REACTION TURBINE

2.7.1 INTRODUCTION
In reaction turbine, a part of the head (H) acting on the turbine is converted into kinetic
energy and the rest remains as pressure head. The water first enters a set of movable blades
(guide vanes) and passes over a set of fixed runner blades. There exists a difference of
pressure between these two sets of blades which is called ‘reaction pressure’ and is
responsible for the motion of the runner blades.

Degree of reaction: it is defined as the ratio of the static pressure drop to the total pressure
Pr essure drop in rotor sec tion
drop in the stage. R 
pressure drop in the stage

By the application of Bernoulli’s equation to the inlet and outlet section of the runner blade,
2 2
p1  p2 V1  V2
= Wnet - ……..(1)
g 2g

Where p1,p2 = pressure at inlet and outlet

V1, V2 = absolute of velocity at Inlet and outlet section

W net = work done by the turbine runner

Thus, if the pressure is constant at the inlet and outlet sections than such a turbine behaves
purely as in impulse turbine. If on the other hand v1= v2 , then

 p  p2 
W net =  1  and this represents purely reaction turbine. Intermediate type of
 g 

turbine described by the degree of reaction.


W 

V12  V22 
 net 
 2g 
R = ……..(2)
 Wnet 
 
 

R =

1 

V12  V22   ……..(3)
 
 2 gWnet 
 Vu1u1
Wnet =
g

R
 
V 2  V22 
= 1  1
 …… (4)

 2Vu1u1 

2.7.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN REACTION AND IMPULSE

TURBINE
Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

1. All the available hydraulic energy 1. Only a fraction of the available

is converted into kinetic energy by hydraulic energy is converted
into kinetic energy before the
a Nozzle and it is the jet so , fluid enters the runner.

produced which strikes the runner

2. Both pressure and velocity
blades. change as the fluid passes
through the runner, pressure at
2. It is the velocity of jet which changes, inlet is much higher than the
outlet.
the pressure through remaining

atmospheric.

3. Casing is not necessary. Casing has 3. The runner must be in closed

no hydraulic function perform. It only within a water tight casing.

serves as a safe guards.

4. Water is admitted over the entire

4. Water is admitted only in the form of
circumference of the runner.
jets.

5. Water completely fills at the

5. the turbine does not run full and air
 has a free access to the buckets. passage between the blades and

while flowing between inlet and

outlet sections does work on the

blades.

6. The turbine is always installed above 6. The turbine is connected to the

the tail race and there is no draft tube
used. tail race through a draft tube

which is a gradually expanding

passage. It may installed above

or below the tail race.

7. Flow regulations is done by means

Of a needle valve fitted into the
Nozzle.
7. The flow regulation is carried out
by means of a guide vane
assembly , other component parts
are scroll casing, stay ring, runner
and the draft tube.

2.7.3 TYPES OF REACTION TURBINE

Mainly two types of reaction turbine: ( i ) Outward radial flow reaction turbine

(ii) Inward flow reaction turbine.

(i) Outward radial flow reaction turbine. Fig. 2.13 shows outwards radial flow reaction
turbine in which water from casing enters the stationary guide wheel. The guide wheel
consists of guide vanes with direct water to enter the runner which is around the stationary
guide wheel. The water flows through the vanes of the runner in the outward radial direction
and is discharged at the outer diameter of the runner. The inner diameter of the runner is inlet
and outer diameter is the outlet. The velocity triangle at inlet and outlet will be drawn by the
same procedure as adopted for inward flow turbine. The work done by the water on the
runner per second, power output developed and hydraulic efficiency will be obtained from
the velocity triangle. In this case as inlet of the runner is at the inner diameter of the runner,
tangential velocity at inlet will be less than of at outlet

u1 < V2 as D1<D2

Fig. 2.13 Outward radial flow reaction turbine

(ii) Inward flow reaction turbine: Fig 2.14 shows inwards radial flow reaction turbine in
which water from casing enters the ‘Guide Vanes Section’ through the guide vanes water
flows to the runner in the inward radial direction and discharge at the inner diameter of the
runner. The inner diameter of runner is outlet and diameter of runner is inlet.

Fig. 2.14. Outward radial flow reaction turbine.

2.7.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN OUTWARD AND INWARD FLOW

TURBINE
 Outward Flow Turbine Inward Flow Turbine

1. Water enters at the inner periphery and 1. Water enters at the outer periphery
discharges at the outer periphery and discharges at the inner
periphery
2. Flow inward
2. Flow outward 3. Flow rate does not increases
4. Turbine runner V1>V2, because of
3 Flow rate increases
V12-V22 imparted to water as it flow
4. Turbine runner V1<V2, because of
2g through the turbine runner is
V12-V22 imparted to water as it flow
Negative.
2g through the turbine runner is

Positive.
5. Easy to control the speed

6. Good for medium and high heads

5. very difficult to control the speed
and best suitable for large output units.
6. Good for low medium heads

2.7.5 CONSTUCTIONAL DETAILS OF THE FRANCIS TURBINE

The Francis turbine was developed by James B. Francis. It is an inward flow reaction turbine
that combines radial and axial flow concepts. Francis turbines are the most common turbine
in use today. They operate in a head range of thirty meters to several hundred meters and are
primarily used for electrical power production. The Francis turbine is a reaction turbine,
which means that the working fluid changes pressure as it moves through the turbine, giving
up its energy. A casement is needed to contain the water flow. The inlet is spiral shaped.
Guide vanes direct the water tangentially to the runner. This radial flow acts on the runner
vanes, causing runner to spin. The guide vanes (or wicket gate) may be adjustable to allow
turbine operation for a range of water flow conditions. As the water moves through the runner
its spinning radius decreases, further acting on the runner. Imagine swinging a ball on a string
around in a circle. If the string is pulled short, the ball spins faster. This property helps inward
flow turbines harness water energy. At the exit, water acts on cup shaped runner features,
leaving with no swirl and very little kinetic or potential energy. The turbine‘s exit tube is
specially shaped to help decelerate the water flow and recover kinetic energy. The Francis
turbines may be divided in two groups, the one group with horizontal and the other with
vertical shaft. In practice it is normal that turbines with comparatively small dimensions are
arranged with vertical shaft. The vertical arrangement is normally used also for small
dimensions if the tail race water level is above the turbine centre.

(a)
(b)

Fig. 2. 15. Francis Turbine

Components parts:

 Penstock. It is a large sized conduit which conveys water from the upstream of the
dam to the turbine runner. Trash rack is provided at inlet of the penstock in order to
obstruct the entry of debris and other foreign matter.
 Scroll Casing. The water from the penstock is conducted through the scroll casing
and distributed around the stay ring and the complete circumference of the guide vane
cascade. The decrease in area is in proportion to the decreasing volume of water to be
handled and that ensure velocity of water is constant along its path. The scroll casings
are normally welded steel plate construction for turbine at low, medium as well as
high heads. The stay vanes are given a favourable hydraulic shape to conduct the
 water towards the guide vanes with minimum losses. The stay vanes also carry the
axial forces inside the scroll casing. The scroll casing is provided with taps for
pressure measurements, drain, air vent outlets and a manhole.
 Guide Vanes . A series of air foil shaped vanes, called the guide vanes or wicket
gates, are arranged inside the casing to form a number of flow passages between the
casing and the runner blades. The vanes are shaped according to hydraulic design
specification and given a smooth surface finish. The bearings of the guide vane shafts
are lubricated with oil or grease. The guide vanes direct the water onto the runner at
an angle appropriate to the design. It provides the degree of adaptability to the
quantity of water to be admitted to the runner in the wake of load variations
 Runner and Runner Blades. Runner is a rotor which has passages formed between
crown and shroud in one direction and two consecutive blades on the other. These
passages take water in at the outer periphery in the radially inward direction and
discharge it in a direction parallel to the axis of rotor. The driving force on the runner
is both due to impulse and reaction effects. It may either be of cast steel or a welded
construction where hot pressed plate blades are welded to the cast hub and ring. In
most cases the runner is made of stainless steel.The water flow through the labyrinth
seals is a leakage flow and is not utilized by the runner. On high head turbines the
leakage water is normally utilized as cooling water for the generator, transformers
and bearings.

Fig. 2.16. Francis Runner

 Draft Tube. The draft tube forms the water conduit from the runner to the draft outlet.
It consists of the draft tube cone and the draft tube steel plate lining. It consists of the
draft tube cone and the draft tube steel plate lining. The aim of the draft tube is also to
convert the main part of the kinetic energy at the runner outlet to pressure energy at
the draft tube outlet. This is achieved by increasing the cross section area of the draft
tube in the flow direction. In an intermediate part of the bend however, the draft tube
cross sections are decreased instead of increased in the flow direction to prevent
separation and loss of efficiency.The draft tube cone is a welded steel plate design and
consists normally of two parts, the upper and lower cone. The inlet part of the upper
cone is made of stainless steel. It is normally provided with two manholes for
inspection of the runner from below. The lower part is designed as a dismantling
piece and is mounted to a flange on the draft tube bend top. This design is always
used for units where the runner is dismantled downwards. For units being dismantled
upwards the draft tube cone is made in one piece. The draft tube lining is completely
embedded in concrete.
Different types of Draft Tubes:

(a) Conical draft tubes (b) Simple elbow tubes

(c) Moody spreading tubes (d) Elbow draft tubes with circular inlet and

rectangular outlet

Fig. 2.17(a) Fig. 2.17(b)

 Hs Hs

Fig. 2.17(c) Fig. 2.17(d)

The conical draft tubes and Moody spreading draft tubes are most efficient while
simple and elbow draft tubes with circular inlet and rectangular outlet requires less
space as compared to other draft tubes.

2.7.6 POWER DEVELOPED BY FRANCIS TURBINE RUNNER

The velocity vector diagram at inlet and out of the runner of a Francis turbine is shown in Fig
7.8.

Where v1 , v2 = absolute velocity of fluid at inlet and outlet

u1, u2 = blade velocity at inlet and outlet

Vr1, Vr2 = relative velocity of fluid at inlet and outlet

Vu1, Vu2 = whirl component or tangential component of absolute velocity at inlet

and outlet

Vf1, Vf2 = axial component of absolute velocity at inlet and outlet

ω = angular velocity

r1, r2 = runner radius at inlet and outlet

N = speed of rotation

α1, α2 = flow angle at inlet and outlet

β1, β1 = blade angle at inlet and outlet

Force exerted by the water, on the radial curved blade fixed on the wheel, from the force
exerted on the blades, power is developed.

Assumptions:

 Flow is steady and one dimensional.

 No energy loss in the runner due to friction and eddy formation.
 Infinite number of blades, liquid flowing in the blades.
 No loss due to shock at entry.

Fig. 2.18 Velocity triangle of Francis turbine.

From the second law of Newton momentum theorem,

Torque = rate of change of angular momentum

Torque(T) = m[Vu1 r1-( -Vu2 r2)]

Torque(T) = m(Vu1 r1+Vu2 r2) ...........(5)

Mass flow rate(m) =   Q

 T = ρQ (Vu1 r1+Vu2 r2) ...........(6)

Power developed in one second.

Power (P) = T  

P = ρQ(Vu1 r1+Vu2 r2) ω

P = ρQ(Vu1 r1 ω +Vu2 r2 ω)

Blade velocity

u1= r1 ω and u2= r2 ω Vr

V2=Vf2
α2=90
β2
Power = ρQ(Vu1 u1+Vu2 u2)
V2
P = ρQ(Vu1 u1+Vu2 u2) …….(7)
Fig 2.19

Equation (7) is valid when the α2 is less than 900, so Vu2 is negative because of direction
of Vu2 is opposite to that of blade motion.

If α2>900 than P = ρQ(Vu1 u1-Vu2 u2)

Means power developed by runner (P) = ρQ (Vu1 u1±Vu2 u2)

From the outlet velocity triangle. Water flow without whirl Vu2 = 0

So

P = ρQ(Vu1 u1-0Ҳu2)

Power Developed by Runner = ρQVu1 u1 …….. (8)

Hydraulic efficiency (ηH) = power developed by runner

power input to runner

g Vu1u1  Vu 2 u 2
ηH = …….. (9)
gQH
  V u1  Vu 2 u 2 
ηH = 2  u1  …….. (10)
 2 gH 

 V V 
ηH =  u1  u1  u 2  u 2  …….. (11)
 2 gH 2 gH 2 gH 2 gH 
 

u
Where Cv = and Cu =
2 gH

ηH = 2 C v1C u1  C v 2 C u 2  …….. (12)

2.7.7 LOSSES AND EFFICIENCIES OF REACTION TURBINE

(FRANCIS AND KAPLAN)

The various losses that may occur in a Francis turbine units can classified under.

(i) Hydraulic Efficiency or Runner Efficiency (ηH). It is the ratio of power

developed by the turbine runner to the net power supplied by the water at the
entrance to the turbine.

power developed by the turbine

ηH =
power sup plied to the turbine
 Entrance of Turbine Runner

Spiral casing

Hydraulic losses

(i) Blade friction losses

(ii) Eddy formation losses
(iii) Friction losses in draft tube
(iv) Disc friction losses
(v) Leakage losses

g Vu1u1  Vu 2 u 2
ηH =
gQH

Vu1u1  Vu 2 u 2
ηH = …….. (13)
gH

(ii) Mechanical Efficiency ( ηMech ) . It is the ratio of power available at the turbine
shaft to the power developed by turbine runner. Mechanical losses are due to
bearing friction and other factor.

Turbine runner Shaft

Mechanical losses
 power available at the turbine
η Mech =
power developed by the turbine

(iii) Volumetric Efficiency(ηV ). It is the ratio of quantity of water actually striking

the turbine runner and the quantity of water supplied to the turbine.

Q
ηV = …….. (14)
Q  Q

Where Q is the amount of water striking the runner VQ is the amont of water loss
due to leakage.

(iv) Overall Efficiency(ηO). It is the ratio of power available at the turbine shaft to
water power available at the entrane level.

power output power output

o  
input power g Q  Q H

 o  v   Mech   H …….. (15)

Fig.2.20. Power loss diagram for reaction turbine (Francis and Kaplan)
2.7.8 SOME DIMENSIONLESS NUMBER OF REACTION TURBINE

(i) Flow ratio (CV). It is the ratio of the velocity of flow (Vf) and the theoretical
velocity ( 2 gH ).

Vf
Flow ratio (CV) = …(16)
2gH

Value of (CV) varies from 0.12 to 0 .30.

(ii) Speed ratio (Cu). It is the ratio of the blade peripherial velocity(u) and the
theoretical velocity ( 2 gH ).

 u 
Cu =   …(17)
 2gH 
 

Value of Cu varies from 0.60 to 0.90.

(iii) The ratio of width and diameter of the runner is known as width dia ratio(η).

η= widthof runner(b) …(18)

dia of runner (D)

Value of η varies from0.10 to 0.35.

2.7.9 DESIGN ASPECT OF FRANCIS TURBINE RUNNER

A francis turbine runner is required to be designed to develop a known power output (Pt ),
speed of rotation (N) r.p.m., Head (H and ηH , η0 , n , CV , Cu value are assumed. Design of
runner involves the calculation the dimensions of runner and blades angles explain in
following steps.

(i) Calculate the flow rate

Pt
 η0 =
gQH

Pt
 Q= …(19)
gH 0
 (ii) If the (Y) is the number of blades; t is the thickness of blades; B is the width,

area of flow = (D-Yt)B

 Yt 
= D 1  B
 D 

area of flow = K BD …(20)

flow rate Q= K BD Vf …(21)

Yt
where K=1-
D

Thus assuming a suitable value of K ( between 0.85 to 1) and calculate the width and dia of
the runner wheel.

(iii) Peripherial velocity (u) is calculated by

DN
u= …(22)
60

(iv) Whirl component of velocity can be calculated by

V u 
ηH =  u1 1  …(23)
 gh 

(v) Vf is calculated by = Vf = Cv 2 gH …(24)

(vi) With the help of inlet and outlet velocity triangle blade angle and flow angle
is calculated.
(vii) Thickness of the runner blades varies from 5 to 25 mm depending on
diameter (D).
(viii) Number of Runner blades varies from 16 to 24.

2.7.10 DIFFERENT TYPE OF REACTION TURBINE RUNNER

 a) Slow speed runner
α1= 16 to26
β1= 90° to125°

C u1 =0 .6 to 0.69

Specific speed Ns = 60 to 110

(a) Slow speed Francis runner

b) Medium speed runner

α1= 26 to 33°
β1= 90°
C u1 = 0.69 to0 .73
Specific speed (Ns) = 110 to 170

(b) Medium speed Francis runner

Vr1
c) High speed runner V1
Vf
Ns= 170 to 300
β1
α1
α1 = 33 to 38°
Vu1
u1

β1 = 60 to 90°

C u1 = .073 to

(c) High speed Francis runner

d) Kaplan runner
Vr1
β1 < 90° , α1 < 90° V1
Vf1

β1
α1
Vu1
u1
Specific speed (Ns) = 300 to 1000°

C u1 = 1.21 to 2,45 (More than 1)

(d) Kaplan runner

Fig. 2.21(a), (b),(c),(d). Different velocity triangle of turbine runner.

2.7.11 RUN AWAY SPEED

The run away speed of a turbine is the maximum speed attained by the runner under
maximum head at full gate opening, when the external load (generator) is disconnected
from the system. All rotating parts must be designed to withstand the runaway speed
which varies among the manufacturers with the design of turbine and generator.

Runaway speed for various types of turbines is generally as follow:

Turbine Runaway speed

Pelton turbine 1.8 to 1.9 N

Francis turbine 2 to 2.2 N

Kaplan turbine 2.5 to 3 N

The exact value of runaway speed of any turbine can be predicted from the model tests
in the laboratory.

2.7.12 DRAFT TUBE THEORY

A pipe of gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the outlet of the
turbine to tail race is called the draft tube. One end of the draft tube is connected to the outlet
of the runner and other end sub-merged below the level of water in tail race, draft tube, in
addition to serve a passage for water discharge, has the following two purposes also.

1. The turbine may be placed above the tail race and hence turbine may be
inspected properly.
  v2 
2. The kinetic energy   rejected at the outlet of the turbine is converted into
 2g 
useful pressure energy.

2
Runner
Outlet

Hs
Draft tube

Pa (Tail Race)

h2

h3
Draft tube
3
Outlet

h4
Datum Level

Fig. 2.22. Draft tube arrangement of reaction turbine

h2 = height of runner from datum level.

Hs = suction height.

V2,V3= velocity of fluid at inlet and outlet section of draft tube

h4 = height of outlet of the draft tube from datum level.

h3 = height of outlet section od draft tube from tail race.

Applying the Bernoulli’s theorem between (2) inlet and (3) outlet of the draft tube.

P2 V22 P3 V32
  h2    h4 …(24)
g 2g g 2g

P2 P3  V 2  V32 
= - ( h2- h4 )-  2  …(25)
g g  2g 

P3 Pa
= + h3
g g
P2 Pa  V22  V32 
= -( h2-h3 –h4)-   …(26)
 g g  2g 

From the Fig.2.22.

h2-h3 –h4 = Hs

P2 Pa  V22  V32 
= -  Hs   …(27)
 g g  2 g 

Hs= static suction head

 V22  V32 
  = dyanamic suction head.
 2g 

If frictional losses in the draft tube is hf

P2 Pa  V22  V32 
So = -  Hs   + hf
 g g  2 g 

P2 Pa   V 2  V32  
= -  Hs   2   hf 
 g g   2g   …(28)
   

Draft tube efficiency is defined as ratio of actual conversion of kinetic head into pressure
head in the draft tube to the kinetic head at the inlet of the draft tube. Hence

  V22  V32  
    h f 
2g
Draft tube efficiency (ηd ) =     …(29)
 V22 
 
 2g 
2.7.13 GOVERNING OF REACTION TURBINE

The guide blades of a reaction turbine shown in Fig. 7.13 are pivoted and connected by levers
and links to the regulating ring. To the regulating ring are attached two long regulating rod to
a regulating lever.

Fig. 2.23. Governing of reaction turbine

The regulating lever is keyed to a a regulating shaft which is turn by the servomotor piston of
oil pressure governor. The penstock, feeding the turbine inlet, has a relief valve better known
as pressure regulator; when the guide vanes have to be suddenly closed, the relief valve opens
and delivers the water direct to the tail race. Its function is therefore, similar to that of the
deflector in Pelton turbines. Thus the double regulation, which is the simultaneous operation
of two elements is accomplished by moving the guide vanes and relief valve in francis
turbine, by the governor

2.7.14 CAVITATION

Cavitation definition and other basic theory explained in the Centrifugal pump unit. Turbine
parts should be properly designed in order to avoid Cavitation because damaging the metallic
surface, Cavitation also decrease the efficiency of the turbine. Cavitation depends upon:
  Vapour pressure (Pv) which is a function of temperature of flowing water.
 Barometric pressure (Pb) due to the location of turbine above the sea level.
 Suction pressure (Hs) which is the height of runner outlet above tail race level.
 Absolute velocity of water at outlet. Prof. Thoma (1881-1943) suggested a Cavitation
factor (  ) to determine the zone where turbine can work without being affected from
Cavitation.
(Hb - Hs ) (Hatm - Hv - Hs )
Critical Cavitation factor (  crit) =  … (30)
H H

Where Hb= barometric pressure in metre of water = Ha – Hv

Ha= Atomspheric pressure in metre of water

Hv = Vapour pressure in m of water

Hs = Suction pressure in m of water

H= Working head.

According to the Prof. Thoma, Cavitation can be avoided if the value of  are not
less than the critical value given above. Prof. Rogger suggested the following empirical
relation for Francis turbine.

2
N 
 crit = 0.0317  S  … (31)
 100 

The maximum permissible specific speed can be calculated by

 crit Hb - Hs
Ns = 100 = 562 …(32)
0.0317 H
 η

σ crit
σ
Fig. 2.24. Graph Efficiency vs Cavitation
factor.

Method to Avoid Cavitation

 turbine installed below the tail race level

 Outlet pressure of turbine (P2 )

P2 Pa  V 2  V32 
= -  Hs  2  hf 
 g g  2g 

Means outlet pressure of turbine is the function of suction head (Hs). if the Hs decrease
than the PQ pressure at the outlet of turbine increase and  value will increase so that
chance of Cavitation minimize which means the turbine work in the safe zone so that
suction heat decrease to negative value means turbine installed below the tail race level.
Other method of avoid the cavitation explained in the centrifugal unit.

 design cavitation free runner

 selection of speed
 use of machining
 KAPLAN TURBINE

2.8.1 INTRODUCTION OF PROPELLER AND KAPLAN TURBINES

A propeller turbine is an axial flow reaction turbine suitable for low head installations (upto
30 m) where high discharges are available. The blades of a propeller turbine remain fixed in
position under all conditions of operation. Propeller turbines operate at high efficiency under
fall load conditions but their efficiency is considerably reduced when they are subject to
changing loads, Kaplan is a type of propeller turbine which has adjustable blades whose
position may be varied with load on the turbine and hence with the flow rate. As the blades
are adjusted for a shock-free entry of flow, a high efficiency is maintained over a wide range
of turbine output. A Kaplan runner is designed for a given head and discharge also, therefore,
it works efficiently under much lower heads and at reduced discharge. Except for the runner
itself, the main component parts of a Kaplan turbine are spiral casing, guide vanes and draft
tube which are the same as for a Francis turbine. Between the guide vanes and the runner, the
water turns through a right-angle and flows parallel to the turbine shaft. The number of vanes
of a Kaplan runner varies from 3 to 6 which are made of stainless steel and mounted on the
hub. Kaplan turbines are also capable of taking over loads up to 15 to 20% and give high
efficiency at all gate openings.

Fig. 2.39 shows the velocity triangle for a Kaplan turbine at full and part-load conditions
(speed-head remains constant). As the discharge changes consequent upon a change in the
turbine output, the blade angles get simultaneously adjusted in such a way that the flow enters
the runner blades without shocks. Expressions for work done, efficiency and power
developed for propeller and Kaplan turbines are obtained in a similar manner as for a Francis
runner.
Fig 2.39 Velocity Triangle for a Kaplan turbine runner at full and part loads

2.8.2PERFORMANCE OF REACTION TURBINES (LOAD EFFICIENCY CURVES)

The part load efficiency of a propeller (fixed blade) turbine is less than those for a Francis and
adjustable blade (Kaplan) turbine. This is mainly due to turbulence produced at the entrance (entry
with a shock) and the discharge at the runner outlet being far from radial. Kaplan conceived the idea
of making the blades movable about a pivot, thereby making it possible to adjust them to produce
tangential entry (shock-free) for a wide range of gate movement. For such a runner the efficiency will
decrease but slightly as the load- decreases from 40 m to 30% of normal load efficiency curves for
reaction turbine shown in Fig. 2.40.
 Fig 2.40 Load efficiency curves for reaction turbines

2.8.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FRANCIS AND KAPLAN TURBINES

Francis turbine Kaplan turbine

1. Number of blades in runner varies 1. Number of blade varies to only 3-6

between 16-24

2. Profile type fixed blade runner. 2. Aerofoil type adjustable blade runner

3. Ordinary governor is sufficient as 3. Heavy duty governor is essential due to

servomotor is of large size. smaller size of servo motors.

4. Servomotor is kept outside the runner 4. Servomotor is kept inside the runner
shaft. shaft.

5. Only guide vanes are controlled, high 5. Due to simultaneous control of both
efficiency is obtained only at full load. guide and runner blades.

6. Only guide vanes regulation is done. 6. Guide vanes and runner vane regulation
is done.

7. System may have one or two 7. Governing is always done with the
servomotors depending on the size of units. servomotors irrespective of the size of the
unit.

8. Radial inward/outward turbine. 8. Axial Flow turbine.

9. Medium heads (30-180m) and medium 9. Low head (upto 30 m ) and high flow
flow rate turbine. rate turbine.

10. Specific speed range 60 – 300. 10. Specific speed range 300 -1000.

11. Horizontal or vertical disposition of 11. Only vertical shaft disposition.

shaft.

2.8.4 CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF KAPLAN TURBINE

(a) Penstock: It is large sized conduit which conveys water from the upstream of the dam to
the turbine runner. Because of the large volume of water flow, size of the penstock required is
larger than that of a Pelton wheel. It is made of steel and is imbedded inside the dam.

(b) Scroll casing: Penstock is connected to and feeds water directly into an annular channel
surrounding the turbine runner. The channel is spiral in its layout and is known as the spiral
or scroll casing. Casing constitutes a closed passage whose cross-section area gradually
decreases along the flow direction; area is maximum at inlet and nearly zero at exit.

(c) Guide vanes or wicket gates: A series of airfoil shaped vanes, called the guide, the
casing and the runner blades. The guide vanes direct the water into runner at an angle
appropriate to the design. They direct the flow just as the nozzle of the Pelton wheel. The
configuration and arrangement is such that energy of water is not consumed. Between the
guide vanes and the runner, the water turns through right angle and subsequently flows
parallel to the shaft. The purely axial flow arrangement provides the largest flow area; even at
larger flow velocities are not too large.
 Fig 2.41
(d) Runner: The runner is in the form of a boss which is nothing but extension of bottom end
of the shaft into a bigger diameter. On the periphery of the boss are mounted equidistantly 3
to 6 vanes made of stainless steel. Thus compared to the Francis turbine which has 16 to 24
number of blades, a propeller turbine with only 3 to 6 vanes will have less constant surface
with water and as such a low value of frictional resistance. Furthermore, the runner blades are
directly attached to the hub and this feature estimates the frictional losses which are caused
by the bend provided in a Francis turbine.

Fig 2.42
(e) Draft tube: The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less
than tail race. A pipe of gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit
of the turbine to the tail race. This pipe of gradually increasing area is called draft tube. One
end of the draft tube is connected to the outlet of the runner while the other end is submerged
below the level of water in the tail race.

Fig 2.43

2.8.5 DESIGN OF A PROPELLER (ON KAPLAN) TURBINE

Let a Kaplan turbine be required to be designed to develop P watts of power while working under a
head (H) metre and running at N rpm. The appropriate values of 0' Cu' C u and n are assumed for the
purpose of design.

Being an axial flow turbine, the area of flow remains same at its inlet and outlet and, therefore, the
velocity of flow remains constant throughout the runner V f 1  V f 2 . Let the quantities of the boss be
indicated by (L) and that at outer rim by 2.

(i) Calculate the required flow rate (Q)

P
 0 
gQH

 P 
 Q    … (1)
  0 pgH 

(ii) Assuming the suitable value of K  and velocity of flow

V f  C 2 gh … (2)
 (iii) Assume the suitable value of (n) (ratio of outer diameter to inner diameter). Calculate the
hub diameter D1 and outer diameter (D2) from flow rate relation.

 2 2
Q [ D'1  D'1 ]V f … (3)
4

(iv) Calculate the U1 and U2

D1 N D' 2 N
U1  and U '1  … (4)
60 60

(v) Assume Vu 2  0 at the outlet and suitable values ( H ) , calculated Vu1 .

Vu1u1 Vu '1 u '1

H   … (5)
gH g

(vi) With help of velocity triangle at inlet and outlet, calculate all V1 , V2 ,  1 ,  2 , 1 and
V '1 , V ' 2 .

(a) Outlet Periphery (b) At Boss

Fig. 2.44
2.8.6 Specific speed of Propeller/Kaplan Turbines

 2 2  2 2
 Q ( D1  D2 ) V f  ( D1  D2 ) C 2 gh … (6)
4 4

Where D1 , D2 are the diameters of runner and the boss

DN
U  C u 2 gh
60

60 C u 2 gh
 N … (7)
D

P
0 
gQH


P  gQH  0  gH 0 
2 2
or ( D1  D2 ) C 2 gh
4


=  g 0 
2 2
( D1  D2 ) C 2 g H 3
4

Substituting the value of N and P in specific speed expression.

N Pt
Ns  5
H 4

1
60 C u ( 2 g ) H   
3 2
Ns  5  ( D1
2
 D 2
2
)  0 C 2 g H 2
 … (8)
 4 
DH 4

2
 D1 2 
N s  576.1C u  0 C 1  
 … (9)
 D1 

For Kaplan turbine, assuming

 0  0.90

D1
 0.35 and C  0.70 N s  428.3 C u
D2
 

2.8.7 CAVITATION IN PROPELLER AND KAPLAN TURBINE

The Cavitation phenomenon and method to avoid it have been explained in Francis turbine
and centrifugal pump. There is applicable also for propeller or Kaplan turbine. The runner of
Kaplan turbine Cavitation affected the following places.

 Outer edge of the runner blade, it is known as cleavage cavitation because it takes
place at the clearance of the runner blades.
 Surface of the runner blade.
 Base of the runner blade.

Fig 2.45 Cavitation on Kaplan turbine blade

2.8.8 CHARACTERSISTICS CURVES OF HUDRAULIC TURBINE

Characteristics curves of a hydraulic turbine are the curves, with the help of which the exact
behaviour and performance of turbine under different condition can be known. These curves
are plotted from the results of the test performed on the turbine under the different working
condition.

The important parameters which are varied during the test on turbine are :

1. Speed (N) 2. Head (H)

3. Discharge (Q) 4. Power (P)

5. Overall efficiency (η0) 5. Gate opening

 Out of the above six parameters, three parameters namely speed (N), Head (H) and discharge
(Q) are independent parameters. Out of the three independent parameters (N,H,Q), one of the
parameter is kept constant (say H) and variation of other four parameters with respect to any
one of the remaining two independent variables (say N and Q ) are plotted and various curves
are obtained. These curves are called characteristic curves. The following are important.

Characteristics curves of a turbine:

1. Main Characteristics Curves or Constant Head Curves.

2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves.
3. Muschel Curves or Constant Efficiency Curves.

2.8.8.1 Main Characteristics Curves or Constant Head Curves

Main characteristics curves are obtained by

maintaining a constant head and a constant gate
opening (G.O.) on the turbine. The speed of the
turbine is varied by changing load on turbine.
For each value of the speed, the corresponding
value of the power (P) and discharge (Q) are
obtained. Then the overall efficiency (η0) for
each value of speed is calculated. From these
reading the value of unit speed (Nu ), unit power
(Pu) and unit discharge(Qu) are determined. By
changing the gate opening, the values of Qu , Pu
and η0 and Nu are determined and taking Nu as
abscissa, the values of Qu , Pu and η0 are plotted.
Fig. 2.46 shows the main characteristics curves
for reaction (Francis and Kaplan) turbines.

(a) (b)
 (c) (d)
Fig.2.46 Main Characteristic curves of Pelton turbine

Fig 2.47 Main Characteristic curves of Reaction turbine

2.8.8.2 Operating Characteristics Curves or Constant Speed Curves

Operating Characteristics Curves are plotted when the speed on turbine is constant. In case of
turbine, the head is generally constant. There are three independent parameters namely N, H
and Q. For operating characteristics N and H are constant and hence the variation of power
and efficiency with respect to discharge Q are plotted. The power and efficiency curves are
slightly away from the origin X-Axis, as to overcome initial friction certain amount of
discharge will be required. Fig. 8.10 shows the variation of power and efficiency with respect
to discharge.
 Fig 2.48 Operating Characteristic Curves

2.8.8.3 Efficiency Curves or Muschel Curves or ISO-Efficiency Curves

Fig 2.49 Constant efficiency curve

These curves are obtained from the speed vs. efficiency and speed vs. discharge curves for
different gate openings. For a given efficiency from Nu vs. η0 curves, there are two speeds.
From the Nu vs. Curves corresponding to two values of discharge. Hence for given efficiency
there are two values of discharge for a particular gate opening. This means for a given
efficiency there are two values of speed and two values of discharge for a given opening. If
the efficiency is maximum there is only one value. These two value of speed and two values
of discharge corresponding to a particular gate opening are plotted as shown in Fig. 2.49

The procedure is repeated for different gate openings and the curves Q vs. N are plotted. The
points having the same efficiency are joined. The curves having same efficiency are called
iso-effeciency curves. These curves are helpful for determining the zone of constant
efficiency and for predicting of the turbine at various efficiencies.
2.8.9 DERIAZ TURBINE
A Deriaz machine is similar to a Kaplan machine but has inclined blades. It is particularly
suitable for head range between Kaplan and Francis turbines. It utilized the idea of Kaplan
Turbine in which maximum efficiency is attained at variable loads condition, the use of
movable blade runner. In a Deriaz runner the blades instead of being at right angles to the hub
will be inclined at an angle of 45º, it is stated that a runner of this type can be used for a head
upto 200m.

Fig 2.50 Deriaz turbine

2.8.9.1 Bulb (Tabular Turbine)

Aron Fischer in 1973 developed in Germany a modified axial flow turbine which was known
as tabular turbine. The turbo-generator set using tabular turbine has an outer casing having
the shape of bulb. Such a set is now termed as bulb set and the turbine used for the set is
called a bulb turbine. The bulb unit is a water tight assembly of turbine and generator of
horizontal axis, submerged in stream of water. Such a revolutionary concept has led to
complete modification of the usual arrangement of various elements that constitute a low
head unit. The axis of rotation coincides with the axis of the passage of the water, which is
generally straight. The economical harnessing of fairly low heads on major rivers is now
possible with high-output bulb turbines. The idea of such axial flow rectilinear draft tube
machine is quite old, but its application could not be developed until the electrical
engineering succeeded in producing a highly compact and alternator and hydraulic experts
took full advantage of bulb turbine forms to increase output and specific speed.

Advantages of Bulb set over the use of Kaplan turbines

  The bulb sets can be employed at very low head sites.
 The width of plant is less because of absence of spiral casing.
 Reduction of cost up to 30% as compared to conventional Kaplan installation is
possible.
 A high speed of rotation can be secured through suitable gearing and thus the size of
the generator unit and consequently that of the bulb can be reduced.
 Maximum turbine efficiency is increased by about 30% due to almost straight flow
and straight draft tube.
 Under equivalent conditions of head, the runner diameter and efficiency, the bulb
units are capable of passing higher discharge than the conventional Kaplan turbine.
 In view of 4, 5 and 6 stated above, the specific speed of bulb turbine is higher than
the Kaplan turbine.
 There is reduced loss of efficiency at part loads.
 The unit is better suited for operation on widely varying loads.
Disadvantages of Bulb set over the use of Kaplan turbines

 Since the bulb set is completely submerged under pressure, water leakage into the
generator chamber and condensation are source of trouble. Although improvements in
water-proofing and sealing techniques have reduced this problem considerably, this
can still become maintenance problem due to high humidity inside the chamber
resulting in gradual deterioration of electrical insulation.
 The electrical techniques also involve considerable amount of double handling of
equipments and it is doubtful whether any saving is the erection time can be effected
as compared to the conventional Kaplan type.
Field of Application of Bulb Set

 On the higher head, it is limited to about 15m, beyond this head, bulb turbines
have little advantage over Kaplan type.
 On the low head, bulb set can offer the greater benefits; the limit is economic in
character. The large unit discharge at low head resulting in very low rotational
speed and excessive plant cost. The higher rotational speed can be obtained by
subdividing the discharge in number of bulb set.
 The profitability limit for bulb set is in the region of few hundred HP
For 2m head and10,000 to 30,000 HP for 5 to7 head.

2.8.10 SPECIFIC QUANTITIES AND UNIT QUANTITIES

(a) Specific Flow rate : Flow a centrifugal pump or reaction turbine.

Q = (п D B) Vm

Where width (B) is the function of the D (diameter)

Or B = K1 D

θ = п k1 D2 V m

and Vm α √ H
 Q α п K1 D2 √H

Q α D2 √H ……………….(26)

Q = Qs D2 √H ……………(27)

Where Qs is the constant and is known as specific flow rate

Qs = Q / D2 √H ……………(28)

If D=1 H=1

Qs = Q

So for unit head, unit dia. Of runner required flow rate is called specific flow rate.

(b) Unit flow rate : Equation (26) given below

Q α D2 √H

If D = Const.

Qα√H

Q = Qu √ H …………………(29)

θu is known as unit flow rate.

Qu = Q / √ H

(c) Specific power : Power(p) α QH

Q α D2 √H

p α D2 √H H

p α D2 √H3/2 …………(30)

p = Ps D2 H2/3 …………(31)

specific power (Ps) = P/(D2 H3/2)

(d) Unit power : Equation (30) given below.
P α D2 H3/2 if D = Const.

P α H3/2

P = Pu H3/2 …………(32)

Unit power Pu = P / H3/2

(e) Specific force : F = ρQ (Vu2 – Vu1)

Or F = ρ Q D Vu

Q α D2 √ H and Vu2 α √ H

F α d2 h ………..(33)

F = Fs D2 H ………..(34)

Specific force Fs = F /D2 H

(f) Unit force : Equation (33) given below.

F α D2 H (If D = Const.)

Fαh

F = Fu H

Unit force Fu = F / H

(g) Unit Speed : For a turbine or centrifugal pump.

Blade velocity (V) = п D N /60

or N α U /D

and U α √H, N α √H / D if D = const.

 N α √H

N = No √H

Where Nu = unit speed

Unit speed Nu = N /√H

(h) Specific speed of turbine

Blade velocity (V) = п D1 N / 60

u α √H

D1 α √H

From the equation

p α D2 H 3/2

p α (√ H / N)2 H3/2 , p α HH5/2/N2

N α √ (H5/2 / p)

N = Ns √H5/2 / √Pt

Or Specific speed (Ns) = N√Pt / h 5/4

Specific speed of turbine is defined speed of turbine working under unit head and delivering
unit horse power output.

If H = 1 and p = 1 H.P.

Ns = N