20 SUBGROUPS ba reat evi coiege Kot Stan ats Layo Subgroup Let (G, +) be a group and H be a non-empty subset of G. EH is itself a group with the same binary operation defined on G, then His called a subgroup of G. Examples (Z,+) is a subgroup of (@, +) (Q, +) is a subgroup of (R, +) heer ups Every group G has at least two subgroups namely G itself and the identity group {e). These are called trivial subgroups. Any other subgroup of G is called non-trivial subgroup of G. = Lr—t~—~—~—s—OSOSOSSSsés ab" « H a We shall prove that H is a subgroup of G Since H&G + we shall onl ly prove that H is a subgro ()) Identity Property ae We shall prove that e « H Let aeH Sincea,aeéH = aate# wee (By (j](I). Swwerse Property | . Let a € H, we shall prove that a“? « H { Sincce,aeH = eatcH {By(1)] | => ateH | (121) Closure Property | : Let a,b € H. we are to prove that ab € H | i Sincea,beH = a,b"t aben(h ied ie 1} =H. Weslaall prove that H is a subgroup of G. = abe i; Vi = abe Hj; Vi. + Each H, isa subgroup. j = ab en(yriel = ab eH Seterbeclen fon : Thus H (The(collection of subgrowys) isa subgroup of group 6. | orem : : i Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G. Then the set | aHa- = {aha™ : he H}isa subgroup of G. | Proof: Let x,y€aHa’ alia? we shall prove that > hy hg eH yt 2 (abe)? el Here x= ahya~ Now, ayT2 = ahyeh, a7? ahh *a-* : Since H isa subgroup and hy,hz €H - hyh,"* eH So, xy"? = ahyhg”*a"} € aHa™* Hence aia" isa subgroup of G. Remark For two subgroups H, K of a group G, their union H U K need not be a subgroup of G. For example Also H = {1,3}, K = {1,5} are both subgroups of G. {1,3,5,7} is a group under multiplication modulo 8. Note that H UK = {1,3,5} is nota subgroup of @ v 3.5=7@HUK penn The union H U K of two subgroups H and K of a group Gis a subgroup of G if and only if either Hc K or KH. Proof: Phe pooh Let G be a group and H and K/bfa group G. We are to prove that HUKisasubgroupofG < either HCK or KCH. Suppose that H U K is a subgroup of G. We have to prove thateither Hc K or Kc H. ‘We suppose the contrary that H & Kand K ¢ H WH ¢ K thenletaeHandaéK Uk CH thenketbeXandber Since ae H,bEeK =» abe HUK = abe HUK = abe H Or abe K + HUK isa subgroup When abe H Since aeH + ateH -Now b = a"*(ab) €H : Hisasubgroup. Hisa subgroup. When abe K Since be K = b?eK | ¥ Kisasubgroup. Now a = (ab)b"t eK « Kisa subgroup. Hence b € H or &€ K which is contradiction to our supposition. Hence H ¢ K and K ¢ His wrong. Thus H CK or K CH.23 Conversely suppose that HK or KCH. We are to prove that H U K isa subgroup of G. Now HK = HUK=K (subgroup) Or KcCH = HUK=H (subgroup) Since H and K are subgroup of G, « HU K isa subgroup of G. Remark () Every element of a group G can generate a subgroup of G. (ii) IEG is group and 0(G) =n. Leta eG then H = {ak ke Z*) isa subgroup of G. ample Find the subgroups of group G = (0, 1,2,3} with the following addition table. 7 EEE! o[olil2/3| Tres Available at ; 2/2[3 [lt www.mathcity.org Solution 3) 3[0[1/2 ‘Here the binary operation is addition modulo 4 with 0 as an identity element. Let H, = {0} H, = (= 1, @? =2,0) Hg = {(2)' = 2, (2)? oy Trivial subgroups of G are {0} and {6,7,2,3} = 6 fig = {GY = Non-trivial subgroup of G is { 0,2} Example Find the subgroups of the group G = { e,a, b,c} defined by alelajele alejale] + | felolelala Solution Here G = {e,4,b,c} isa group such that =e (Itisctear from the table}Le 24 “Let Hy = (2) Hy = (al, a? =e) = {a,e) = (a: a? = e) Ha = {b},b? = e} = (b,e} = (bb? =e) Hy = (c,c? =e} = {c,e} = (cic? =e) Trivial subgroups of G are {e} and G al subgroups of G are (a, e},{b,e} and {c,e} Example Let € — {0} be the group of all non-zero complex numbers under multiplication. Prove that the set H = {a + tb C ~ {0}: a? +b* = 1) is a subgroup of C — {0}. Solution Let a, + iby, a ++ ib € H, so that a7 +b,” = Land a2? + b2 =1 ay4tdy artis Now (a, + ib;)(az + bz)" = = Batt Maamtba) a?" Caeat NO DUEDD ED fo 924 07821] = (@yaz + bybz) + i(azb, — axb2) Here (a,a2 + b:bz)* + (a2b, — a,b2)* = a;7a2" + b,?b2? + a22bi? + a,2b2? = a,7(ay? + bz?) + B,*(as? + 3°) (a? + b,?)(a,? + ba?) et Thus (a, + ib)(a2 + ibe)? € H ‘This shows that H is a subgroup of C — {0} Cyclic Groups Cyclic Group ‘A group G is said to be cyclic if there exist an element a ¢ G such that every element of G car: be written in the form of a; k € Z is called generator ‘The group G is then written as G = (a), while "a" is of G. If order of “a” is "n” (i.e. a® = e) then G is said to be cyclic group of order n. ‘Then the group G is written'as G = (a: a" =e) >of epacerife oF econ th pO geet EF con fee?& Example Since G = (1,-1,i,-i} is a group under "." Note that i¢G and (i)? wo we (Dist @f= CDCD=1 Every element of G can be written in the form of + k = 1,2,3,4 Further i = 1, «. Gis cyclic group generated by iand G Theorem X Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic. Froo. Let G be a cyclic group generated by a then every element of G will be of the form al, fe Z Let H be a subgroup of G, then every element of H is alse of the forma', i¢Z Suppose k is the smallest positive integer such that a, k ¢ Z We ave to prove that H is cyclic group generated by a", ke Z ie. we are to prove that every element of H is of the form (a*)!, i ¢ Z a \iez Let @” © H we have to prove that a Since k (a) eH Again a™,((a*)9)" ¢H = a. (a) eH + Hisacougroup of C. = aeH [By(1)] “: Hisa subgroup of G. Thus a" @H, 0 x=ah,and x= bh, Where hy,h, €H => ah,=bh, => a= (bhy)hy* = a=b(hghy*) > a=bh; Where hy = hghy"? € H => b=ahs* Where h3"* € H Now for these values of a and b we can prove that aH = bH Let y € aH |Lety ¢ bH =y=ah, where hy eH =y=bhg where hy eH = y= (bhy)hy ta = dhs | y= (ahs *)he =ah;? = y = b(hsh,) By associative Law | -» y = a(hy"*hg) By associative Law ay=bhsebH vhs=ishs€H |. y= ah,eaH “hy=hy the H Thus aH S bH (x) oO Thus bH S all By (+) and (++) we get aH = bH which is contradiction. Thus alin bH=@ — This completes the proof. Index of Subgroup in Group The number of distinct left (or right) cosets of a subgroup H of a group G is called the index of H in 6. Example ~ Find the distinct left (or right) cosets of 0,42, 44,..} = (2nin¢ 2} in the group (Z,+). Solution The only left cosets of E in Zare0 +E and 1+E Here 0+ B=(042n:neZ}=E 14+E=(142nineZ)} #1, 42,43} and EUQL+E)=2, ENQ+E}=9 Therefore, the index of E in Z is 2. Available at www.mathcity.orgLagrange’s Theorem ‘The order and. inc — order of the group. Proof: : Let H bea subgroup of finite group. A427 : Let 0(G)=n, O(H) =m, and [G:H] =k | Let A be a collection of all left cosets of H in G, then GH, 02H, 03H, 10H} CD fH, 9 Hy May. War} We know that this collection defines a partition of G. Ua and (ii) aH aH =o @ ix of a subgroup of a finite group divide the ie. () G= aH Ua,H UasHU Thus, 0(G) = 0(a,H)$0(a,H)# 0 (a3H) +... AP O(AxH) First we shall prove that O(H) = O(a) Now 0(H) = 0(a;H) if 3 a bijective function from H to aH We define f:H + aH as f(h)=ajh; VREH Ee) fisonaane aki je! Let hyh2€H suchthat (hy) = eS Cie = aula 2708 ORE On totem af hy = ha [By Cancellation Law] =f isone-one function. is it nc Let ajheaH then heH and f(h)=ah Hence f is onto function also. (y= WS Le Since fis one-one and onto, therefore f is a bijective function. hoe Therefore, O(H) = O(a:H) il ie i Thus (1) 0(6) = O(H) + O(H) + O(H) +... .+O(H) [k- times] = n=m+meme +m {k- times} > n=km => min and kin [ = Ifa = be then bla,cla] > O(H)|O(G) and [G:H]|O(G) ‘Theorem ‘The order of an element of a finite group divides the order of the group. Proof:” Let G bea group and 0(6) = n, Let aeG suchthat O(@)=k ic. t Let H = (a: a* =e), then'l! is a subgroup of G of order k 3 We know by Lagrange’s Theorem that 0(H)|0(@) > 0(a)|0(G) + O(H) = O(a) =k31 Theoren® Prove that a group G whose order is prime number is necessarily cyclic. Let G bea group such that 0(G) = p, where pis a prime number. We are to prove that G is a cyclic group. Let. H = (a: a™ =e) Then H is a subgroup of G of order m. (+ Every element of G can generate a subgroup of G) ‘Then by Lagrange’s Theorem we get O(H)|0(G) + mlp This is possible only when ifm = p or m=1 Butm#1 +H #{e} Hence 0(H) Therefore, H = G = (a: a™ =e) Thus is G a cyclic group. EXERCISE 2.2 No Give an example of an abelian group which is not cyclic. Solutic LetG= 37 Then G is group under multiplication |~ a1 modulo 8. 3 TT? Gis abelian 5 71 T id 513 But 0(G)=4 Since, order of every element of G < order of G ‘Therefore no element of G can generate a subgroup of G. Hence G is not cyclic. Q. No.2 :xplain why a group of order 47 cannot have proper subgroups? Solution We know by Lagrange’s Theorem that the order of a subgroup divides the order of the group.32 Let G be a group of order 47. Since 47 is a prime number so 47 has only two divisors 1 and 47: So, we have only two subgroups of G of orders m = 1 and m = 47 When m = 1, H = {e}, (which is an improper (trivial) subgroup of G) When m= 47,H = G, (which is also an improper (trivial) subgroup of G.) This shows that G have no proper subgroups. O.N Let G be a group of order 89. Can G have a subgroup of (i) order 12 (ii) order 16. (iii) order 24? Justify your answer. Solution We know by Lagrange’s Theorem that the order of a subgroup divides the order of the group. Since 12,16 or 24 cannot divide'89. ‘This shows that group of order 89 cannot have subgroups of orders 12,16 or 24. No. 4 Show that an infinite cyclic group has exactly two distinct generators. : Solution . Let G be an infinite cyclic group then 3 @ G such that G={a™:meZ} . 1) Now a” = (a71)-" Then ()> G={(a4)y™:meZ} > a74isa generator of G. Thus if a is a generator of G then a~? is also a generator of G. Hence G has at least two generators. Suppose c € G is also a generator of G. ie, Ga{ckrkeZz} Since aeG + J m,€Z such that c™ = - 2) Also G={a"™:meZ} Since ceG = 3 m, €Z such that a = @) Putting the value of ¢ from (3) in (2) We get, (a™)™ =a - = a™™ = > mm,=1 > m=m,=1 or m=m,=-1 Put m, = Linequation (2), weget c=a Put m; = —1 in equation (8), we get c Hence c=a or ¢=a™* Thus G has exactly two distinct generators.2 No.5 thn ar£ , 9 40 a4 : Ts (@,+) acyclic group? Why? brant Prt be enpreie f ~ , Solution om Consider the group (@, +). £42430 of OR ee shes If @ is acyclic group then each x € Q must be generated by a single element a € Q ie. Each x € Q must be of the formx = na forsome ne Z Here $ € Qis not of the form na, ne Z + If £ is of the formna, neZ Then $=na, neZ But n=3éZ : ; € Qis not generated by a € Q under the binary operation “+”. Thus (Q, +) is not a cyclic group. Q. No.6 Let G be a cyclic group of order 24 generated by a. Find the orders of the elements (i) e (ii) a? (iii) a? Solution Since G be a cyclic group of order 24 generated by a So, G=(a: a%*=e) @ oe) =? Let O(e)=m then a™ > om where m is the least tive integer. ai) m then (a?)" =e, where mis the least +ive integer. => a@™=e We know thatif O(a)=m and a"=e then min Here O(a) =24 and a™=e 24|9m => 9m=24k Wherek eZ > m=tk For least positive integral value of m, we take k = 3 »m=8 ie. O(a?) =8 iit) O(a"®) =? Let O(a!*)=m then (a¥)™ => gi0™ = ‘We know that if 0(a) = mand a” Here O(a) = 24 and a¥0™ = 24|10m => 10m= 24k Wherek ¢Z = m=Ek For least positive integral value of m, we take k = 5 2 m=12 ie. O(a?) =12 Available at Wwww.mathcity.org e, where m is the least +ive integer. then m|nNo.7 H Solution Let G = (a :a® =e) All the positive divisors of 60 are 1,2,3,4,5,6,10,12,15,20,30,60. i Thus there are six subgroups of G of orders 1,2,3/4,5,6,10,12,15,20,30,60. uf The generators of these subgroups are - : a® = 6,,a29,q20,q35,q}2,q10, 6,95, a%,03,a2,q2 Let H, = {e} Ha = (a9 : (a3)? = e) = {(a°)*, (a3)? = e} = (a? e} by = (a2? : (a2)? = @) = {(a?)?, (a2°)2,(a?9)? = e} = (a, a4, ¢} Hy = (at® + (a8)* = @) = {(a¥8)}, (a5), (@2)3, (@*5)* = @) = (a",a°,a*5,e} Hg = (a? : (a®2)5 = e) = {(a**)4, (a2)2, (a2)3, (@°)4,(a2)5 = @) = {a"?,a%,a%,a'8,e) Hg = (a"® : (a?°)$ = e) + (a8) =e) + (@)'5 = e) 1 : (a*)*5 = e) Hyg = (a3 : (a3)? = e) Hyy = (a? + (a?) = e) Hy = (a1 a =e) =G GF No. Find all the subgroups of a cyclic group of order 18. Solution Let G=(a :a® =e) | All the positive divisors of 18 are 1,2,3,6,9,18. Thus there are six subgroups of G of orders 1,2,3,6,9,18. The generators of these subgroups are a’® = e, ,a?,a®,a3,a%,a? Let H; = {e} H, = (a : (a7)? = e) = {(a)?, (a)? = €} = {ae} + (aS)? =e) = {(a°)*, (a°)?, (a8)? = e} = (a8, a2, a1? =e} + (a)6 = e) = ((a°)*, (a3), (62), (a), (@)5, (a)$ = = {a?,08,a°,a?,a35,e} Hz = (a? : (a?) = e) ((a2)*, (a2), (a2), (a)*, (a2), (a2)®, (2)’, (@2)9, (a2)? = €} a?,a*,a®,a®,a?9, al, a", a8, (aia =e) =6 3 Hy = (a i i | Find all the subgroups of a cyclic group of order 60 generated by a.35 Q. No.9 Let H be the set of real numbers of the forma + bVZ,where a,b Qand both are not simultaneously zero. Show that H is a subgroup of the group of nonzero real numbers under multiplication. Solution» bef Let H ={a+bv2: a,b € Q} where a,b are not simultaneously zero. We are to prove that (H,*) is a subgroup of the group (R — {0},*). Let xyeH Then x = a, +b,V2 where a,b, € Qand are not simultaneously zero. And y= a, +b,V2 where a,b, € Q and are not simultaneously zero. i" 1 Now, xy"? = (a, +b,v2). aad = Satbav2 apm dav ~ agtbzv2\ az-b2V2 __ apa bpV24a2b,VE~2dabe = G29" = (0102~2b4b2)+(azby~aab2 V2 - 437-22" Where A = (S852) and p= (8%) «@ Since xyeH > xyteH Hence (#,e) is a subgroup of group of group (R ~ {0 Q. No.10 Let H be the set of complex numbers of the form a+ by-5,, where a,b ¢ Qand both are not simultaneously zero. Show that H is a subgroup of the group of non-zero complex numbers under multiplication. d Solution | Let H = (a+bv—5 : a,b € Q} where a, b are not simultaneously zero. \ Weare to prove that (H,*) is a subgroup of the group (C — {(0,0)},*). Let x,y€H, Obviously, HS C -{(0,0)} Then x =a, +5;V—5 (where a,,b, € Q and are not simultaneously zero.) And y= a2+b,V=5 (where da,b, € @ and are not simultaneously zero.) a Now, xy7 * aztibzVS' az—ib,VS j __ ayap~ictb,VS+iag bs VS—Sbab2 ‘ = ag? 45d," = (@xG2~Sbaba)+U(a2bs abs VS ~ @2?4+5b*36 = (cases) 41 sabes) Vg atF50,? aa?45b,? =A+iBVS eH Wee 4= (SER) and 9 (Ht) © Since xyeH => xy eH Hence (H,«) is a subgroup of group of group (R — {(0,0)}#). QO. No.11 LetG={(2 2):a,b,c.deR, ad—be # 0} be the group of all 2x 2 real matrices under multiplication. Show that the sets @ #=G b)iab.deR, ad +0} and (i) K=(G ») be R} are subgroups of G. Solution Here 6 = {(2 8) sabre €R, ad ~ be + 0} is the group of all 2x 2 non-singular real matrices under multiplication. () The set H= {6 »): a,b,d eR, ad # 0} isa subset of G. Now the set H will be the subgroup of group G if ABeH=> AB eH; V ABeH Let A,BeH Then A= la By where ay, by, d; € Rand ad; #0 h ‘And a=[ 2] where a2, bz, dz € Rand a,dz # 0 ee 3 Now AB“! = A. maui) mrt y a, By (d, —b, (3 deals <7] ad, —ayb, + a2b; Available at -a[ 0 and, ] www. c fasd2a2bs~anby jmathcity.org a |e arte Where 2 ,228:%2, Ste Rv a,by,d) € Rand ad, #0 Also (2)(2)#0 + ad #0 Hence AB™ € H Since A,BeH = AB eH ‘Therefore H is a subgroup of the group 6.a Gi) The set K={(j 2):b € R}isa subset of &. Let A,BeEK —f >, 1b; Then A=[5 ":] whered eR & ot] whereby €R Now AB™ =A. adj(B) _[t bap be =b teh V4 ft -b.+by _ =( ! |] Where by by € R Hence AB™ € K Since A,BeK = AB EK Therefore K is a subgroup of the group G. Se No.12 > Let Hand K be two finite subgroup of a group G, whose orders are relatively prime. Prove that HK = (e} Solution Let O(#) =m and 0(K) =n Where mand nare relatively prime. ie. G.C.D of mnis1 Greatest comsmon <2) Let xe(HAK) > xeH and xeK Let O(x)=p ie, x?=e We know that order of an element divides the order group. 0(z) divides O(H) and 0(x) divides 0(K) =p divides m and p divides n = pHi + &.C.Dofmnist Hence x?=e 3 x=e Thus HK ={e} Q.No.13 Let (Z, +) be the group of integers. Write two subsets of Z which are closed under addition but are not subgroups of Z. 1) Solution eee Let H= (1,23, and K = (-1,-2,-3,..=-} Then clearly H,K Z Since va,beH, atbeH ~~ Hisclosed over”+” Similarly Va,beK, atbeK 3 Kisclosed over”+" But Hisnota group » VaeH, at@H . Similarly Kisnotagroup » VaeK, a*¢@K Sf &yol nv ae CHQ.No.14 If H is a subgroup of a group G then show that HLH = {hyhzt hyhz ¢ H} =H Solution Here His a subgrouprof a group G we have to show that HH = (hgh, + hyhy © H} =H For this we have to prove that H.H&H and HCH.H Let hype H.H = hy,h, eH By definition of H.H => hyhp eH + Hisa subgroup of G. Hence H.H GH (1) Let heH > h=heeH.H Hence HOH.H ......... (2) Available at www.mathcity.org From (1) and (2) we have HH=H Q.No.15 Let H and K be subgroup of an abelian group G. Show that the set HK = (hk: he H, ke K } isa subgroup of G. Solution Let x,y © HK Then x=hiky, Med, ky eK And yehakz, hg eH, keeK Now xy"? = (hyky) (light) = Agkyekg thy * ab)" = = hykyhy*k2* + Gis an abelian group. = hyhy ey ke? Gis an abelian group. = (hala )(lanka™) © HK hyhgt €H + hyhgt€H + Hisasubgroup of G. Similarly kjk ¢ KO = kjk? €K + Kisasubgroup of G. Since Vx,yeHK 3: xy eHK Therefore HK isa subgroup of G. Q.No.16 - Let H is a subgroup of a group G and a¢ G if (Ha) = (ha): he H}, Then show that (Ha)~! = a7 Solution Here H is a subgroup of a group G we have to show that (Ha)! = {(hay"! the H} =a Hn39 For this we have to prove that (Ha)"* Ga“ and a7?H © (Ha)? Let xe (Hay? > x=(hay", het sath? (aby? = bat Thea tH + hte Hence (Ha)? © a4H wen (1) Let xeaH = x=ah hel =a7(h-1)4 + @)t=a = (na) + bla = (ab) =(h%a)"te (Hay » hte w Hence aH & (Ha) .. - 2) From (1) and (2) we have (Ha)? = a7*H Q. No.17 Let H and K be two finite subgroup of a group Gand g ¢ G. Prove that g(HK) = gHngK Solution ) Let H and K be two finite subgroup of a group G and g € G. We have to prove that g(H NK) = gH ngk For this we have to prove that GHAK)SgHOgk and gHngkSg(HOK) Let xeg(#NK) 3 g?xe(HAK) => g?xeH and gxeK x] => xe€gH and xegK => xegHngK Hence g(H AK) SgHOGK ......0 @ Let xegHngkK = xegH and xe gk => gixeH and g?xeK = give (HANK) = xegHnk) Hence gl Ngk S g(H OK) o. (2) From (1) and (2) we have (HK) = gH gk40 Q. No.18 Which of the following subsets of the group (Z,3 , +) of the non- zero residue classes under multiplication modulo 13 are subgroup of Z,3- A; Hg = {1,6,8, 10}, Solution Here Z,3 modulo 13 and 12,3, Hz = (1,6,8,10}, Hy ={1,3,5} are subsets of 2,3. Now, H, = (1,3,5,7,9, 11} isnot a subgroup of Z,3- 7=8en, Hz = (1,2,4,6,8, 10, 12 } is not a subgroup of Z,5. 2.8=3¢H, Hz = (1,6,8, 10 } is nota subgroup of Z,5. ~« 68=5¢H, Here, Hy ={1,3,9} _ 5 7 - {i Let a,b € H, then a+ 5 = 7, where Fis the ir 41 remainder obtained after the division of @ 31s lsli by 13 when @ « b equals or exceed 13. slits eg 361=3 & 3-+9=7 (1) Multiplication modulo 13 is closed over Hy ie GEM; VabeH, (itis clear from the table.) (1) Multiplication modulo 13 is associative over Hy. Avail ie. (@+5) «c= a+(5+2);VabceH, Vvailable at ee www.mathcity.ori Take 1,3,5€H, ity.org (103) 09 =3 =I . _ = Clearly (1+ 3) +5 =1+(3+5) 7 - (10) 3 is an identity element of Hy. y¥ leaeaelsa;vaen, (it is clear from the table.) Gv) @t=L Gt =9, (7 =5 (itis clear from the table.) Thus H, is a subgroup of Z,3 under the multiplication modulo 13.