Professional Documents
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RESEARCH
Alan Hreljac, PhD 6
Claude T. Moorman, III, MD 7
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Study Design: A repeated-measures, counterbalanced design. Conclusions: The Ab Slide and Torso Track
Objectives: To test the effectiveness of 7 commercial abdominal machines (Ab Slide, Ab Twister,
Copyright © 2006 Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®. All rights reserved.
REPORT
Ab Rocker, Ab Roller, Ab Doer, Torso Track, SAM) and 2 common abdominal exercises (crunch, abdominal and upper extremity muscles while
bent-knee sit-up) on activating abdominal and extraneous (nonabdominal) musculature. minimizing low back and rectus femoris (hip
Background: Numerous abdominal machine exercises are believed to be effective in activating flexion) activity. The Ab Doer, Ab Twister, Ab
abdominal musculature and minimizing low back stress, but there are minimal data to substantiate Rocker, SAM, and bent-knee sit-up may be
these claims. Many of these exercises also activate nonabdominal musculature, which may or may problematic for individuals with low back pa-
not be beneficial. thologies due to relatively high rectus femoris
Methods and Measures: A convenience sample of 14 subjects performed 5 repetitions for each activity. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2006;36:45-
exercise. Electromyographic (EMG) data were recorded for upper and lower rectus abdominis, 57.
external and internal oblique, pectoralis major, triceps brachii, latissimus dorsi, lumbar
Key words: EMG, low back pain,
Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®
paraspinals, and rectus femoris, and then normalized by maximum muscle contractions.
Results: Upper and lower rectus abdominis EMG activities were greatest for the Ab Slide, Torso lumbar spine, rectus abdominis,
Track, crunch, and Ab Roller, while external and internal oblique EMG activities were greatest for sit-up
the Ab Slide, Torso Track, crunch, and bent-knee sit-up. Pectoralis major, triceps brachii, and
latissimus dorsi EMG activities were greatest for the Ab Slide and Torso Track. Lumbar paraspinal
EMG activities were greatest for the Ab Doer, while rectus femoris EMG activities were greatest for
S
the bent-knee sit-up, SAM, Ab Twister, Ab Rocker, and Ab Doer. trong abdominals are im-
portant for stabilizing
1
the trunk and helping
Associate Professor of Physical Therapy, California State University Sacramento, Sacramento, CA.
2
Graduate student (at the time of study), Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC. unload stress in the lum-
3
Student (at the time of study), Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC. bar spine.3,13 Abdominal
4
Student (at the time of study), California State University Sacramento, Sacramento, CA. muscles (rectus abdominis, exter-
5
Lieutenant, Medical Service Corps, US Navy, Naval Health Research Center, San Diego, CA.
6
Associate Professor of Kinesiology and Health Science, California State University Sacromento, nal oblique, internal oblique, and
Sacromento, CA. transverse abdominal) are com-
7
Associate Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC. monly strengthened by actively
The protocol used in this study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Duke University
Medical Center, Durham, NC. The authors of this manuscript affirm we have no financial affiliation flexing the trunk with a concentric
(including research funding) or involvement with any commercial organization that has a direct financial muscle action or by resisting trunk
interest in any matter included in this manuscript. extension (due to an external
Address correspondence to Rafael Escamilla, Associate Professor of Physical Therapy, California State
University Sacramento, Department of Physical Therapy, 6000 J Street, Sacramento, CA 95819-6020. force such as gravity) with an iso-
E-mail: rescamil@csus.edu metric or eccentric muscle action.
position.
There are numerous commercially available ab-
dominal machines that are believed to be effective in
activating abdominal musculature and minimizing
low back stress, but there are little or no scientific
research data to substantiate these beliefs. While
there are numerous studies that examined muscle
activity during more traditional abdominal exercises,
such as the sit-up or crunch exercises,3,14,16,26,27 there
Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®
METHODS
Subjects
To optimize the EMG signal, this study was limited
to a convenience sample of 14 healthy, young subjects
(7 male and 7 female) who had normal or below
normal amounts of body fat for their age group.
Baseline skinfold calipers (model 68900; Country
Technology, Inc, Gays Mill, WI) and appropriate
regression equations were used to assess percent body
fat, and standards set by the American College of
Sports Medicine were used to determine normal or FIGURE 4. Ab Twister.
below normal amounts of body fat.4 Mean (±SD) age,
RESEARCH
mass, height, and percent body fat were 24.1 ± 5.4
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REPORT
FIGURE 5. Torso Track.
Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®
FIGURE 6. Ab Slide.
Exercise Descriptions
The 7 abdominal machine exercises were the Ab
Rocker (Figure 1), Ab Roller (Figure 2), Ab Doer
(Figure 3), Ab Twister (Figure 4), Torso Track
(Figure 5), Ab Slide (Figure 6), and SAM (Figure 7).
FIGURE 3. Ab Doer. The 2 common abdominal exercises tested were the
RESEARCH
similar to how each subject would adjust the resis- muscle, covers the internal oblique)20; (e) sternal
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tance and use the equipment if they purchased it for pectoralis major, positioned horizontally 2 cm medial
home use. The selected resistance during the pretest to the axillary fold; (f) triceps brachii long head,
session was also used for that subject during the positioned vertically over the long head muscle belly
testing session. For each exercise, each subject used a near midline of the arm approximately halfway be-
resistance that enabled the subject to correctly per- tween the acromion and olecranon; (g) latissimus
form at least 15 consecutive repetitions using the dorsi, positioned obliquely (approximately 25° from
Copyright © 2006 Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®. All rights reserved.
REPORT
3-second cadence described above. It was not possible horizontal in an inferomedial direction) 4 cm below
to normalize all exercises with exactly the same inferior angle of the scapula; (h) rectus femoris,
relative intensity because the Ab Roller, Ab Slide, positioned vertically near midline of thigh approxi-
crunch, and bent-knee sit-up used the body only as mately halfway between ASIS and proximal patella;
an external resistance, while the remaining exercises and (i) lumbar paraspinals, positioned vertically 3 cm
used resistance bands in addition to body as external lateral to spine and near level of iliac crest between
resistance. In addition, even when the maximum L3 and L4 vertebrae. A ground (reference) electrode
resistance possible was used for the Ab Doer, Ab was positioned over the skin of the right acromion
Twister, and Ab Rocker, all subjects indicated that process. Electrode cables were connected to the
Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®
they were capable of performing these exercises with electrodes and taped to skin appropriately to mini-
more resistance. A metronome (set at 1 beat per mize pull on the electrodes and movement of the
second) was used to help ensure proper cadence cables.
both during the pretest and testing sessions. Once a Once the electrodes were positioned, the subject
subject was able to correctly perform each exercise warmed up and practiced the exercises as needed,
with the proper cadence, a testing session was sched- then data collection commenced. EMG data were
uled. collected using a Noraxon 16-channel telemyo EMG
Neuroline (Medicotest Marketing, Inc, Ballwin, unit (Noraxon USA, Inc, Scottsdale, AZ), and the
MO) disposable surface electrodes (type 720-00-S) amplifier bandwidth frequency was 10 to 500 Hz. The
were used to collect EMG data. These oval-shaped input impedance of the amplifier was 20 000 k⍀ and
electrodes (22 mm wide and 30 mm long) were the common-mode rejection ratio was 130 dB. EMG
placed in a bipolar electrode configuration along the data were sampled at 1000 Hz, recorded by a
longitudinal axis of each muscle, with a center-to- transmitter and amplifier, and broadcast to a receiver
center distance of approximately 3 cm between elec- interfaced to a computer. The recorded signals were
trodes. Prior to positioning the electrodes over each processed through an analog-to-digital (A/D) con-
muscle, the skin was prepared by shaving, abrading, verter by a 16-bit A/D board.
and cleaning with isopropyl alcohol wipes to reduce EMG data were collected during 5 repetitions for
skin impedance values, which typically were less than each exercise, with all exercises performed in a
10 k⍀. Electrode pairs were then placed on the randomized order. Each repetition was performed in
major, body supine with right shoulder flexed 90° and oblique) exercises, and lowest for the Ab Twister
and internally rotated, the right forearm supinated, (crunch and oblique), Ab Rocker (crunch and ob-
and the right elbow slightly flexed, with resistance at lique), and Ab Doer (good morning, body boogie,
the right distal arm and forearm in the horizontal and body bob) exercises. Lower rectus abdominis
abduction direction; (d) triceps long head, body EMG activities were greatest for the Ab Slide (straight
prone with right shoulder abducted 90° and right and curved) and Torso Track exercises, and lowest
elbow flexed 45°, with resistance at the right distal
Copyright © 2006 Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®. All rights reserved.
TABLE 1. Average EMG (±SD) for each muscle and exercise expressed as a % of maximum isometric voluntary contraction.
Sternal
Upper Rectus Lower Rectus External Internal Pectoralis Triceps Latissimus Lumbar Rectus
Abdominis* Abdominis* Oblique* Oblique* Major* Long Head* Dorsi* Paraspinals* Femoris*
Ab Slide (straight) 67 ± 26 72 ± 19 40 ± 16 53 ± 15 23 ± 7 30 ± 12 10 ± 4 3 ± 2k 5 ± 3fhj
Ab Slide (curved) 61 ± 24 66 ± 19 42 ± 17 51 ± 15 20 ± 9 26 ± 12 10 ± 3 2 ± 2k 9 ± 7f
Torso Track 67 ± 25 72 ± 17 32 ± 18 58 ± 14 20 ± 8 26 ± 11 10 ± 5 2 ± 2k 6 ± 5fhj
Crunch (normal) 51 ± 9 50 ± 8ab 16 ± 11af 41 ± 9 4 ± 3abgi 1 ± 1ab 5 ± 1g 2 ± 1k 3 ± 2fhj
Crunch (oblique) 50 ± 15 39 ± 14ab 32 ± 22 40 ± 11 6 ± 5agi 2 ± 2ab 8±5 5 ± 3k 3 ± 2fhj
Bent knee sit-up 38 ± 12ab 44 ± 13ab 41 ± 16 49 ± 21 8 ± 6ag 2 ± 2ab 6 ± 3g 4 ± 2k 36 ± 16
SAM 42 ± 17ab 50 ± 20ab 31 ± 21 36 ± 13b 26 ± 15 10 ± 6ab 12 ± 6 4 ± 2k 20 ± 15
Ab Roller (crunch) 46 ± 17 42 ± 12ab 13 ± 8af 38 ± 9b 7 ± 5agi 3 ± 2ab 5 ± 2g 3 ± 2k 1 ± 1fhj
Ab Roller (oblique) 49 ± 12 36 ± 16ab 20 ± 9 25 ± 11abf 5 ± 3abgi 3 ± 2ab 6 ± 2g 3 ± 2k 2 ± 2fhj
Ab Twister (crunch) 19 ± 8abcde 19 ± 10abcdefg 21 ± 12 22 ± 9abf 13 ± 11 7 ± 3ab 5 ± 2g 4 ± 3k 27 ± 19
Ab Twister (oblique) 20 ± 7abcde 22 ± 11abcfg 33 ± 18 28 ± 11abf 22 ± 15 5 ± 4ab 6 ± 2g 5 ± 6k 24 ± 14
Ab Rocker (crunch) 15 ± 8abcdefg 13 ± 5abcdefg 22 ± 11 24 ± 8abf 7 ± 7agi 6 ± 4ab 6 ± 3g 4 ± 3k 30 ± 21
Ab Rocker (oblique) 14 ± 10abcdefg 14 ± 8abcdefg 31 ± 18 23 ± 8abf 6 ± 6agi 7 ± 4ab 5 ± 2g 3 ± 1k 21 ± 16
Ab Doer (good morning) 14 ± 7abcdefg 14 ± 5abcdefg 16 ± 11af 22 ± 13abf 4 ± 4abgi 2 ± 1ab 2 ± 2abg 15 ± 7 12 ± 11f
Ab Doer (body boogie) 12 ± 4abcdefg 11 ± 6abcdefg 24 ± 10 31 ± 13b 3 ± 2abgi 1 ± 1ab 2 ± 1abg 13 ± 8 24 ± 19
Ab Doer (body bob) 7 ± 5abcdefg 7 ± 4abcdefg 30 ± 19 37 ± 18b 2 ± 2abgi 2 ± 1ab 1 ± 1abg 8±3 16 ± 14f
* Significant difference (P ⬍ .001) in EMG activity among abdominal exercises based on a 1-way repeated-measures analysis of variance.
Key to pairwise comparisons (P ⬍ .01):
51
REPORT RESEARCH
100
90
80
Normalized EMG (%MVIC)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
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FIGURE 10. Upper rectus abdominis normalized mean (SD) EMG activity among exercises.
100
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90
80
Normalized EMG (%MVIC)
70
60
Copyright © 2006 Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®. All rights reserved.
50
40
30
20
10
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Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®
SA
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FIGURE 11. Lower rectus abdominis normalized mean (SD) EMG activity among exercises.
greater for the Ab Slide (straight and curved) and boogie, and body bob) exercises compared to all
Torso Track exercises compared to all other exercises. other exercises. Rectus femoris EMG activities were
Latissimus dorsi EMG activities were greatest for the greatest for the bent-knee sit-up, SAM, Ab Twister
Ab Slide (straight and curved), Torso Track, SAM, (crunch and oblique), Ab Rocker (crunch and ob-
crunch (oblique), and Ab Twister (oblique) exercises, lique), and Ab Doer (body boogie) exercises, and
and lowest for the Ab Doer (good morning, body lowest for the Ab Roller (crunch and oblique), Ab
boogie, and body bob) and Ab Roller (crunch) Slide (straight), Torso Track, and crunch (normal
exercises. and oblique) exercises. The relative effectiveness of
Lumbar paraspinal EMG activities were significantly exercises in muscle recruitment of the trunk, upper
greater for the Ab Doer (good morning, body extremity, and hip musculature is shown in Table 2.
60
Normalized EMG (%MVIC)
50
40
30
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FIGURE 12. External oblique normalized mean (SD) EMG activity among exercises.
RESEARCH
80
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70
Normalized EMG (%MVIC)
60
50
40
Copyright © 2006 Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®. All rights reserved.
REPORT
30
20
10
0
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Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®
ur
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FIGURE 13. Internal oblique normalized mean (SD) EMG activity among exercises.
may occur when performing many of the commercial was significantly greater in the crunch and Torso
abdominal machines used in the current study, the Track compared to the Ab Doer (good morning).
TABLE 2. Relative muscle recruitment of the trunk, upper extremity, and hip musculature. Note: the Ab Slide (straight and curved) and
Torso Track were the exercises that produced the greatest activation of the abdominal, oblique, and upper extremity musculature, while
only minimally recruiting the hip flexors.
Copyright © 2006 Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®. All rights reserved.
RESEARCH
lique activity, are significantly greater in the bent- The Ab Slide and Ab Roller were the only 2
knee sit-up compared to the crunch.1-3,16 However, commercial exercises in which resistance could not
Downloaded from www.jospt.org at on September 22, 2021. For personal use only. No other uses without permission.
upper and lower rectus abdominis activities have be adjusted. This may account for more moderate
been shown to be greater in the crunch compared to amounts of muscle activity in the Ab Roller (because
the bent-knee sit-up.6,14 In addition, like the current resistance could not be added to make it harder) and
study, hip flexor activity has been shown to be greater higher amounts of muscle activity in the Ab Slide
in the bent-knee sit-up compared to the crunch.3,16 (because there was no way to make it easier).
However, the Torso Track, which is performed in the
Copyright © 2006 Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®. All rights reserved.
REPORT
same manner as the Ab Slide and did have resistance
The Role of Abdominal Muscles in Trunk Stability bands that could be adjusted to make it easier or
harder, had nearly identical muscle activity compared
The role of the abdominal muscles, especially the to the Ab Slide. The subjects used in the current
transverse abdominal and internal oblique, in en- study were all relatively young, active individuals who
hancing spinal and pelvic stabilization and increasing all used the Torso Track in a more difficult resistance
intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) has been well studied, setting. This more difficult resistance may be appro-
but still remains controversial.9,10,15,22,25 IAP has been priate for younger more active individuals, but older,
shown to unload the spine by generating a trunk less active, or weaker individuals may not be able to
Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®
extensor moment and tensile loading to the spine.11 correctly perform the Ab Slide due to its difficulty
By making the trunk a more solid cylinder by the IAP level. In addition, all subjects set the resistance for
mechanism, there is a reduction in spinal axial the Ab Doer, Ab Rocker, and Ab Twister to the
compression and shear loads. The attachments of the maximum number of resistance bands that could fit
transverse abdominal and internal oblique into the on each device. Even with maximal resistance, these 3
thoracolumbar fascia may enhance spinal and pelvic commercial abdominal devices recorded the lowest
stabilization, because when these muscles contract amount of abdominal activity. In contrast, the Ab
they tense the thoracolumbar fascia. The transverse Slide, Ab Roller, and Torso Track generated signifi-
abdominal, which is the deepest of the 4 abdominal cantly greater abdominal and oblique muscle activity
muscles, has been shown to exhibit a similar (within compared to the Ab Doer, Ab Rocker, and Ab Twister.
15%) muscle activation pattern and amplitude as the
internal oblique muscle during many of the same Extraneous (Nonabdominal) Muscle Activity
trunk flexion movements (eg, bent-knee sit-up,
crunch) used in the current study.16,17 The highest There are no studies that we are aware of that have
EMG activities from the internal oblique were for the reported extraneous muscle activity for abdominal
Ab Slide, Torso Track, crunch, and bent-knee sit-up machine exercises. Of the exercises tested, the Ab
exercises, which implies that these exercises may offer Slide and Torso Track produced the greatest activa-
more effective stabilization to the spine and pelvis tion of the upper extremity musculature, including
compared to the other exercises. the sternal pectoralis major, triceps brachii, and
that psoas EMG magnitudes are typically within ap- some exercises, such as the Torso Track and Ab Slide,
proximately 10% of rectus femoris EMG magni- should also be considered when examining injury risk
tudes.16,17 From these data it can be hypothesized to the low back. Unfortunately, it is unknown how
that psoas activity, like rectus femoris activity, is much L5-S1 shear force is generated while perform-
relatively low during the Ab Slide and Torso Track. ing the Torso Track and Ab Slide, and whether or
However, because the Torso Track and Ab Slide are not these forces are high enough to be problematic
in some patients with low back pathologies.
Copyright © 2006 Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®. All rights reserved.
upper body workout. The greater relative intensity therefore is susceptible to considerable EMG crosstalk
and number of muscles used during the Ab Slide and from this muscle. However, it has been shown that
Torso Track exercises implies that these exercises may the internal oblique is only covered by the
also achieve a greater energy expenditure compared aponeurosis of the external oblique, and not the
to the other exercises. Moreover, tension in the external oblique muscle, within the triangle confined
latissimus dorsi in addition to the internal oblique by the inguinal ligament, lateral border of the rectus
(and presumably the transverse abdominal), which all sheath, and a line connecting the ASISs.20 Therefore,
tense the thoracolumbar fascia, may enhance trunk surface electrodes are appropriate to use for the
stabilization while performing these exercises. It internal oblique when electrode placement is within
should also be emphasized that cocontraction of the this area, especially when clinical questions are being
lumbar paraspinal muscles, along with abdominal and discussed and if a small percentage of EMG crosstalk
latissimus dorsi musculature, may enhance trunk is acceptable. In fact, it has been shown that when
stability and spine stiffness. Although excessive activity performing trunk flexion exercises similar to those in
from the lumbar paraspinals can cause high compres- the current study, mean internal and external ob-
sive and shear (especially at the L5-S1) forces on the lique EMG data from surface electrodes (similarly
lumbar spine, 3,16,23 the relatively low lumbar located as in the current study) were only approxi-
paraspinal activity in all the exercises tested is prob- mately 10% different compared to mean internal and
ably not high enough to by itself cause deleterious external oblique EMG data from intramuscular elec-
effects to the lumbar spine. trodes.17 These authors demonstrated that appropri-
RESEARCH
17. McGill S, Juker D, Kropf P. Appropriately placed surface
We would like to acknowledge Mike Andrawes,
EMG electrodes reflect deep muscle activity (psoas,
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Tracy Lowry, and Mark Adams for all their help in quadratus lumborum, abdominal wall) in the lumbar
data collection and analyses in this project. spine. J Biomech. 1996;29:1503-1507.
18. Nachemson A. Lumbar intradiscal pressure. In: Jayson
MIV, ed. The lumbar Spine and Back Pain. Edinburg,
Scotland: Churchill Livingstone; 1987:191-203.
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Copyright © 2006 Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®. All rights reserved.
REPORT
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