1

TRIBAL CHRISTOLOGY

A professor from Nagaland once told about his mother, ‘every time when my mother listens to someone
saying that Jesus is the lamb of God who will take away the sins of the world, she is puzzled, as to her,
being from a rural village and uneducated (formally) a lamb has no religious significance, but only when
it was put that Jesus is the cock and that as we sacrifice the cock, so to Jesus was sacrifice, did she
understand the meaning of the expression.’ 1 This little story elucidates the reality that for the tribals, and
especially those in the rural areas, the presentation of Christ either in the Bible or throughout Christian
history- from the early church fathers till the present- has not been understood properly as they are
expressed in a cultural-based-language that is worlds apart from the tribals. Thus in this paper the presenter
shall explore and reflect three different Christologies that has been formulated by the tribals themselves
within their given context.

1. Etymology and meaning of the word ‘tribe’

1.1. Etymology- Etymologically the word ‘tribe’ has its roots in the Latin term ‘tribus’ which refers to the
three basic division of the Roman citizens2 within in the Empire without any pejorative connotation.
Vanlalchhuanawma, a professor of Missiology and History of Christianity and Vice-principal of
Aizawl Theological College, states that it was during the colonial era of the 19 th century that the
term tribal underwent a change in connotations- from the neutral reference of the Roman Empire to
the derogative reference of the colonial anthropologist- to mean a primitive society in contrast to the
modern societies. 3 This derogative reference was later adopted by the Government of India in their
policy making and by the general social institutions (like education, industries, etc) in sidelining the
Indian-tribals.
1.2. Meaning- Social scientist has understood the concept or reality that the term ‘tribe’ represents in two
broad perspectives. Firstly is refers to the group of people- irrespective of their socio- -religio-
cultural, political and economic state- who have been listed under Article 342 as Schedule Tribes.
Secondly it refers to “a group of families with having a distinct name, language or dialect, common
territory, common taboos, common occupation, common culture and reciprocal relationships.” 4

2. Classification of Tribes under the Indian Government

They constitute around 8.2% or more of the total Indian population and are officially classified as Schedule
Tribes by the Government of India. 5 A. Wati Longchar, a prominent tribal theological and Dean of the
SCPETRE program of Serampore University, categorized the tribals into three different groups:
a. Those who are of the Munda language family, like the Santhals, the Mundas, the Aoras, etc.
b. Those who belong to the Monkhamer language family, like the Bodos, the Nagas, the Garos , the
Khasis, and the others.
c. Those who belong to the Dravidian language family, like the Gonds, the Kuli, the Oraons, etc. 6

1
He was my Lecturer during my B.Th. in Calcutta Bible Seminary who hails from Nagaland.
2
The citizens of equal status were divided into three tribes, viz., Tintienses, Ramanenses and Luceres
3
Vanlalchhuanawma, “Keynote address,” Theologizing Tribal Heritage: A Critical Re-Look, edited by Hrangthan
Chhungi (Delhi/ London/ Bangalore/ Shillong: ISPCK/ CWM/ ISET/ PCI, 2008), 12.
4
S. N.Chaudhary, “Introduction”, Tribal Development since Independence¸ edited by S.N. Chaudhary (New delhi:
Concept Publishing Company, 2009), 1.
5
Data according to the 2001 census.
6
A. Wati Longchar, “The Need for Doing Tribal Theology,” Tribal Theology: A Reader, edited by Shimreingam
Shimray (Eastern Theological College, Jorhat: Tribal Study Centre, 2003), 1.
 2

3. The Context of the tribals: Special reference to the general North-eastern Context
Barnes L. Mawrie writes concerning the identity of the tribals in India that they are:
a) Discriminated and a broken people whereby they are treated as the lowest class in the social
strata if not (nearly) totally neglected.
b) Victims of division and politics among themselves which are results of manipulation of
certain groups with vested interest.
c) Displaced people whereby, mostly in central India, they have been uprooted or deprived of
their rightful resources, land and habitat.
d) Exposed and derided people whereby their culture and tradition has been preserved in
museums, etc for the outside world but they themselves are treated with contempt. 7

Their historical and political context has and still continues to be one of discrimination and marginalization
whereby they have been and are victims of systematic historic-political subjugation at the hands of the
‘invading Aryans’. In talking about imperialism and colonialism, though India has received independence
from the British colonialist in 1948, the adivasis/tribals of India, who are in reality the original inhabitants
of the land, are still living under high-caste imperialist rule. “The Indian Constitution drafted by Hindu
hign caste, have deliberately erased the term ‘indigenous’ and replaced this with the term ‘Secheduled
Tribes’. Again to prevent unity among tribal people, they have grouped the tribal communities of Central
India under the 5th Schedule (art. 244,1) with minimum privileges and those of North-east India under the
6th Schedule (art. 244,2) with maximum privileges and absolute right over their lands.” 8 Politically they
are poorly represented, and this leads to a marginalization of their regions in the Government’s
administrative policies and schemes. Along with this they are also victims of economic exploitation (of
their land and natural resources) and economic deprivation. These factors in turn led to the emergence of
‘Naxalites’ in central India and ‘militant’ groups in the North East region and have turned their lands as
‘war-zones’ between them and the government and/or among themselves.

The Socio-cultural context of the people is marked by rich and varied traditions of cultures, values and
norms. Their communities are generally characterized by:
a) Communality b) Egalitarianism
c) Land-life continuum, and d) Oral traditions.9

Though being very aware about their traditional heritages and cultures, with the onslaught of foreign
cultures especially through media, the more urbanized or develop sections of these tribal communities
have assimilated the foreign culture(s) and, to an extent, their lifestyle, and in turn have created glocal
cultures, i.e. a mutual blending of the various foreign/global cultures with their own local culture.

4. The rational and definition of a Tribal theology

4.1. Rational- Biblical theology has always been contextual, in a sense that all the authors presented their
own theological perspective in their writings which were relevant to their community. For example
Matthew structured and wrote his gospel with a particular theological framework that is particularly

7
Barnes L. Mawrie, “Experience of the Tribal historical, political, socio-cultural contexts: Quest for a tribal
theology,” 83-84.
8
Mawrie, “Experience of the Tribal historical, political, socio-cultural contexts: Quest for a tribal theology,” 85.
9
Mawrie, “Experience of the Tribal historical, political, socio-cultural contexts: Quest for a tribal theology,” 91-92.
 3

relevant for his community. Another rational for the need of a contextual theology has been rightly
stated by Thanzauva that “the logic of incarnation necessitates inculturation for the formulation of
theology.”10 Nirmal Minz, a prominent tribal theologian, states that though the tribals “forms four-
fifth of India’s population, but their corporate religious and cultural experience has been treated as
inferior to that of the dominant class and less important for the Indian theological enterprise.”11 Wati
Longchar opines that since “from the time if the missionary era, we have been advocating a theology
that has undermined the tribal worldview.” 12 Thus there needs to be a theological formulation and
articulation that takes seriously the whole context of the tribal community and thus making that
context the starting point of theologizing.
4.2. Definition- K. Thanzauva defines tribal theology as “…a theological reflection on the tribal
Christianity experiences of the interaction of tribal culture and gospel over the past one hundred
years in this region and of the struggle for liberation.”13 Thus tribal theology seeks to understand the
interaction of the Gospel and the tribal culture and to reflect on the experiences of the tribal people
in their struggle for liberation from alienation in society and to rediscover the liberational motifs
from their tribal traditions.

5. Methodology for Tribal Theology

For K. Thanzauva and L.H. Lalpekhlua they suggest a synthetic-Praxis model, whereby it is a combination
of two models, i.e. the synthetic model- the combination of the Gospel and the culture- and the praxis
model- formulation of right actions for the transformation/liberation of the people. Thanzauva opines that
the “combination of the two is necessary in a society like ours, suffering as it does from a crisis of identity,
as the same time struggling for liberation from all forms of alienation.” 14
From the women’s perspective, in highlighting the tribal context, Bendangla Longkumer opines that
women still face the same discrimination as “she is as much a victim of the system that oppress and
subjugates her”15 as compared to the general Indian and even global context. Further she states that in
tribal theology women’s issues has been only “a part of a larger one” 16 and in some cases have been
formulated within the androcentric framework, thus “devoid of effectiveness and liberational motifs.” 17
Thus within such a context the “base for tribal women theological methodology would be their experiences
of patriarchal oppression and the Christian tradition as well.” 18

10
K. Thanzauva, “Meaning and Task of Theology,” Towards a Tribal Theology: The Mizo Perspective (Aizwal: Mizo
Theological Conference, 1989), 26, cited by Renthy Keitzar, “Tribal Theology in the Making,” Tribal Theology: A reader,
222.
11
Nirmal Minz, “A Theological Interpretation of the Tribal Reality in India,” Readings in Indian Christian Theology,
vol. 1, edited by R.S. Sugirtharajah and Cecil Hargreaves (Delhi: ISPCK, 1994), 46.
12
Longchar, Tribal Theology: A Reader, 6.
13
K. Thanzauva, “Issues in Tribal Theology,” Tribal Theology: A Reader, 17.
14
Thanzauva, Tribal Theology: A Reader, 19. However Rosiamliana Tochhawng, a professor of Theology in Aizawl
Theological College, raises certain problems and dangers that might arise in this methodology: (a) there is a danger of becoming
selective from the Gospel and culture; (b) there is a danger of romanticizing the tribal worldview in an attempt to rediscover
liberative motifs in tribal culture; and (c) how far these liberative motifs can me rediscovered and re-lived in the post-modern
era. [Rosiamliana Tochhawng, “Methodological reflection on Theologizing Tribal Heritage in North East India,” Theologizing
Tribal Heritage: A Critical Re-Look¸ 26-27.]
15
Bendanglemla Longkumer, “Weaving Christology from Tribal Women Perspective: An Ao-Naga Reading,”
Journal of Tribal Studies, 15/2 (July-December, 2010): 30.
16
Longkumer, Journal of Tribal Studies: 31.
17
Longkumer, Journal of Tribal Studies: 31.
18
Longkumer, Journal of Tribal Studies: 31.
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Furthermore, Wati Longchar articulates a methodological shift from the human-centric to a creation-
centric methodological approach in articulating a tribal theology as creation, especially the land, as it is
the foundation of history, existence and identity- for it not only “sustains and nourishes all
beings…[but]…gives them an identity and selfhood” 19 and thus should not be sidelined.

6. Tribal Hermeneutics
Understanding that tribal theology is a contextual/people’s theology, the hermeneutical task of interpreting
the Scriptures should seriously take into considerations the context of the people. K. Thanzauva opines
that “unless the tribals are allowed to be different in their interpretation of the Bible, the Bible will not
only loose its significant, Christianity will remain superficial without really taking root into the tribal
culture.”20 Mathew G Kariapuram, a professor of Contextual theology at Sacred Heart Theological
College Shillong, states that tribal hermeneutics means “focusing attention on the existential and historical
concerns of the present-day tribal population in India and on interpreting these issues to which theology
addresses itself, from the perspective of tribal worldview and value system so that theology becomes a
people’s theology.”21 Further he says that the thrust of tribal hermeneutics lies not in abstract theoretical-
analytical philosophical tradition and text but concentrates on “oral traditions and events or experiential
contents of life.”22

7. Resources for developing a Tribal Theology

A. Wati Longchar states that as “we want theology to the culturally rooted, pastorally transforming,
spiritually sustaining and contextually relevant”23 thus it is important that the resources should come from
their experiences and context. Yangkahao Vashum in his article “Sources for Studying Tribal Theology”24
gives a number of ‘raw materials’ or resources that is necessary for shaping a tribal theology, they are:
a. Tribal traditional heritages which includes their tribal religio-philosophical traditions and their
socio-cultural traditions.
b. Tribal experiences of the people, as tribal theology needs to theologize in the context of the people’s
suffering and pain, by taking into serious consideration people’s emotional feelings, aspirations and
hopes.
c. Tribal history, as it is in history that people’s identity is shaped and recorded.
d. Christian heritage which includes revelation of God in the present history, scripture and traditions,
i.e. the theological reflection of the church upon the nature of Christianity from time of the early
church to the present day.

8. Tribal Christology: Various formulations from different tribal perspective

19
Wati Longchar, “Indigenous People’s Theologies in Asia: Methods and Perspectives,” Issues in Theological
Research: A Methodological Exploration, edited by Wati Longchar (Bangalore: BTESSC/ SATHRI, 2010), 160. (147-169)
20
Thanzauva, Tribal Theology: A Reader, 25. For him, the perspective of ‘liberation of the aliens’ serves as a
hermeneutical paradigm through which one can read the scripture, as to him the alienation of the tribals from the main stream
of society is a self-evident fact. Other hermeneutical paradigms that he gives for a possible tribal reading are: (a) Promise Land:
as the tribals have been alienated from their lands, thus in this context they may re-read the bible by viewing themselves as the
Israelites in search for their promise land; (b) Pentecost that Revives and empower (Acts 2:1-17) revival is seen as inculturaion
and also as praxis [33-36].
21
Mathew G. Kariapuram, Tribal Hermeneutics for a Contextual Theology (Shillong: Don Bosco Centre for
Indigenous Cultures, 1999), 70.
22
Kariapuram, Tribal Hermeneutics for a Contextual Theology, 71-72.
23
Longchar, Issues in Theological Research: A Methodological Exploration, 155.
24
Yangkahao Vashum, “Sources for Studying Tribal Theology,” Tribal Theology: A Reader, 67-76.
 5

After discussing the rational, definition, the methodology, the hermeneutics and the resources for tribal
theology, here the paper shall proceed to briefly describe three contextual tribal Christologies that have
been articulated by three prominent north-Eastern tribal theologians.
8.1. Ao-Naga women’s Christology of Bendangla Longkumer: Jesus as Arasentur 25
Bendangla Longkumer in her article ‘Weaving Christology from Tribal Women Perspective: An Ao-Naga
Reading’ in Journal of Tribal Studies vol. 15, no. 2 of 2010, attempts to formulate a tribal Christology
from the women’s perspective. For her this formulation is not only limited to the women as it is an
inclusive view which takes not only women but the whole humanity and their experiences thereof. The
tribal cultural heritage as her source of formulation she particularly focuses on the understanding of
Arasentur, an Ao-Naga women shaman as the working model.
An Arasentur/ner (‘arasentur’ being feminine and ‘arasentner’ masculine) is a social func-tionary who,
with the help of a guardian spirits, attains ecstasy to create a rapport with the supernatural world on behalf
of her/his group members. And as a social functionary, Arasentur is defined not merely by extraordinary
personal abilities to achieve ecstasy, communicates with spirits, or affect the healing of individuals but
also a public capacity to mediate between a transcendent reality and a particular social group, and also to
act as intercessors and counselors within the group. Thus Arasentur is a medium which helps human enter
into relationship with the spirit world, nature and among human community, and were also well respected
and honored by everyone in the community. In is noteworthy that they are also the specialist in the use of
herbal medicines as revealed to them by the spirit and so they are medicine-wo/men, doctors and healers.
Basing on this tradition of the Arasentur the tribal’s women’s image of Jesus could be meaningfully
developed and understood, and from this Longkumer draws out one point of theological reflection:
a. Jesus as Arasentur heals- One of the prominent features in the ministry of Jesus is healing of the
people with different sickness, which affects not only the individual’s body, mind and soul, but it
re/establishes their relationship with God, their community and the environment around them- thus
a holistic healing. In the same way the Arasentu’s healing of the sick is also a holistic reconciliation
and restoration of the individual with the spirits, the socio-religious customs and the others within
the community. The faith-based healing of Jesus is comparable to the trust-obedient-based healing
of the Arasentur.

8.2. Ao-Naga’s Christology of Takatemjen: Jesus as Lijaba 26

In his book Studies on Theology and Naga Culture (1998), Takatemjen articulates a contextual tribal
Christology from the Ao-Naga’s folktale tradition of the ‘Lijaba and the two sisters’. The story is about
two poor orphan sisters, who was orphaned by their step-mother and their father, who lived in the outskirts
of a village in a small hut. On one night Lijaba- who is believed to be the creator of the world and the God
of the fields and who disguises himself when he comes to each and every village annually so as to bless
his people- came, in the form of a beggar, and knock on all of the villager’s doors for a night’s rest but all
of them refused him say that they did not have any room to spare or something else. Finally he came to
the two sisters’ house. Though not having much they invited him in. He prepared the supper that night for
them all and later blessed their small field with harvest and cursed all the others. Only later the rest of the
villagers, on seeing what had happened realized that it was Lijaba who had visited them that night.
On observing the social setting of the tale and the actions of Lijaba, Takatemjen draws a comparison
between the Lijaba tradition and Gospel’s accounts Jesus teachings and ministry- the parable of the sheep

25
See Bendanglemla Longkumer, “Weaving Christology from Tribal Women Perspective: An Ao-Naga Reading,”
Journal of Tribal Studies: 29-45.
26
See Takatemjen, Studies on Theology and Naga Culture (Delhi/ Mokochung: ISPCK/ CTC, Aolijen, 1998), 55-68.
 6

and Goats in Matthew 25:31-46; the parable of the Choice of Guest in Luke 14:12-14; the parable of the
great banquet in Luke 14:15-24, and; the encounter of Jesus with the Samaritan Woman in John 4:1-28-
he gives three points of theological reflection:
a. Jesus as Lijaba co-suffers with the poor- Jesus takes an option for the poor in order to suffer for
them and to dwell with them. Takatemjen says that because the tribals are suffering from oppression
the Christological importance must be found in this reality of suffering with the marginalized, or
else Jesus will have no significance to them. To call Jesus as Lijaba is to meaningfully communicate
that He is suffering together with the marginalized Nagas, and it is the most appropriate symbolism
of this identification.
b. Jesus as Lijaba liberates the Oppressed- Jesus as Lijaba offers the hope of freedom to the outcaste
of the lands as the heaven to which Christ is leading the poor and the oppressed is a kingdom in this
world where justice, food and life prevail. Lijaba not only recognized with the poor but in the midst
of the sisters’ poverty and shame as being the outcaste of the village he blessed them and his blessing
is seen as a liberational act as it was the outcaste and not the main villagers who was worthy to
receive it. A Christology for today for the Nagas should not be devoid of a liberating praxis but it
must be strong enough to liberate them from everything that enslaves, whether they are socio-
economic, political or spiritual forces.

8.3. A Kuki’s Christology of Hemhochon Chongloi: Indoi Symbolism, Pathen and Christ27
In his book Indoi: A study of Primal Kuki Religious Symbolism in the Hermeneutical Framework of
Mircea Eliade, Hemkhochon Chongloi, a Professor of Religion at Trulock Theological Seminary,
articulates the relationship between Indoi symbolism and Kuki Christology and utilizes the concept of
Pathen in bring out a certain aspect of Kuki Christology. Kuki religiosity can be said to be condensed in
the institution of Indoi.
Pathen in the primal Kuki religious world is understood as the creator, sustainer of all in the universe, and
just like the Brahman of Sankara who is also unavailable and remote. The remoteness of Pathen is
overcome through the instrumentality of creation, every object- animals, vegetations, and inanimate
objects- being potential hierophany. 28 But it is the institution of Indoi that the concept ‘became
concretized’. The Indoi symbolizes the manifestation, revelation and accessibility of the sacred, and the
immanence of Pathen. In as much as Indoi is hung in every household the presence of Pathen is assured
for every individual person. Thus the Indio-Pathen relationship functions just like the Christ-God
relationship whereby through the incarnation, God becomes Immanuel through Christ. Just as the whole
Christ-event has become a living experience of God in Christ, the institution of Indoi has become a
prolongation of the sacred manifest in the material objects that constituted it.
Reflections and conclusions
The idea or thought that a particular theological articulation and interpretation of the Christian doctrine to
be transcultural and eternally relevant to all time is certainly utopic. All interpretations are made within a
particular socio-cultural context, with particular presuppositions and meaning-system and therefore
contextual. Thus as each culture and society interacts with Scripture, it is their conceptual and experiential
framework that plays a definite part when they start comprehending and articulating their own ‘contextual’

27
See Hemkhochon Chongloi, Indoi: A study of Primal Kuki Religious Symbolism in the Hermeneutical Framework
of Mircea Eliade (Delhi: ISPCK, 2008), 284-287. Originally a doctoral thesis titled ‘A Historical-Phenomenological Study of
Primal Kuki Religious Symbolism with special reference to Indoi in the Framework of Mircea Eliade’s Interpretation of
Religious Symbolism’ which was submitted to the Senate of Serampore College in 2004.
28
From the two Greek words- Hieros meaning ‘sacred’ and Phainein meaning ‘to show’
 7

understanding about God, Jesus Christ, the Holy Spirit and the rest of the Bible and their relation to their
daily life, culture and worldview.
In analyzing all the three tribal Christologies, we can see that within their tribal traditions there already
existed in seed form the Christian parallels. This is a fascinating aspect of each of their tradition, though
in certain tribal cultures the parallels are more explicit whereas in others parallels are read into the
tradition. For example, Chonhloi’s Indoi-Pathen similarity with Christ-God is a peculiar and explicit,
whereas for Bedangla Longkumer’s Jesus as Arasentur the similarity is not so explicit and the parallel is
read to the tradition. However, this little variation in the traditions is of little importance to the Tribal
theologians as their primary aim is to develop a particular Christology from their own tribal heritages. In
the Christology of Takatemjen, we can see a more developed and properly formulated Christology which
is both synthetic and praxis, thus providing a Christology that is not only ‘dressed’ in one’s own culture
but also providing the basis for liberative actions. However, the Christologies of the other two are still
lacking in this respect. Though, methodologically, they have synthesized the understanding of Christ but
yet they have not properly developed any liberative implications. Most probably in the future when they
have developed their respective Christology much further we may see the praxis strands in them.
To analyze the effectiveness and meaningfulness of each of these tribal Christologies is beyond the ability
of the presenter, but what can be said is that to have a Christology that is interpreted and articulated within
the respective cultural context is like listening to our own local story in our own local language. Christ
cannot be localized and particularized within one particular cultural expressions and articulations. Though
on one hand He did localized and particularized for a particular time during the incarnation till the
resurrection and accession, on the other hand He is so much more beyond culture and language, and just
as God is His essence and message transcends culture and language. The only concern of the presenter is
that in the light of the present globalized context, the tribals, especially in the urbanized regions, are slowly
losing their own culture and are adopting and synthesizing the ‘foreign’ cultural elements (the
phenomenon of glocal cultures) thus the potency of the contextual tribal Christology may be limited as
the tribals themselves are more oriented with the foreign cultures than their own local traditional cultures
and heritages. However, if the move towards the revival of the traditional cultures, which should also be
followed by their proper re-formulation so as to be relevant and still practicable by the contemporary tribal
societies, is successful then the attempts of the tribal theologians in articulating a tribal Christology shall
be successful. And in the light of this the future shape of the tribal christologies shall possibly be even
more effective and richer.
In tracing the whole thread of the paper, by highlighting the context of the tribals and the rational for the
need of a tribal theology; the particular methodology and hermeneutics that needs to be adopted for a
relevant, constructive and liberative theological interpretation and articulation; and the resources for
theologizing being their own tribal traditional heritages, experiences, history and Christian heritage, it
should act as a basis and thrust for formulating a tribal Christology.

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 8

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