5 Spokenlanguage serv ice encounrers (shops, ticket offict

intervicws (jobs, joumalistic, in offici:

class roorn (classes, seminars, lccrures,
riruals (church pray ers, sermons, wed.
monologues (spceches, srories, jokcs)
language-in-acrion (ralk accompan ,
assernbl ing, demonsrraring, etc.)
casual co nversarion (srrangers, friends
'Speak when you're spoken to!' organ ising and direcring people {work
the Queen sharply interrupted
her. Until large corpora of natural speech are a
'But if everybody obeyed that ~ask. ~i\'en rhe problems oE recording su.
rule,' said Alice , who was mtuinon as langu age reachers ro decide I
always ready íor a little argu­ central and useful ro investigare and practi.
ment, 'and if you only spoke we can be confidenr thar sueh areas as cas
when you were spoken to, and actio n, monologu es o f various kinds, relej
the other person always waited and, frorn the point oE view of evaluar ing
Ior youto begin , you see nobody c1assroom ralk, will all be wo rth investig.
would ever say anything.' clearly.
\Y/e have already rouched on classroom ra
Lewis Carrol!: T1rrough lhe Looklng ham sehool oE discourse analysts in secrio
Glass secrion 1.7 in connexion wirh the erhnornerl
shall look closely ar whar has been said al
diEferenr types of ralk and consider wherhi
5.1 Introduction raughr or practised ro assisr language lean
necessarily assurne rhar, beeause somethii
So far in this book we have looked a l d iscourse analysis in general and, in rherefore be raughr, We shall begin wirh sm
greate r derail, ar rhe way grammar, lexis and phonology have been ones.
approaehed by discourse analysts, Our rask now is ro look closer at var ious
man ifesrarions of discourse, in rhis chaprer spoken and in rhe nexr wr irren,
with a view ro porential applicarions inlanguagc teaching. \Y/e ha ve alr eady 5.2 Adjacency pairs
srared as our ongoing conc ern the establishm ent of J S accurare :1 picrure as
possible of natural discourse, in order ro have rhis as a yardsrick fo r judging Pairs oE urrcrances in talk are often mutua
approaches ro language teaching and for cvalu aring what goes on in exarnple is rhar a quesrion predicrs an answ
c1assrooms and rhe ourput of \carners. poses a question . Ir is possible ro srate ti
Spoken language is a vasr subjecr, and lirrle is known in hard srarisrical conversational sequence, for many rypes of
rerms of rhe disrr ibur ion of difEerenr rypes oEspecch in people's everyday expecred as a respon se and what cerrain
lives. If we Iisr at randorn a nurnber oE differenr types oEspeech and consider exarnples rnight be:
how rnuch oE each day or week we spend engaged in each on e, we can only
roughly guess ar sorne sorr of frequency ranking, orher rhan ro say rhat Utterance [unction Expected response
casual conversación is almost cerrainly rhe mosr frequenr for rnosr people. greering greering
The resr will depend on our daily occupation and whar sorrs of co nracrs we congratularion rhanks
have wirh orhers, So me differenr types of specch mighr be: apology acceprance
inform acknowledge
relephone calls (busi ness and pri vare) leave-raking leave-raking
118

E

· re spoken to!'
ply interrupted
y obeyed that
ce, who was
Ir a little argu­
ou only spoke
spoken lo, and
always wailed
t OU see nobody
mything.'
r1ugh Ihe Loo/cíng
d ar discoursc analysis in general and, in
irnar, lexis and phonology have been
O ur task now is to look closer ar various
S cha p ter spoken and in the ncxt wrirten,
ns in language teaching. We havc already
stablishrnent of as accurare a picture as
der tú have rhis as a yardstick for judging
~ and for evaluaring whar go es on in
icrs.
-ct, and lirrlc is known in hard statisrical
cm types of speech in pcople's everyda y
r o f dilferenr rypes of speech and consider
: spend engaged in each one, we can only
-q uency ranking, orher than ro say rhar
ainly the most frequenr for rnosr people.
xxuparion and whar sorts of contacts we
ypes of speech rnighr be:
1 priva te)
5.2 Adjacency pairs
servicc encounters (sh ops, ticket o ffices , erc.)
inrerviews (jobs, journalisric, in official serrings)
classroorn (classcs, scrn inars, lecrures, rurorials)
riruals (ch ur ch prayers, se r mo ns, weddings)
monologues (speeches, srorics, jokcs]
language-in-action (talk accompanying doing: fixing , cooking,
assembling, dernonsrraring, ete. )
casual conversarion (stra ngers, friends, intimares )
organising and directing peoplc (work, home , in rhe srreer)
Until large corpora of natural speech are assernbled (and that is no small
rask given rhe problerns of recording such data), ' we have to rely 011
intuition a s Ianguage teachers tú decide which forms of ralk are rnost
central and useful tu investigare and pracrise with groups o f lcarners. Bur
we can be confident rhar such arcas as casual conversarion, language-in­
acrion, monologues of various kinds, telephone calls, scrvice cncounrers
and, from rhe point of view of evaluaring whar goes on in classrooms,
classroom ralk, wiII all be worrh investigaring and undersranding more
cIearly.
We have already rouched on c1assroom talk as described by thc Birrning­
ham scho o l of discoursc analysts in section 1.5, and un convcrsarion in
section 1.7 in connexion wirh rhe erhnomerhodological approach. Here we
shall look closely ar what has been said abour rhe forms and patrerns of
differenr types of talk and consider whether there are things thar can be
taught or pracrised ro a ssisr language learning. We shall, as always, not
necessarily assume rhat, beca use something can be described, ir must
rherefore be taughr. \Ve shall begin wirh small units and work up to larger
ones.
5.2 Adjacency pairs
Pairs of urterances in talk are ofrcn murually" dependent; a most obvious
example is rhar a quesrion predicts an answer, and rhat an answer presup­
poses a quesrion. lt is possible ro state the requirernents, in a normal
conversarional sequence, for many types of utrcrances, in rerrns of whar is
expected as a response and what certain responses presuppose. Sorne
examples rnight be:
Utteranee funetion Expected response
greering grceting
congratularion thanks
apology acceptance
inform acknowledge
leave-raking lea ve-taking
119
E
5 Spoken languagc
(5.1 ) A : \\í'ould you like ro come over foc
Pairs of urrcranccs s uch a s grel'ting-xrcetillg alld arJo!ogy-acce/ltallCl' Me
B: Ycs, rh ar would be nice. (ac ,
callcd adjacency pairs (sec Sehegloff and Sacks 1973 ). Thc mutual dcp{:llo,
Yt: S, if it could be ¡¡ftcr six , (a{',
ence of such utreranccs is underlined by rhc lact rhar wc can onlv be
No. (rej
absolurcly surc of rhe [un ction of rhc iniriaring utrerunce (rhc (irst {Jair~part
as ir ís usualj y ca lled) when ir is conrcxrualised wirh rhe response ir gets (the Wc probably reacr ugainst rhe bald No ansv
second pair-parti , and vice versa (rhus 'hello' in Engli sh could be a greering, more elaborare srrucrure for rhe response:
a requesr to a relephone caller [O idenrify rhernsclves, or an cxpression of (5.3) B: Thanks vef)' much, but 1'111 afrai l
surprisc: 'Helio! Whar's this here?'). This ís ro reiterare rhe problern of form whar ab our . . . (etc .)
and funcríon raised in scction 1.2. In cxarnple (5.1) rhe irnperative first
pair-parr can be c1assified funcrionally as an informing moue, in lighr of the We can segmenr rhe polirc refusal of the
acknoioledging secon d pair-parr it rcceives : ('rhanks very much'), soltener (l'rn afraid')
[ace -sauer ('what abour . .. ') . This patt~
(5.1) (On a train) bctween adulr Iriends, colleagucs, etc. in i
Ticket collecror: (in spccring pa ssengcr's ticket ) Change ar More intimare siruations rnay welI ornir
Peterborough.
elernents will have several possible realisatic
Passenger: Thank you .
in la.nguage learning in a systemati c way ,
(Authors ¡¡cld n OI CS)
~Ifferellt roles and settings will generan
adiacency parrs , and di scourse analysrs rry I
what partcrnsoccur in particular settings.
Reader activity 1 ...-o ~on.lpa.red nanve and non-narive speakers'
mvitanons. The nar ive speakers prefaced
Look at these extracts from natural data and consider the differenr func­ wondering, uh, we're having a party .. . '
tions of tlran]: you in each case. Follow-up moves such as 'uor at all' I 'thar's sornetirnes too formal or roo blunt (e.g. '1
okay' I 'you're wclcorne' would not be appropriate hcre in Brirish English; party'; '1 want you ro come in a parry'). ~
why nor? Can you think of any culture or language where rhey u/ould be speakers usually preface disagreemenl seco
realised? partial agreernenr ('yes, bur ... ') and with
1. Bus co nd uc to r: Onc pound twenty .
son of observarion has direct implicarions I
Passcnger: (givcs [1.20)
similar acrivities and whar linguistic elerneru
Conductor: Thank you .
learners are instructed ro behave in ways spe
Passenger: Thank you .
rhe goal is a simularion of 'real Jife' djscour~
2 . (Uni versiry seminar ; le<:tlirer is fa<:ing the cb ss, using an Observarion of rhe behaviour of nativc
ovcrhead proiector.) a!!-importam, and differenccs in such bch :
SrudClH : !t's nor focused. pinpoím línguiscic deficiencies whích can be
Lccrurcr: Thank Y0l! (adjllsts rhe projector). panicular areas and realísarions. Trosbo
srudicd apology strategies, found thar bec
perence, her non-narive speaker subjecrs
Adjacency pairs are of diffcrem types . Sornc rirualísed firsr pair-parrs may apology formulae rhan did nari ve speaker
have an idenrical seeond pair-part (hel/o - helio, happy New Year - happy used other srrategies sueh as 'repair offers'
New Year) , while others expect a differem second paír-pan (congratula­ another one'), or even challenged the ac(
tions - thanks). EquaIly, a second pair-part such as thanks will presuppose speakers elaborated the apology, bur one n
quite a wide range of first pair-parts (offers, apologies, informing moves, ment to dó rhis in an L2. Agair:, rhis e
congrarularions, comrniseraríons, ete.). Orher hrst pair-parts have various pre -reaching particular srrategies and the
possibilities and generare fLlrther cxpectarions too; cake, for example, ocherwise, role plays can beco me no mor
invitation: cerrain to faíl.

120

ting-grceti ng and apoíogy-acceptanr¿ are
o ff and Sacks 1973). The mutual dcp~nd­
r1 ined by rhe facr rhar we can only he
f the init ia ti ng urrerance (rhe firsl paír-part
o ntcx ru a lised wirh rhe response it gets (rhe
(rh us ' ~ : lI o ' in English could be a greeting,
idenrify rhernselves, or an expression of
o?'). This is ro reiterare rhc problcm of form
1.2. In example (5.1) rhe imperative first
nally as an intorming moue, in lighr of the
it rcceives:
ri ng passenger's ticket) Chango a t
ura l data and consider rhe differenr Iunc­
ollo w -u p moves such as 'not ar all' / 'rhar's
not be appropriare here in British English;
cu ltu re or language where rhey u/ould be
pound rwenry ,
1.20)
yo u,
·o u .
; lecnirer is Iacing rhc cla ss, u sing an
)
all -importanr, and differences in such beh:l\;iour can enable reachcrs to
=used .
pinpoinr linguistic deficiencies which can be made up by concenrraring on
III (adjusrs me projecror) .
particular areas and realísation s. Trosborg (J 987), for ínstance, who
rypes. Sorne ritualised firsr pair-parts may
·t (helio - helio, happy New Year - happy
a differem second pair-part (congratula­
j paír-pan such as thanks will presuppose
l;lrtS (offers, apologies, informing moves,
, etc.). Other first pair-pans have various
er expectations too; take, for example,
5.2 Adjacency pairs
(5.2) A: \X'ould you likc ro co me o ver for a drink ro rnorrow?
I~ : Ycs, that wo uld be n icc . (acap !)
Ycs, if ir could he .¡frer six . iacce p: unth condition¡
No. irci ect¡
We probably react agaiusr rhe haltl N o answcr: polireness co des demand a
more elaborare srructure for thc response:
(5.3) B: Thanks ver)' rnuch, but 1'111 afrnid 1'111 bo oked up rornorrow nighr,
whar abcur . . . (etc. )
\'l/e C:In segrnenr rhe polire refusal of rhe invirarion inro appreciation
('rhanks very much'), softener (I'm afraid'), reason ('I' m booked up') and
[ace-sauer ('wh:It about ... ') . This partern would typically be found
berween adulr friend s, collcagues, etc. in informal bur polite siruations.
More intimare situations may wcll amir rhe 'sofrener'. Each of these
elemenrs will have severa] possíble realisa rions, and rhe sc can be practised
in language learning in a sysremaric way.
Differenr roles and scrrings will generare differenr srrucrures for such
adjacency pairs, and discourse analysrs rry ro observe in natural data just
whar parrerns occur in particular setrings. Scarcella and Brunak (1981)
compared narive and non -narive speakcrs' srrarcgies for giving informal
invitations . The native speakers pre{aced rheir invirations (e.g, '[ was
wondering, uh, we're having a parry . .. ' ), while rhe non-natives were
somerimes roo formal or roo blunt (e.g. 'I would like ro invite you ro a
party'; '1 wanr you ro come in a party'), Similarly, ir seems thar narive
speakers usually preface disagreement second pair-parrs in English wirh
parrial agreemenr ('yes, bur ... ') and wirh sofreners (Pearson 1986). This
sort of observation has direct implicarions for rhe desígn of role play and
similar activiries and whar línguistic e1emenrs need ro be pre-raught, where
learners are instrucred ro behave in ways specified by the activiry and where
rhe goal is a simularion of 'real life ' discourse.
Observarion of the behaviour of native and non-native speakers is
studied apology straregies, fOllnd that becallse of lower lingllisric com ­
perence, her non-native speaker subjects resorted more ro ritualised
apology formlllae than did native speaker subjects. The narive speakcrs
used other srrategíes such as 'repair offers' (e.g . 'oh dear, let me ger you
another one'), or even challenged rhe accusation. In short, rhe narive
speakers elaborated rhe apology, but one musr have the Iinguisric equip­
ment ro dó thís ín an L2. Agaín, this emphasíses rhe ímportance of
pre-teaching particular strategies and the language thar realises them;
otherwise, role plays can becomc no more than tests rhat learners are
eertain ro faíl.
121
5 Spoken language

Dara-based observario ns of rhc kinds refcrred ro ahovc question the practise only a very impoverished range I
adequacy of formllh-based '{unctiona l' rcaching of the rype rhar swe.pr into language classroorns, learners rarcly ger the
fashion in En¡?;lish languugc reaching In rhc late 1970s~ ancl .undcrhne rhe rhe responding role, and even in cases wh
wisdom of rhe trcnd rowards a hroadcr-based and cclecric lcxico-gramrm-]. iniriare, rhe follow-up move is often srill ir
cal input ro enable the lcarncr ro 'bchavc' n~tural.ly. Howcver, rhis is not ro learners get lirrle or no practice in this pan
denv the usefulncss of Iorrnulae as a survival kit ar the mosr c1emenrary Ir is worrh looking at sorne common
levek nor should we forger rhat much narivc-spcakcr languagc is formu­ exchanges in everyday talk . While speak­
laic; ir is sirnply rhar rhc native speaker usually has a vastly grcarer range of usually behave like reachers and evaluare
forrnulac ro call upon for use in a wider range of strarcgic dornains, along utrerances (in terms of eorreetness, fluenq
with a flexible and adaptable lexic ón of non-formula bascd items. at least reacr to) its content; we rnighr I
The principie of adjaccncy pairs and how rhey are realiscd in natural happcn in rhe c1assroom (5.6) with what i
specch point ro rhe importance of crearing minirnal c.ontexts in rhe teaeh!ng world (5.7):
of cornruon cornrnunicarivc functions and the lirnitcd value of reaching
single utterances. We have scen once again that the strucrure and elab­ (5.6) Teacher: Now Maria, you ask Fum
oration of rhe adjacency pair is detcrrnincd by role and serung, and thar rhe Maria: What did you do ar [he wee
Iuncrions of its cornponent utterauccs depend on the co-presence of both Fumiko: 1 wenr ro Wales.
Teacher: Good, now Furniko, you .
parts. In Chapter 1 we additionally noted the irnporrance of rhe follow-up
rnove in signalling function, Considering thc follow-up rnove as well brings (5.7) Maria : What did you do at rhe wee
us back ro the notion of the exchange as a significant unir of discourse. Fumiko: 1 went ro WaJes.
Maria: Oh, really? Where did you ~
Follow-up moves of this latter kind rnighr in
5.3 Exchanges ing, oh dear, boto awful, lucky yau, oh ni
evaluations can also occur in the responding
Chaprer 1 described thc exchange as the central unir in the Bi~mil1gha.m­
They are of interesr beca use they are ofter
type analysis of classroorn talk, and showed that It could be applled outslde
guage to language (compare Swedísh sag.
of the classroom too (section 1.6) . Exchanges are independently observable
horror!, with English realisations such as re.
enrities; adjacency pairs may be found within their boundaries, but first and
more, they are onen noticeably absent fror
second pair-parts do Ilot necessarily coincide with initiat.ing and respond­
sational discourse, where instead we may I
ing moves. In (5.4) below, there is such a coincidence, but In (5.5). adJacency
'noises' that ean be 'culrurally peculiar' to ti
pairing occurs in the initiation and response (statement of achrel'emertt ­
tendency to use an extended o-o-o-o-h in rep
congratulation), and in the rcsponding and follow-up move (cangratu­ and responses).
lation - thanks) :
(5.4) A: Congrarulations on rhe new job, by the way .
B: Oh , rhanks. Reader activity 2 ......o
(5.5) A: ¡'ve ¡ust passed my driving test.
B: Ob, t:Ollgratularions. One possible way qf getting learners to
A: Thanks. exchange structures in the c1assroom aner I
been taught is to use function-chain activit
Particularly noticeable in the Sinclair-Coulthard data was the pattern of
deeided upon and role eards given to pairs
the three-pan exchange in traditional c1assrooms, where the teacher made
play out a sc;quenee of evenrs calculated to
the initiation and the fol!ow-up move, while pupils were restricted to
On the following page there ¡s a real exam¡
responding movcs. In a good many language c1asses this is still the .pa~tern,
acting Out their instruetions, whieh are rep
espccially in situations where large c1asses of perhaps 40 to 50 puptls IS the
T o what exrenr do you think the activíty ad
norm. Where rhis happens, it is likely that pupils wil! have the chance tO
structure natural, and are the adjacency pai:
122

tl e kinds referred ro above qlll'stion th e
: io nal' teaching of rhc rypc tha r swept into
th ing in rhe late 1970s, and llnderline the
r ader-based and eclectic Icxic o-gramrnati.
' behave' narurally. Howcver, this is nor to
z . s a survival kit at rhe most dementar)'
r rnuch nativo-speaker language is formu ­
. eaker usually has a vastly greater range of
a wider range of strategic domains, along
cico n of non-formula based iterns,
airs and how they are realiscd in natural
f creating minimal contcxrs in the teaching
I tions and rhe limited value of teaching
1 once agaín rhat rhe srructure and elab.
leterrnined by role and setring, and rhar the
ra nces depend on rhe co-presence of borh
illy noted the imporrance of the fol/ow-up
.. idering rhe follow-up rnove as well brings
1a nge as a significant unir of discourse.
ge as the central unit in the Birmíngham­
nd showed rhar it could be applied ourside
l . Exchanges are independently observable
iund wirhin their boundaries, but first and
rrily coincide with initiating and respond­
:,such a coincidence, but in (5.5) adjacenc)'
. nd response (statement of achieL'eme,zt ­
ponding and follow-up move (congratu­
che new job, by (he way.
Iriving test.
nclair-Coulthard data was the pattern of
ional c!assrooms, where the teacher made
p move, while pupils were restricted to
ny language c!asses this is still the partero,
ge c1asses of perhaps 40 to 50 pupils is the
likely that pupils will have the chance to
5.3 Exchanges
pracrise only a ver}' irnpovcrishcd r,lnge o f utrerance funcrions , In such
language classroo ms. learn ers rnrely ger the opportuniry ro rakc orher rhan
rhc rcsponding role, and even in cases where srudents are encouraged ro
[nitiatc, the follow-up rnovc is often still in the hands of thc reacher, and
lcarners get litrle or no practice in rhis particular discourse funcrion.
Ir is worrh looking at so rne cornmon follow-up rnoves in eliciting
exchanges in everyday ralk, While speakcrs outside c1assrooms do not
usually behavc like reachers and evaluare che quality of one anorher's
urteran ces (in tcrrns of correctness, Iluency, erc.), they ofren evaluare (or
ar leasr react ro) its conreut; we mighr compare what can sornetirnes
happen in rhe classroorn (5.6) wirh whar is likely ro happen in rhereal
world (5.7):
(5.6) Teacher: Now Maria, you ask Fumiko.
Maria: What did you do at [he weekend?
Fumiko: 1 went to Wales.
Te acher: Good, now Fum iko, you ask Marco, .. . (erc.)
(5.7) Maria : Wha[ did YOU do ar [he weekend ?
Fum iko : 1 went [O Wales.
Mari a: Oh , rcally? Where did you go?
Follow-up moves of this latter kind rnight indude: hoto nice, that's interest­
ing, oh dear, how atofu], lucky you, oh no, I see, did you, right . These
evaluarions can also occur in the responding rnove in informing exchanges.
They are of inrerest because they are often nor direcrly translarable lan­
guage ro language (compare Swedish sdger du det?, Spanish ¡ay! ¡qué
horror!, with English realisations such as real/y? and hou/ awful!). What is
more, they are often noticeably absent from rhe learner's natural conver­
sational discourse, where instead we may get a range of vocalisatíons or
'noises' that can be 'culturally peculiar' to the English ear (cL the ]apancse
tendency to use an extended o-o-o-o-h in reply to a wide range of initiations
and responses).
Reader activity 2 ......o
One possible way of getting learners to practise adjacency pairs and
exchange structures in the c1assroom aftcr the necessary realisations have
been taught is ro use fUllction-chain activities. A sequence of functions is
decided upon and role cards given to pairs of learners instructing them to
play out a s~quence of events calculated to generate the desired funcrions.
On the fol1owing page there is a real example of two non-native speakers
acting out their instructions, which are rcprodueed befare the transcript.
To what extent do you think the activity achieves its aims? Is the exchange
structure natural, and are the adjacency pairs realised in natural ways?
123
5 Spohen lal1guagc

Lan guugc for pre-reac hing in dll' pr escnt urion segrnenr, ni rhc Icssun :
rio ncrs ro use fO JlO W-llP rnoves , bur if the q
ask ing ior and gi ving topicul inforrn urion ; s aY Il1 ~ on; ~s un ablc ro
give info rrna tion, etc. (e.g. ' WI1;H's hccn happc ni ng ?': l'atd~ up o n
as a ' jo urna lisric' int erviewe r rarher than
sth'; 'Sor ry, l cau 't rell you; ex ci ting cvc nrs' , 'he up ro J.He, et c. ). excb anging inforrnari on , then the jou rnal
oc cu rrenc e of follow-up rnov cs, ma r be
Role card A: evidence of this in rhe foll owing piece o f lea
is inrcr vicwing studenr B. B is rccounring hi
You ' ve [usr come ba ck from a holiday ab roa d and a re ralki ng to a
fricnd /c oll ea gu c , B. (5.8) B: WcJl, I srud ied theology and qu :
1. T ry and catch IIp o n th c nati on al new s yo u'vc rnissed ~'h ile aw?
2. Try in particular ro find out if an yrhing imp orranr has lappene( on t e
h
A: Oh!
B: Bur afrcr 1 sa w rhis job, rhis job
A: Did you nor like it ?
political sccne. Gct as rnuch dcrail as you can . .
3. Find out abo ur an irn po rran r sporting event yo u know yo u have missed, B: Ir was mu ch too st ressing.
A: Ir . . . is it not a bir like a social
Role cera B: B: Ycs, ir's .. . rnost pan o f ir is so
and rhe psychol ogical rroubles, I
You are ralking ro yo ur friend /collc ague, A, wh o ha s [ust rerurncd couldu't rnanage to , ro stand a ll
frorn a holiday ahroad . sick, an d m)' hearr was and so .
A: Became ilI.
1. Tcll him/her you are not really up -ro-darc cither and cxplain why.
B: Yes, ill, and, and I lefr the jobo I
2. You do kn ow of o ne irnporranr polir ical cvcnr ; rell him/h er what ir
A: Do you rhink you were too YOUl
wa s,
B: Perhaps, I thought, yes, perh aps
3. Apol ogi sc for not k nowing wh ar's bcen happcning in rhe world of
didu 'r come to the church, and r
Sport, and cx pla in why.
a nd too ma . . . to o mu . .. too
too young for rhis job , I, in ten ~
Sample transcript: A: You mighr go ba ck?
B: Or in fifteen 1 can go back , yes .
A: Well, whar happcncd in thi s country in th c (asr six weeks?
B: 1 really ca n' r tell you , I havcn't rcad any newspapers . (ICC dala 1988-90)
A: Wasn 't therc a big evcnt in polirics?
The inrcrview conrinues in this vein rhrough
B: Yes ir rurncd out rhe Dcmocrars got a new leader.
extra er does A evaluare B's utterance, wirh a
A: Oh: 1 sec, thar's inrcresting, can Y0l! rell me more abour ir?
B: Awfull y sorry , 1 hcard Í[ on thc rad io bur I wa s roo tired and 1 follow-up move slors she is co ncern ed wi
don't rcmcmber. ('became iJl', 'you mighr go ha ck') . We get
A: Doesn't matter. Whar ah out Mam:hcsrcr Unitcd ' s ~al1lc? follow -ups lisrcd earlier that are found in na
B: 50rr)', ('m nor im crcsted in foorball. comperentiy playing out rhe role of ' q uestic
(ICC J ara 1988- 90) ing siruation, wirh the addirion of giving su

Reader activity 3 .....o

Look at this further picce of lcarner-learner
There does often seem to be a need for encouraging learners to pracrise
page and consider the follow -up moves (or .
common follow-up strategies of the type we have looked at, and design of
consideration the initiating moves, what
speaking activities wiJl once again be crucial, especially the r?les lear.ners
speakers pe rceive their roles?
are to perform. Getting stlldenrs ro inrerview one another on glven sllbJects
should yield question-answer sequences with opportunities for the ques­

124

n . in rhe prcsenrat ion segm enr of th e le SOI1:
pi ca l infor rnation : saying onc is un a ble ro
. 'Whar' s bcen hnppcn ing? ': ' ca rc h IIp o n
'; exciting cven rs' , 'be up ro date ', erc.).
' 111 a holida y ubroad and are talking ro a
racio nal news you've rnisscd while awa y,
B: Bur afrcr I saw rhi s iob, rhis job as a priesr is nothing for me, 1 ...
iu r if anyrhing irnporranr has happened on the
ch derail as you can .
B: Ir was much too srrcss ing .
an t sporring cvcnr )'OU know )'OU havc misscd.
íriend/co llcague, A, who has jusr rerurned
rcally up-ro-date eirher and expla in wh y.
orraut polirical evenr: tell him /hcr wh at ir
Ig whar's becn happening in rhe world of
J in this country in the lasr six weeks?
r, I haven'r read any newspapers.
vcnr in polines?
The interview conrinues in rhis vein throughour. Only in her firsr turn in rhe
e Democrars gOt a new leader.
extraer does A evaluare B's urterance, with a simple 'oh!'; at orher potential
rcsring, can you rell me more abolir ir?
rd ir on rhc radio but I was roo tired and I
I :tbollr l\hlH:hesrcr Unired's game?
~ ((.:d in foorbal!.
need for eneoucaging learners lO pracrise
the type we ha ve looked ar, and design of
in be crucial, especíally the roles Icarners
lO incerview one anorher on given subjects
:tjucnces with opportunities for the ques­
5.3 Exchanges
rioner s ro use follow-up moves, bur if rhe quesrioner pcrceivcs his /her role
as a ' jou rna lisric' intcrv icwcr rarhcr rhan lear ning abour sorneone and
exciJall,l',ing informnrion, rhen rhe journalisric role, with irs typical low
occurrence of follow-up rnoves, mar be the onc played out. There is
c\'idcnce of rhis in rhe fol1owing piece of lcarner dialogue, where srudent A
is intcrviewing srudcnt B. B is recounring his ca reer:
(5.8) B: WeH, I studied thcology and qualitied as a priest.
A: Oh!
A: Did you not likc ir?
A: le ... is ir nor a bit likc a social workcr?
B: Yes, ir's . .. mase pan of ir is social work , but rhar , rhat rroubles
and the psychological troubles, rhey, rhey rold ro me, ah, I
couldn't manage ro, ro stand all, you undersrand? And rhen 1 ger
sick, and my heart was and so . . .
A: Became ill.
B: Ycs, ill, and, and 1 lefr rhc job o Ir wasn'r, I wasn't ablc ro srand ir.
A: Do Y0l! rhink you were too young?
B: Pcrhaps, 1 rhoughr, yes, perhaps thi s is ... che, thc young people
didn't come ro rhc churcb , ano rhere were lOO less young people,
and roo ma . .. roo mu . .. roo rnany old peoplcs, and I felr l'm
roo young [or rhis job, 1, in ten years perbaps ...
A: You mighr go back?
B: Or in fifreen I can go back, yes ...
(ICC dala 1988-90)
follow-up rnove slots she is concerned wirh helping B in his urterances
('becamc ill', 'you mighr ga back'). We get none of the typical interactíve
follow-ups lisrcd earlier rhat are found innatural conversarion; speaker A is
competently playing our the role of 'questioner' imposed by the intervicw­
ing situation, witb the addition of giving suppart to her interlocutor.
Reader activity 3 .....a
Look at this further piece of learner-learner inrerview dara on the following
page and consider the fallow-up moves (ar lack of them). Taking also into
consideration the iniriaring moves, what evidence is there of how the
speakers petceive rheir roles?
125
5 Spoken language
(Srudenl B is expluining his surname lO studcnt A.)
B: Thc na me Akkad is a ver)'. has a very long srory, ir gocs back lo
al least 2,000 ycars. [1 was a srare berwccn Syria , lraq and Jordan ,
they called ir the thc Akkada and rhis is where my na me be en,
ah, deriven from, you know I'rn not bluffing, hur thi s is a
srnall story abolir narne.
A: It's quite inrercsr íng, and erro, so you, where are you from?
B: Syria, MiJdle East,
A: AnJ you live here in Switzcrland?
B: Yes, ah, For abour 23 years.
A: Can you rell me a bit about you?
B: About myself, well, I . rhese condirions applies, rhe person who is I
A: Abour what, whar . tinue (Sacks el al. 1974). While the currenr sp
B: What I've done here? Well, I've, crrn, when 1 firsr (ame ro
Swirzerland, I've studicd first a liule German language .
A: Yeso
B: I mean I learnr the German language, ir was vcry difficulr .
A: lr's hard, isn't it?
B: Yes, parricularly the Swiss German . . . (ctc.)
(lCC data 1968-90)
C10se exarninarion of learner data can tell us a lot about how acnvrty
design affects ourpur. The absence of a feature in learner talk may not
necessarily mean that the feature has not been acquired; it may simply be
that the activiry does not generare its natural use. The intimare relationship
berween exchange srrucrure and role and sctting rneans rhat designing
activities for speaking involves variables thar will have an effeet on the
exchange patterns of the ourpur. lnrerview-sryle patrerns are fine if
inrerview-language is the desired goal; they are a poor subsrirure for natural
conversational parrerns if that is the goal. Conversational data do cOnlain
stretches where initiate-respond-initiate-respond is the partern, but rarely
for long pcriods; such a pattern extended over a whole conversation would
almost certainly lead the person on the receiving end of the questions ro
assess the event as having been 'Iike an interrogation'. This is not ro
underestimate the difficulty of designing activities which will generate
natural conversational exchange patterns among learners, nor ro say that
such an enterprise is doomed ro failure; it is simply to isolate one of the
leve!s of difficulty involved. Discourse analysis can highlight problem
areas; it cannot give simple solutions ro the problems.
126
5.4 Turn-taking
Much has been rnade in disco urse analysis of
one can hardly wrire an introductorv survey
noeing che work done in rhis field . In the class
discoursc analysrs have obscrvcd how partici
rake turns ar talk. In any piece of natural Engli
srnoothly, wirh only lirtle overlap and interi
silenees between rurns (on average, less rhan
when rhey are selected or nominated by the el
selecred, rhey may speak of their own accord
artenrive ro rhe synracric complcrcncss or orhe
bution, and ro c1ues in the pirch leve! rhat
coming ro a close (see secrion 4.6). There are
getting rhe rurn when one is unable ro enter th
or when the serting demands that specific cor
vary greatly in level of formality and appropri
I mar, Mr Chairman', '1 wonder if I mighr say
in here', 'Hang on a minute', 'Shut up will
edgewise'). There are also linguistic means of
has rhe opportunity, or simply of making ir eh
attending ro rhe message. These are usually
responses, and consist of vocalisations such as
and phrases such as yeah, no, right, sure (ser
realisations vary intercstingly [rorn culture ro 1
back-channel vocalisarions that sound odd i
highly nasalised sounds). Anorher fearure
speakers predict one anorher's urterances al
rhern, or overlap with them as rhey complete:
certain exrent in the way our student inrerv
extracr (5.8) .
Natural conversational data can often see
channel, utterance-completions and ovcrlaps,
(5.9) (A and B are discussing domesric pers .
A: Well, of course, people who go 10
B:
A: interested in the cars and dogs, ain
B: L Yeah,
have pers kir-pers er don'r [ reali!
A: care
Ollt, YOti know, those rhar don'r ca
B:

his surnarne ro srud cn r A. )
, a ver)', has a very long story, ir goes hack ro
Ir was a sratc bctwecn Syria, Iraq anc.l .lardan,
e kk ada anc.l this is whcre my llame becn,
u know 1'01 not bluffing, but rhis is a
a me.
" and crrn, so you, where are you from?
1 Swirzerland?
• }'ears.
it about you?
I."
:? Wcll, I've, errn, when 1 first carne to
idied first a litrle German languagc.
:;erma n language, ir was ver)' difficulr.
: Swiss Gcrman . . . (erc.)
la ta can tell us a lot about how acnviry
nce of a fearure in learner talk may nor
- has not been acquired; ir mar simply be
e irs natural use. The intimare relarionship
d role and setting means thar designing
va ria bles that wiU have an effect on the
Hit. Interview-style paneros are fine if
goa l; they are a poor suhsrirute for natural
rhe goal. Conversational data do contain
-inir.iate-respond is the panero, but rarely
:-:tcnded over a whole conversaríon would
on the receiving end of the questions to
1 'Iike an interrogatíon'. This is nat lO
designing activities whích will generate
panerns among learners, nar ro say that
failure; it is simply ro isolate ane of the
iscourse analysis can highlight problem
ions to the problems,
5.4 Tum-taking
5.4 Turn-laking
Much has bccn made in discourse anal ysis of rhe study of rum-raking, and
one can hardly writc an introductor), survey of discourse srudics withour
noting rhe work done in rhis field . In rhe classic ethnomcthoJological way,
diseourse analysrs have observed how participanrs organisc themselves ro
take rurns ar talk. In any piece of natural English Jíscourse, turns will occur
smcothly, with only Iittle overlap and inrerruption, and only very brief
silences between rurns (on average, less than a second), Peoplc take turns
when rhey are selected or nominated h)' rhe currenr speaker, or if no one is
selected, rhcy may speak of rhcir own accord (se/f-se/ection). If ncither of
rhcse conditions applies, the person who is currently speaking rnay con­
rinue (Sacks el al. 1974). While the current speaker ís talking, listeners are
attenrive ro rhe syntacric cornplereness or orherwise of the speaker's contri­
burion, and to c1ues in the pirch level rhar rnay indicare that a mm is
coming ro a close (see section 4.6), There are specific linguistic devices for
gerting rhe rurn when one is unable ro enter rhe normal Aow of turn-taking
or when the setting demands that specific convenrions he followed. These
vary greatly in level of Iorrnality and appropriacy ro differem situations ('If
I may, Mr Chairman', '1 wonder if I might say somerhing', 'Can I ¡ust come
in here", ' H a ng on a minute', 'Shut up will you, 1 can 't ger a word in
edgewise'). There are also linguisric means of not taking rhe rurn when one
has rhe opportunity, or sirnply of making ir clcar ro the speaker rhar we are
arrending ro rhe rnessage. These are usually refcrred to as back-channel
responses, and consist of vocalisarions such as mm, ah-ha, and short words
and phrases such as yeab, no, right, sure (see Yngvc 1970). Back-channel
realisarions vary inrerestingly from culture ro culture (sorne languages have
back -channel vocalisarions rhat sound odd in English, such as eh-eh, or
highly nasalised sounds). Another fearure of turn-taking is the way
speakers predict one anothcr's utterances and often complete thcm for
rhem, or overlap with them as they complete; we saw this happening to a
certain extcnt in the way our student imen:.iewet hdped her partner in
extract (5.8).
Natural conversational data can often seem chaotic because of back­
channel, utterance-completions and overlaps, as in this extract:
(5.9) (A and B are discussing domestic pets.)
A: \Vell, of course, people who go ro the vcr's [ are
B: Mm,
A: imeresred in the cats and dogs, ain't they?
B: L Yeah, but the people that firsr
have pets kir-pers er don'r [ realise whar's [ involved, do they?
A: care Well it sorts rhem
our, you know, those that don't care that's ir so ... but
B: LMm LMm
127
5 Spoken /anguage
A: if you wanna , you kno w, so rncbody thar's kc cn on having a pet
B: L Mm
A: ami wa nt ir in [ good order.
B: Done .. . done prope rly, rhar 's righr , yeah .
(Lawley data 1987)
This extraer is not ar all unrypical, Such a rranscript looks so mcssy rhat we
would probably ncvcr dream of using it in an English lan~lla.ge ~lass as .a
dialogue for Iearners. Evcn on thc rare occasions whcn aurhenric dialogue IS
rranscribed in reaching matcrials, ir is usually so 'cleaned up' rhar ir bears
lirrle resemblance ro raw data. Such real data are J reminder of how
idealised are rhe represenrarions of specch not only in teaching materials,
bur in novels, so-called 'verbarim' rcports (such as reports of parliarnenra-y
debates), radio and television soap operas and drama in general. Raw data
of rhis kind, if well-rccorded, srill ha ve a use in exrensive listening activiries
for more advauced learners, but we ha ve ro resign ourselvcs ro rhe inevita­
biliry that mosr conversational data used in c1ass or transcribed in rnaterials
will havc ordered, non-overlapping rurn-raking.
The tradirional classroorn, as observed by Sinclair and Coulthard, has
very ordcrcd turn-raking under rhe control of the tcacher, a~ld ~upils rarcly
speak out of turno More recent trends in classroorn orgarusanon, such as
pair and group work, atrernpr ro break rhis rigid turn-raking partern; but do
nor always succeed in recreating more natural parrerns. Often rhe problem
lies as before, in activiry designo We are aIl familiar with role plays where
individuals are so intenr on formularing rheir conrriburions and making
rhem at the 'right' momenr as determined by the acrivity rubric, rhar rhey
pay litrle attenrion ro rhe contriburions of others, and the natural patrerns
of back-channel, utterance completion, erc. simply do nor oceur. The
looser the resrrictions on \\'hat and when people may speak, the more
naturally rhe turn-raking emerges. Extracr (5.8), for all its faulrs, conrains
fairIy natural rurn-raking, :lS one would expect in an interview, and ir also
contains utrerance eompletion, which one mighr not expcct if rhe 'journal­
isrie' role were fully dominant all of the rime .
Ir is not a question of telling learners that speakers take rurns; rhey know
rhis naruraIly from their own language. The problem is to make sure that
activiries generare the nátural sorrs of turn-taking thar oecur in rhe rarger
discourse rype and so nor inhibit typieal turn-taking patrerns. Bur two orher
problems might arise in connexion with rurn-raking: one is rhe faet rhat
dominant and garrulous speakers often grab too many turns (gender can be
a facror here), and the other is the question of culture-specific convenrions.
Problems of dominanr speakers can be partially solved by giving people
with sueh tendencies restricred roles in activiries, and quieter learners will
often rise ro the challenge of a major speaker role in the compararive
anonymiry provided by role plays and similar acrivities . The culture­
128
spccific problcms are more cornplex. For inst.
L Mm
has :1 more acceprablc role than in orhcrs. M
wirh individuals or groups from cultures wh:
rolerarcd in conversarion (e.g. Finns), or wher
response is forrhcoming sccrns agonisingly
among japanese lcarncrs). Discourse analysrs
ena and try ro describe rhe differcnt norms th:
rurcs orient to during such bchaviour. A ser e
decree rhar talk rnust be kcpr going, whenever
time'; another culture rnighr dccree rhar face
possiblc, and not pur ar risk by unconsidered r
are ofren seen to be rhe underlying cause of COI
for japanese versus American norrns , see Nog
how thc language teacher can solve su eh probl
ro rhe rypical behaviour of rhe rarger culture
possiblc consequcnces of rransferring L1 con:
Other features of how turns are given anr
prompr speeific awarcness rraining where n
language such as inhalation and head mover
eye conracr, gesricularion, erc ., as wcll as lin
drop in pirch (see Chaprer 4) or use of grarnn
Lexical realisations of turn managernem
addirion ro the range of phrases menrioned a
llar being inrerrupted in formal and inform:
rional phrases for inrerrupring ('Can 1 interruJ
minute, I've got something ro tell you', ' S O l
pre.planning one's rurn ('1'11 rry ro be brief, bl
... '; 'There were three rhings 1 wanred ro
... ') and for cIosing ('And ¡ust one lasr poir
finish', 'One Jasr thing, Bill', 'And that's it').
Our overall conc1usion is rhat rurn-raking i
nos need to be 'raughr', bur specific linguistic
and pracrised and significanr cultural differen
ro the learner.
Reader activity 4 ......o
Look ar rhis transeripr of a natural conversati
transcribed ¡usr as it occurred narurally. 'Cle2
ble as a dialogue to be rcad in c1ass with a
turn-taking sequenrial by removing overIaps
and add any extra punctuation you fee! is nee(
Does it still fee! natural, or has it lost too me

n w, sorncbody rhar's kcen on having a per
L Mm L Mm
d a rder.
e . . . done properly, thar's right, ycah,
. Such a rranscript looks so rncssy thar We
using it in an English language dass as a
: rare occasions when authentic Jialogue is
;, ir is usually so ' cle a ned up' that ir bears
Such real data are a reminder of how
f speech nor only in rcaching materials,
" reports (such as reporrs of parliamentary
Ir operas and drama in general. Raw data
J have a use in extensivc lisrening acrivities
ve have ro resign ourselves ro the inevira­
1 a used in c1ass or transcribed in materials
ng turn-raking.
o bserved by Sinclair and Coulthard, has
l e conrrol of rhe teacher, and pupils rarely
trend s in cIassroom organisarion, such as
oreak rhis rigid rurn-raking patrern; bur do
more natural patrerns. Often rhc problem
We are all familiar wirh role plays whcre
;nularing rheir contributions and making
:rermined by the acriviry rubric, thar they
·urions of others, and rhe narural patrerns
Ipletion, ete. simply do not occur. The
and when people may speak, the more
s. Extraer (S.S), for all irs faulrs, conraíns
would cxpecr in an interview, and ir also
·hich one I11ight nor t'xpecr if rhe 'journal­
I of rhe rime.
lrners rhar speakers rake rurns; rhey know
Iguage. The problem is ro make sure rhar
rts of rurn-raking thar occur in rhe rarger
:ypíca l rurn-takíng patrerns. But two orher
on wírh rurn-taking: one is rhe facr thar
often grab too many turns (gender can be
e quesrion of culrure-specific conyenrioIls.
s can be parrially solved by giving people
Jles in acriviries, and quieter learners will
maior speaker role in rhe compararive
ays and similar acrivities. The culrure­
5.4 Turn-taking
spccific probl erns are more complexo For insrance, in sorne cu.lmres, sil~l~ce
has a more acccprahlc role than in othe rs, Many teachcrs will be familiar
with individuals or groups from cultures where longer silences sccrn ro be
rokrared in couversarion (e.g. Finns), or where the ' rhinking time' befare a
response is forthcorniug scern s agoni sing,ly long (a rendcncy observable
a1l10ng japanesc learncrs) . Discourse unal ysts have looked ar such phcnorn ­
ella and try ro describe rhe different norrns rhar speakers from differenr cul­
tures oricnt ro during such bchaviour. A ser of norrns in one culture mighr
decree thar talk rnust be kepr going, whenever possible, even if only ro 'bu)'
rime'; anorher culture mighr decree that facc rnusr be preserved wherever
possible, and not put at risk by ,ullco nsidereJ ralk . R~le-corl~icts of this rype
are often SCCIl ro be rhe undcrlying cause of convcrsariona] breakdowns (e.g.
Ior japanese versus AmcriGII1 norms, see Noguchi 1987). Ir is not easy ro .see
how thc languagc reacher can salve sucb problems, exccpt ro draw attcnnon
ro rhe rypical behaviour of rhe rarger culture, and ro warn learners of rhe
possible consequcnces of transfcrring LI convenrions ro thc L2 contexr.
Orher fcarures of how rurns are given and gained in English rnay also
prompt specific awareness rraining wherc ncccssary; these inc ludc .body
[anguage such as inhalarion and hcad mov crncnr as a rurn-seeking signa],
ere contact, gcsticularion, etc ., as wcll as linguisric phenomena such as a
drop in pirch (sce Chaprcr 4) or use of grammarical tags,
Lexical realisarions of turn managcment can be taught directly. In
addition to thc range of phrases rnentioned abovc for gerring the turn and
not being interrupred in formal :J.lld informal serrings, there are conven­
rional phrases for inrerruprillg ('Can I inrerrupr for a momenr?', 'Hang on a
minute, I've got something to rell you', 'Sorry lO burr in, bur ... ')'. for
pre-planning one's rurn (TI1 rry ro be hricf, bur rhere are a number of thlllgs
... '; 'There \Vere three rhings r wanted to say'; 'Jusr two things, Mary,
. .. ') and for dosing ('And ¡usr one last poinr'; 'One more second and 1'11
finish', 'Onc lasr rhing, Bill', 'And that's ir').
Our ovcrall conclusion is rhar tllrn-taking in irsclf is somerhing that mar
not need ro be "taughr', but specific linguisric realisarions can be presenred
and pracrised and significanr culrural diffcrences can ar least be pointed out
ro rhe Icarner.
Reader activi1y 4 .....o
Look at this transcript of a natural conversarion, which has the turn-raking
transcribed iust as it occurred naturally. 'Clean it up ' (i.e. makc it presenta­
ble as a dialogue ro be rcad in class with a group of learners). Make rhe
rurn-raking sequcntial by' removing overlaps and back-channel utterances
and add any exrra punctuarion you feel is necessary. How does ir now look?
Does ir still feel natural, or has ir lost too much in rhe revision?
129
5 Spoken langllage

(B ha s [ust arrivcd , aftcr 3 long ca r journcv, :H A' s hou sc .) opened and closcd within a specified time lin:
A: Sir do wn . .. you'rc all right then? especially well suired ro rhis son of lcarn,
B: Yes o ka y jack , [ cr ¡ did a daír rhing though, 1 planned the discourse, when groups and sub-groups hay
routc out you know I had ir all writrcn out 1 arrive ar decisions or produce sorne orh
e:
B:
Yeah 1and ourcome as srages along rhe wa)' of cornpleri
ser of rasks, One actual exarnple from whi:
unlikc mosr pcoplc, you see a signposr Repley so ( rook 1ir. raken is a rask where advanced learncrs, in g
e: Yeah. ro arrange a room for a school open day. Thi
B: And 1 carne over Mistham [ by rhe reservoirs, nice ir was. disposition of rhe furnirure and what extra fu
A: Oh, by Misrharn, over rhe top ro write a note for rhe school careraker to a,
. . . tlIee runo
tYcah.
B: Colours ar e plcasanr, areri'r rhey .
e:
task}. When observed in their discussions (
'chairpersons'), various members of both su
opening and closing rnarkers wirh the eh:
A: Nice run rhar .
B: Yeah, we cnjoyed ir . . . wasn'r rhe way we inrended [ but as fol1owed by a jurnp ro high key for openinj
A: No . closing rnarkers (see section 4.8). For cxamp:
B: lIS113 I [ .. . ir was nicc. \ WHERE shall we hav:
A: \Y/e were [usr ralking abour that. (5.10) A : / RIG,!iT /
B: Oh yes, it was all right . \
\ WHAT about the REAl
(Author's Jala 1989)
(5.11) B: / N~W / \¡

\
(5.12) C: / RIGHT / \
~ THAT 'S IT J
:,.¡
(Aurhor' s dala 1989)
5.5 Transactians and tapies
These were advanced lcarncrs, but it is the ae
5.5.1 Transactions bility for its conduct rarhcr than their level c
the natural use of these transacrion markers.
Here we are concerned with how speakers managc longer stretches of talk. Another way of raising awarcncss of bou:
In Chapter 1, we looked briefly at rransacrion boundary rnarkcrs and nored
data for discussion is by using 'topping-and-r
thar, alrhough thcy are rnost rnarked in sertings such as classroorns,
raken, and rhe beginning and end removed, s
doctor' s surgerics and formal interviews, they are also present in conver­
'rniddle' of a piecc of talk (just as in extraer (
sation, especially rnarking out openings and c1osings. We also considered
activity rhar follows it). The instruction t<
the question of realisations of markers in differenr languages.
groups) is to add a beginning and an end so
The teacher can isolare, present and exernplify a ser of useful transaction meeting berween two friends who talk briefl
markers such as right, noto, so, okay, and so on, for exarnple, by drawing generares greeting and leavc-raking adjacen
arrenrion to how he/she uses markers ro divide up a lesson. Ir is often need for opening and closing markers (e.g. 'r.
interesting to get learners to sce if rhese rranslare directly into their L1, and must go', 'Well, 1'11 give you a ring soon', 'L
to ask thern to consider whar words L1 uses ro mark such boundaries and to
compare these across languages if possible. But providing conrexts in which 5.5.2 Tapies
learners ean then practise these markers is more difficult. If it was the
teacher who traditionally marked out the boundaries of chunks of business Several questions arise around the notion
in the c1assroom, then the most obvious way to hand over to the learner this topic? Another set of questions concerns hm..
panicular function is to genera te activities where the learners themselves changed and c1osed, and what linguistic rese
are responsible for segmenring the business, and where activities need to be The question 'What is a topic?' may stri i

130
 5.5 Transactions and topics

r a long car journcy, at A' s house.) op encd and closed wirhin a specifi ed rime lirnit. T ask-based learning seerns
all righr rhcn? cspecially well suircd ro rhis son of learuer-managernenr of rhe larger
1 d id a dafr rhing though, 1 planned rbe discoursc, when groups and sub-groups have ro ach ievc a specified goal,
J ha d ir all wr itten out1 arrive at dccisions or produce so rne orher rcc ognisa ble 'rcal-world'
Yeah ourcomc as sragcs along the wa y of cornpleting sorne prcconceived rask or
1 and ser of rasks. One actual exarnplc from whieh thc next data sarnples are
1
yo u see a signposr Repley so J rook ir. raken is a rask whcrc advanced learuers, in groups, have tO decide on how
•. Yeah. ro arrangc a room for a school open day. They rnust make dccisions on rhe
tha rn [ by the reservoirs, niee it was.
disposirion of rhe furnirure and what extra fllrnirure wilI be needed in order
Oh, by Mis rharn, over the top
ro wrire a note for the school carcraker ro act upon (rhe nexr srage of rhe
aren'r f they. rask ). When ob servcd in rheir discussions (there werc no predeterrnincd
'chairpersons '), various members of borh sub-groups sponrancously used
Yeah .
Nice run rhar . opening and closing markers with rhe characreristic falling inronation
... wasn'r rhe way we intended [ but as followed by a jump ro high key for openings and a drop ro low key for
No. dosing markers (see secr ion 4.8). For example:
ce. \
\ WHERE shall w«: have the TABLES ?
ralki ng abour thar .
(5.10) A: / R1GtIT í \i /
.ht . -,
-, WHA T about rhc REAdin~ arca ?
(5.11) B: I NOW / \¡ /
':11

(5.12) C: / RicHT / \
\i THA rs IT.'\¡
J
(Aurhor's Jala 1989)

These were advanced learners, but ir is the activity itself and their responsi­
biliry for irs conduct rather than rheir leve! of English alonc rhar generares
the natural use of rhese transaction markers.
speakers manage longer stretches of talk .
Another way of raising a wareness of boundary markers and producing
transaction boundary markers and nored
data for discussion is by using 'ropping-and-railing' activiries , A dialogue is
narked in sertings sueh as cIassrooms,
raken, and the beginning and end removed , so thar what is left is clearly the
erv icws, they are also present in con ver­
'middle' of a p iece of ralk (jusr as in extraer (1.5) on pagc 10 and the reader
.en ings and cIosings. We also considered
activity thar follows ir) . The instruction ro'.' rhe learners (in pairs or in
rkers in different languages.
groups) is ro add a beginning and an end so thar the dialogue represents a
: and exemplify a set of lIsefuf transaction
meering betwcen t\Vo friends who ralk bridly and then have ro parro This
kay, and so on, for example, by drawing
generares greetíng and lea vc-taking adjacency pairs, bur al so produces a
lrkers to divide up a lesson. lt is often
need for opening and closing markers (e.g. 'HelIo, what's new?', 'Anyway, 1
these rransIate direcrly inro their Ll, and
mUSt go', 'Well , I'll give you a ring soon', 'Look, 1 can'r StOP now').
Is Ll uses to mark such boundaries and to
possible. But providing contexrs in which
5.5.2 Tapies
markers is more difficult. If it was the
our the boundaries of chunks of business Several questions arise around the norion of topie, nor least, what is a
vious way to hand over to rhe learner thís topic? Anorher set of questions concerns how topics are opened, developed,
J cti vities where the learners rhemselves changed and c1osed, and what línguistic resollrees are available for this.
business, and whcre activities need ro be The questioll 'What is a topic?' m ay strike many language teachers as

131
5 Sp okcn language
o[i~} sc , hut th er ~ are d ifren:nr wn ys of look ing ar topi c. Topics could he
defincd, on rhe Ionual lcvel, as strcichcs of talk boulldcd by cerrain ropie
and/or rrnn sacti on al l1lar~c::r s, such as lcxica] oncs (lry (he u iav, lo d .'llngc
the subiectí; 0 1' phonological one s (chnnges 111 pirch ). 01' we could rake a
scmannc tr.uu cwork , and rry ro cxpress rhc cnnrcnr of diifercnt scgrncnrs of
talk a~c()rd ing ro singlc-word 01' phrasal ~idcs (c.g. 'holida ys, 'buying a
hou se ),01' e.lsc wc could use mrcracnve entena and sa y rhat sorncrhing is
only a ropic If more rhan onc speaker rnake s an urrerance rclevant ro ir. We
co~I1d cq~l;:tlly rak e an overall pragruatic approach and say that ropics are
strmgs ot urrerances perccivcd as rclevanr ro one anorher hy participanrs in
talk . 01' wc could rakc a purcl y surface cohcsional view, and say rhar topi cs
end wherc chains of lexical cohc sion peter out (see section 3.3) . All of rhese
upproaches are valid in sorne mensure; rhe OIlC thar rends ro dominare
langu age reaching marcrials is rhe cxpression of ropics as tirles for the
' subjccr rnarrer' of spccch cvenrs. Here we hopc ro supplerncnr thar view
with a considerarion of srrucrural and inrera ctive fcaturcs of ropics .
Topics can be [he reason for talk or they can arisc oceallsc pcople are
alreaJy talking. The (ormcr sirua rio n is exel1l plificd in rhis cxrract, wher e A
has pur on sOllle ncw dorhes for a special occasion and B and e are casring
an eye ovcr his appearance, ar A's reqllest:
(5,13) (A comes in holding h is jacket. )
B: Thar lo oks ver)' niee, pllt ir o n and ler's have a lo ok ar YOll.
A: I d on'r like ehe rwo burrons, [ didn'r kno\,· ir had r\Vo blllrom [
rhoughr it had rhree. ' reeounring the stor), of how his luggage gor :
C: Well, it's rhe serie of ehe coar, Ken.
B: Nick 's has ooly goc two [ butmns .
C: Ir's a [ [ow cut.
A: Al! righe?
B: L V;ry [ nice.
C: [e's be;}lItifu1.
B: Lo vd r,lovel }'.
A: Does ie look nic c?
B: Yeah, it goes very \VdI with rhose erousers, ehere's a c<llour io che
jach:r rhae picks up che colam in rhe erousers.
C: Thcm ochers he wears are stripcd , blll the y r:lashcd, too 11111ch
alike.
A: L Two differenc seripes 1
C: Bllt ooe maeching each oeher if rou
underseand whae [ mean.
B: Yeah, yeah ... [ yeah.
A: It's aH righr ehen, eh?
B: !t's ver)' nice, Dad, ie looks very, ver y good.
A: [don'r like che, Ilike rhree btlttons, yotl see .. ,
C : Kco, ie's che seyle of che co:1t!
132
Thc ralk has been occasioned by a ser of acri.
rhar rime, bur .there are differcnt ways of d(
eould takc a pragrnatic view, bascd on relev
'whcther A'5 coat is all righr' is rhe topic. \X/(
'hcadlinc' such as 'rrying on clothes' , since al
rhar and rhe main lcxical iterns belong ro rh.
make ir more funcrional and call ir 'convincii
since rhe functions of most of the discoursc
end, and all three parties are collaboraring .
hand , for A him self, ir is clear thar 'three-bun
is an imporrant 'tapie', but if we considcr ir il
from rhe orhers, especially frorn e, who i
atterupr to revive the ropic (therc are further .
rurn, such as exaggerated pirch range and e
lengrh on style). We rhereforc conclude ths
sub-ropie, or merely a speaker's tapie rhar ne:
full conuersational topic (see Brown and Yu!
Extraer (5.13) was oeeasioned by parricl
essenrial ingredienr in aehicving a speeifie go
satíons, we find topies being raised for a va
keep the ralk going, simply because peoplc al
on such oeeasions thar we see most cleady
merge into one anorher and come to a c10se
four people are having a New Year drin
recent skiing holiday:
(5.14) A: .. . no bother ro me, 'cos I happe
spare vese and [ socks you see .
B: Ah, I sec, that w ;
was ir?
A: [ And!'d goe my roilee equipmen
B: Ycah, ir's a good idea 10 rake a ft
baggagc, isn'e it, [ I rhink in case
A: Yeah, well ir' s
firse, you see, sometimes Y0l! don
luggage whcn you arrive.
B: Stíll, preery horrcndous, though.
A: Oh, ie was very unsettling, . . . sri
factors 1 d idn'r know whether 1 .,.
day.
B: Mm ...
C: D'you do a loe of skiing ehen?
A: I go each year, yes . .. ir's my on
down, you see, and ie isn'e che ex
rhae che meals are so far apart.

'3 )' S of lookíng a r tapi e. T o p ics could be
rcrches ~f ralk bounded by cerr a in topie
h as lexical onc s (by th e tuay; lo Chmlge
e (cha nges in pitch ). Or we could tah a
:. prcss rhc conrcnr of di ftcrcnr SCg lll t' llts of
r p h ~a sa l ~itlc.s (c.g. 'hol ida ys' , 'buying a
racn ve entena and sa y rhar something is
aker makes an urrerance relev anr ro it. \'Ve
.ig rn an c a pproach and 53Y rhar tapies are
releva ur ro 0111:: anorher by participanrs in
...rfaee eohcsional vicw, ami sa y rhar ropics
on percr our (see secti on 3.3) . All of rhesc
'asure; rhe one rhar rend s ro dominare
he expressio n of ropics as tirle s for rhe
Here we hopc ro supplcme nr rhar view
i and inrcracrive fearures of tapies.
ralk or rhey can arise beeause pcop le are
rion is exempliticd in rhis extraer, whcrc A
e
:1 speciai oecasion and B and are casring
s requesr:
jJckcr.)
, pm it on and let's hav e a lo ok ar \'Oll.
lutton s, I J íJn '[ kllo \V ir had [\Vo b'unolls, I
the coat, Ken.
\\'0 [burtons.
It's a [ low cut.
(5.14) A: .. . no bothcr ro me, ' cos I happened to ha ve in my side pack a
AII ríghr ?
spare vest and [ socks you see.
L Ven' [ nice
B:
. Ir' s l~e autiful.
was ir?
And l'd ¡;ot m)' toilc[ cqllipmc/lt w irh me.
.1/ wirh those rrousers, rherc's a colour in [he
he coiollr in thc rrousers .
s are srripeJ , bm rhe)' dashed, ro o much
str ipcs 1 B: Stil\, pretty horrendolls, though .
But no[ matching each other if you
can.
h.
all righr rhen, eh?
looks ver)' , \'cry good .
three bultons, you sec . . .
he coat!
5.5 Transactions and tapies
Th c ralk has bccn occa sionc d by a ser of actio ns and evcnr s rak ing place ar
rhar time, bur .rhcre a re diffcrcnt ways o f describing thc 'ropic' herc, We
could take a pragrnaric view, based on rclcvance cr iteria, and simply say
'whcther A's cour is all righr' is rhc rcpic . Wc could givc ir a seman ric-tield
' head linc' such as ' trying on clorhes', since all the urt erances are rclevanr ro
rhar and rhe rnain lcxical irerns belong ro thar seruanric field, or we could
mak e ir more funcrional and cal! ir 'convincing A rhar his clorhes are nice',
sincc the functions of rnost of rhe diseourse acts are concerned with rhar
end, and all rhree parties are eollaboraring on thar subjecr. On rhe orher
hand, for A him sclf, ir is clear rhar ' rhrec-butron versus rwo -burron jaekers'
is an irnportant 'ropic', bur if we consider ir inrcractivcly, ir gets shorr shrifr
frorn rhe othcrs, especially from e, who interrupts and curs dead A's
atrcmpr lO revive the ropic (rhere are furrher paralinguisric cues in C's final
rurn, such as exaggerarcd pirch range and extra inreusiry and diphrhong
lengrh on style). We thereforc conclude rhar 'rhree or two buttons' is a
sltlJ-topie, or mercly a speaher's topic rhar never quire makes it ro becorne a
full con uersational tapie (see Brown and Yule 1983: 87-94) .
Extraer (5.U) was occasioucd by parricular cvents, and ralk was an
esscnrial ingredicnt in achieving a specific goal, but in mosr casual con ver­
sations, we fino ropies being raised for a variety of reasons, ofren ¡ust ro
keep the talk going, simply because people are rogerher anJ 'chatring'. Ir is
on such occasions that we see most cleady how wpícs stan, grow, shifr,
mergc into one anorher and come ro a c1ose. In exrract (5.14), a group of
four people are having a New Ycar orink wgether, and A has been
recounring the story of how his luggage gor sent ro the wrong airporr on a
recent skiing holiday:
Ah, 1 see, that was in YOllr hand baggagc
A: [
B: Yeah, it's a gooJ idc:.! [(J cake a fe.~ basic things in the hanJ
h.\ggage, ¡sn'[ it, [ 1 [hillk in case of rhar.
A: Yeah, well i[' s usually the rhings you require
firsr, }'ou see, so metimes Y0l! don'r havc rime ro lInpack all your
luggagc when )'Oll arrille.
A: Oh, ir was very un settling, . . . sril\, so many other unsetding
facrors 1 didn 'r know whether 1 was on m)' head or my heels that
day,
B: Mm . . .
c: D'yoll do a lor of skiing rhen?
A: I go each year, yes ... it's my o n ly chance of getríng my weighr
down, you see, and it iso 'r [he cxercise rha! docs it, it's the facr
that [he meal s are so far apan.
133
5 Spoken language

C : (la ug h s) B: Chrisrrnas Day was quite sunny

D: Yeah? splendiJ walk.
A: Yes, l'm nor joking .. . if wc car sa y, r ighr, breukfa st crghr, lunch D:
o nc, cv e n ing mea l s ix , pcrhnps a snack afrcr thut rhen [ you're afternoon.
eat in g fo u r rimes a day, bur A: British Christrnases rarely challg
C: YOll'J and going for walks.
ncver gct no skiing in would YO\l; B: Ycah, rhar's right, and you neve:
A: W d l, in thcsc placcs, you breakfast ar cighr, wcll, half pasr eighr, C: Yes, ir was very sunny Christma.
. . . (erc.) B: Mm .
A: Mm.
(Aurbors d313 1989)
B: Mm . .. when are you heaJing e
Wirhin a ver}' shorr space of rime rhe conversation has moved from losing A: A week today ... I shall be off r
luggage at an airport ro skiing, ro weighr-warching a nd cxcrcisc, ro meal­ just wondering where rhe luggag
times ar horels, Ir rernains coherenr wirhin rhe overall frarnework of 'A's my case now, 1 find rhat ir's burs
recenr holiday', but how does ir drifr from sub-ropic ro sub-copie? Srruc­ and rear 1 don'r know, beca use I
tural features are apparent, The speakers do give lexical and phonological nick.
B: You reckon ir rnighr ha ve suffere
eues rhar thcy fed a particular sub -ropic has becn sufficiently cxplored: as
A: Oh, they ger slung about you kn
the firsr sub-tapie is exhausted, B and A borh use still (a rypical boundary
case, [ buy a cheap one.
rnarker, with falling inronarion and a shorr pause), and both give :1 B: Mm.
surnrnary or general evaluarion of what has gone before, anorher typical A : Because they [usr get scrarched.
closing move. C introduces rhe new sub-copie, skiing, with the character­ B: Mm.

isric jump ro high key we han' norcd elsewhcre. Skiing has been an elernenr (Aurhor's data 1989)

in A's losr luggage anecdote (ir was a skiing holiday), and using an clcrncnr
Irorn a jusr cornpleted story as the topie of subsequent conversarion has
been observcd ro he a very cornrnon speaker behaviour (Jefferson 1978). A's
reply includes a drop in pirch on yes, rhen a pause, and thcn a shifr ro
Whar implications, if any, does all rhis ha,
ralking abour keeping his weighr down, meals and exercise, which are guage teachers havc always concentrated or
associatiuely linked sub-topícs (see Srech 1982), triggcred off by one this makes good sense, for wirhout a wide vo
anorher, an extrernelv eommon feature in this kind of casual conversarion.
on a topic, and, as we have noted, sernar
We mighr also note that topic shifrs oecur in rhe vieinity of short silenees,
bctween lexieal items is an extreme1y coml
indieated by , . . . ' in the rranscripr; rhis has also bcen observed as a n:gular
changing topies. Bur rhe inreractive fcatures 1
featu re of casual convcrsarion (st:c lviaynard 1980). praerised, such as rhe use uf markers, both (
dental/y, 1 meant lo ask you, la/king ofX) an,
there we are), or summarising a stretch of I
Reader activity 5 ...-{t evaluation (sounds awfu/, it was alI ralher u;
Lisrening activities can raise learners' awaren
Look ar rhis exrraer from furrht:r on in rhe drinks eotlversation (5.14). The
shifts by means of aerivities focusing on po:
talk has drifred ro Christmas in rhe village when: the speakers live, whieh
make summaries and evaluarions, and on ro
was the period rhar A was away on his skiing holiday. Analyse rhe
The design of c1assroom acrivities ro re
sub-topie shifts in tcrms of thc linguistie fearures ar rheir boundaries. High
settings is nororiously difficult; it is muer
and low key are Ilor marked, bur where mighr you expeer rhem to oeeur?
funcrional dialogue exemplified in (5.13) (
B: No .. . ir \Vas gcnerally very qlliet and rhe wearher was . . . whac look nice'). However, activities where a sh
diJ it Jo, ir jusr [ ir was quire sunny acruaIly. partners or groups have ro develop a convel
O: Ir was quite sunny a couple of [he days . wirhin rhe aneedote, or the game-rype where

134
 5.5 Transactions and tapies

B: Chrisrrnas Da )' was quite sunny [ we wenr for a walk, had a

splcndid walk .
. . if we ear say, righr, breakfasr eight, lunch D: In rhe morning, ir rained in the
. • pe rhaps a sna ck afrer rhar rhen [ you 're afrerncon .
lay, but A: British C h ristm a ses rarel y chango, ir's a rime íor gorging yourself
You'd a nd going for walks,
n wo u ld yo u? B: Yeah, thar's righr, and you nevcr ger any snow ,
, yo u breakfasr al eighr, wcll, half pasr eighl, C: Yes, it was ver y sunny Chrisrmas Da)'.
B: Mm.
A: Mm.
B: Mm ... when are you heading off again, Bob?
• rhe .conversati?n has moved from losing A: A week today . . . I shall be off 10 Munich rhis rime . .. so I'rn
o weighr-warching and exercisc, ro meal­ just wondering where the luggage is going ro go, and looking at
cnr within rhe overall frarnework of 'A's my case now, 1 find rhar ir's burst open, and whcthcr ir's fair wear
d rift frorn sub-topic ro sub-ropie? Struc. and tcar I dori't know, bccausc last time I saw it it was in perfecr
spea kers do give lexieal and phol1ologieal nick .
rb-ropic has been sufficienrly explorcd. as B: You reckon ir mighr have suffered from irs iourney,
A: Oh, rhey ger slung about you know, I never used ro get a decenr
1 a nd A both use stilt (a rypical boundary
case, I bu)' a chcap one,
and a short pause), and both give a
B: Mm.
)f whar has gane before, anorher typica] A: Because they just get scrarched ,
iew sub-tapic, skiing, wirh rhe eharaerer­ B: Mm.
red elsewhcre. Skiing ha s bcen an e1emenr
(Aurhor's dala 1989)
15 a skiing holiday), and using an clcrnenr
he tapie uf subsequenr conversation has
)[1 speaker behaviour (jcfferson 1978) . A's
n yes, rhen a pause, and rhen a shifr ro
What irnplications, if any, does a11 this ha ve for language teaehing? Lan­
r down, meals and exercise, which are
guage tcachers have always concentrated on the uocabulary of tapies, and
(see Stech 1982), rriggered off by one
this rnakes good sense, for without a wide vocabulary it is irnpossible to talk
'a t ure in this kind of casual conversarion ,
on a topic, and, as we have noted, sernantie and associative coherenee
frs occur in the viciniry of shorr silenccs,
berween lexieal items is an extremely eornmon means of developing and
ir; this has also been obscrved as a regular
changing ropics. But the interactivc features of topies can also be taught and
:: Maynard 1980).
pracrised, sueh as the use of markers, both opening oncs (by tbe way, inci­
dental/y, 1meant to ask you, talking ofX) and.:closing ones (still, anyu/ay, so
tbere we are), or surnrnarising a stretch of talk and reacting to ii with an
evaluation isounds aufu], it toas al/ rather unsettling, quite strange, real/y).
Listcning activities can raise Iearners' a wareness of how speakers rnark topic
)n in the drinks eonversation (5.14). The
shifts by rneans of activities foeusing on points in the talk w~ere speakers
le village where the speakers live, whieh
rnake summaries and evaluations, and on markers and pitch changes.
JY on his skiing holiday . Analyse the
The design of c1assroom activities to replicate casual conversational
~uistjc features at their boundarics. High
settings is notoriously difficult; it is mueh easier to set up the son of
where might you expeer thern ro oecur?
funetional dialogue exemplified in (5.13) ('eonvineing X his/her clothes
Ir very quier and rhe wearher was . . . whar
look niee'). However, activities whcre a short anecdote is reeounted and
as quile sunny aClually.
partners or groups have to develop a conversation based on sorne e1ement
as quile sunny a coupre of rhe days.
within the aneedote, or rhe game-rype where a preordained list of topies has

135
5 Spok en language

ro be ralked a bout in a ser time wi th cohcren r links bctween each su h jec t,

(5. \ - ) C usro me r: Ca n yo u g ive me a srro n¡
can go sorne wa y to w ard s crea ring rhc cond irions wh crein top ic rna nag e,
a su icid e uo re.
ment a riscs nat ural ly, As wi th o the r activi ti cs, rhe o u rpu r can be eval lla ted A~ sl ~ r :\Ilt: (Iaughi ng) Oh de .ir! \\;Iell.
agains r whar we k no w abo ur na tural d ata , .a nd d esig n cha ngos effec te~
[Au rhor'« ticld no tes)
accordin gly. Perhap s rnost importanr o f all IS ro rry to .recrea te th c. reci­
procity rhar is rypical of co nversation; A tells B so me th l ~g ab~ lI t his/ her (5. \6) Poner : So , fat i . . . a nd Sparnpina rc
life, feelings o r ex periences a nd , rypically, B returns wirh th ings abou r Iral ia ns? I'm studying Iralian Ar
hi s/ he r o wn life a nd c xpcri en ces . T he sa rne ren d s to happen with sro ries: love it, l la ve Iralian An.
one srory by one speake r is like ly to rrigger off a ser ies o f srories hy others Srudent: (Io oking hew ildcrcd) Excu­
presento We sa w how inrervicw-rype acr ivirics carry wirh thern rhc danger (Aur ho r' s field not es)
rhat talk will he o nc-sided , w irh a quesr ioner and a respondenr trapped in
T he da ta in As tan (1988) of serv ice en counn
rheir ro les, and a la ck of reciprociry. Thc a ct iviry design , o r the tea cher as
consrant rendency fo r cu srorn ers a nd ass isr.
monitor of rhe activity , sho uld th erefore build in some mechanism for
fricndly char eirher bcfore oc afrer the mainlj
ensuting reciprocity, such 3 S activit ies where particip anrs have to find OUt
ar rimes, be fairly unnerving for rhe fore i
what they have in cornrnon or wherc rhey differ in terms o f a specified list of
carefully worked out what ro say before
features relaring to opin ion s, b io gra ph y, pasrirnes, etc. (e.g . see sorne of rhe
encounrer in Ll, only ro find it all thrown
speaking activiries in Collie and Slater 1991) .
fricndl y char from rhe other party,
In illusrrating with real data rhar rhe bon
interactional language are often blurred, di
5.6 Interactional and transactional talk
anything blindingly new or contrary ro m
point is ccrtainly worth remember ing in the ­
A dis tinction is often made b y d iscourse analysts berween transactional and
the language classroorn, a nd thcre is no dou
inter acrio na l t a lk. T ransactional ralk is for getting hu siness done in the
ar e imbalanced berwccn rh e two types o f ra
world, i.e . in order ro produce sorne chango in the situation th at perta ins, Ir
Belton (1988) criticises what he sees a s a te
could be ro tell so mebo d y sornerh ing they need ro know, ro effe ct the
rhe norional -Iunctional sch ool ro overernpl
purchase of something, ro get someone ro do so methi ng, or m any oth.er
rhe expense of in teractional , a nd makes a pI
world -ehanging things. Interaetional talk , on the other hand, has as lts
the two. This implies rhat sorne so n of 1
primary fu nctio ns rhe lubrication of the so cia l wheels, establishing roles
activities such a s service e nc o u nt er role pl a )
and relarionships with a no ther person prior ro transacrional talk , confirm­
in listen ing activi ties. T he general poim a lso
in g and conso lidaring relat ionships, expressing sol ida.riry, .a nd so on.. The
Languages for Spec.:i fic Purpo ses (LSP) rea
group of sp eakers in ex tra et (5. 13) we re engaged . m ~ l11 l y 111 transacrlOnal
parricip ams that ir is rhe lInpredictable soci
talk (fina lis ing so mco ne ' s drcss arrangemems), whlie 111 (5.14 ) rhe speakers
than talk in their specialist co ntexts .
were enga ged in pr imarily intera cti onal ralk, just cha~ting about .so m~ o n e ' s
holiday and enjoring a soci al drink . The words mamly and prlmar/ly are
us ed ro underline the facr th at talk is rarel}' all one thing or the other, a nd ,
5.7 Stories, anecdotes, iokes
in a sense, it is almost impossible ro coneeive of talk berween .rwo people
rhat does not, in sorne small way, 'change rhe world' 1 even If rhat only
Almost a n y piece of conversational dara b
means getting to know someone a little better. Al so, it is imporram to note
sions where people engage in the telling e
that natural data show [har even in the most strictly 'transactional' of
other kinds of narratives. The ability ro teH
senings, people often engage in intera ctio na l talk , exeh anging eha r about
rcgarded talent, probably in a H cultures. A
the weather and many unprcdictable things, as in thcsc exchanges: ~he ~rst
evems, discoursc analysts have sought to d l
is in a British chemist's shop; the second is a university porter reglsrerl11g
in co mm o n . Brief mention was made in see
sorne newly arrived students at their campus aecornmodation :
J evel o ped by Labov (1972). The Labov ~n
solution model we have referred ro a t va n o
136

\ 'ith cohcrent . .
links bctween each sub í
.. . 1I 1JCCt
ing rhe co nd it io ns whcrein topi r m 'U1
. . . h ' age­
. 1ie r a cttvrt res, t e outpur ca 11 OC cvaluated
r u u ra l d ata, .a nd design changcs effecred
.rranr
. of a l! IS ro trv' ro recrear e rhe reo­.
1tI0 n.; A rclls B somerhing abour his /her
:' ,rypically, B rerurns wirh rhings abo llt
l . f he . sarnc tends ro happen wirh Stories'
r to tngger . . .off a series of srories bv, orh ers.
type acnvines . carry wirh thern rhe da nger
~ questIoner and a responden¡ rrappcd .
" d 111
en)'. Th e actl~lt>' . esign, or the rcacher as
t!lercfo re build In so me mechanism fo r
ivi n es wh~re participanrs have ro find OUt
er e rhey d'ff~r in terrns of a specified lisr of
~ra p h y , pasnrnes, etc. (e.g . see sorne of the
I Slarcr 1991).
etlonal talk
co u rs~ analysrs between rransacrional and
talk IS for getring business done in the
TI C changc in thc siruarion that pertains. It
: th mg they need to know, to effecr the
irneone ro do something, or many orher
nal talk, on the other hand, has as its
1 of the. social wheels, establishing roles
:rso n pnor ro transactional talk, confirm­
ps , expressing solidarity, and so on. The
3 ) were engaged ma inly in transactional
· ~a ngc m e nts.l , whilc in (5.14) rhe speakers
tlOna l talk, ¡ust charting about someone's
n ~. The words mainl)' and primaril)' are
k IS rarely al! one rhing or the other and
: to conceive of talk between rwo p'eopl~
Y,. 'change rhe world', even jf that only
ll~tle better. Also, it is important ro note
n 111 the most strictly 'transactional' of
:Heractio n a l talk, exchanging chat about
blc thing.s, as in these exchanges: the first
~ec ond IS a uni versity porter registering
t'lr campus accommodation:
5.7 Stories, anecdotes, jokes
' (5. 15 ) C usro me r: C a n you giv e me a srrong pninkiller for an ah scess, or else
a su ici de note .
Assisra nr : (la ugh ing) Oh dear! Well, we 'vc got . .. (erc.)
(Aurh or's ficld no tes)
(5. 16) Poner: So, Fo ri .. . .m d Spa m p inu ro . . . (writes their llam es) are you
Irali a ns ? I'ru studying Itnlian Art, only pan t ime, of co u rse, 1
love ir, llave lral ian Are
Studcnr: (looking bcwildered ) Excuse me)
(Aurhor's field not es)
The data in Asten (1988) of service encountcrs in Italian bookshops show a
con stanr rendcncy for cusrorners and assistants ro cngage in sorne son of
friendly char eirher before or afrer rhc mainly transactional phase. This can,
at rimes , be fairly unnerving for rhe foreign language learner who has
carefully worked out whar ro say before engaging in a transactional
encounrer in Ll, only ro flnd ir all thrown into confusion by unexpected
fricndly char from rhc orher party,
In illusrraring with real data thar the borders between transacrional and
inreracrional language are often blurred, discourse analysts are not saying
anyrhing blindingly ncw or contrary ro most sensible inruition, but the
point is certainly worth remcrnbering in thc dcsign of speakíng activities for
rhe language classroom, and rhere is no doubr rhar sorne teaching rnaterials
are imbalanced berween rhe two types of ralk,
Belron (1988) criricises whar he sees as a tendency in language teaching of
rhe notional-functional school ro overernphasise transactionallanguage ar
the expense of interactional, and makes a plea for a better balance between
the two. This implies that sorne son of unpredictability be built in tú
activities such as service encounter role plays, or, perhaps most effectively ,
in listcning activ ities. The general poim also reflects the experience of many
Languages for Specific Purposes (LSP) teachcrs who are told by course
participanrs that it is the unpredictable social talk that throws them rarher
than ralk in their specialist contexts, ,.¡
5.7 Stories, anecdotes, jokes
Almosr any piece of conversational data berween friends wiU yield occa­
sions where people engage in the telling of stories, anecdotes, jokes and
other kinds of narratives. The ability ro teB a good story or joke is a highly
regarded talent, probably in aB cultures. As with other types of language
events, discourse analysts have sought to describe what all narratives have
in common. Brief mention was made in section 2.4 of a model of narrative
developed by Labov (1972). The Labov model, rather, like the problem­
solution model we have rdcrrcd ro at various points in this book, specifies
137
5 Spoken [anguage

elements rhar are cornrnonly founJ in norrnal narrarivcs, They are: ['ll alioays rem ember the time . . .

Did leila tell YO/i about . . .

E Then there u/as the time we ...

Abstract v 1 must tetl )'011 about . . .

a Have )'011 heard the one about ...

Orientation You'll neuer guess tobat Ihlppened yes

u 1 heard a good Dile the other day ...

Complicating euent a 1 had a [unny experience last week ..

Resolution Therc are also regularly oecurring markers

o A1Jd then, suddenlylout o( the blue ..

Coda n Next thing u/e knew . . .

Abstracts are shorr staternents of whar the srory is going tu be abour ('[ And as i( that uiasn't enough .

musr tell you about an embarrassing rnornent yesrerday'). Orientation scrs Then glless uihat happened .

out the rime, place and characters for rhe reader/lisrener ('you know that Common codas includc 'makes you wonc
secrerary in our officc, well, last week ... '). Cornplicating euents are the was it, really', 'looking back it was a11 ver)
main evenrs thar make the story happen ('rhe xerox rnachine caughr fire'), I'rn standing here'. Sueh usefullanguage is
Resolutions are how the evenrs sort thernselves out ('and she gor f2,OOO is ofren abscnt frorn coursebooks roo, rhouj
cornpensarion'), while codas provide a bridge berween the story world and rhe wrirten-text counterparts sueh as 'once
the rnornenr of relling ('and ever since, I've never becn able ro look ar a
more of an airing in teaching.
mango wirhout feeling sick'). Not a1l srories have all rhese ingredienrs, T wo orher rhings are notable when we
absrracrs and codas may be absent, but the orher elemenrs rnust be rhere for srories are often told eo11aboratively, by m
ir ro be a real srory. In addirion, there is what is rerrned eualuation, are [ointly reealled and an agreed versión
deliberarely ser verrically in our lisr ro show ir as an elernenr rhar weaves in contributions (see Edwards and Middleron
and out of the story consrantly. Evaluarion rneans making rhe story worth
are active, consranrly reacring (usua11y wirl
listcning to/reading, either by direetly telling one's audience ('you'H love
narrative and asking questions rhat fill out
rhis one'; 'ir's not the world's funniest joke, but 1 like ir') or by a number of
ing data sarnple illustrates rhis. A and B ar
deviees inrernal ro rhe srory such as exaggerarion ('he carne in with this
driving incidenrs to C.
huge, gi-norrnous warermelon'), recrearing noises, ere. ('and she went
scr-r-r-r-u-u-nch, splat, righr into rhe tree') or constanrly evaluating indi­ (5.17) A: I rernernber that journey, we w·
vidual evenrs ('whieh amazed me rcally'), As always, thc rerrns used in the
C:
rhe '"! Yeah'
model are simply labels, and mar sornerirnes less rhan adequately describe
A: l and we wenr il
the cornponenr referred ro; Swan, for exarnple, suggesrs rhar validation
ring road round Norwich, and
mighr be a berrer labe! rhan evalrtation (personal eommuniearion). ring road . . . well, we rurned I
AlI this would suggesr thar expeering a learner ro teU a deeem story in L2
if you rernemberl
is a taH order, and indeed ir is; nor everyone is an aeeomplished storyteller B: Oh 1 can'r f(
in their firsr langllage. ]okes are parrieularly difficult ro rell in an L2. A:
However, sorne rhings can be observed and raughr and pracrised in relarion round this ring road, 1 be! we ,
ro storyrelling, and lisrening aeriviries based on srorytelling are a good way carne back ir was ¡he nexr one
of raising awareness of narrarive skills. Real dara, as always, sllpplies a rieh C: God (Iaughs).
seleerion of realisations for the narrarive e1ements, and markers of rhe A: 1 remember rhar, 1 rhough¡ we
e1ements will nor neeessarily translate from one language to another. Sorne C: You went righ¡ round ¡he ci¡y.
eommon openers ro spoken stories and jokes in English indude: A: Yeso
C: Good God, rha! mus¡ have bCl

138

in normal narratives. They a re:
)f whar the srory is going to be abour ('1
ng rnornenr yesterday'). Orientation sers
'S for the readerllistener ('you know that
wcek . .. 'l. Complicating euents are the
i uppen ('the xerox rnachine caughr fire') .
.o r r themselves out ('anJ she gor [2 000
ide a bridge berwecn rhe story worId and
ince, I've never been able to look at a
r all stories have all rhese ingredienrs,
:, bur the other elernenrs rnusr be rhere for
-n , thcre is whar is terrned eualuation
¡r to show ir as an elernenr rhat weaves in
\'aluatio~ rneans making the srory worrh
~etly. relImg one's audienee ('you'lI love
icsr joke, but 1 like ir') or by a nurnber of
as exaggerarion ('he carne in wirh this
recrearing noises, etc. ('and she wenr
rhe rree') or eonsrantly evaluating indi­
really'), As always, rhe terrns used in rhe
sornerimes less than adequarely describe
, for example, suggests thar validation
rt ~on (personal communieation ).
:flllg a lear.ner ro reH a deeent stor}' in L2
. ever~one IS an .accomplished storyrelIer
parnculady dlfficult to rell in an L2.
"ved and raught and practised in relation
~es based on sroryrelling are a good way
dls. ~eal dara, as always, supplies a rieh
arratlve elernents, and rnarkers of the
He frorn one language to another. Sorne
and ;okes in English include:
5.7 Stories, ane cd otes, jokes
l'll alioays remember the time . . .
Did 1 eue r tell you ab out ...
Tb en th ere toas the time u/e . . .
l must tell )'01/ about . ..
Haue you heard the 0111' ab out ...
Y OII'/I ~rever ~I/ess tohat bappen ed yesterday " ..
l heard a good (me the other day .
1 had a [unny ex perience last week .
Therc are al so rcgularly occurring rnarkers [or complicaring evenrs:
And then, suddenlylout o( tbe blue ...
Next thing toe knew . . .
And as i( tbat u/asn't enough .
Then gue ss what happened .
Cornmon codas include 'rnakes you wonder', 'so, there we are', 'and that
was it, really', 'looking back ir was alI very " .. " 'and rhar was as true as
I'rn standing here' . Sueh usefullanguage is never given in dictionaries, and
is ofren absenr frorn eoursebooks roo, though ir is every bit as imporrant as
rhe written-text counterparrs such as 'once upon a rime', which tend ro ger
more of an airing in teaching.
Two orher things are notable when we loo k at real data. One is rhat
stories are often rold collaborarively, by more than one person; rhe details
are joindy recalled and an agreed version arrived ar through alrernating
conrriburions (see Edwards and Middleton 1986). The orher is that listeners
are active, constanrly reacting (usually with baek-ehannel responses) ro the
narrarive and asking quesrions rhat fill out unspecified derail . The follow­
ing data samplc illustrates this, A and B are telling a series of stories about
driving incidenrs ro C.
(5.17) A: I remcrnbcr that journey, we wenr from Yarrnourh, when we had
(he car 1
c. Ycah'
A: l
and we went inro 'N orw ieh, and rhcre's a
ring road rOllnd Norwich, and chis road to Fan:ham was off this
rillg road .. . well, we rurned righ[
if you rememberl
B: Oh 1 can't remember1
A: and we went righ[
rollnd this ring mad, 1 bet we did rwemy miles, and when we
came back it was the nexr one on the lefr ro where we'd started.
C: Cod (laughs).
A: 1 remember rhat, 1 rhoughr we were never going to find it.
e: y ou wenr right round the city.
A: Yeso
C: Cood Cod, thar mu st have bcen fn isrra[ing.
139
5 Spoken language
A: lt wa s expensi v e as wcll (la ug hs ) . . .
B: Bur rhc time I rur ncd into th c poli cc sra rio n .
A: Oh . . . de;tr.
C: Ycah, whar was rhat ?
B: Dorset Co ns ra b ula ry [ Hcadquarters.
A: IIe sa ys you , yo u
B: We wcre going ro Lyrnc Rcgi s.
A : He ga v e us rhe rnap .
B: On rhi s trec there was rh is woodcn rhing, it hud 011 ' 1. )'I11C Regis'
and rbere wcre rhesc big rna ssive gares, hig iron gares
A: No, ir was Iris anJ 1, wc said you turn left hcrc, and he turned
immcdiare lcft, insread of going on ro rhe ncxt road, and it said
'Five miles an hour ' a nd wc werc crccping al ong, nnd thcre wcre
bobhies looking at us , rwo of thern in a caro
e: (laughs) Well, well, great, yeah ,
(Autho r's dala 1989)
A and B work out a joinr version of evcnts, and C makes posirive contri­
burions, cvaluaring the stories, and, in rhe first of rhe rwo , summarising
what happened. In conversarional data, this sort of joim enterprise with
active lisrcners is very common; srories are nor just- monologues told ro a
hushed audience. Anorher point we have airead)' ruenrioned briefly is
illusrrated here: oue story sparks off another along similar lines, and in such
informal siruarions, each parricipant who has a srory to rell may dernand
rhe Hoor and rell ir.
What difficulties do learners have when telling or listening to stories? For
lower-level learners, the usual problerns of moment-by-rnoment lexieo­
grammatical eneodíng at c1ausc levcl tend to interfere with the discourse­
levei skiHs, so rhat we get the bare fans of stories with litrle evaluatíon,
either fmm teller or listener. In extraet (5.18), a srudenr (A) has had a
real-lifc accidcm while on a language-school day -trip. The accident \Vas
seen as an authcntic opportunity ro ger the studenr ro rell his srory to others;
a second studenr (B) was instrucreJ ro find out rhe full srory from A:
(5.18) B: HelIo, Manolo, hoVo' are you?
A: Erm, I'm hener, ('m bctter from my . . . felt in the Lakes.
B: Why . . . why ... what did rou happcn?
A: Erm, we went te thc Lakcs for a walk with our tcacher of English
here and erm, wc erm, c1imb .. . climbed . . . they say c1imbed,
erm, and, erm, when \'.le carne back frOI11 th e mountain 1 fed .. .
felt and broke ... a lirtle broke of my elb a w .. . then 1 went te
the hospital in the night but ir take rwo hours and 1 must suspect
.. . expecr .. . erm, for rhe next day .. . in tbe morning, and
(points ro his slin~) ( have this sli p , ( think it's a sl ip, bU[ [ don't
remembct, a s well,
B: The arm, do )'ou ... is still hurt ... still, still hurt?
A: No, no . .. not so Illuch . . . no it's hurting . .. ir's not hurring . . .
140
IS, [ th ink ir is gooJ beca use I have
good, 1dou 'r . . , [ slccp well, crm
slc cp and be
B: C a n yo u hav e a shower ?
A: Ycs, yes, evcry day . .. (erc.)
(ICC Jata 1988-90)
There is no back-channel frorn the lisrener, '
way ro rhe events . Shc does ask for more dera
ro), and so is active in a srnall way, but we se
her L1, we rnight get the equivalent of 'Oh de
'Thar was awful', and so on, as well as consta'
rhis level, rhcre is probably lirrlc thar can be
rhan ro point out ways in whieh he could h,
story (perhaps asking him ro reproduce, in hi
of the evenrs wh ieh could then be embellishe
Tcachers who wanr to train learners in nar
think of lisreners as well as rellcrs, and acrivitj
role for rhe lisrener into accounr, Activities i
possible, alrhough published language-teachi:
single reller, But data is obrainable for tI­
language broadcasring: radio and television
guesrs recounring narrarives wirh an active
chat-show hosr, and one recenr Australian
prograrnrne Blind Date, has a segmenr each \
guests jointly recount a honeymoon-sryle
imervening period at rhe programme's expen:
people recounting narratives with reacrion
characters. AH rhese make more amhenric CO l
telling a tale ro a wall of silence.
...
Reader activity 6 ..-o
Consider this data extraet from the poim 0 1
behaves. In what way is this particular listet
telJing stories about his neighbour:
A: And on Sunda)', we were going fo :
B:
the distance walking and they sto
catch up and introduced us to rhe
B:
 5.7 Stories, anecdotes, jokes

wc ll (l.i ug hs ) ...
is, I think ir is go o d becau sc 1 ha ve rny arrn ver)' qu ier, a nd ir's
ed into thc pol lee stnrio n.
go od , r don'r . . . [ slecp we ll, cr rn, so wcll , so, so , an d . . . [ can
slecp and he
:u ?
B: Ca n you havc J shower ?
v [ H cadquarrcrs.
A: Yes, ycs, evcry day . . . (etc.)
H e sa ys you , you

(ICC data 1988- 90)

yrne Reg ís.

p.
.1S .rhis wo.oden rhing. ir had on ' Lyrne Reg is'
se big rnassiv e gares, big iron ga rcs
r, we said you rurn lefr hc re , and he turned
a d of going on ro rhe nexr road, a nd ir sa id
.' a nd we were creeping along, and there wcrc
US, rwo of rhern in a car.
• ¡;rC'H, yeah.
on of events, and e makes positive Contri­
and, in the. firsr of thc rwo , sllmmarising
na ] data, rhi s son of joint enrerprise with
; stories are nor justomonologues rold to a
!ll we have already memioned briefly is
;. off anorher along similar fines, and in such
ipanr who has a story to tell may demand
IJ Ve when telling or Jistening to stories? For
problems of momem-by-moment lexieo­
leve! tend to interfere with the diseourse­
.:Jare facts of stories with little evaluatíon
n extract (5.18), a stud en t (A) has had ;
n .uage-schoo l day-trip . The accident was
o get the studcnt ro tell his story to others;
"ted ro find out the fuI! story from A :
J a rc you ?
betler from my ... kit in the Lakes.
'ha r J id you happen?
: Lak~s foc a w~lk w¡rh oue teachee of English
m. chl1lb .. . climbed . . . rhey sa}' climbed,
o we carne back from lhc mountain 1 fee! ...
litrle beoke of my e!bow .. then 1 went ro
o
¡ght bur ir take two houes and 1 musr suspeet
foe rhe next da}' ... in rhe morning, and
r have rhis slip , r rhink ir's a slip, but 1 don 'r
. is srill hun .. . still, srill hurr?
catch up and inteoduceJ liS to their daughrer.
llch .. . no it's hllrring .. . it's nor hllning ...
B: L Oh lovcly.
There is no back -channel from thc lisrcner, and shc does nor rea cr in any
way ro rhe cvenrs, She does ask for more details (as shc has bccn insrrucred
ro), and so is active in a sma ll way, bur we sense rhat, if she were spea k ing
her Ll , we might gct rhc cquivalcnr of 'Oh dear, I'm sorry ro hcar rhar', or
'Thar wa s awful ', and so on, as welI as consrant back-channcl responses, At
rhis level, there is probably lirrle rhar can be done ro help the rcller, other
rhan ro point out ways in whieh he could havc made his srory more of a
sto ry (perhaps asking him ro reproduce, in his own time, a written version
of rhc events which could then be embcllished for later oral retelling).
Teachers who wanr ro train leurncrs in narrative skills would do well ro
rhink of lisreners as well as rcllers, and acrivity design should rakc a positive
role for rhe lisrener inro accounr, Activiries involving joinr telling are also
possible, although published language-reaching ruarerials rend ro prefer rhe
single tener. But data is obtainable for those wirh aeeess to English­
language broadcasting: radio and television char shows frequemly have
gucsrs recounting narratives wirh an active listener in rhe form of the
ehat-show host, and one reccm Australian and British TV suceess, rhc
programme Blind Date, has a segment each week where a previolls week's
guests joint1y recount a honeymoon-style trip they have taken in the
intervcning period at the programme's expense. Soap operas regularly have
people recounting narratives with reaetion and evaluation from other
characters. AII these make more authemic eontexts than the single narrator
tclling a tale to a wall of silellce.
Reader activity 6 ...-o
Consider this data extraet from the point of view of how the /istener (B)
behaves. In what way is this particular listener an active one? A has been
telling sto ries about his neighbour:
A: And on Sunday, we weee going for a walk and they were [ in
B: Mm.
the di ~tance walking and rhey sropped and waited for us ro

141
S Spoken language

A: And he 's quire a co m ic [ rhc fdl ow [ yo u kn o w, ro confirm rhar the roure has been understoor
B: Is he yeah. is rhcn possible ro specify rypical linguistic
A: And rhe ir d aughtcr' s in Au sr r al ia , and th e y' ve nevcr becn ro so rne of which \ViII be Iormulaic, such as ana
Australia ro scc hcr 1 can 't miss it for the ending phase, and orhe
B: O h, ha ven ' r the y?1 houndary rnarkers we have seen dividing ttar
A: co s rh ev' vc gor a
dog o
you're ar rhe Market Place . .. righr ... wel
B: Oh, 1 seco rowcr, ... '). Once again, rhe rnost sarisfac
A: They're tied with rhc dog, she's a ver)' highly strung dog, arrernpr ro emulate rhese discourse conditions
and rhe y don 'r feel they ca n [ lea ve her in kcnncls. role for rhe lisrener, who will rypically requir
B: lea ve hcr wirh anybody, no . he/she has undersrood rhe direcrions correo
(Aurho r' s d;U;1 1989)
back-channel responses. Activities where the
the insrructions ro parricipanrs will probal
• closely resembling rhe elemenrs and sequence
observed in their data .
In rhis last reader activity , we note rhar B predicts what A is going ro sayo
Active listeners, like active readers (see Chaprer 6, page 169 ), are constantly
5.9 Speech and grammar
predicring what the rnessage will be, based on rhe evidence of rheir world
knowledge and the rype of discourse rhey are engaged in. Lisrening activi­
Brief menrion must be rnade here of the roh
ries can test and encourage rhe developmenr of predicrive skills, jusr as good
unprepared speech. Language teachers tend
reading activities often do.
based on the wrirren language, where claus
c1earIy defined. Spoken data, however, pre
frequenrly contain forms rhat would be c
5.8 Other spoken discourse types wriring. Such 'rnistakes' usually go quite unru
only when we look at transcripts thar we re
We have briefly menrioned how discourse analysrs have studied people One example is rhe uih- clause structure with <
describing their apartrnenrs (seetion 2.2). Apartrncnt deseriptions tend ro in these two attested narive-speaker utrerano
follow a ser pattern where the speaker rakes the lisrener on a 'guided tour'
(5.19) A: And rhere's a therrnostat at th e ba
of the rooms starring from the entrance. This real-worId, behavioural works,
partern is refleeted in regularIy oceurring Janguage funerions (such as we
saw with tbis and th at references in section 2.2) which can be syste rna t ica lly (5.20) A: Therc's anorher secrerary toO whc
rcspon siblc for o
taught and practised, The same goes for eommon discourse rypes such as ti
giving route direcrions, a favourire activity in the language classroom. Native speakers of English are also fond of ss
T elling sorneone how ro ger ro one's house, or where to locare things on a is is that I don't know her nurnber', 'the prc
map are ofren the basis of inforrnation-gap exercises, and these can be very seen in our data exarnples how often urteraru
successful in generating talk, However, as we have argued throughout rhis plete' by written standards, sueh as 'But that
book, ir is also worrh taking a look at what diseourse analysrs have srarion' in extraer (5.17). Speech abounds in
observed abour the organisation of talk in a setting such as direcrion giving. would be frowned upon in 'good' writing (e.
Psathas and Kozloff (1976) found a typieal three-phase structure in their laek of eoneord and omitted relative particle
data, consisting of situation, information and instruction and an ending likely to erop up'), false starts, slips of the rol
phase. In the situarion phase, the person giving direetions must establish (1) midsrream in a grammatical srructure (Cif Yol:
rhe sraning point, (2) the goal and (3) the means of rranspon of the person rhe fridge why don'r we could have somed.
directed, if rhese are nor alread y known or obvious. The information phase Brown (1980) has further examples of such u
is where rhe main rOllte direetions are given and rhe ending phase functions Language reachers wishing ro eneourage n;

142

, iic [ rhe fello w [ yo u kn o w.
Is he yc ah .
"5 in Austral ia, and they' ve ncver been ro
~ l oh , haven'r thCr?l
cos rhcy've go t a
he dog, shc's a very highly stru ng dog,
rhcy can [ [eave her in kcnnel s,
lcave her with anybod y, no.
te that B predicts whar A is going ro sayo
rs (see Chaprer 6, page 169), are consranrlv
1 be, based on the evidence of their world
urse they are engaged in. Listening activi­
-velo p men r of predicrive ski lis , just as good
! types
l'. discourse analysrs have studied people
non 2.2) . Apartmenr descriptions tend to
eaker rakes the listener on a 'guided tour'
enrrance, This reaI -world, behavioural
iccurring Ianguage funcrions (such as we
in section 2.2) which can be systematicaIly
goes for cornrnon discourse types such as
r íre activiry in the language c1assroom.
le's house, or where to locare things on a
a tio n-ga p exercises, and these can be very
....ever, as we ha ve argued throughout this
I look at what discourse analysts have
.f talk in a setting such as direction giving.
j a typícal three-phase structure in their
Jrmation and instruction and an ending
lerson giving directions must establish (l)
1 (3) the means of transpon of the person
nown or obvious. The information phase
are given and the ending phase functions
5.9 Speecb and grammar
[O confirrn thur rhe roure has bCCIl understoocl anJ closcs rhe inrcracrion. Ir
is rhcn possible ro specify typical linguistic rcalisarions of these phases,
sorne of which will be forrnulaic , such as and there yo« are, got that?, you
ran't miss it for rhe cnd ing phasc, and orhers which will be the familiar
houndary rnarkers we have scen dividing rransacrions elsewhere ('oka y, so
you're at the Market Place ... right ... well . . . if you can see rhe dock
towcr, ... 'l. Once again, rhc mo st sa tisfacto ry classroom activiries will
atternpr ro emulare these discourse conditions and will encourage an active
role for the lisrencr, who will rypically rcquire more derail, will check rhar
he/she has understood rhe directions correcrly and will give appropriate
back-channel responses. Acriviries where these fearures are clearly part of
thc insrrucrions ro parricipanrs will probably generare discourse more
closely resernbling the elernenrs and sequences rhat discourse analysrs have
observed in their data .
5.9 Speech and grammar
Brief rnention must be made here of rhe role of grammatical accuracy in
unprcpared speech. Language teachers tend ro work with a set of norms
based on the written language, where clause and sentence structure are
clearly defined. Spoken data, however, presenr a different picture, and
frequently contain forms thar would be considcred ungramrnatical in
writing . Such 'rnistakes' usually go quite unnoriced in natural ralk, and it is
only when we look at transcripts that we realise how common they are.
One exarnple is rhc toh - clause srrucrure wirh embedded reported c1auses, as
in these two atrested narive-speaker urtcrances:
(5.19) A: And therc's a rherrnosrar at thc back which 1 don 'r know how ir
works .
(5.20) A: Thcrc' s anorher secrerary too who I dorr 't know what she 's
responsihle fOL ,
Native speakcrs of English are also fond of saying things such as 'rhe rhing
is is rhat I don't know hcr number", 'rhe problem is is ... " and we have
seen in our data examples how often urterances are grammatically 'incom­
plete' by wrinen srandards, such as 'But rhat time 1 turned into the police
station' in extract (5.17). Speech abounds in verbless c1auscs, ellipses thar
would be frowned upon in 'good' wriring (e.g. omitted pronoun subjects),
lack of concord and omitted relative particles ('there's a few problems are
likely to erap up'), false starts, slips of the tongue and changes of direcrion
midstream in a grammatical structure ('if you like we could there's foad in
the fridge why don't we could have something if you're hungry'). E. K.
Brown (1980) has further examples of such ungrammaticalities in speech.
Language tcachers wishing ro encourage natural talk may have to adjust
143
5 Spoken language
rheir sraudards when it come s ro corrccting learners. For cxample, th e
na ti ve-speaker I~ Jh- claus e structures excmplified in (5.19) and (5.20) are
usuall y quickly corrected whcn similar srructures appear in rhe writing of
Arab learners of English, and ornittcd pronoun subjects of veros are also
corrected. In facr , wc do not know enough ahour rhe acceprablc norrns of
grarnmar in speech, since, IIp ro now, our gramrnar books havc been largcly
forrnulatcd from introspectivo and w ritten data. A gooJ grammar of
Spoken Engl ish , based on natural data, mighr wcll conrain J few surprises.
Reader activity 7 ......o
Analyse rhe grammar of rhese rwo learncrs acting out a speaking activity
from Collie and Slarcr (1991). As a tea cher, whích features do you think
need correcting, and which are rhe sorts of features we might let pass as
typical of thc k inds of things found even in nativo-speaker conversationa]
data?
(The stud cn rs are cxch anging infor rnarion abour skills rhcy once had
bur have losr for one rcason or anorher over the years.)
A: Any particular musicians than more rhan anorher.
B: And you play piano with the (mimes).
A: With rhe papers?
B: Or as so und?
A: No, 1 was nor able play by sound, 1 was, in fact, I had a piano for
this but it wa s more too much technical, too much exercises rhar
was very very hard .
B: Bur guirar is more more easy.
A: Yes, ir was more easy for a shorr time, rhcn l left ir.
B: Prove again with rhc piano)
A: Yeso
(Aurho r' s da ca 1989 )
5.10 Concluslon
Spoken discourse t ypes can be analysed for their typícal patterns and the
Iinguistic realisations that accompany them (e.g. service encounters,
business negotiations, telephone calls, chat-show interviews, lectures,
trouble-sharing encounters, etc.), and the periodicallitcrature of discourse
analysis abounds in detailed studies of a vast range of rypes. These studies
are rnost often not carried out wíth any overt pedagogical aim, but are very
useful for languagt: tcachers and rnatt:rial wríters who want to create
144
sys tc m a ric speaking s k ills prograrnrnes and 'J
ries that will generare outpur as close as possit
Complete naruralness is probably impossib
feding rhar one is engaging in an authenric
learner, as is rhe feeling rhar one is bcing ra
occurring structurcs and vocabulary ro use il
Discourse anal ysis can sup p ly data where iru
cncornpass thc rieh derail and parterning of r
This chaprer has looked at spoken diseour
srrerches, and has tried ro rel ate srudies of nat
goals and methods of language teachers in t
evidcnce from data ro bear o n sorne of rhe r­
lcarncrs are asked ro engagc in , and has corn¡
and native speakers, using rhe larter ro evalu
directions for thc desígn of classroorn acrivii
consider the world of written rext, and what d
Further reading
On conversarion in general, several works are wo
Psarhas (1979), Craig and Tracy (1983), Taylor
gor (1984).
On rhe e1ahoration o f adjacency pairs, Gibhs and
011 the general qucsrion of indirecrness and poli
(1978) and Blum-Kulka (1987), and especially i
Odlin (1989: Ch. 4).
Edmondson el al. (1984) and Olesky (1989) contau
the expression of certain discourse functions
complimenrs) in German and English and Poiis
Eisenstein and Bodman (1986) look at how narive
rhanks,
Back-channe] in Japanesc convers at ion is dealt w
FQ[mulaic urterances in general in conversation
and 1981).
Mclrose (1989) is worth consulting on interpretir
situations and roles.
Jokes, stories and anecdotes have been srudied ÍJ
tion, including Sack,S (1974), Jeffcrson (1978), I
For everyday discussion and argument, sec Schiffr
more unordered conversation, see Parker (198<
Crysral (1981) is good on grammatical and lexical
For further work on topic in conversation, see M ¡
(1983) and Gardner (1987).
How teachers esrablish topics in the classroom is
Topic markers and discourse marking in general ¡
(1987).

ro correcting learners , For exarnple, the
tures exemplified in (5.19) and (5.20) are
si ~ i la r srructnres appear in thc wr íting o~
mitred pronoun subjccrs of vcrbs are also
ow enough abour rhe acceprable norms of
10 W , our,grammar books have beenlargcly
. nd wntten data . A good grammar of
d data, rnighr well conrain a few surprises.
.\'0learners acrÍI~g out a spcaking acrivity
LS a reacher, which fearures do you rhink
the sorrs of fearures we might Ier pass as
II1d even in narive-speaker conversarions¡
nging inforrnation about skills rhe y once had
ison or anorher over the years.)
cia ns than more than another.
wirh the (mimes) .
Íay by sound, 1 was, in fact, 1 had a piano for
(00 much rechnical, (00 much excrcises rhar
ore easy.
y for a shorr time, rhen 1 left ir.
piano?
nalysed for rheir rypical patterns and rhe
)mpany rhem (e.g. service encounrers,
e calls, chat-show inrerviews, lecrures,
and the periodicalliterarure of discourse
ies of a vasr range of types. These srudies
'h any oven pedagogical aim, bur are very
d material writers who wanr ro creare
5.10 Conclusion
sy ~rcmatic speak ing skills prograrnrnes and wh os e goal is ro design activi­
ríes rhar will genera te ourput as close as possible ro naturally occurring ralk.
Co m p lete naturalness is probably impossiblc in rhe classroorn, bur the
fedin¡!, rhar une is engaging in an a u rhcn ric acriviry is irnporranr ro rhe
[earner, as is thc fecling thar o ne is bein g taughr aurhentic and naturally
occurrillg structurcs and vocahulary to use in simulations of real-life talk.
Discourse analysi s can supply data where intuirion cannor be expected ro
encompass rhc rieh detail and patrerning uf natural ralk .
This chapter has lookcd ar spoken discourse, from sm all unirs ro longer
srrerches, and has tried ro relate st ud ies of narurally occurring speech ro the
goals and methods of language teachers in the classroom. Ir has broughr
evidencc from data ro bcar on sorne of rhe rypi cal activities rhat Ianguage
lcarncrs are askcd ro cngagc in, and has co mpa red data from borh learners
and native spcakers, using rhe larrcr ro evaluare rhc former and ro suggest
directions for rhe design of classroom acriviries. Ir remains now for us ro
consider the world of wrirten text, and what di scourse analysis can teach uso
Further reading
On conversarion in general, severa! works are worrh consulting: Schenkein (1978),
Psathas (1979 ), C raig and Tracy (1983), Taylor and Cameron (1987) and McGre­
gor (1984).
On thc elaboration of adjacency pairs, Gibbs and Mucller (1988) is interesting.
On thc general quesrion of indirccmess and polircness, sec Brown and Levinson
(1978) and Blum -Kulka (1987), and esp ccially in the cross-linguistic context see
Odlin (1989: Ch. 4).
Edm ondson el al. (1984) and Olesky (19!l9) conrain interesting cornpararive data on
rhe expression of cerrain discourse funcrions (e.g. opening, rcquesting, givíng
cornplirnents) in German and English and Polish and English.
Eiscnsrein and Bodman (1986) look :H how nat ive and non-narive spC3kers express
thanks.
Back-channcl in Jap3ncsc con\'crsarion is dcalt with by Locastro (1987).
Formulaic uuerances in general in conversation are illusrrared in Coulmas (1979
and 1981).
Mclrosc (1989) is worth consulting o n inrcrpreting functions in exchanges and on
situations and roles.
Jokcs, stories and 3necdotes have been srudied in rhe ethnolllcrhodological rradi ·
tion, including S¡lcks (1974), Jcfferson (1978), Polanyi (1982 and 1985).
for evcryday discussion and argument, see Schiffrin (1985b), and for the analysis of
more unordcred conversaríon, sce Parker (1984).
Crystal (1981) is good on grammarical and Icxical fearures of natural conversatíon.
For furrher work on ropic in conversaríon, see Maynard (1980), Stech (1982), Crow
(1983) and Gardncr (1987).
How reachers establish ropics in [he c1assroom is discussed in He yman (1986).
Topic markers 3nd discourse marking ín gencral are dea.lr wirh in depth in Schiffrin
(1987).
145
5 Spokenlanguage

Donaldson (1979) d iscussc s che rransa cri onal /inter a cri on al divide, as well as 6 Written language
rcciprociry .
Thc seminal paper on turn-raking is Sa cks el al . ( 197 4).
Also from rhat time Srarkey (i 973) and Duncan and N icderehe (1974 ) are of
inrcrcst , bur rcccnt rcchinking and criricisrn of rurn-raking modcls ha s come frorn
Hourkoop and Mazdand (1985) and Power and Dal Marrello ( 1986) .
How turns operare whcre visual cues are absent is dealr wirh in Burrerworth, Hine
and Brady (1977) and Beattie (1981).
On relephonc calls, sec Schcgloff (1986) .
Toolan (1988) providcs a good introduction ro narrarivc, whilc Hinds (1984 ) '1 haven't opened it yet,' S1
considers ]apanese oral narrative. White Rabbit; 'but It seerru
More on the language of route directions can be found in Psarha s (1986). a letter, written by the pr
Bygare (1987) gives good -evaluarions of published matcrials for spoken English, to somebody.'
wh ilc Gardner (1984) discusses rhe general implicarions of conversarion allal ysis '11 must have been thal
for language teaching. the King, 'unless it was \
lnreresting recenr works on listening are Ri chards (1983) , G. Brown (1986), and to nobody, which lsn't usu
Anderson and Lynch (1988), know .'

Lewls Carroll: Allce's Advl

In Wonderland

6.1 Introduction

Mueh of what needs tn be said concernin

been said in previous chapters, Chapter
cohercnce, clause relarions and textual
Chapter 2 explored eohesion, rherne and
taking many of irs examples Irorn writren
lexical eohesion and texr-organising vocabi
nurnbcr of writren text extracrs, Even Chap
with spoken language, made points thar al
me active listener and the active reader al
cesses. Also transferablc from rhe resr of 1
ciples: thar not everyrhing described by dis
may have any immediate applieations in
other hand, rhar the more we can learn fre
different texts are organised and how the p
realised ar various levels, from small units tI
be able to creare authentic marerials and al

6.2 Text types

Unlike our knowledge of speech, our kno:

146