PRAYAAS UPSC 2024

ANCIENT AND ART AND

CULTURE MODULE BY
KARMAYOGI IAS

1. TIMELINE OF ANCIENT HISTORY

Paleolithic Period (2 million BC – 10,000 BC)

•Fire

•Tools made up of lime stone

•Ostrich Eggs

•Important Paleolithic sites: Bhimbetka (M.P), Hunsgi, Kurnool Caves, Narmada Valley
(Hathnora, M.P), Kaladgi Basin

Mesolithic Period (10,000 BC – 8,000 BC)

•Major Climatic Change happened
•Domestication of animals ie Cattle rearing started
•Microliths found at Brahmagiri (Mysore), Narmada, Vindya, Gujarat

Neolithic Period (8000 BC – 4,000 BC)

•Agriculture Started
•Wheel discovered
•Inamgaon = An early village
•Important Neolithic Sites : Burzahom(Kashmir), Gufkral(Kashmir), Mehrgarh(Pakistan),
Chirand(Bihar), Daojali Hading(Tripura/Assam), Koldihwa(UP), Mahagara(UP), Hallur(AP),
Paiyampalli(AP), Maski, Kodekal, Sangana Kaller, Utnur, Takkala Kota.
•NB: Megalithic Sites: Brahmagiri, Adichanallur
Chalcolithic Period (4000 BC – 1,500 BC)
•Copper Age. Can be considered part of Bronze Age. (Bronze = Copper + Tin)
•Indus valley civilization (BC 2700 – BC 1900).
•Also cultures at Brahmagiri, Navada Toli (Narmada region), Mahishadal (W.Bengal), Chirand
(Ganga region)

Important Indus valley sites

Harappa
Cemetery H & R37.
1.Coffin burial.
2.Granary outside the fort.
3.Phallus worship.
4.Graveyard.
 5.Mother goddess.

Mohenjo-Daro
Prepared Garments.
1.Temple-like Palace.
2.Pashupati seal.
3.Statue of a dancing girl.
4.Ivory weight balance.
5.The Great Bath.
6.The Great Granary.
7.Priest-king statue.

Kalibangan
1.Lower fortified town.
2.Fire Altar.
3.Boustrophedon style.
4.Wooden drainage.
5.Copper Ox.
6.Evidence of earthquake.
7.Wooden plough.
8.Camel’s bone.

Lothal
1.Port Town.
2.Evidence of Rice.
3.Fire Altar.
4.Graveyard.
5.Ivory weight balance.
6.Copper dog.

Rangpur
1.Evidence of Rice.
Surkotada
1.Horse bone.
2.Stone covered grave.

Malavan
1.Canals.

Chanhudaro
1.Bangle factory.
2.Inkpot.
3.The only city without citadel.
4.Carts with a seated driver.

Balakot
1.Bangle factory.

Daimabad
1.Bronze Buffalo.

Amri
1.Actual remains of Rhinoceros.

Alamgirpur
1.Impression of cloth on a trough.

Ropar
1.Buildings made of stone and soil.
2.The dog buried with humans.
3.One inscribed steatite seal with typical Indus pictographs.
4.Oval pit burials.

Banawali
1.Oval shaped settlement.
2.The only city with radial streets.
3.Toy plough.
 4.The largest number of barley grains.

Dholavira
1.Only site to be divided into three parts.
2.Giant water reservoir.
3.Unique water harnessing system.
4.Dams.
5.Embankments.
6.A stadium.
7.Rock – cut architecture.

Iron Age (BC 1500 – BC 200)

•Vedic Period (Arrival of Aryans ie. BC 1600 – BC 600) – Nearly 1000 years (Basic books of
Hinduism, i.e VEDAS were composed, might have written down later.)
•Jainism and Buddhism

VEDIC PERIOD

RIVER NAMES
MAHAJANAPADAS
•– Major Civilization after Indus Valley- On banks of river Ganga
• Bhagwati Sutra - Jain text mentioning Mahajanapadas
• 2nd urbanisation
MAHAJANAPADAS AND ITS LOCATION

•Magadha
•Sisunga dynasty – Kalasoka (Kakavarnin)
•Nanda empire – Mahapadma-nanda, Dhana-nanda
•Persian- Greek: Alexander 327 BC

Mauryan Empire(321-185 BC)

Chandragupta Maurya (322 BCE – 298 BCE): Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan
Empire by overthrowing the Nanda dynasty. He was guided by his mentor, Chanakya (also known
as Kautilya), a renowned political strategist. Chandragupta’s reign saw the expansion of the empire,
and he established an efficient administrative system.
 •Bindusara (298 BCE – 273 BCE): Bindusara, the son of Chandragupta Maurya, continued
his father’s expansion policies. He extended the empire’s boundaries further south into the
Deccan region.
•Ashoka the Great (273 BCE – 232 BCE): Ashoka, also known as Ashoka the Great, is one
of the most famous Mauryan emperors. Initially, he ruled through military conquests, but the
Kalinga War in 261 BCE had a profound impact on him.

Post-Mauryan Kingdoms (Middle Kingdoms):

•Sunga (181-71 BC), Kanva (71-27BC), Satavahanas(235-100BC), Indo Greeks , Parthians
(19-45AD), Sakas (90BC-150AD), Kushanas (78AD)
•South Indian Kingdoms –Chola , chera , Pandyas (BC 300)
Satavahanas, Sakas, Kushanas
The Satavahanas, Sakas, and Kushanas were three important dynasties that ruled over various parts
of ancient India. These dynasties played a significant role in shaping the political, social, and
cultural landscape of the Indian subcontinent during their respective reigns.
The Satavahanas
The Satavahanas were a South Indian dynasty that ruled from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd
century CE. They were known for their administrative skills and were responsible for the
establishment of a stable and prosperous kingdom in the Deccan region. The Satavahanas were
patrons of the arts and encouraged the development of literature, music, and dance.

The most prominent ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Satakarni, who is credited with
expanding the empire to include parts of present-day Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and
Tamil Nadu. He was also responsible for defeating the Shaka and Yavana invaders who had
threatened the stability of the empire.
Starting of Land grants in their period.

The Sakas
The Sakas were a Central Asian tribe that invaded India in the 2nd century BCE. They established a
powerful kingdom in the northwestern part of the country, which is now modern-day Afghanistan
and Pakistan. The Sakas were known for their military prowess and were responsible for
introducing new weapons and techniques of warfare to the Indian subcontinent.

The most famous Saka ruler was Maues, who established his capital in Taxila and expanded the
kingdom to include parts of present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan. However, the most significant
contribution of the Sakas was the introduction of the Indo-Greek style of art and architecture, which
had a lasting impact on Indian culture.

The Kushanas
The Kushanas were a Central Asian tribe that established a vast empire in northern India in the 1st
century CE. They were known for their administrative skills and were responsible for the
development of trade and commerce in the region. The Kushanas were also patrons of the arts and
encouraged the development of literature, music, and sculpture.

The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka, who is credited with establishing a great empire that
extended from Central Asia to the Gangetic plain. He was also responsible for promoting Buddhism
and was a patron of Buddhist art and architecture. The Kushanas are known for their contribution to
the development of the Gandhara school of art, which combined Indian and Hellenistic styles.
SANGAM AGE

Categories of People in South India

i. Vellalar - landowners ii. Uzhavar -
ordinary ploughmen
iii. Adimai and Kadaisiyar - slaves and landless labourers
• Similarly in North India
i. Bhojaka - village headman (also largest landowner)
ii. Grihapati - small landowner iii. Dasa Karmakar –
landless
 ▪ Hero worship prevalent - Viragals - stone slabs with hero's inscriptions

1. CHERAS
i. Capital - Vanji ii. Senguttuvan - greatest ruler (aka Red Chera, Good Chera) – created
temple of Kannagi iii. Roman temple of Augustus (later destroyed by Tipu) iv. Muziris
Port
v. Pugalur incsription(1st century AD) -> mentions 3 generations of Cheras

2. EARLY CHOLAS
i. Capital - Kaveripatnam/Puhar ii. Karikala Chola -
greatest ruler - founded Puhar port iii. Puhar Port iv.
Uraiyur - chief political center famous for cotton trade

3. PANDYAS
i. Patronized Sangam assembly at Madurai ii.
Meduncheliya ruler - Known for curse of Kannagi iii.
Madurai => capital iv. Korkai Port - Pearl Trade

TAMIL LITERATURE- secular

1. 1st Sangam (mythological) - chaired by Agastya Mahamuni at Madurai
2. 2nd Sangam - Tamil text on grammar - Tolkkapiyam => chaired by Tolkkapiyar at Kapatpuram.
3. 3rd Sangam - most imp - massive literature- chaired by Nakkirar at Madurai
i. 18 Major Works -Melkanakus (Narrative) - on love and God
i. Tirumurugaruppadai - on tamil god Murugan by Nakkirar (prez of 3rd sangam) ii.
18 Minor Works - Kilkanakus (Didactic)
i. Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar - code of ethics & universal human values iii.
3 epics
i. Silappadikaram by Ilango Adigal - Madurai, Pandyan King, Vaishnavism Shaivism Jainism,
Pattani Cult
ii. Manimegalai by Sattalai Sattanar (story of a dancer becoming Buddhist nun)
iii. Sivaga Sindamani by Tiruttokadevar(story of hero Sivaka becoming Jain monk)
 Gupta Kingdom (300AD – 800AD):Classical Period
Information about their history through inscriptions and coins.
•Chandragupta was followed by Samudragupta.
•Samudragupta, Gupta ruler (1700 years ago, ie AD 300). Harisena was his court poet.
•Chandragupta, his father, was the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty to adopt the grand title of
Maharaj- adhiraja, a title that Samudragupta also used.
•Four different kinds of rulers in different parts of India/Nepal/Srilanka either surrendered to
him or made alliances. (Eg: Aryavartha, Dakshinapatha, gana sanghas etc).
•Main centers of Guptas: Prayag (Allahabad, UP), Ujjain (Avanti, MP) and Pataliputra (Patna,
Bihar).
•Samudragupta’s son = Chandragupta II. Kalidasa and Aryabhata adorned his court. He
overcame the last Sakas.

Society
i. Varna system modifies due to -
i. Many foreigners assimilated into Indian society as Kshatriyas ii. Assimilated tribals
into Shudras iii. Guilds of craftsmen transformed into caste with decline of trade and
urban centers ii. Lil improvement in position of women - education allowed, but Sati
present iii. Gods getting consorts - Lakshmi with Vishnu, Parvati with Shiva iv.
Evolution of Vajrayana Budhhism and tantric cults v. Idol Worship became common

Economy
i. Land survey
ii. Tax fixed at 1/6th of the produce.
Taxes
-i. Bali ii.
Bhaga iii.
Bhogkar
iv. Hiranyanka - tax in cash
iii. Paid salary in form of land grants (Mauryans paid in cash) i.
Pustapala - officer maintained land records
4. Largest no. of gold coins (but not as pure as Kushana coins)
5. Decline in long distance Indo-Roman trade
vi. East Coast Ports - Tamralipti, Ghantashala, Kandura

vii. Western Coast Ports - Bharuch, Chaul, Kalyan, Cambay

Culture
i. Decline of animal sacrifice as Bhagwatism/Vishnu worship grew
ii.Idol worship - free standing temple iii. Rock cut caves - Ajanta, Ellora,
Bagh caves
 g. Inscriptionsi. Allahabad Inscription (prayag Prashasti) - Samudragupta - by Harisena
• ALLAHABAD PILLAR -
i. Ashoka (originally) ii. Samudragupta (Prayag Prashasti
by Harisena) iii. Jehangir incription (in Persian language)
ii. Mehrauli inscription - Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
iii. Bhitari inscription (UP) – Skandagupta

▪ Other inscriptions
• Ayodhya Inscription - Pushyamitra Shunga
• Junagarh Inscription - Rudraraman
• Aihole Inscription - Pulakesin II (mentions to Harsha also)

Post Guptas or Contemporary Guptas

•Harshvardana, Vakatakas, Pallavas , Chalukyas . Also, Hunas, Maitrakas, Rajputs, Senas and
Chauhans.
5 major powers emerged in North India - ▪
Maukharis (western UP)
▪ Maitrakas - (Saurashtra)
▪ Gaudas - (Bengal) - Shashank Gauda (uprooted Bodhi tree)
▪ Kamarupa – (assam)

▪ Pushyabhuti (Thaneshwar)
i. Prabhakarvardhan assumed title Parambhattaraka
Maharajadhiraja ii. Marriage alliance with Maukharis iii. Made
Kannauj capital
• Rajyavardhan became king => Shashank Gowda of Bengal killed him and captured his sister
Rajyashri => so 16 year old Harshavardhan had to step up => killed shashank gowda and freed his
sister Rajyashri

Harshavardhan (606-647 AD)

a. Officers -
i. Baladhikrit - commander ii.
Vrihadeshwawar - head of cavalary
iii. Katuk - elephant brigade head

b. Political Career-. Conquered Kannauj (capital), Bengal, Assam, Gujarat, Bihar, Raj Defeated
by Pulakesin II of Badami Chalukyans in Guj and Narmada was agreed as border.
Aihole inscription (commissioned by Pulakesin II) on walls of Jain temple - "Sakalottara
Padeshwara" (lord of whole north India) refers to
Harsha.

Literature -

i. Harsha wrote 3 dramas – Priyadarshini, Nagananda, Ratnavali

ii. Banabhatta wrote – Harshacharita, Kadambari,

Parvatiparinayam

iii. Hieun Tsang – Si-Yu-Ki

Welfare of people - Mahamoksha Parishad -> distributed wealth to poor

Administration
i. Highly feudal and decentralized

ii. Not a lot of coins -> started feudal practice of paying officers with land grants

iii. Law and order not well maintained

 iv. Severe punishment for crime (later reduced under influence of Buddhism)

v. Madhuban Plate Inscription.

Badami Chalukyans of Deccan (543-775AD)

i. Ancient name Vatapi Chalukyans
ii. Pulakesin II (Prominent ruler)

a. Aihole Inscription
i. Authored by RaviKirti

ii. At banks of Malaprabha river in Raichur doab in Bijapur, Karnataka

iii. Aihole inscription made under reigning king Pulakesin II

iv. Mentions defeat of Harsha at hands of Pulakesin II

v. Mentions shifting of capital from Aihole to Badami

b. Defeated Harsha
c. Vaishnavite. Secular - tolerant of other faiths
d. Vengi Chalukyans - seperated after death of Pulakesin II
e. 2 wars with Pallavas
i. Battle of Pullaluru => Mahendravarma I was killed ii. Battle of Maninamgula => Pulakesin II
was killed by Narsimhavarma-I (aka Vatapi Konda) f. Handed over territories to his brother
vishnuvardhan who started another branch of Chalukyas => Vengi Chalukyas.
iii. Last ruler Keertivarma-II was assasinated by Dantidurga (estd Rashtrakuta dynasty with capital at
ellora)

iv. Art and Architecture

a. Developed Vesara Style
b. Rock cut temples and structural temples
i. Rockcut caves of Badami (karnataka)

v. Military Officers
a. Baladhikrita
b. Dandanayaka
c. Mahaprachanda Danadanayak

vi. Administration
a. Village divided into
 i. Maharashtrakas (provinces)
ii. Rashtrakas (mandalas) iii.
Vishaya (distt) iv. Bhoga (group
of 10 villages)

b. Amatyas - looked after revenue matters

Pallavas of Kanchi (550-850 AD)

i. Satavahanas => Ikshvaku => Pallavas ii.
Founders of Dravidian architecture iii. Introduced
art of excavating temples from rock iv. Founded
by Simhavishnu (Vaishnavite)

v. Mahendravarma-I
a. Wrote sanskrit drama "Matta vilasa prahasanam"
b. Killed by Pulakesin-II
c. Aka - i. Vichitrachitta (curious minded) ii. Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists) iii. Chaityakari (temple
builder)

vi. Narasimhavarma-I a.
Aka "Mammala"
b. Assumed title Vatapikonda (conquered Vatapi/Badami)
c. Killed Pulakesin-II
d. Built new city Mahabalipuram(Mammalapuram)

vii. Narasimhavarma-II a.
Title - Raja Simha
b. Built Shore Temple
c. Built number of Ghatikas (educational institutions)

viii. Literature
a. Constributed to development of Grantha Script
b. Gave importance to Sanskrit -
i. Bharavi - wrote Kiratarjuneeyan

ii. Dandi - wrote Dashakumaracharita

After Decline of Pushyabhuti, the void in North India was filled by 3 dynasties-
1. Rashtrakutas
2. Palas
3. Pratiharas

KANNAUJ TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE (8th century AD)

• Btw Rashtrakutas (Deccan), Palas (east), Pratiharas (West)
• Lasted for 2 centuries and made all three dynasties weak => resulted in Islamic invasion
• Kannauj => located on Ganga trade route and was connected to
Silk Route
• Finally, Nagabhatta II of Gurjara-Pratiharas won.

CHOLAS(Imperial)
Founded by Vijayalaya (feudatory of Pallavas of Kanchi) => made Tanjore (banks of Kaveri) his
capital in 850AD.

Rajaraja Chola -- defeated Pandyas and Cheras and also SL, Maldives, Lakshadweep
• built Brihadeshwar/Rajrajeshwaram Temple, Tanjore (1010AD) on River Kaveri
 • Assumed title Mummudi Chola

Rajendra 1 - captured northward territories; overseas campaign against Srivijaya kingdom in SE

Asia (Bali, Sumatra, Java, Malay)
• even more ambitious than his father => defeated Mahipala in gangetic valley but didn't annex =>
created new capital at Gangaikonda Cholapuram (banks of Kaveri)
• Assumed title Gangaikonda.

Administration
▪ Decentralised Administration :
- Units -
• Mandalam (province)
• Valanadu (distt)
• Nadu (block)
• Kottam (village)
• Ur (smallest admin unit) ▪ Villages -

• 2 types of assemblies - Ur (general assembly), Mahasabha (gathering of adult men in agraharas)

• Brahmadeya and Agrahara => lands for Brahmans
• Devadana - tax for temples
• Intercaste village
Types of Land

2. IMPORTANT KEYWORDS

Advent of the Aryans/Early Rig Vedic Age

Terms Meanings
Avesta oldest text in the Iranian Language
Another name for River Saraswati, called the best of the rivers in the Rig
Naditarna
Veda.
Dasa/Dasyus indigenous inhabitants of India during Aryan migration
Gavisthi Term for war/search for cows in Rig Veda
Panchjana Aryans were divided into 5 tribes called Panchjana
Ayas terms used for metals- copper/bronze in Rig Veda
Samudra collection of water
Rajan a kind of chief during Rig Vedic age
Samiti/Sabha/Vidatha/
tribal or clan based assemblies
Gana
Purohita head priest
Bali voluntary offerings by people to the tribal chief
Prajapati the officer who enjoyed authority over a large land or pasture ground.
Kula Family
Kulapas head of a family
Gramanis head of the fighting hordes
when the units settled after wars, the Gramini became head of the
Vrajapati
village,with course of time he came to be identified as Vrajapati.
Vrata/Gana/Grama/
Different tribal groups
Sardha
Jana tribe
Griha family
Kula family
Purandara/Indra breaker of forts/ warlord
Agni Fire God
Varuna Water God
Soma God of plants
Aditi,Usha deities,denoting dawn.
Kula family
Kulapa head of the family
Grama village
Gramini head of the village
Vis the clan
Vispati head of the clan
Jana the people
Gopa/Gopati head of the Jana
Rashtra territory/country
Rajan head of the rashtra
Senani army chief
Purcharishnu moving fort made for fighting a war
Kshira pakamodanam– grain cooked with milk
Aghanya used for cow,meaning ‘not to be killed’
Sura and Soma alcoholic drinks
Later Vedic Phase
Terms Meanings
Shyam/Krishna Ayas Iron
Shatapatha Brahman text talks about ploughing ritual
Vrihi rice in Vedic texts
Vis common people
Rajasuya yajna sacrifice ritual meant to confer supreme power to the King
Ashwamedha yajna unquestioned control over an area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted
Sangrihitri officer for collection of taxes and tributes
Vis/Vaishya refractory people/common people
Rajanyas close kinsmen of the King
Upanayana investiture with the scared thread of 3 varnas according to the Vedic Texts
Rathakar chariot maker
Cowpen/place where cattle belonging to the whole clan are ekpt.Later it
Gotra
meant descent from a common ancestor
Goghna a guest or someone who was fed on cattle.
Yajna sacrifice rituals
Yajmana one who performed Yajna
Official Positions in Later Vedic age
Terms Meanings
Purohita the priest
Mahishi the queen
Yuvraja crown prince
Suta/Sarathi charioteer
Senani General
Gramani head of village
Kshata gateman/chamberlain
Sangrahitri treasurer
Bhagadudha collector of taxes
Akshavapa courier
Palagala friend of king – mnemonics- Kings Pal
Govikarta head of forest department
Ganas corporations of merchants
Sreshtins aldermen
Teritorial States and the First Magadha Empire
Terms Meanings
Janapada territory to which one belonged
Ekarat title of Mahapadma Nanda- the sole soveregin who destroyed all other ruling princes
Jaladurga water fort- Pataliputra in this case.
State and Varna Society in the Age of Buddha

Terms meaning

Vessas monasterymonasterymonasterymonasterymonasterymonasterymonasterymonastery
Nishka/Satmana coins/prestige objects made of metals
Bhojaka village headmen
Gahaptis merchant streets
Mahamatras higher officials in the court
Mantrin minister
Senanayak commander
Gramabhojaka/
a class of officers in the kingdom
Gramani/Gramika
Balisadhakas different titles for village headmen
Shaulkika/
officers appointed to collect compulsory payments- earlier voluntary payments were calle
Shulkadhyaksha
Parishad-small body
similar to toll officers who collected customs from traders
Samitis/sabhas
Bhandagarika treasurer
Gramabhojaka/
a class of officers in the kingdom
Gramani/Gramika
The Age of The Mauryas
Terms Meaning
Bherighosha policy of physical occupation
Dhammaghosha policy of cultural conquest
officers vested with authority to reward or punish people as per
Rajukas
policy of Dharma
Sangiti Buddhist council
Bhaga royal share of the produce
Dhammamahamatra
officer of Ashoka for propagating Dharma among social groups
Significance of the Mauryan Rule
Terms Meaning
Dharmapravartaka King/ promulgator of the social order
Tirthas important functionaries in the administration
Pana silver coin equal to 3/4 th of a tola
Adhyakshas 27 superintendents mostly to regulate the economic activities of the state
Samaharta highest officer in charge of the assessment of the taxation
Sannidhata chief custodian of the state treasury and store house
Dushtamatyas wicked bureaucrats
Central Asian Contacts and Their Results
Terms Meaning
doab land between two rivers
Strategos military governors- system introduced by Greeks
Avadanas texts composed during progress of Mahayana Buddhism
Yavanika curtains borrowed from Greeks
Yavana branch of Greeks known to ancient India
Horashastra term for astrology/horoscope in Sanskrit
Drachma greek word for Drama
Osadhi plants
Ausadh medicines
The Age of the Satvahanas
Terms meaning
term for perfumer artisans,later came to connote all kinds of
Gandhikas
shopkeepers- Gandhi word originated from here.
Ahara districts
Amatyas officials
Mahamatras officials
administrator of rural areas who was also the head of a military
Gaulmika
regiment
military camps and settlements which served as administrative centres
Kataka and Skandhavaras
so long as the king was there.
Raja a king,first grade of feudatories- could issue coins
Mahabhoja 2nd grade of feudatories
Senapati 3rd grade of beneficiaries
Chaityas sacred shrines.Buddhist temples
Vihara monastery
Gathasattasai/
a Prakrit text attributed to Satvahana King Hala.
Gathasaptasati
The Dawn of History in the Deep South
Terms meaning
Enadi title given to captains of the army in the Sangam age
Rich peasants under Cholas and Pandyas who also held civil and military
Vellalas
offices- formed the 4th caste
Kadaisiyar lowest class which did agricultural operations
agricultural labourers who also worked in animal skins and used them as
Pariyars
mats.
Murugan/Subramaniya chief local God worshipped by people of the hilly region
Virarkal practice of raising hero stones
Tolkkappiyam test dealing with grammar and poetics.
3. BOOKS AND AUTHORS IN ANCIENT INDIA
Books and Authors in Ancient India
S. No. Books Author
1. Mudrarakshasa Vishakhadatta
2. Rajtarangini Kalhana
3. Kathasaritsagar Shaivite Somadeva
4. Kamasutra Vatsayana
5. Prashnottarmalika Amoghavarsha
6. Swapanvasdattam Bhasa
7. Buddha Charita Asvaghosa
8. Natyashastra Bharata Muni
9. Abhigyaan Shankuntala Kalidasa
10. Vikramorvashi Kalidasa
11. Raghuvansan Kalidasa
12. Amarkosa Amarasimha
13. Panchsidhantika Varharmihara
14. Brihat Samhita Varharmihara
15. Surya Sidhanta Aryabhatta
16. Aryabhatta Aryabhatta
17. Panch Tantra Vishnu Sharma
18. Nitisara Kamandaka
19. Aihole Prasasti Ravi Kriti
20. Indica Megasthanese
21. Arthasastra Kautilya
22. Charaka Samhita Charaka
23. Lilawati Bhaskara II
24. Harshacharita Banabhatta
25. Kadambari Banabhatta
26. Nagananda Banabhatta
27. Ratnavali Banabhatta
28. Gathasaptashati Hala
29. Astadhyayi Panini
30. Mahabhasya Patanjali
31. Mrichhakatika Shudraka
32. Gitagovinda Jayadeva
 33. Navratna Virsena

The Vedas
The Vedas are known as ‘Shruti’ meaning ‘through hearing’, as they were handed down through
generations orally with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques.
There are four Vedas:
The Rigveda
•The Yajurveda
•The Samaveda
•The Atharvaveda
Each Veda has four subdivisions-
•The Samhitas (mantras and benedictions)
•The Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices, and symbolic sacrifices)
•The Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices)
•The Upanishads (texts discussing meditation, philosophy, and spiritual knowledge).
•Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas (worship).

Rigveda
•This is the most important and, according to scholars, oldest and largest of the Vedas.
•It is divided into ten books (called mandalas) and has 1028 hymns (suktas) in praise of various
deities.
•These include Indra, Agni, Vishnu, Rudra, Varuna, and other early or “Vedic gods.”
•It also contains the famous Gayatri mantra and the prayer called the Purusha Shukta (the story
of Primal Man).
•The ancient Iranian text ‘Avesta’ has similarities with Rigveda in terms of language and
practices.
•Rigveda has mentioned the early Aryans as dasas and dasyus.
•Gayatri Mantra is part of Rigveda.
Rigveda manuscripts were selected for inscription in UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register in
2007.
Yajurveda
•It is a collection of mantras for use in the performance of yajnas (sacrifices).
•It is divided into two sections, the earlier Krishna Yajurveda and the more recent Shukla
Yajurveda.
•It was documented around 1200-800 BCE.
•It has one of the largest Brahmana named Satapatha Brahmana.
•The important Upanishads are- Brihadaranyaka, Isha, Taittriya, Katha, Maithri.
•Brihadaranyaka is among the earliest extensive discussion on concepts of dharma, karma, and
moksha.
•Katha Upanishad has the famous story of Nachiketa, son of sage Vajravasa.

Samaveda
•This consists of chants and melodies to be sung during worship and the performance of yajna.
•There are 1549 verses (except 75 verses rest have been taken from Rigveda)
•There are two Upanishads embedded in Samaveda- Chandogya Upanishad and Kena
Upanishad
•Samaveda is categorized into two parts – one includes melodies called Gana (gramageya and
aranyageya) and the second includes a book called Archika (purvachika and uttarachika).
•The Samaveda is considered the root of Indian classical music and dance.

Atharvaveda
•It contains hymns, mantras, and incantations, largely related to everyday life.
•It is also called the Veda of magical formulas and has 730 hymns and 6000 mantras.
•The important Upanishads are- Manduka, MAndukya, Prahsna.
•‘Satyameva Jayate’ is borrowed from Manduka Upanishad.
•The two surviving renditions of Atharvaveda are Paippalada and the Saunakiya.

Other literature related to Vedas

There are also two important bodies of supplementary literature, related closely to the Vedas
themselves. They are:

Vedangas
The Vedangas, expound the sciences required to understand and apply the Vedas.
1.Kalpa (ritual detail)
2.Siksha (pronunciation)
3.Vyakarana (grammar)
 4.Nirukti (etymology)
5.Chandas (meter)
6.Jyotisha (astronomy/astrology)

Upavedas
The Upavedas (usually considered smriti) deal with the four traditional arts and sciences.
1.Ayurveda (medicine), associated with Athrvaveda
2.Gandharva-Veda (music and dance), associated with Samaveda
3.Dhanur-Veda (warfare), associated with Yajurveda
4.Shilpa-Veda (architecture), associated with Rigveda

Puranas
•Purana is a Sanskrit word that means "ancient." Puranas were first created by Sage Veda-
Vyasa, according to legend.
•There are 18 Mahapuranas (great puranas) and a plethora of Upapuranas (secondary
puranas).
•The puranas' beginnings may overlap with the Vedas to some extent, although their writing
spanned the 4th and 5th century CE, and in some cases much later.
•The puranas were mostly composed during the Gupta period, although some were produced
in the early mediaeval period as well.
•Bhagavata Purana (10th century) and Skanda Purana are two examples (14th century).
•The Puranic literature is encyclopaedic and covers a wide range of themes,
including cosmogony, cosmology, genealogy of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and
demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy,
comedy, love stories, and theology and philosophy.
•The Puranas' substance is exceedingly inconsistent, and each Purana has survived in a
number of manuscripts, each of which is incongruent.
•The Hindu Maha Puranas are generally credited to "Vyasa," although many academics
believe they were written by a number of writers over time; by contrast, most Jaina Puranas
may be dated and authors assigned.

Puranas
•The Agni Purana has 15,400 verses.
•The Srimad Bhagavata Purana has 18,000 verses. The most revered and well-known of the
Puranas, it tells the story of Vishnu's ten Avatars. Its eleventh and longest chapter recounts
Krishna's exploits, beginning with his boyhood escapades, a topic later built on by various
Bhakti organisations.
 •Bhavishya Purana has 14,500 verses.
•The Brahma Purana has 24,000 verses.
•Brahmanda Purana has 12,000 lines, including Lalita Sahasranamam, a scripture that some
Hindus repeat as prayer.
•The Brahmavaivarta Purana has 18,000 verses.
•The Garuda Purana has 19,000 verses.
•Harivamsa Purana, which contains 16,000 verses; itihsa Linga Purana, which has 11,000
verses.
•Shortest Purana is Markandeya Purana, which comprises 9,000 verses and includes Devi
Mahatmyam, an essential literature for Shaktas.
•Matsya Purana has 14,000 verses.
•The Narada Purana has 25,000 verses.
•Padma Purana has 55,000 verses.
•The longest Purana is Skanda Purana, which includes 81,100 verses.
•Surya Purana Vamana Purana (10,000 verses)
•The Vayu Purana has 24,000 verses.
•Vishnu Purana has 23,000 verses.

Charak Samhita
The Charaka Samhita is an Ayurvedic treatise (Indian traditional medicine) written in Sanskrit. The
Charaka Samhita is one of two Ayurvedic fundamental texts, the other being the Sushruta Samhita.
It remained a classic text on the subject for two millennia and was translated into numerous foreign
languages, including Arabic and Latin. The current version of the Charaka-Samhita is said to have
developed in the first century CE.
In the seventh century BCE, Agnivesa, under the supervision of the ancient physician Atreya,
compiled the Agnivesha Samhita, an encyclopaedic medical compendium. However, the text lacked
depth of knowledge and was not up-to-date in terms of quality, so very little attention was paid to
the task. Hence, later Charaka updated the Agnivesha Samhita and called it the Charaka Samhita.
Charaka organised the treatise into eight sections or ashtanga sthanas:

Sushruta Samhita:
It is regarded as one of the 'Great Trilogy of Ayurvedic Medicine' (Charaka Samhita, Sushruta
Samhita and Astanga Hridaya) and is the foundation of the ancient Hindu form of medicine known
as ‘Ayurveda’.
"Sushruta Samhita" relates to the school of surgery and contains principles of surgery,
a description of more than 100 surgical instruments, a description of operative
procedures, 650 drugs, and descriptions of anatomy, embryology, toxicology, and
therapeutics.
The Sushruta Samhita is organized into five major sections:
Sutrasthana: Primary principles dealing with basic principles of medical sciences
and pharmacology;
Nidana: It deals with pathological concepts;
Sarirasthana: On human anatomy;
Chikitsasthanam: On medical and surgical management;
Kalpasthanam: On toxicology.

4. IMPORTANT PORTS OF ANCIENT INDIA

Ports of Ancient
State Salient Features
India
The oldest port in India. The remains of the port city of Lothal
were discovered in 1954 and were excavated by the Archaeological
Lothal Port Gujarat Survey of India (ASI). The excavations led to the discovery of a
mound, a township, a marketplace as well as the dock, cementing
the existence of the port in Lothal.
Muziris port had played a significant role in connecting the region
with the Persians, the Phoenicians, the Assyrians, the Greeks,
the Egyptians and the Roman Empire. While spices, particularly
black pepper, were the key item exported from the Muziris port,
Muziris Port Kerala
other commodities shipped include semi-precious stones,
diamonds, ivory and pearls, among others. The goods arrived at
Muziris from over 30 countries were mostly textile, wine, wheat
and gold coins etc.
Poompuhar, also known as Puhar or Kaveripattanam, is believed
to be the Port town of Chola Empire. Situated in the mouth of the
Poompuhar
Tamil Nadu Kaveri River. The port witnessed the Indian merchants trading their
Port
commodities, mostly spices, with other Asian countries as well as
Arabs.
Arikamedu, is known as the port of Podouke in historical
documents. It finds mentions in Tamil poems of the Sangam
period. Arikamedu was a Chola port dedicated to bead making
and it was the only port city in the region to have ties with Romans.
Arikamedu
Puducherry In addition, textiles, terracotta artefacts, plants, spices and jewellery
Port
were also shipped from the Indian port to Roman ports and other
eastern destinations. The discovery of several antiquities of Roman
origin helped archaeologists to draw the history of the ancient port
Arikamediu
Located in the region that comes under the current state of Gujarat
and at the mouth of the river Narmada. Bharuch was also known
as Bharukaccha and Barygaza to the merchants from around the
Bharuch Port Gujarat world. Bharuch had established trade relations with Arabs, Greeks
and Romans, Africans, Chinese and Egyptians. Bharuch was a
terminus for a number of land-sea trade routes and goods were trans-
shipped there to send abroad utilising the monsoon winds.
Sopara was an ancient port town and the capital of the ancient
Aparanta. The site of this ancient town is ocated near the present
day Nala Sopara (Mumbai). In ancient times, it was the largest
township on India’s west coast, trading with Mesopotamia, Egypt,
Cochin, Arabia and Eastern Africa. The Mahabharata and the
Sopara Port Mumbai Puranas state that the Śūrpāraka was reclaimed from the sea for the
dwelling place of Parashurama and it became a tirtha for this
reason. The finding of the relics in a stupa and the rock edicts (the
fragments of the 8th and 9th major rock edicts) of Ashoka in 1882
prove the importance of this port town from the 3rd century BCE to
the 9th century CE.
Calicut Port Kerala Calicut, also known as Kozhikode, was also one of the busiest
ports and trading centres. Located on the coast of Arabian Sea,
this west coast port was an important trading port especially
for spices including pepper, cloves and cinnamon. It began to
Ports of Ancient
State Salient Features
India
grow as a notable trade centre under the Chera regime. While
textiles and spices were the commodities travelled from Calicut,
goods such as Chinese Ceramics and European pots came in return.
Tuticorin also known as Thoothukudi. Thoothukudi was ruled by
several dynasties including the Pandyas and the Cholas in the past,
Tuticorin Port Tamil Nadu
often using it as their important seaport. The most important trade in
this region included fishery and pearl.
Ancient port located in Tamil Nadu. Equated with modern
Nirppeyarru Tamil Nadu
Mahabalipuram.
Tondi Port Tamil Nadu Important port during Pandya dynasty. Located in Tamil Nadu.
Korkai Port Tamil Nadu Important port of Pandya dynasty located in Tamil Nadu.
Andhra
Motupalli Important port of Kakatiya Dynasty located in Andhra Pradesh
Pradesh
There are evidence of its existence mainly during Satavahana
Andhra
Machilipatnam period. It was known by the names like Masula and Bandar. It saw
Pradesh
flourishing Sea trade. Major trade item was Muslin Clothes.
Tamralipti was located on the eastern coast near the confluence of
the Bay of Bengal and River Ganga. Tamralipti was related to
trade routes and frequented by traders, travellers and pilgrims. The
Dudhpani rock inscription of Udaymana of eighth century CE
contains the last record of Tamralipti as a port of ancient South Asia.
In the map of the Greek geographer Ptolemy, Tamralipti appears as
West
Tamralipti Tamalities. Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang calls the town Tan-mo-
Bengal
lih-ti (te). These textual references have led scholars to identify
Tamralipti as one of the most important centres of trade and
commerce of early historic India. It has also led to the belief that
Tamralipti had emerged as a thriving urban settlement in this period
and had multidirectional links with different geographical regions of
South Asia.
Pulicat Port Tamil Nadu Important port during the reign of Vijayanagar kings on East Coast.
near Ancient port near Karachi in Indus Delta. Important for Indo-
Barbaricum
Karachi Roman trade in ancient times.

ART AND CULTURE

1. TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
 IMPORTANT TERMS

Garbhagriha:
 Literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like a sanctum.
 Made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of much ritual attention.

Mandapa: {Diff. sizes named as Ardhamandapa, Mandapa, & Mahamandapa.} 

Entrance to temple.
 Hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers.  Dances and such other
entertainments are practiced here.

Shikhara or Vimana:
 Mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple.
 Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples. 
Shikhara has a curving shape while Vimana has a pyramidal-like structure.

Amalaka:
 It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North Indian
temples.

Kalasha:
 At topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.

Antarala (vestibule):
 Transition area between the Garbhagriha & temple’s main hall (mandapa).

Jagati:
 Raised platform for sitting and praying + common in North Indian temples.

Vahana:
 The mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or Dhvaj which is
placed axially before the sanctum
STYLES
Important temples of Nagara style

1. Dashavatara Vishnu Temple, Deogarh, UP

Built in the early 6th century CE. {late Gupta period}
1st Panchayatana style of architecture, on the bank of Betwa river.

3 main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple-

Sheshayana – on south (Vishnu reclining on the sheshanaga called Ananta)
Nara-Narayana – on east (discussion between human soul and the eternal divine)
Gajendramoksha – on west (story of achieving moksha, symbolically communicated by Vishnu’s
suppression of an asura who had taken the form of an elephant)

2. Bhitargaon Brick Temple(UP)

During Gupta Era, the rock cut architecture reached its zenith and this era marked the beginning
of the free standing temples. 6th century, Gupta Age Themes are mostly secular.
Brick and terracotta.
Figures of birds, animals and beasts.
Mythological story of abduction of Sita and penance of Nara and Narayan have been depicted
here.

3. Temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh

Made in the 10th century and complex is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Patronized by Chandela kings.
All made of Sandstone.
The largest temple at Khajuraho is the Kandariya Mahadeva temple which is attributed to king
Ganda.
Known for their extensive erotic sculptures (about 10% of total sculptures); Many Hindu temples,
therefore feature Mithuns (embracing couples-erotic sculptures) sculptures, considered auspicious.

4. Chausanth Yogini temple, MP

 The temple is formed by a circular wall with 65 chambers, apparently for 64 yoginis and the
goddess Devi, and an open mandapa in the centre of a circular courtyard, sacred to Shiva.

 The temple is in the Seismic Zone III region and has survived several earthquakes,
seemingly without any serious damage. This fact was cited when the issue of safety from
earthquake effect of the circular Parliament House, its design supposedly based on the Mitaoli
temple, was debated in the Indian Parliament

5. Sun temple, Konark, Odisha

Built around 1240 on the shores of the Bay of Bengal, constructed by the eastern Ganga
ruler Narasimha Varmana.
Set on a high base, its walls covered in extensive, detailed ornamental carving.

Include 12 pairs of enormous wheels sculpted with spokes and hubs, representing the
chariot wheels of the sun God who, in mythology, rides a chariot driven by 8 horses,
sculpted here at the entrance staircase => resemble a colossal processional chariot.

On the southern wall is a massive sculpture of Surya carved out of green stones.
One of wall had the doorway into the temple from where the actual rays of the sun would enter
the garbhagriha.

DRAVIDIAN STYLE
The main features of this style of temple architecture are:
•The Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
•The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as a Gopuram.
•The shape of the main temple tower known as vimana in Tamil Nadu is like a stepped
pyramid that rises up geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of North India.
•In the South Indian temple, the word ‘shikhara’ is used only for the crowning element at
the top of the temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola—
this is equivalent to the amalak and kalasha of North Indian temples.
 •Fierce Dvarapalas or the door-keepers guarding the temple adorn the entrance to
garbhagriha
•It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the
complex.
•At some of the most sacred temples in South India, the main temple in which the
garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers. This is because it is usually
the oldest part of the temple

The contribution of Pallavas to Dravidian architecture

•In the south the Pallavas created beautiful monuments in th 7th CE AD

•Mahendravarman and his son Narasimhavarman were great patrons of art and
architecture (Their contribution to rock-cut architecture will be discussed elsewhere)\
•The shore temple at Mahabalipuram was built later, probably in the reign of
Narasimhavarman II, also known as Rajasimha. It has shrines dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu

The contribution of Cholas to Dravidian architecture

•The Cholas perfected the Dravidian temple style inherited from the Pallavas. During this time, the architecture style
became more elaborate by moving away from the early cave temples of the Pallavas

•Stone came to be used as the predominant material for the construction of the temples during this time

•Gopurams became more prominent. They were decorated with carvings representing various Puranas

•The Vimanas attained a greater grandeur during the Chola period. Ex: The temple tower of Brihadeshwara temple is 66
metres
•Greater emphasis was given for the use of sculptures in the construction of the temple.

Shore temple Mahabalipuram - Late 7th century during reign of Narasimhavarman II

{Rajasimha} is specially known because of its location on the sea-shore.
Stylistically to Dharmaraja ratha BUT it is a structural temple and not a rock-cut one.
It is about 3 to 4 times the size of the Dharmaraja ratha and is made a triple structure by adding a
shrine at the back and slightly jutting out in the front.
The shrine is enclosed by a massive wall, having the typical Pallava rampart lion pilasters at regular
intervals.
Facing east towards the sea and has three shrines – east and west to Shiva and the middle for
Vishnu (Anantashayana).

Group of monuments at Mahabalipuram

5th century A.D, locally called as Ratha under Pallava rulers.
Panch Rath of Pandavas Named after the five Pandava brothers and Draupadi but they
neither have anything to do with chariots nor probably with the Pandavas and these
associations are purely of a local character. These are rock cut.
RAVAN PHADI CAVE
2. CAVE ARCHITECTURE

Bhimbetka caves

Bhimbetka Rock Shelters - Features

•The term 'Bhim-betaka' refers to thev‘sitting location of Bhima’, one of the Pandava
brothers.
•Several layers of inhabitation can be seen in the rock shelters.
•At the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central India, the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, as
well as the historic period, are all represented.
•It displays the earliest signs of human life in India, as well as Stone Age evidence dating
back to Acheulian times.
•It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site with seven hills and over 750 rock shelters spread out
over a 10-kilometer area. At least some of the shelters have been occupied for over
100,000 years.
•The first period, which corresponds to the Upper Paleolithic epoch, features enormous
animals such as bosons, rhinos, and tigers.
•The Mesolithic period, or the second phase, is marked by miniature, stylized human
figurines.
•Weapons such as barbed spears, pointed rods, and bows and arrows are displayed
on these figurines.
 •They also depict social interactions such as dancing, burials, drinking, eating, and
so on.
•The Chalcolithic phase is the third stage, characterised by agricultural activities and
exchange between nomads and agriculturists.
•Prehistoric cave paintings may be seen in some of the Bhimbetka rock shelters, the oldest
of which date back to around 10,000 years ago (c. 8,000 BCE), dating to the Indian
Mesolithic.
•They have a widened colour pattern with red, white, and yellow used in the
paintings.
•These paintings also depict magical creatures, sky chariots, and tree gods.
•The paintings discovered in the rock shelters bear striking resemblance to those
discovered in Australia's Kakadu National Park, as well as to Bushmen cave paintings
in the Kalahari Desert and Upper Palaeolithic Lascaux cave paintings in France.
•The use of manganese, wooden coal, and hematite can be seen in the last period, which
can be classified as early mediaeval.
•The 'Zoo Rock,' which depicts elephants, bison, deer, and Sambar, is the most striking
feature.

AJANTA CAVES AND ELLORA CAVES

The Chinese Buddhist travellers Fa-Hien [AD 337 – AD 422] who visited India during the reign of
Chandragupta II and Hiuen Tsang [602 CE – 664 CE] came during the reign of emperor
Harshavardhana mentions in their travel accounts about the Ajanta
caves

The most remarkable of the Ellora cave temples is Kailasa Temple (Kailasanatha; cave 16), It
features the largest single monolithic rock excavation in the world. It is named for the mountain
in the Kailasa Range of the Himalayas where the Hindu god Shiva resides.

ELEPHANTA CAVES
 •The Elephanta Caves are on Elephanta Island (also known as Gharapuri Island), which is
made up of two hillocks separated by a narrow valley in Western India.
•Time of development - Elephanta cave temples (on a small island off the coast of Bombay)
date from the eighth century A.D. and are similar to those at Ellora.
•The Elephanta Caves were initially intended to be a Buddhist site, but the Shaivite faith
eventually took over.
•The caves on the island are divided into two groups:
•A collection of five Hindu caves with rock-cut stone sculptures. They are primarily
associated with the Shaivite sect of Hinduism, and are primarily dedicated to Lord
Shiva.
•A pair of Buddhist caves with cisterns that run along the island's banks. Near the
hill, there is a mound that resembles a Buddhist stupa.
•Between the 14th and 17th centuries, when Portuguese ships began to ply the Arabian
Sea and used these caves as a base, the caves suffered extensive damage.
•They caused significant damage to the statues, which was exacerbated by water logging
and dripping rainwater.

SOME MORE IMPORTANT CAVES

1. Udaygiri and khandagiri caves- Ranigumpha , built by kalinga king kharvela. Related to jainism ,
famous for hathigumpha inscription.

2. Barabar and Nagarjuni Caves- Mauryan , highly polished finishing.

3. Bagh caves- Buddhist

3. STUPAS
SANCHI STUPA
Sanchi Stupa is a UNESCO world heritage site since 1989. Sanchi is in Madhya Pradesh.
•It was built by Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.
•Originally, it was smaller than its present dimensions. It was expanded in later periods.
•The original structure was made out of bricks. Later on, it was covered with stone, vedica, and the
torana (gateway).
•There are four gateways to the stupa with the southern one being built first. The others were
later added.
•The gateways are adorned with beautiful sculptures and carvings. Each torana consists of two
vertical pillars and three horizontal bars on top. The bars contain exquisite carvings on front and
back.
•They contain images of shalbhanjikas – lady holding the branch of a tree. Stories from the Jataka
tales are carved here.
•The structure has a lower and upper pradakshinapatha or circumambulatory path. The upper
pradakshinapatha is unique to this stupa.
•On the southern side of the stupa, the Ashokan Lion Capital pillar is found with inscriptions on it.
•The hemispherical dome of the stupa is called the anda. It contains the relics of the Buddha.
•The harmika is a square railing on top of the dome/mound.
•The chhatra is an umbrella on top of the harmika. There is a sandstone pillar in the site on which
Ashoka’s Schism Edict is inscribed.
•The original brick dome was expanded into double its size during the reign of the Shunga dynasty
with stone slabs covering the original dome.
4. SCHOOLS OF SCULPTURE

5. ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

CHARACTERISTICS
Buildings in Islamic countries were made of brick, lime and mortar
•Their styles was arcuate; meaning architecture based on arches, domes and vaults
•Muslims under religious injunction avoided the use of human figurines rather they opted
for geometrical patters (arabesque), floral patterns, inscriptions in various styles, inlay on
marble (Pietra dura).
 •Ornamental, perforated lattice screens with arabesques, star motifs and other geometric
designs such as pentagons, hexagons, octagons and circles.
•Gardens were an integral part of Islamic architecture.

Styles of Islamic architecture in the Indian subcontinent :

Imperial style
•The style of this period is also called the early Indo-Islamic style.
•The existing buildings were converted into mosques with the elements of ruins from
Hindu temples
•The palaces were elaborately decorated and embellished with arches and domes.
Floral patterns and other Hindu motifs were used widely Provincial style:
In this style of architecture which lasted for a period of two-hundred-and-fifty years, they created
buildings with the locally available materials, combining the regional styles with the typical Muslim
features such as domes, arches, the minarets and the mihrabs. Initially they constructed on the
ruins of Hindu, and Jain temples, and later they derived their own style in building art. Mughal
style
•The Mughal style is the style of architecture that flourished in India under the patronage
of the Mughal Empire from the mid-16th to the 17th century
•It is a unique blend of Indo-Islamic and Persian style with Turkish influences.
•The buildings were excellent and remarkably symmetrical in form and uniform in pattern
with intricate ornamentation.

EVOLUTION

Delhi sultanate
•With the arrival of Turks during the thirteenth century came a new technique of
architecture- the architectural styles of Persia, Arabia and Central Asia.
•The engineering features of these buildings were the domes, arches and minarets. The
palaces, mosques and tombs built by the rulers had these features which were blended
with the features of the indigenous architecture and a new synthesis in architecture was
achieved.
•This happened because the Turkish rulers of Delhi utilized the services of the local Indian
craftsmen who were very skillful and had already constructed beautiful buildings.
•The earliest building of this period is Quwwatul Islam Mosque at Delhi and the Qutub
Minar. The latter is a tower, whose height is 70 metres. It is a tapering tower that has five
stories. There are beautiful engravings of calligraphy both in the mosque and on the tower.
Regional kingdoms
•With the establishment of regional kingdoms in Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan, beautiful
buildings having their own style were constructed.
•The Jama Masjid, the Sadi Saiyyad Mosque and the shaking towers at Ahmadabad are a
few examples of this architecture
•In Mandu (central India) the Jama Masjid, Hindola Mahal and Jahaz Mahal were built.
•In the Deccan, the Sultans erected a number of buildings. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga,
the Madarsa of Mahmud Gawan at Bidar, Ibrahim Rauza, Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur and the
fort at Golconda are just a few famous buildings.
•Gol Gumbaz has the largest dome in the world. All these buildings vary in design and style
from the buildings of north India.
•In Bengal the oblong shape of many structures and the peculiar style of roof construction
were some of the distinctive features of the regional architecture of Bengal like the Adina
mosque and the tomb of Jallal-ud-din at Pandua, Khil Darwaza and Tantipara mosque at
Gaur.
•In Jaunpur, the Atala mosque build by the Sharqui rulers had a gigantic screen covering
the dome while the tomb of Hoshang Shah at Malwa is made entirely of marble and is
made of yellow and black marble inlay work beautifully done by craftsmen.
•The Bahamani sultans borrowed from the styles of Persia, Syria, Turkey and the temples of
Southern India. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga is quite well known. The courtyard of this
mosque is covered with a large number of domes and is the only mosque in India which has
a covered courtyard.
GOL GUMBAJ
Mughals
•The advent of the Mughals brought a new era in architecture.
•Indo-Islamic architecture reached its zenith during this period
•The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi. Red sandstone was used in
this building. It has a main gateway and the tomb is placed in the midst of a garden. Many
consider it a precursor of the Taj Mahal
•Akbar built forts at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. The Buland Darwaza reflects the grandeur of
the mighty Mughal Empire. This building was made following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat
•The tomb of Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, Ibadat Khana, Birbal’s House and other
buildings at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and Indian elements.
•During the reign of Jehangir, Akbar’s Mausoleum was constructed at Sikandra near Agra.
He built the beautiful tomb of Itimad-ud-daula which was built entirely of marble.
•Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. He used marble extensively.
Decorative design in inlay work, (called pietra duro) beautiful arches and minarets were
the features of his buildings
•The Red Fort and Jama Masjid of Delhi and above all the Taj Mahal are some of the
buildings built by Shahjahan.
 •The Taj Mahal, the tomb of Shahjahan’s wife, is built in marble and reflects all the
architectural features that were developed during the Mughal period. It has a central
dome, four elegant minarats, gateway, inlay work and gardens surrounding the main
building.
•The Mughal style of architecture had a profound influence on the buildings of the later
period. The buildings showed a strong influence of the ancient Indian style and had
courtyards and pillars. For the first time in the architecture of this style living beings-
elephants, lions, peacocks and other birds were sculptured in the brackets.

CHARG BAGH STYLE

PITRE DURA

6. ARCHITECTURE IN HIMALAYAS
Himalayan temple architecture is a confluence of multiple styles, such as:
Kashmir’s proximity to prominent Gandhara sites such as Taxila and Peshawar, lent it strong
Gandhara influence.
This style began to mix with Sarnath, Mathura, Gujarat and Bengal styles of Gupta and Post-Gupta
traditions because Hindu and Buddhist monks travelled between the hills and the rest of India.

In several temples Garbhagriha and Shikhara are made in Rekha-prasad style.

Temple at Pnadrethan is built between a water tank, a style followed in Gujarat.
Sculptures at Chamba show an amalgamation of local traditions with post Gupta tradition.
Many temples in Kumaon are classic examples of Nagara architecture.

7. Indo-Saracenic Architecture
At the end of the Victorian era, India entered the era of national awakening and movement. The
architecture represented the character of the time, a combination of imperial and national urges. It
was this urge that led to the movement of Indo-Saracenic. This movement drew elements from the
indigenous and Indo-Islamic architecture and combined it with the Gothic revival and Neo-classical
styles favored in Victorian England
Salient features of this form of architectural style are: Bulbous
domes
•This is one of the most characteristic feature of Indo-Saracenic buildings
•The Bulbous dome is a hemispherical structure evolved from arch, usually forming a
ceiling or roof.
•The Dome is considered as a symbolic representation of the vault of the heaven
•Some of the examples with Bulbous Domes are Egmore Railway Station, Chennai Museum
Overhanging eaves (Chhajja)
•It is a protruding structure which provides protection for the lower walls
•This feature was common in Mughal architecture. Ex: Tomb of Salim Chishti, Fatepur Sikri,
India
•This feature became part of the Indo-Saracenic architecture during 19th and 20th Ex:
Chhatrapathi Shivaji Terminus, Rashtrapati Bhavan
Vaulted roof
•Vaulted Roofs are ceilings with intersecting arches.
•These roofs can be seen in mausoleum which was built during the Islamic period.
•However, this feature was adopted by the British into the monuments they built during
their time in Ex: St.Matthias’ Church, Chennai.
Chhatris
•Chhatris are an elevated, dome-shaped pavilions used as an element in Indian
architecture.
•The word chhatri is also refer to the small pavilions that mark the corners, roof of
entrance of a major building
•These pavilions are purely decorative and have no utility, but they are a classic folly which
represents the status and wealth. Ex: Tomb of Humayun
•This feature can also be found in Indo-Saracenic style. Ex: Rashtrapati Bhavan. Minarets
•It is a tall spire with a conical or onion-shaped crown.
•Minarets are either free-standing or taller than associated support
•The basic form of a minaret includes a base, shaft, and gallery
•In Chennai, the Senate house is the best example of Indo-Saracenic architecture with
Minarets.
Pavilion
•Pavilion refers to the subsidiary building that is positioned separately or as an attachment
to a main building.
•Palaces or other large houses may have one or more subsidiary pavilions that are either
freestanding or connected by covered walkways in the buildings of Mughal architecture.
 •These pavilions can be found in the forts, palaces of British architecture in Indo-Saracenic
style.
Cusped arches
•The cusp in architecture is the intersections of lobed or scalloped forms, particularly in
arches (cusped arches) and tracery (ornamental stone work)
•The monumental cusped arch had become the standard Mughal style component by the
end of 17th Century
•The British builders also used the cusped shape arch universally and frequently enriched it
with representations of leaves, flowers, or even human heads at the tip. Ex: Chennai
corporation building, Rashtrapati Bhavan, Chhatrapathi Shivaji Terminus

8. BUDDHISM

Basics
Buddhism is a major world religion that originated in ancient India and is based on the teachings of
Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha. The central teachings of Buddhism focus on the
Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which together provide a framework for understanding
and alleviating the suffering that is inherent in life.
Here are some of the key doctrines of Buddhism:
1. The Four Noble Truths: These are the fundamental principles that form the foundation of Buddhist
philosophy. They are: the truth of suffering, the truth of the cause of suffering, the truth of the
cessation of suffering, and the truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering.
2. The Eightfold Path: This is a set of practices that Buddhists follow in order to achieve liberation
from suffering. The path includes right understanding, right intention, right speech, right action,
right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
3. Karma: This is the idea that every action has consequences, and that these consequences
determine our future experiences.
4. Reincarnation: This is the belief that after we die, our consciousness is reborn into another form.
5. No-self: This is the idea that there is no permanent, unchanging self or soul that exists withinus.
6. Impermanence: This is the understanding that all things are constantly changing and that nothing
lasts forever.
7. Meditation: This is a key practice in Buddhism, and involves training the mind to achieve greater
clarity and focus, and to develop compassion and wisdom.
 These are just a few of the key doctrines of Buddhism, and there are many different interpretations
and variations of these teachings within the various Buddhist traditions.

Key terms

● Buddha = The Enlightened / Awakened

● Son of a Chief of Sakays
● Born in Lumbini, near Kapilavastu (Capital of Sakyas)
● Married Yashodhara
● Envious cousin - Devadatta
● Faithful charioteer Channa
● Favorite horse Kanthaka - on this he escaped palace
● Mahabhiniskramana = The Great Going Forth
● From sage Alara Kalama = learnt meditation
● Seated beneath a “Pipal Tree”
○ Outskirts of Gaya, in Magadha
○ Then ruled by Bimbisara
● Sujata - bought him a bowl of rice boiled in Milk
● Mara = Buddhist Devil
● Deer Park in Sarnath, near varanasi
● Bhikkhus = beggars
● Son = Rahul
● Buddha averted a war between Sakyas & Koliyas
● Converted the notorious bandit – Angulimala

● Sangha = Buddhist Order

● Died in Kushinara
● Parinirvana = Final Blowing Out
● His ashes also divided to King Ajatasatru of Magadha
 SECTS OF BUDDHISM
Buddhism has several different branches and sects that have developed over
time, each with its own unique teachings, practices, and cultural influences.
Here are some of the major sects of Buddhism:
1. Theravada Buddhism: This is the oldest surviving branch of Buddhism and is mainly practiced in
Southeast Asia. It emphasizes the original teachings of the Buddha and the individual's path to
enlightenment through meditation and mindfulness practices.
2. Mahayana Buddhism: This is the largest branch of Buddhism and is practiced throughout East Asia,
including China, Japan, and Korea. Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes compassion and the idea of
the bodhisattva, or one who seeks enlightenment not only for themselves but for all sentient
beings.
3. Vajrayana Buddhism: This is a form of Buddhism that is primarily practiced in Tibet, Bhutan, and
Mongolia. It emphasizes the use of tantric practices, such as visualization and mantra recitation, to
achieve enlightenment in one lifetime.
4. Zen Buddhism: This is a branch of Mahayana Buddhism that is primarily practiced in Japan.It
emphasizes meditation and the attainment of sudden enlightenment through direct experience
rather than intellectual understanding.
5. Pure Land Buddhism: This is a form of Mahayana Buddhism that is primarily practiced in East Asia.
It emphasizes devotion to the Buddha Amitabha and the belief that by reciting his name, one can
be reborn in his pure land and achieve enlightenment.
These are just a few of the major sects of Buddhism, and there are many other variations and
regional adaptations of the religion as well.
 Diamond Vehicle
• Ideas of magical mysticism.
• Chief divinities were called taras {Saviouresses}, spouses of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
• Tantra, developed along side Tantricism.
• Famous for sic syllables, “om mani padme hum”
• Didn’t neglect mental training, but direction was altered i.e. purpose was to achieve supernatural
powers.
• Sexual rites too took place.

BODDHISATVAS

In Buddhism, a Bodhisattva is a being who is dedicated to attaining enlightenment for the

benefit of all sentient beings. The term "bodhi" means "enlightenment," and "sattva" means
"being" or "spirit," so a Bodhisattva is someone who is enlightened and delays entering paradise
and who has committed themselves to helping others do the same.
In Mahayana Buddhism, Bodhisattvas are highly revered and are considered to be spiritual heroes
who embody the highest ideals of compassion, wisdom, and altruism. They are viewed as role
models for spiritual practitioners, who strive to emulate their qualities and follow their example.
Eight Prominent Bodhisattvas
There are 8 important Bodhisattvas who represent different aspects of Buddha. They are as following:

1.Avalokitesvara (Buddha’s Compassion): Avalokiteshwara means one who can see all. He represents infinite
compassion and mercy. He is the most popular Bodhisattva of all. He represents the ideal of welfare in which he
postpones his own transformation into Buddha to help others.

2.Manjusri (Buddha’s Wisdom): The literal meaning of his name is ‘Gentle Glory’. He represents Pragya or
transcendental wisdom at a very early age.

3.Samantabhadra (Buddha’s Aspirations): The meaning of Samantabhadra is ‘Universal Worthy’ and he is

associated with practice and meditation. He made ten vows to fulfil his journey of becoming a Buddha.

4.Ksitigarbha (Buddha’s Merit): He is popular as a Buddhist monk in the mostly East Asia. While the name
literally means Earth Womb, he is revered as the guardian of children and patron deity of deceased children. He
carries a staff.

5.Maitreya (Buddha’s Activity): He is also known as Ajita Boddhisattva. It is believed that he will arrive when
people will forget the path of righteousness. He is considered as the successor of Gautam Buddha. In Buddhist
traditions, he is revered as someone who will achieve complete enlightenment and will teach dharma to people.
 6.Vajrapani (Buddha’s Power): He is described as one of the 3 protective deities around Buddha, others are
Manjusri and Avlokiteshwara. Vajrapani represents Buddha’s power while Buddha’s wisdom is symbolised by
Manjushri, and Avalokiteshwara manifests as Buddha’s compassion.

7.Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin (Buddha’s Qualities): He is invoked to remove or eliminate all the obstacles to

insure a successful meditation.

8.Akasagarbha (Buddha’s Blessings): He is boundless as space. He was the twin brother of Ksitigarbha. He
manifests as a blessing.

Pratyeka-Buddhas
• Sthaviravadins counted no less than 25 Buddhas and large number of PratyekaBuddhas.
• Pratyeka-Buddhas literally lone Buddha or silent Buddha or private Buddha are those who
achieved salvation of their own w/o teachers or guides but could not teach the truth to others.
• They are often mentioned in Jataka stories at a time when no Buddha was mentioned.
• They leave no sangha as a legacy to carry on dhamma.
9.JAINISM

Jainism is an ancient religion that originated in India and

shares many similarities with Hinduism and Buddhism.
Jainism is based on the teachings of the Tirthankaras, or
"ford-makers," who are considered to be enlightened beings
who have shown the way to liberation from the cycle of birth
and death. Here are some of the key doctrines of Jainism:
1. Ahimsa: This is the principle of non-violence, which is central to Jainism. Jains believe that all living
beings, not just humans, have a soul or jiva, and that harming any living being, even insects or
plants, creates negative karma and hinders spiritual progress.
2. Karma: Like Hinduism and Buddhism, Jainism teaches that all actions have consequences, and that
these consequences determine one's future rebirths. Jains believe that the accumulation of karma
can be reduced through acts of compassion, meditation, and selfdiscipline.
3. Multiple Realities: Jainism teaches that there are multiple levels of reality, including the physical,
mental, and spiritual realms. These realities are interconnected and interdependent, and spiritual
progress requires understanding and balancing all of them.
All judgments are conditional, holding good only in certain conditions, circumstances, or
senses. Syadavada literally means the ‘method of examining different probabilities’.
4. Anekantavada: This is the doctrine of non-absolutism or non-one-sidedness, which teaches that
reality is complex and multifaceted, and that no single perspective can capture the whole truth.
Jains believe that truth is relative and that multiple viewpoints can be valid.
5. Asceticism: Many Jains practice extreme forms of asceticism, such as fasting, celibacy, and self-
mortification, as a means of purifying the soul and reducing karma. However, not all Jains practice
asceticism to the same degree, and some Jains focus more on household and community life.
6. Five Vows: Jains are expected to adhere to a set of five vows, which include ahimsa, truthfulness,
non-stealing, celibacy or chastity, and non-possession. These vows are seen as a means of reducing
negative karma and promoting spiritual progress.
7. Saptabhanginaya - Seven POV to understand an object of knowledge.
8. Nayavada - An individual understands an object of knowledge from one particular POV.
9. Ajnanavada Agnosticism or skepticism school of Jainism.
 LITERATURE
Two major categories:
1. Agam or Canonical Literature (Agam Sutras):

 Sacred books of Jains

 Mostly written in Ardha-magadhi, a form of Prakrit language.

2. Non-agam Literature:

 Commentary - explanation of Agams, and independent works, compiled by ascetics and scholars.

 Written in many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit,Apabhramsa, Old Marathi, Rajasthani, Gujarati,
Hindi, Kannad, Tamil, German, and English.
KALPA SUTRAS
• Jain Text containing the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, notably Parshvanatha and Mahavira.
• Particularly popular among Śvētāmbaras, which they attribute to Bhadrabahu (c. 300 BCE).
• This ancient scholar is revered in the Digambara tradition, and they believe he led their migration
into the ancient south Karnataka region and created their tradition.
Śvētāmbaras believe instead that Bhadrabahu moved to Nepal.
• Both traditions consider his Niryuktis and Samhitas important.

PAINNAS AND MULAS

Painnas, or Scattered Pieces, deal with almost every topic of interest to the Jains, in both prose
and verse. The fourth division of the canon corresponds roughly with the Vinaya-pitaka of the Pali
Buddhist canon, and probably contains a great deal of quite ancient material.
• The most representative of this section is the Kalpa-Sutra which is supposed to have been
written by the great Jain Bhadrabahu, the sixth head of the movement after Mahavira.
• Mula-Sutras, the first which is Uttaradhyana-Sutra, is one of the most valuable books in the
whole canon for an understanding of Jainism. It is partly poetic and partly prose. It contains
sermons, proverbs, advice to students, counsel to monks and nuns, parables, dialogues, and
ballads.
COUNCILS
Buddhists reject the Jain idea that one can accrue Karma accidentally. (E.g., a Jain monk who
accidentally ingests meat hidden in his begging bowl takes on karmic debt even though he did not
mean to.)
Jainism does not believe in a personal God or a creator God.
• Later , Jainism recognized the existence of god but placed them lower than Jina (Mahavira).
Here, God is that soul who has completely removed all the Karmas. The defining characteristic of
Godhood is identical with that of liberation itself.
• Though the Jains reject God as the creator of the world, they think it is necessary to
meditate on and worship the liberated, perfect souls. Prayers are offered to them for guidance and
inspiration.
• The term ‘Isvara’ can very well apply to the soul that has become powerful by attaining its
perfectly pure nature constituted of four characteristics, which are , infinite knowledge, infinite
vision, infinite power, and infinite bliss.

10. SIX SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

 Indian philosophy has a rich and diverse history, with many
different schools of thought emerging over time. Here are the
six main schools of Indian philosophy:
1. Samkhya: The Samkhya school of philosophy is based on the idea that there are two fundamental
principles in the universe: Purusha, or pure consciousness, and Prakriti, or matter. The goal of
Samkhya philosophy is to achieve liberation by understanding the nature of these principles and
their relationship to each other.
2. Yoga: The Yoga school of philosophy is based on the idea that the mind can be trained and
disciplined in order to achieve liberation. This is done through a combination of physical postures,
breathing exercises, and meditation.
3. Nyaya: The Nyaya school of philosophy is based on the idea that knowledge is the key to liberation.
It emphasizes logical reasoning and argumentation as a means of understanding the world and
achieving liberation.
4. Vaisheshika: The Vaisheshika school of philosophy is based on the idea that the universe is made
up of small, indivisible particles called atoms. It emphasizes the study of the physical world and the
classification of objects into different categories.
5. Mimamsa: The Mimamsa school of philosophy is based on the idea that liberation can be achieved
through the proper performance of rituals and duties. It emphasizes the study of Vedic texts and
the interpretation of their meaning in order to understand the correct way to perform these rituals
and duties.
6. Vedanta: The Vedanta school of philosophy is based on the idea that ultimate reality.

11. BHAKTISM

The Bhakti movement was a social and religious movement

that emerged in medieval India, between the 7th and 17th
centuries. It emphasized the devotional worship of a personal
god or goddess as a means of achieving spiritual liberation,
and sought to transcend the rigid caste system of Hindu
society. The movement spread across various regions of India
and influenced many different traditions, including Hinduism,
Sikhism, and Islam.
Some key features of the Bhakti movement include:
1. Devotion to a personal god: The Bhakti movement emphasized the worship of a personal god or
goddess, such as Vishnu, Shiva, or Devi. Devotees were encouraged to cultivate a deep emotional
connection with their chosen deity, often through music, dance, and other forms of expressive
arts.
2. Rejection of social hierarchies: The Bhakti movement challenged the rigid caste system of Hindu
society, which had traditionally placed strict limits on social mobility and interaction between
different castes. Bhakti saints often came from lower castes and challenged the authority of the
Brahmin caste, arguing that devotion to God was more important than social status or birth.
3. Emphasis on inclusivity: The Bhakti movement welcomed people from all backgrounds and castes,
and emphasized the unity of all beings under the divine. Many Bhakti saints promoted a message
of universal love and compassion, and rejected sectarian divisions.
4. Importance of the guru: The Bhakti movement emphasized the role of the guru, or spiritual
teacher, in guiding devotees on their spiritual path. Many Bhakti saints themselves were gurus who
attracted large followings of disciples.
Overall, the Bhakti movement represented a significant shift in Indian religious and social attitudes,
emphasizing the power of devotion and personal connection with the divine over strict adherence
to traditional hierarchies and social norms.

Beginning
The Bhakti movement in South India had its roots in the Tamil-speaking regions of the southern
peninsula, where it emerged as a response to the dominant Brahminical orthodoxy of Hinduism
during the 6th to 9th centuries CE. The movement was characterized by the worship of Shiva and
Vishnu, as well as the goddesses Devi and Amman, and emphasized the importance of personal
devotion and emotional connection with the divine.
The Bhakti movement in South India was primarily driven by a group of poet-saints known as the
Alvars and the Nayanars. The Alvars were Vaishnavite poets who composed devotional hymns in
praise of Vishnu, while the Nayanars were Shaivite poets who wrote songs in praise of Shiva. These
poet-saints traveled across South India, composing songs and hymns in the local Tamil language
that spoke to the hearts of the common people.
Andal-One of the most important figures of the Bhakti movement in South India was the Alvar
saint, Andal, who lived in the 9th century CE. Andal is known for her devotional hymns in praise of
Vishnu, particularly her composition known as the Thiruppavai, which is still recited by devotees
today. Andal's poetry spoke of a deep emotional connection with the divine, and her work had a
profound influence on the development of the Bhakti movement in South India.
Appar-Another important figure of the Bhakti movement in South India was the Nayanar saint,
Appar, who lived in the 7th century CE. Appar was a devotee of Shiva and composed hymns in his
praise that were widely popular among the common people. He also challenged the Brahminical.
orthodoxy of Hinduism and called for a more inclusive form of worship that emphasized personal
devotion over strict adherence to caste-based hierarchies.
Overall, the Bhakti movement in South India emerged as a response to the rigid social and religious
structures of medieval Hinduism, and represented a shift towards a more personal and emotional
form of religious expression that emphasized the importance of devotion and love for the divine.

SHANKARACHARYA

Shankaracharya was an 8th-century Indian philosopher and theologian who is widely regarded as
one of the most influential thinkers in the history of Hinduism. He was born in the southern Indian
state of Kerala and is credited with reviving the tradition of Advaita Vedanta, which emphasizes the
non-dual nature of reality and the unity of all existence.
Shankaracharya is known for his commentaries on the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the
Brahma Sutras, which are collectively known as the Prasthanatrayi. He argued that these texts,
when properly understood, all point to the same essential truth: that the ultimate reality,
Brahman, is non-dual and that the world of appearances is illusory. According to Shankaracharya,
the individual self, or atman, is identical to Brahman and that the goal of human life is to realize
this truth through spiritual practice and self-inquiry.
Shankaracharya also established four monastic orders, or mathas, in different parts of India, which
served as centers of learning and spiritual practice. He traveled extensively throughout the
country, engaging in philosophical debates and spreading his teachings. He is also credited with
composing many devotional hymns and prayers, including the famous hymn known as the Nirvana
Shatakam, which celebrates the non-dual nature of reality.
Shankaracharya's teachings have had a profound impact on the development of Hindu philosophy
and spirituality, and his Advaita Vedanta has become one of the dominant schools of thought
within the Hindu tradition. His influence can be seen in the works of many later philosophers and
theologians, as well as in the practices of millions of Hindus around the world.
12. SUFISM

Sufism is a mystical branch of Islam that emphasizes the

inward search for God and a personal experience of the
divine. It is often described as a path of spiritual purification
and enlightenment, and is characterized by practices such as
meditation, chanting, and the remembrance of God through
 the repetition of divine names.
Sufism emerged in the Islamic world in the 8th century CE and has since spread to many parts of
the world, particularly in the Middle East, South Asia, and Africa. Sufi practitioners are known as
Sufis, and they often form communities around spiritual teachers, known as Sufi masters or
sheikhs, who guide them on the path of spiritual growth and transformation.
Sufism has its roots in the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and the Quran, but it also draws
on the teachings of earlier mystics and philosophers, as well as the wisdom of other spiritual
traditions. Sufism emphasizes the importance of direct personal experience of the divine, and
seeks to cultivate a deep sense of love, devotion, and surrender to God.
Sufis often use poetry, music, and dance as a means of expressing their spiritual insights and
connecting with the divine. They also practice various forms of asceticism, such as fasting and
seclusion, as a means of purifying the body and mind and deepening their spiritual practice.
Sufism has had a profound impact on Islamic culture and spirituality, and has also influenced the
development of other mystical traditions, such as Kabbalah in Judaism and Christian mysticism in
Christianity. It is known for its message of love, tolerance, and compassion, and for its emphasis on
the unity of all existence and the transcendent nature of the divine.

SECTS OF SUFISM

There are many different sects or orders within Sufism, each with its own distinct practices,
teachings, and traditions. Some of the major Sufi orders include:
1. Qadiriyya: Founded by the Sufi saint Abdul Qadir Gilani in the 12th century, the Qadiriyya order
emphasizes the importance of dhikr, or the remembrance of God through chanting and
meditation.
2. Chishtiyya: Founded by the Sufi saint Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti in the 12th century, the Chishtiyya
order places a strong emphasis on love and devotion to God, and encourages the practice of
seclusion and asceticism as a means of spiritual purification.
3. Naqshbandiyya: Founded by the Sufi saint Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari in the 14th century,
the Naqshbandiyya order emphasizes the importance of self-discipline and adherence to Islamic
law, as well as the practice of silent meditation and contemplation.
4. Suhrawardiyya: Founded by the Sufi saint Abu al-Najib al-Suhrawardi in the 12th century, the
Suhrawardiyya order emphasizes the use of spiritual practices and rituals to achieve mystical states
of consciousness.
5. Rifaiyya: Founded by the Sufi saint Ahmed ar-Rifa'i in the 12th century, the Rifaiyya order
emphasizes the importance of ecstatic dancing and chanting as a means of connecting with the
divine.
 13. DANCE FORMS

Indian classical dance refers to a group of traditional dance

forms that originated in different regions of India. These
dances are deeply rooted in Indian mythology, religion, and
culture, and are considered to be a form of worship and
devotion.
There are eight major classical dance forms in India, each with its own distinct style and
characteristics:
1. Bharatanatyam: Originating in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, Bharatanatyam is one of the
oldest and most popular classical dance forms in India. It is characterized by its intricate footwork,
expressive hand gestures, and graceful movements.
2. Kathakali: Originating in the southern state of Kerala, Kathakali is a highly stylized dance form that
is known for its elaborate makeup, colorful costumes, and exaggerated facial expressions.
3. Kuchipudi: Originating in the southern state of Andhra Pradesh, Kuchipudi is a dance form that
combines elements of dance, music, and theatre. It is known for its fast footwork, intricate hand
gestures, and graceful movements.
4. Manipuri: Originating in the northeastern state of Manipur, Manipuri is a dance form that is known
for its fluid and graceful movements, and its use of delicate hand gestures and facial expressions.
5. Kathak: Originating in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, Kathak is a dance form that is known for
its intricate footwork and fast spins, as well as its use of storytelling and poetry.
6. Odissi: Originating in the eastern state of Odisha, Odissi is a dance form that is known for its fluid
and graceful movements, and its use of hand gestures and facial expressions to convey emotion.
7. Mohiniyattam: Originating in the southern state of Kerala, Mohiniyattam is a dance form that is
known for its delicate and feminine movements, and its use of hand gestures and facial
expressions to convey emotion.
8. Sattriya: Originating in the northeastern state of Assam, Sattriya is a dance form that is traditionally
performed in the monasteries of Assam. It is known for its fluid and graceful movements, and its
use of storytelling and poetry.
Each of these classical dance forms has a rich history and tradition, and is deeply connected to the
cultural and spiritual heritage of India.
Bharatnatyam (Tamil Nadu)
The Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara is one of the main sources
of textual material, for the study of the technique and grammar of
body movement in Bharatnatyam Dance.
Bharatnatyam dance is known to be ekaharya, where one dancer
takes on many roles in a single performance.
The dance involves transitional movements of leg, hip and arm.
Expressive eye movements and hand gestures are used to convey
emotions.
The accompanying orchestra consists of a vocalist, a mridangam player, violinist or veena player,
a flautist and a cymbal player. The person who conducts the dance recitation is the Nattuvanar.
In its usual form the dance is generally broken into seven main parts – Alarippu, Jatiswaran,
Shabda, Varna, Pada, Thillana and Sloka.
Bharatnatyam poses are depicted on the gopurams of the Chidambaram temple (Tamil Nadu).
E. Krishna Iyer and Rukmini Devi Arundale had played a significant role in helping the dance
regain its lost popularity and position.

Kathak (North India)

The word Kathak has been derived from the word Katha which
means a story.
It was primarily a temple or village performance wherein the
dancers narrated stories from ancient scriptures.
Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries with the spread of the bhakti movement.
The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays called rasa
lila, which combined folk dance with the basic gestures of the
kathak story-tellers.
 Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was performed in the court, where it
acquired its present features and developed into a form of dance with a distinctive style.
Under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, it grew into a major art form.
Usually a solo performance, the dancer often pauses to recite verses followed by their execution
through movement.
The focus is more on footwork; the movements are skillfully controlled and performed straight
legged by dancers wearing ankle-bells.
Kathak is the only form of classical dance wedded to Hindustani or the North Indian music.
Lady Leela Sokhey (Menaka) revived the classical style. Some prominent dancers include Birju
Maharaj, Sitara Devi.

Kathakali (Kerala)
Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam and Ramanattam are
few of the ritual performing arts of Kerala which have had a direct
influence on Kathakali in its form and technique.
Kathakali is a blend of dance, music and acting and dramatizes
stories, which are mostly adapted from the Indian epics.
Heavy make-up and stunning costumes (elaborate masks, huge
skirts and big head-dresses) are used.
The dancers enact the roles (kings, gods, demons etc.) of the stories
with particular make-up and costume, the vocalists narrate the legend and the percussionists play
the musical instruments.
Different facial colours indicate different mental stages & character, e.g. green – nobility, black –
wicked, red patches – combining royalty & evil.
Hand gestures, facial expressions and eye movements are important.
Weight of the body is on the outer edges of the feet which are slightly bent and curved.
Ramankutty Nair and Kalamandalam Gopi were the prominent artists.

Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)

Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh which has a very long
tradition of dance-drama. It was known under the generic name of Yakshagaana.
In 17th century Kuchipudi style of Yakshagaana was conceived by Siddhendra Yogi. He was
steeped in the literary Yakshagaana tradition being guided by his guru Teerthanaaraayana Yogi
who composed the Krishna-Leelatarangini, a kaavya in Sanskrit.
It is performed as dance drama i.e. performance in groups and also as solo items.
Costumes, ornaments and jewellery occupy an important place.
 The solo items are Manduka Shabdam (story of frog maiden), Balgopala Taranga (dance on the
edges of brass plate with a pitcher full of water on head) and Tala Chitra Nritya (drawing pictures
with dancing toes).
Yamini Krishnamurthy and Raja Reddy are prominent dancers.

Mohiniyattam (Kerala)
Mohiniyattam or dance of Mohini (an incarnation of Lord Vishnu) is
the classical solo dance form of Kerala.
References of Mohiniyattam can be found in the texts
Vyavaharamala written in 1709 by Mazhamagalam Narayanan
Namputiri and in Ghoshayatra, written later by poet Kunjan Nambiar.
It was structured into the present day classical format by the
Travancore Kings, Maharaja Kartika Tirunal and his successor Maharaja Swati Tirunal (18th-19th
century)
Mostly a solo performance by girls with circular movements, delicate footsteps and subtle
expressions.
Movements have been borrowed from Nangiar Koothu and female folk dances Kaikottikali and
the Tiruvatirakali.
It has elements of Bharatanatyam (grace & elegance) and Kathakali (vigour) but is more erotic,
lyrical and delicate.
Realistic make-up and simple dressing (in Kasavu saree of Kerala) are used.
The lyrics are in Manipravala (a medieval south Indian language combining Tamil-Malayalam and
Sanskrit).
Sunanda Nair and Pallavi Krishnan are the notable artists.

Odissi (Odisha)
The major subjects of performance are lores of incarnations of Lord
Vishnu and verses of Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda.
A soft dance backed by soothing lyrics and is similar to Bharatanatyam in
terms of the mudras and expressions.
Termed as ‘mobile sculpture’ it incorporates two major postures -
Tribhanga (the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees) and
Chowk (a position imitating a square).
Sonal Mansingh and Kelucharan Mohapatra are the eminent performers.
Sattriya (Assam)
The Sattriya dance form was introduced in the 15th century A.D by the Vaishnava saint and
reformer of Assam, Sankaradeva as a medium for propagation of the Vaishnava faith.
The dance form evolved and expanded as a distinctive style of dance later on.
 Because of its religious character and association with the Sattras (Vaishnava maths or
monasteries), this dance style has been named Sattriya.
Sattriya dance tradition is governed by strictly laid down principles in
respect of hastamudras, footworks, aharyas, music etc.
This tradition, has two distinctly separate streams - the
Bhaonarelated repertoire starting from the Gayan-Bhayanar Nach to
the Kharmanar Nach, secondly the dance numbers which are
independent, such as Chali, Rajagharia Chali, Jhumura, Nadu Bhangi etc.
Among them the Chali is characterized by gracefulness and elegance, while the Jhumura is
marked by vigor and majestic beauty.

Manipuri (Manipur)
The origin of Manipuri dance can be traced back to ancient times
that go beyond recorded history.
The dance in Manipur is associated with rituals and traditional
festivals, there are legendary references to the dances of Shiva and
Parvati and other gods and goddesses who created the universe.
Lai Haraoba is the earliest form of dance which forms the basis of all
stylised dances in Manipur.
Literally meaning - the merrymaking of the gods, it is performed as
a ceremonial offering of song and dance.
The principal performers are the maibas and maibis (priests and
priestesses) who re-enact the theme of the creation of the world.
The popular Rasleela dances of Manipur originated in the reign of
18th century King Bhagyachandra.
Manipur dance has a large repertoire, however, the most popular forms are the Ras, the
Sankirtana and the Thang-Ta.
The Kirtan form of congregational singing accompanies the dance which is known as Sankirtana
in Manipur.
The male dancers play the Pung and Kartal while dancing.
The dancers do not wear ankle bells to stamp out the rhythms in a theatrical display, as this
interferes with the delicate body movements.
14. PAINTINGS

Indian painting has a rich history that goes back thousands of

years. Over the centuries, Indian painting has been influenced
by various religious, cultural, and political factors, resulting in
a wide range of styles and techniques.
Here are some of the most prominent forms of painting in India:
1. Madhubani Painting: Originating in the Mithila region of Bihar, Madhubani painting is known for its
bright colors and intricate patterns. It is traditionally done by women using natural dyes and
pigments.Initially it was done on the walls .
2. Miniature Painting: This form of painting originated in the courts of the Mughal emperors inthe
16th century. Miniature paintings are characterized by their intricate details and vivid colors, and
typically depict scenes from court life, mythology, and religious texts.
3. Warli Painting: Originating in the tribal regions of Maharashtra, Warli painting is known for its
simple, geometric patterns and use of white paint on a red ochre background. It is traditionally
done by women and is used to depict everyday life in the villages.
4. Tanjore Painting: Originating in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, Tanjore painting is knownfor its
use of gold leaf and semi-precious stones to create a three-dimensional effect. It typically depicts
religious themes and is often used to adorn temples and shrines.
5. Rajasthani Painting: This form of painting originated in the princely courts of Rajasthan in the 16th
century. Rajasthani painting is known for its bold colors and intricate details, and typically depicts
scenes from court life, mythology, and religious texts.
6. Bengal School of Art: This art movement emerged in the early 20th century in Bengal and was led
by artists such as Abanindranath Tagore and Nandalal Bose. The Bengal School of Art was
characterized by its focus on traditional Indian art forms and its rejection of Western styles.
7. Folk Art: There are many different forms of folk art in India, each with its own distinct style and
techniques. Some of the most well-known forms of folk art include Pattachitra from Odisha, Phad
painting from Rajasthan, and Gond art from Madhya Pradesh.
These are just a few examples of the diverse and vibrant painting traditions that exist in India.
 15. INDIAN MUSIC

Indian music is a diverse and complex art form that has evolved
over thousands of years. It is deeply rooted in Indian culture,
religion, and spirituality, and is considered to be a form of
worship and devotion.
There are two main traditions of Indian classical music: Hindustani music and Carnatic music.
1. Hindustani Music: Hindustani music originated in the northern regions of India, and is
characterized by its use of ragas (melodic frameworks) and talas (rhythmic patterns). It includes a
wide range of instruments, including the sitar, sarod, tabla, and harmonium, and is known for its
improvisation and emotional expressiveness.
2. Carnatic Music: Carnatic music originated in the southern regions of India, and is characterized by
its use of complex rhythms and intricate melodies. It includes a wide range of instruments,
including the veena, mridangam, and ghatam, and is known for its precision and mathematical
structure.
 Hindustani music is a broad term that encompasses a wide range of musical styles and genres.
Some of the main types of Hindustani music include:
1. Dhrupad: Dhrupad is one of the oldest forms of Hindustani music, and is known for its
slow,meditative style. It features long, sustained notes and complex rhythmic patterns.
2. Khayal: Khayal is a more popular form of Hindustani music that emerged in the 18th century. It is
characterized by its improvisational nature, and features complex melodic and rhythmic patterns.
3. Thumri: Thumri is a lighter, more romantic form of Hindustani music that originated in the 19th
century. It features a more free-flowing style and is often used to express love and longing.
4. Tappa: Tappa is a lively, fast-paced form of Hindustani music that originated in the Punjab region. It
features intricate melodic patterns and is often used to express joy and celebration.
5. Ghazal: Ghazal is a form of poetry that is often set to music in the Hindustani tradition. It features a
highly emotive, expressive style, and is often used to express love and longing.
6. Qawwali: Qawwali is a form of devotional music that originated in the Sufi tradition. It features a
highly energetic style, with call-and-response singing and repetitive rhythms.
These are just a few examples of the many different types of Hindustani music that exist, each with
its own unique style and history.

16. COINAGE
Punch Marked Coins:
The first documented coinage is deemed to start with 'Punch Marked' coins issued between
the 7th-6th century BC and 1st century AD.

These coins are called 'punch-marked' coins because of their manufacturing technique. Mostly
made of silver, these bear symbols, each of which was punched on the coin with a separate
punch.
They are broadly classified into two periods:
The first period is attributed to the Janapadas or small local states.
The second period is attributed to the Imperial Mauryan period.
The motifs found on these coins were mostly drawn from nature like the sun, various animal
motifs, trees, hills etc.

Dynastic Coins:
The earliest of these coins relate to those of the Indo-Greeks, the Saka-Pahlavas and the
Kushans. These coins are generally placed between the 2nd century BC and 2nd century AD.

Indo Greeks:
Hellenistic traditions characterise the silver coins of the Indo-Greeks, with Greek gods and
goddesses figuring prominently, apart from the portraits of the issuers.
Sakas:
The Saka coinage of the Western Kshatrapas are perhaps the earliest dated coins, the dates
being given in the Saka era which commences in AD 78.
The Saka era represents the official calendar of the Indian Republic.
Kushans:
Kushans, who hailed from the Central Asian region depicted Oesho (Shiva), moon deity Miro
and Buddha in their coinage.
Earliest Kushan coinage is generally attributed to Vima Kadphises.
The Kushan coins generally depicted iconographic forms drawn from Greek, Mesopotamian,
Zorastrian and Indian mythology.
Siva, Buddha and Kartikeya were the major Indian deities portrayed.

Satavahana:

The dates of their coming into power are contentious and are variously put between 270 BC
to 30 BC.
Their coins were predominantly of copper and lead; however, silver issues are also known.
These coins carried the motifs of fauna like elephants, lions, bulls, horses, etc. often
juxtaposed against motifs from nature like hills, tree, etc.
The silver coins of the Satavahanas carried portraits and bilingual legends, which were
inspired by the Kshatrapa types.

Western Kshatrapa:
The legends on the coins were generally in Greek and Brahmi, Kharoshti too was used.
The Western Kshatrap coins are reckoned to be the earliest coins bearing dates.
The common copper coins are the 'bull and hill' and the 'elephant and hill' types.

Gupta:
 
Gupta coinage (4th-6th centuries AD) followed the tradition of the Kushans, depicting the
king on the obverse and a deity on the reverse; the deities were Indian and the legends
were in Brahmi.
The earliest Gupta coins are attributed to Samudragupta, Chandragupta
II and Kumaragupta and their coins often commemorate dynastic succession as well as
significant socio-political events, like marriage alliances, the horse sacrifice, or for that matter
artistic and personal accomplishments of royal members (Lyrist, Archer, Lion-slayer etc.).

South Indian Coinage:

Cheras:

Chola:

Alupas of Udupi:
 
Foreign Coins:
British Coins:
The British East India Co. at Madras Presidency minted coins labelled as the Three Swamy
Pagoda, which depicts Lord Balaji flanked by Sridevi and Bhudevi on either side.
Other Coins:
Ancient India had considerable trade links with the Middle East, Europe (Greece and Rome)
as well as China. This trade was carried out over land partly along what came to be alluded to
as the silk route and partly through maritime trade.
In South India, which had a thriving maritime trade, Roman coins even circulated in their
original form, albeit slashed at times as a gesture disclaiming intrusions of foreign sovereignty.

17. PUPPETRY

Puppetry is a traditional form of storytelling and

entertainment that has been practiced in India for centuries.
There are many different styles and types of puppetry in
India, each with its own unique history and techniques.
Some of the most well-known styles of puppetry in India include:
1. String puppetry (Kathputli): String puppetry is one of the oldest and most popular forms of
puppetry in India. It involves controlling puppets with strings, and is often accompanied by music
and singing.
2. Shadow puppetry (Togalu Gombeyaata): Shadow puppetry is a traditional form of puppetry that
originated in the southern state of Karnataka. It involves projecting shadow images onto a screen,
using puppets made from leather or paper.
 
3. Rod puppetry (Kundhei): Rod puppetry is a traditional form of puppetry that originated in the
eastern state of Odisha. It involves controlling puppets with rods, and is often accompanied by
music and singing.
4. Glove puppetry (Pava Kathakali): Glove puppetry is a traditional form of puppetry that originated
in the southern state of Kerala. It involves using puppets made from cloth or leather, which are
worn on the hands like gloves.
5. Marionette puppetry: Marionette puppetry is a style of puppetry that involves controlling puppets
with strings, much like string puppetry. However, the puppets themselves are often more intricate
and detailed, with more moving parts.
These are just a few examples of the many different styles of puppetry that are practiced in India.
Puppetry continues to be an important part of India's cultural heritage, and is still performed in
many parts of the country today.
 18. THEATRE

India has a rich tradition of theater, with many different styles

and forms of theater being practiced across the country. Some
of the most well-known theaters of India include:
1. Sanskrit Theater: Sanskrit theater is one of the oldest forms of theater in India, dating back over
2,000 years. It involves plays written in the Sanskrit language, and often deals with mythological
themes and characters.
2. Yakshagana: Yakshagana is a traditional form of theater that originated in the southern state of
Karnataka. It involves music, dance, and drama, and often features elaborate costumes and
makeup.
3. Kathakali: Kathakali is a traditional form of theater that originated in the southern state of Kerala.
It involves elaborate makeup and costumes, and often deals with mythological themes and
characters.
4. Jatra: Jatra is a popular form of theater in the eastern state of West Bengal. It involves a mix of
drama, music, and dance, and often deals with social and political issues.
5. Nautanki: Nautanki is a popular form of theater in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh. It involves
music, dance, and comedy, and often features improvisation and audience participation.
6. Tamasha: Tamasha is a popular form of theater in the western state of Maharashtra. It involves
music, dance, and drama, and often features themes of social and political satire.
These are just a few examples of the many different theaters of India. Each style of theater is
unique, with its own history, techniques, and themes, but all share a common goal of entertaining
and enlightening audiences.