Mumbai, 1964. (selections of verses from 11 major Upanishads in
Devanagari script, along with their English translation).
Selections from the Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Advaita
Ashrama, Kolkatta, 1983.
Sri Chandrasekhara Saraswati: Hindu Dharma: The Universal Way of Life,
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Mumbai, 1995, pp 790.
Shreemad Bhagavad Gita, Sanskrit text in Devanagari script with
Sankara’s commentary in original and its translation into Hindi by
Harikrishnadas Goyendka, Gita press, Gorakhpur, 1998.
Srimad Bhagavatham, Vol I and II, Original Sanskrit text in Malayalam
script, Giri Trading Agency Pvt Ltd, Mumbai, (6th reprint, 2011).
Srimad Valmiki Ramayanam, Original Sanskrit text in Malayalam script,
Vol I and II, Sri Rama Mandir Trust, Tiruanandapuram, Kerala, 1997
(Reprinted 2004, 2009).
Srinivas, M N: Social Change in Modern India, University of California
Press, Berkeley, 1966.
Taittiriya Samhita (Krishna Yajurveda), Chowkhamba Sanskrit
Prathistan, Delhi, 2005. (This is mostly in Sanskrit prose).
Thapar, Romila: The Penguin History of Early India from the origins to AD
1300, Penguin Books India, 2003.
Weber, Max: The Religion of India, Original in German published in
1916, later translated into English, Currently published by: Munshiram
Manoharlal New Delhi, 1996.
Yajurveda Samhita (Shukla Yajurveda), Chowkhamba Sanskrit Prathistan,
Delhi 2006 (contains 1800 mantras in Devanagari script).
292
Index
Acharya xxiv, 26, 101, 170, 182, AUM 60, 61, 64, 65, 67
185–187, 189, 193, 194, 265,
268 Badarayana 49, 68
Adharma 127–129, 142 Bahubali 91
Adi Sankaracharya xxx, 2, 26, Bhagavad Gita xxiv, xxx, 16, 46,
52, 56, 61, 68–70, 72, 86, 157, 48, 56–60, 63, 68, 69, 71, 72,
170, 177, 179, 181, 182, 185, 127, 152, 185, 189, 190–192,
187, 189, 192, 193–196, 206, 197, 208, 209, 234, 241
207, 209, 241, 250, 265, 272 Bhagavata Purana 16, 17, 65,
Afghans 214, 217 70, 117, 127, 133, 136, 138,
Agamas 131, 148, 150, 151 143–145, 147, 149, 150, 205
Agni Purana 143 Bhagavatas 132, 203, 206
Agraharam 15, 37, 131, 137, Bhaja Govindam 186, 191, 193,
152, 154, 155, 157, 158, 160, 194
161, 243, 263 Bhakti 196, 197, 199, 203, 205,
Aitareya Upanishad 57, 62 209, 273
Ajatasatru 73, 78, 98, 134, 138 Bhakti Movement 127, 181,
Akbar 217, 218, 221, 223 193, 197, 210
Alexander the Great 98 Bharadwaja 25, 141
Alvars 197, 203, 205, 210, 215 Bhashyam 68, 69, 183, 184,
Angiras 24, 65, 100 189, 190, 206
Apasthamba Sutra 31, 38 Bhavishya Purana 143, 146
Aranyakas xxv, 42, 43, 54, 56, Bimbisara 73, 76, 78, 134, 138
70, 74 Brahman (God) i, 21, 29, 30,
Arya Samaj 237–239 42, 55, 57, 58, 60–62, 64–70,
Aryan xxv, 2, 233, 234 72, 79, 84, 75, 77, 135, 136,
Aryavartam 36, 102, 103, 105, 139, 146, 169, 206, 207, 209,
106, 125 236
Ashrama xxvi, 69, 97, 100, 102, Brahma Purana 143
108, 120, 124 Brahman 29, 30, 42
Asoka 36, 79, 80, 81, 89, 98, Brahmana/Brahmanas
165, 166, 208 (Jati) xxvii, xxix, 3, 15, 17,
Atharvaveda 27, 29, 39, 46–48, 19, 25, 28, 30–32, 37, 42, 44,
51, 108, 112 49, 50, 54, 65, 83, 87, 94,
Atman 55, 58–63, 65–67, 70, 98, 101, 107, 109, 113, 117,
72, 79, 84, 85, 87, 149 118, 130, 131, 133, 137–140,
153, 154, 160, 181–183, 197, 100, 102, 114, 119

202, 203, 205, 207, 218, 219, Dravidas 106, 111
232, 239, 243, 249, 257–259, Durga 12, 145, 198, 258
262–264
Brahmana/Brahmanas Epics xxvi, xxviii, xxx, 12, 16,
(Texts) 32, 42, 46–48, 51, 26, 37, 87, 112, 113, 117–119,
57, 61 122, 129, 130, 138–141, 157,
Brahmanda Purana 138, 143, 163, 201, 222, 225, 238, 241
146 Ettutogai 200
Brahmasutra xxvi, 49, 53, 68,
69, 185, 189, 191, 206, 250 Garuda Purana 143, 146
Brahmi 83, 235 Gautama Buddha 77, 78, 82,
Brighu 102 89, 138, 165
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 65, Gopuram 170, 173
66, 112 Gotra 21, 30–32, 158, 182, 183
Brihaspati 24, 25 Grihya Sutras 49
Gurukula System 28, 54
Chaityas 73, 80, 165
Chandogya Upanishad 64, 65, Hasthamalaka 189
183 Hero Stones 6, 10, 13
Chandrasekharendra Hindustani 228, 254
Saraswati xxiii, xxiv, 189, 249 Hindutva 248
Chandravamsi 129, 138, 140
Charvakam 64 Indologists xxviii, 2, 3, 51, 229,
Chinas 106, 111 233, 234
Chinmayananda 69, 182, 192, Irulas 7, 9, 11, 18
249, 250 Isavasya Upanishad 56, 57
Isvara 63, 64, 67, 68, 136
Dalit 153, 226 Itihasa 97, 114
Dayabhaga 114, 154, 243
Dayananda Saraswati 229, 237, Jabali 70, 120
239, 250 Jaimini 48, 49, 57, 68
Delhi Sultanate 213, 214, 216, Jaiminisutra xxvi, 48, 49, 68,
223 79, 109
Dharma 97, 108, 111, 117, Jataka stories 80
120, 239 Jati 11, 86, 87, 108, 113, 158,
Dharmasastras xxvi, 63, 64, 97, 165, 206, 207, 260–262
99, 100, 113, 117 Jayadeva 215, 219, 234
Dharmasutras xxvi, 39, 48, 99,
294
Index
Kabir 218, 220, 239 139, 140–143, 146, 168, 201,

Kalhana xxv, 215 208, 246
Kali Yuga 122, 134, 138, 139, Mahavira 43, 73, 82, 84
146 Mandana Misra 184, 185
Kamasutra 134, 172 Mandukya Upanishad 61, 184
Kamban’s Ramayanam 119 Mantra 25, 27, 28, 42, 43, 45,
Kamban 208, 219 46, 57, 135, 149, 193
Kanchi Acharya xxiv, 26, 265, Manusmriti 46, 48, 51, 65,
268 66, 70, 72, 86, 97, 100–103,
Kapalikas 132, 185 105, 106, 108–112, 113–115,
Kapila Muni 63 119–122, 125, 133, 142, 150,
Karma theory 85 160, 165, 234, 243, 259, 260,
Karupparayar 9, 10–12, 15 262, 263, 266
Katha Upanishad 56–60, 62 Mariamman 12
Kena Upanishad 57, 58, 70 Markandeya Purana 133, 143,
Khalsa 221 145
Kshatriya xxvi, xxvii, 50, 82, 87, Matsya Purana 143, 144
98, 107, 110, 117, 118, 126, Maya 63, 67, 136, 139, 191,
127, 129, 131, 133, 135, 137, 195
138, 140, 223, 258–260 Megaliths 2, 6
Krishna 60, 61, 65, 67, 70, 71, Mimamsa xxv, [xxvi, 16, 27–30,
117, 118, 122, 127, 136, 138, 34, 36, 37, 39, 41, 43, 44, 46,
140, 144–146, 148, 150, 157, 48–53, 56, 68, 71, 72, 74,
161, 178, 193, 198, 203, 207, 79, 84, 85, 93, 94, 97, 98,
208, 209, 215, 218, 219, 241 102, 103, 109, 110, 113, 114,
Krishna Yajurveda 27, 32, 118, 127, 131, 132, 135, 137,
41–43, 48, 51, 57, 61 149–152, 157, 158, 161, 181,
Kriya Yoga 131, 136, 147 184, 189, 190, 203, 217, 222,
Kurma Purana 143, 144 244, 248
Minor Upanishads 53, 69
Later Upanishads 53, 64 Mitakshrara 243
Lingayat 207 Mlechhas xxvi, 34, 107, 108,
Lokayatas 85 124, 139, 150
Loukika Brahmanas 113, 259, Mohammed of Ghazni 216
263, 264 Mughal 217, 219, 221–223,
225, 229, 231, 254
Madvacharya 207, 208, 215 Mundaka Upanishad 60
Mahabharata 69, 101, 114, Murugan 12–15, 197, 202
117–119, 127, 128, 129, 133, Mutt 52, 157, 170, 187, 189,
295
206, 207, 240, 249 Radhakrishnan 229, 241, 242,

246
Nakkirar 13, 202 Rajatarangani 215
Nayanmars 197, 203–205, 210 Ram Mohan Roy 229, 236–239,
Nibandanas 114 242, 246
Nirgranthas 82 Ramananda 120, 218
Nirguna Brahman 70, 131, 132, Ramanujacharya 120, 144, 195,
135, 136, 149, 193–195 206, 215
Nitya Karma 44 Ramayana 114, 117–123,
Nyaya 62–64 125–130, 133, 139–141, 146,
168, 197, 209, 219, 246
Pahlavas 106, 111 Rigveda xxiv, [xxvii, xxx, 21–30,
Pali 79, 84 32, 33, 41–43, 45, 46, 51, 57,
Pancharatras 132, 203 65, 135, 153, 234
Parvati 13, 15, 150, 169, 172 Rigvedic people 3, 19, 21, 23,
Pasupatas 132, 204 26, 32–34, 36, 37, 39, 40, 49,
Pasupati 42, 204 50, 107, 261
Patanjali 63, 64, 72, 194 Rudra 41, 43, 63, 67, 68, 136
Patasala 183
Persians 74, 98 Saguna Brahman xxvi, 67, 70,
Prakriti 63, 67, 136 72, 135, 136, 139, 149, 195,
Pranayama 64 207, 208, 241
Prasenajit 73, 78, 98 Sakas 34, 111, 124
Prasna Upanishad 60 Sakuntalam 234
Pravara 21, 30–32, 107 Samaveda xxv, 27, 30, 41–43,
Puja 11, 17, 109, 114, 131, 136, 46, 49, 51, 57, 74, 190
149, 150, 206, 217, 244, 257, Sanatana Dharma 111, 238, 239
258 Sangam 12, 13, 83, 134, 197,
Puranas xxiv, xxvi, xxviii, xxx, 199–202
12, 15, 16, 26, 37, 50, 56, 64, Sankhya 61–63, 69, 192
67, 70, 87, 97, 101, 102, 113, Sati 237
114, 117, 121, 127, 130–147, Satyam 120, 246
150, 157, 163, 168, 178, 182, Savedasa 31, 32
183, 198, 202, 204, 222, 225, Secularism 251, 252
238, 239, 241, 267 Shaivism 2, 43, 67, 136, 138,
Purusha Sukta 43 202, 204, 205, 215
Purva Mimamsa 28, 44, 51, 68, Shikhara 168, 171, 177
72, 84, 98, 103, 110, 150, 152 Shiva xxvi, 5, 9, 10, 13, 15, 30,
Pushyamitra 138 43, 67, 68, 70, 132, 136, 138,
296
Index
145, 146, 150, 166, 168, 169, Tirumantiram 205

171, 174, 178, 181, 184, 185, Tirumurai 205
186, 193, 195, 198, 204, 208 Tiruvaimozhi 206
Shiva Purana 70, 133, 136, 145, Tiruvalluvar 201
150 Totakacharya 185, 189, 194
Sikhism 221 Todakashtakam 194
Silappadigaram 201, 202 Tuglak 224
Shivaji 222–226 Tulsidas 119, 209, 218, 220,
Skanda Purana 143, 145 222
Sloka 101, 111, 148
Smartas 16, 157, 158, 189, 204 Upanishads xxiv, xxv, xxvi,
Smrities xxvi, xxviii, xxx, 25, 29, xxviii, 16, 26, 28, 36, 42, 43,
36, 44, 56, 65, 71, 72, 85, 87, 46, 49, 53–58, 60, 62, 64, 65,
93, 97, 99–101, 106, 109, 111, 67–72, 74, 76, 85, 97, 103,
114, 117, 118, 141, 157, 204, 113, 120, 140, 150, 157, 184,
243, 246, 261, 264 185, 189, 190, 192, 196, 204,
Sri Vaishnavites 16, 204, 207, 208, 232, 234, 238–241, 243,
215 244, 246, 250, 266, 267
Sthala Puranas 131, 146, 147, Upa-Puranas 131, 146
151 Urdu 214, 253, 254
Stotra 186, 193, 194 Uttara Mimamsa 36, 51, 52, 56,
Stupas 73, 80, 89, 90, 165, 210 68, 84, 97, 98, 103, 110, 127,
Sufism 220, 228 152
Suka 138, 141, 142, 144
Shukla Yajurveda 27, 29, 42, 43, Vaidika Brahmanas 44, 97, 113
46, 51, 56, 57, 66 Vaishnavism 136, 144, 202,
Surdas 218, 219, 220 205, 207, 218
Sureshvaracharya 184, 189 Valmiki Ramayana 84, 112, 117,
Suryavamsi 129, 138, 140 119, 120, 121, 127, 143, 150,
Suta 141 209, 273
Sutras 43, 48, 49, 68, 109 Vamana Purana 143, 144
Svetasvatara Upanishad 64, 67, Vardhamana Mahavira 73, 82
68 Varna xxviii, xxvii, 40, 41, 50,
65, 86, 87, 94, 97, 103, 106,
Taittiriya Upanishad 57, 61 107, 108, 110, 113, 127, 137,
Tantrism 1, 2, 185 139, 140, 152, 207, 208, 249,
Taittiriya Samhita 27, 41, 43, 61 258–260, 262
Thirthankar 82, 84, 93 Veda Vyasa xxiv, 49, 129, 131,
Tirukkural 83, 201 141, 142, 144, 238, 241
297
Vedanta 56, 61, 62, 68, 184, 143, 144

192, 195, 207, 249, 250, 266, Visishtadvaita 206, 208, 241
268, 272 Vivekachoodamani 61, 63, 72,
Vedas xxiv, 12, 22, 24, 26, 39, 192, 193, 195, 250
40, 41, 43, 44, 48, 51, 53, 56, Vivekananda 229, 237, 239,
60, 61, 70, 79, 94, 101, 103, 240, 241, 246
105, 10–110, 112, 113, 135,
140, 150–152, 157, 161, 189, Yajamana 27, 28, 30
190, 206, 217, 234, 236, 238, Yajurveda xxv, 41–43, 49, 74,
239, 240, 241, 243, 244, 246, 109, 190, 238
259, 262, 263, 265 Yajnavalkya 42, 66, 67, 71, 72,
Viharas 80, 89, 91 100
Vishnu xxvi, 30, 67, 68, 70, Yavanas xxvii, 34, 36, 97, 98,
100, 119, 132, 136, 144, 146, 103, 111, 124, 144, 151
166, 168, 169, 172, 178, 193, Yuga 121, 122, 134, 138, 139,
195, 198, 204, 206, 246 140, 146
Vishnu Purana 51, 70, 133, 136,
298
About the Author
R Ramachandran is an indologist and retired professor of
Geography from the Delhi School of Economics, University
of Delhi. He has held positions as the Head of the Department of
Geography, the Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences, and the
Director of the Delhi School of Economics at various points in
time. His first book Urbanisation and Urban Systems in India was
published in 1989 and has been reprinted every year since. After
retirement in 1996, the author has been devoting himself full time
to the study of Hindu scriptures in original Sanskrit. In 2010, he
published his first book on the nature of Hinduism—Hinduism: In
the context of Manusmriti, Vedas & Bhagavad Gita.
The author’s deep interest in Hinduism is the direct result of
his ancestry from an orthodox community of Brahmanas and his
feeling of indebtedness to his ancestors. The book is in the nature of
a historiography and reflects the author’s perceptions as a member
of a Brahmana community as well as his professional training and
experience as a social scientist.

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1 Coimbatore West Suburbs 8

3500 1500-1000 BC Around 50 Rigvedic rishies (poets) lived

1800 200 AD Valmiki composes Ramayana

810 1190-1294 AD Yadavas of Devagiri (Daulatabad)

138 1862 The Archaeological Survey of India

Six years after the publication of my book on the nature of

Whatever the merits of this book, I can assure you that it

• Is Hinduism a Revealed Religion? • Historical

Whoever says he understands ‘Hinduism’ does not really understand

Is Hinduism a Revealed Religion?

as Christianity. To substantiate this, they mention the legend of

scrutiny, analysis and inference or rejection); but for those who do

Chronology of Sanskrit Texts

rituals. They laid the foundation for a Hindu philosophy of life,

The History of Brahmanas

kings they were elevated to the Kshatriya status. If we accept this

The Historical Method

at any given time. Each process is like a vertical slab with a

Assumptions and Value Judgements

values without questioning. Thus, Indian writers on Hinduism are

Telling the Story

religion—no conversion, no persuasion to change, and certainly no

reasons, it must always be remembered that the original tribal,

• Introduction • India 3,500 Years Ago (1500 BC)

Tantrism is very much present in all parts of India, although it is

in British educational institutions looked at the Sanskrit literature

India 3,500 Years Ago (1500 BC)

Excavations of sites other than Harappan culture, further

The Past from the Present

study of tribal and village cultures falls within the domain of

Tribal Gods and Religions

were, although they no longer are, primarily hunters. They hunted

Village Gods and Religions

Most of the families who worship at this temple are Okkali

A very unique form of worship associated with Murugan is

crowds on weekends and Tuesdays. Marudamalai is also known for

The Brindavan community is of recent origin—about six

The Past and the Present

absorbing many facets from other religions from the regional

• Rigvedic Society • Rigvedic Verses • Prosody • Poets or

The verses, composed by the Rigvedic poets, reflect dependence

आपो हिष्ठा मयोभुव स्ता न ऊर्जे दधातन। महेरणाय चक्षसे

The three verses given above are in gayatri meter, consisting of

three consisting of eight syllables each. Trishtup with forty-four

the word ‘namas’ in Rigveda means food, while in the Puranas it

The utter simplicity of this religion comes out vividly in the

दधिक्राव्णोः अकारिषं जिष्णोरश्वस्य वाजिनः।

Each mantra in Rigveda has three components—praise of a God,

तत् त्वा यामि ब्रह्मणा वन्दमानः तदा शास्ते यजमानो हविर्भिः ।

This mantra is repeated in both the Krishna and Sukla

in humans, miracles, fantasies, and even the presence of ghosts or

इदमापः प्र वहत यत् किं च दरु ितं मयि ।

This verse is also repeated in the 10th mandala of Rigveda as

Brahman: The Original Concept

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