Kalinga University

Department of Computer Science

Course- DICS Sem-IV

Subject- Computer Organization
Subject Code: DICS405

UNIT-II

System Buses in PC’s

The electrically conducting path along which data is transmitted inside any digital electronic
device. A Computer bus consists of a set of parallel conductors, which may be conventional
wires, copper tracks on a PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD, or microscopic aluminum trails on
the surface of a silicon chip. Each wire carries just one bit, so the number of wires determines
the largest data WORD the bus can transmit: a bus with eight wires can carry only 8- bit data
words, and hence defines the device as an 8-bit device. 

 The bus is a communication channel.

 The characteristic of the bus is shared transmission media.
 The limitation of a bus is only one transmission at a time.
 A bus which is used to provide communication between the major components
of a computer is called a System bus.

Computer: 

System bus contains 3 categories of lines used to provide the communication between the
CPU, memory and IO named as: 
 

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 1. Address lines (AL)
2. Data lines (DL)
3. Control lines (CL)

1. Address Lines: 
 
 Used to carry the address to memory and IO.
 Unidirectional.
 Based on width of a address bus we can determine the capacity of a main
memory
Example: 

2. Data Lines: 
 

 Used to carry the binary data between the CPU, memory and IO.
 Bidirectional.
 Based on the width of a data bus we can determine the word length of a CPU.
 Based on the word length we can determine the performance of a CPU.
Example: 

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3. Control Lines: 
 
 Used to carry the control signals and timing signals
 Control signals indicates type of operation.
 Timing Signals used to synchronize the memory and IO operations with a CPU
clock.

Expansion Bus :

The expansion bus allows the CPU to communicate with peripheral devices . Expansion bus
and associated slots are required because basic PC system cannot satisfy all needs of users.
Expansion bus slots or I/O bus designs in general, provide the opportunity to add more
devices to PC. We can plug sound cards, video cards, SCSI controller cards, network
interface cards, etc. Into expansion bus slots provided on PC motherboard.

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Block diagram is shown below :

Functions of Expansion Bus :

1. Expansion bus slots are long thin connectors provided on motherboard near
backside of computer and these are used to connect all add-on cards in a
computer system.
2. They provide direct electrical connection with PC’s main logical circuitry.
Therefore, its purpose is to enable user to add expansion boards to computer
system that plays a Crucial role in enhancing power and capabilities of a PC.
3. Expansion bus determines what exactly can be added to system – how many
add-on cards, how much memory on expansion cards, what other system
components and how easy it will be to setup system.
4. It provide a common pathway for data, address and control signals that links
various components of PC.
5. Bus design also has to assure that data actually goes to place where it is meant to
go, i.e. through bus circuits computer sends definite patterns of digital bits in a
definite sequence from one point to another.
6. Expansion bus provides special signals to synchronize working of add-on cards
with the rest of the computer.

In modern PCs, a number of basic peripheral devices are built into motherboard. As a
result, it may happen that expansion slots may remain unused, but that doesn’t mean that
expansion buses remain unused in that system. All built-in controllers and ports still use I/O
bus to communicate with CPU, i.e. They operate in such a way as it they are add-on cards
plugged into the system’s expansion bus slots.
Since introduction of first PC till, a number of expansion bus types have appeared on PC
platform with basic objective of providing faster I/O speeds for better system performance.
The need for better performance arises mainly due to improvements in three main areas :

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  Faster processors
 Increasing application software requirements
 Faster multimedia requirements in audio and video
 Faster peripherals.

ISA

This basically means that an ISA describes the design of a Computer in terms of the basic

operations it must support. The ISA is not concerned with the implementation specific details
of a computer. It is only concerned with the set or collection of basic operations the computer
must support. For example the AMD Athlon and the Core 2 Duo processors have entirely
different implementations but they support more or less the same set of basic operations as
defined in the x86 Instruction Set. 

1. The ISA defines the types of instructions to be supported by the processor. 

Based on the type of operations they perform MIPS Instructions are classified into 3
types: 

 Arithmetic/Logic Instructions: 
These Instructions perform various Arithmetic & Logical operations on one or more
operands.
 Data Transfer Instructions: 
These instructions are responsible for the transfer of instructions from memory to the
processor registers and vice versa.
 Branch and Jump Instructions: 
These instructions are responsible for breaking the sequential flow of instructions and
jumping to instructions at various other locations, this is necessary for the
implementation of functions and conditional statements. 
 
2. The ISA defines the maximum length of each type of instruction. 
Since the MIPS is a 32 bit ISA, each instruction must be accommodated within
32 bits. 
 
3. The ISA defines the Instruction Format of each type of instruction. 
The Instruction Format determines how the entire instruction is encoded
within 32 bits 
There are 3 types of Instruction Formats in the MIPS ISA: 
 R-Instruction Format
 I-Instruction Format
 J-Instruction Format

If we look at the Abstraction Hierarchy: 

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We note that the Microarchitectural level lies just below the ISA level and hence is
concerned with the implementation of the basic operations to be supported by the Computer
as defined by the ISA. Therefore we can say that the AMD Athlon and Core 2 Duo
processors are based on the same ISA but have different microarchitectures with different
performance and efficiencies. 

Now one may ask the need to distinguish between Microarchitecture and ISA ? 

The answer to this lies in the need to standardize and maintain the compatibility of
programs across different hardware implementations based on the same  ISA. Making
different machines compatible with the same set of basic instructions (The ISA) allows the
same program to run smoothly on many different machines thereby making it easier for the
programmers to document and maintain code for many different machines simultaneously
and efficiently. 

This Flexibility is the reason we first define an ISA and then design different
microarchitectures complying to this ISA for implementing the machine. The design of a
ISA is one of the major tasks in the study of Computer Architecture.  

EISA
Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) is a bus architecture that extends the
Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) from 16 bits to 32 bits. EISA was introduced in 1988 by
the Gang of Nine - a group of PC manufacturers.

EISA was designed to compete with IBM’s Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) - a patented
16 and 32-bit parallel computer bus for IBM’s PS/2 computers. EISA extended the advanced
technology (AT) bus architecture and facilitated bus sharing between multiple central

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processing units (CPU).

EISA is also known as Extended ISA.

The EISA bus is compatible with older ISA buses with 8-bit or 16-bit data paths. Two 32-bit
data path slots are the same width as one 16-bit ISA slot. However, EISA bus slots are deeper
than 16-bit slots because 32-bit circuit board edge connectors have long fingers deep inside
the EISA slot that connect to the 32-bit pins. The 16-bit circuit board partly extends to the 16-
bit pins with a shallow connection.

Enhanced 4 GB memory extended EISA’s 32-bit bus market, but the MCA bus was more
popular. Though costly, EISA adapted easily to older ISA circuit boards. Thus, EISA was
primarily used for high-end servers requiring heavy bandwidth. Unlike MCA, EISA accepts
IBM’s older XT system architecture and ISA circuit boards. EISA connectors are 16-bit
superset connectors for ISA system boards, providing more signals and enhanced
performance.

The main difference between MCA and EISA is that EISA/ISA buses are backward
compatible. An EISA PC is compatible with older EISA/ISA expansion cards, but on.ly
MCA expansion cards may be used by an MCA bus.

EISA has 32-bit direct memory access (DMA), central processing unit (CPU) and bus master
devices. EISA also has improved data transfer rates (DTR) up to 33 MB, automatic
configuration, synchronous data transfer protocol (SDTP) and a compatible structure for
older ISA buses with 8 or 16-bit data paths.

Most EISA cards were designed for network interface cards (NIC) or small computer system
interfaces (SCSI). EISA is also accessible via several non IBM-compatible PCs, such as the
HP 9000, MIPS Magnum, HP Alpha Server and SGI Indigo2.

Eventually, PCs required faster buses for higher performance. Faster expansion cards, like
LocalBus or Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA), were introduced, and there
was no longer an EISA card market.

VESA

The VESA Local Bus (usually shortened to VLB) is a local bus defined by the Video

Electronics Standards Association, mostly used in personal computers based on
the Intel 80486 CPU. VESA Local Bus worked alongside the ISA bus; it acted as a high-
speed conduit for memory-mapped I/O and DMA, while the ISA bus handled interrupts
and port-mapped I/O.

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 SVGA VLB card

VLB and ISA slots on a motherboard

The VESA Local Bus was designed as a stop-gap solution to the problem of the ISA bus's
limited bandwidth. VESA had several flaws that served to limit its useful life substantially:

 80486 dependence. The VESA Local Bus relied heavily on the 80486's memory
bus design. When the Pentium processor started to gain mass acceptance,
circa 1995, there were major differences in its bus design, and the VESA bus was
not easily adaptable. This also made moving the bus to non-Intel architectures
nearly impossible. Few Pentium motherboards with VESA slots were ever made.

 Limited number of slots available. Most PCs that used VESA Local Bus had
only one or two slots available, as opposed to 5 or 6 ISA slots. This was because,
as a direct branch of the 80486 memory bus, the VESA Local Bus didn't have the
electrical ability to drive more than 1 or 2 (or 3 at the most) cards at a time.

 Reliability problems. The same electrical problems that limited the VESA Local
Bus to 2 or 3 slots also limited its reliability. Glitches between cards were
common, especially on low-end motherboards, and when important devices such
as hard disk controllers were attached to the bus, there was the all-too-common
possibility of massive data corruption.

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Despite these problems, the VESA Local Bus was very commonplace on 486 motherboards.
Probably a majority of 486-based systems had a VESA Local Bus video card, although early
486 systems never had VESA slots, as VESA debuted years after the introduction of the 486
processor.

By 1996, the Pentium (driven by Intel's Triton chipset and Peripheral Component

Interconnect (PCI) architecture) had all but eliminated the 80486 market, and VESA Local
Bus with it; most of the last 80486 motherboards made have PCI slots in addition to (or
completely replacing) the VESA Local Bus slots.

Role of Processor in a PC
The processor also known as CPU is a piece of hardware. It is often referred to as the
“Brain of a PC” because all the computations and processing are carried out directly or
indirectly by the processor containing millions of transistors. It is a single chip that is
capable of processing data. In fact, the performance, capability, and pricing of a computer
system are largely determined by the processor to present in it. It controls all the
components in a PC. The primary functions of a processor are –

1. Fetch – 
Every instruction has its own address and is stored in the main memory. The
CPU fetches the address of the instruction which is to be executed from the
program counter in the memory and performs the instruction.
 
2. Decode – 
The instruction that is to be executed is converted into binary code so that the
computer can easily understand it and perform the required function. The
process of conversion is known as decoding.
 
3. Execute – 
The process of performing the required task specified in the instruction is known
as execution The execution of the instruction takes place in the CPU.
 
4. Write back – 
After performing the instruction the CPU store the result in the memory that
process is known as a store or Write back.

Below is the diagram of the Processor

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The processor plays a significant role in the following important aspects of a computer
system.
 Performance – 
The processor is probably the most single determinant of system performance in
the PC. While other components such as memory, hard disks, display adapters,
etc. play key roles in determining performance, the processor’s capabilities have
the greatest impact on the performance of a system. The core and clock speed of
a processor determines the speed of a PC. They tell us how much information
can be processed in how much time. In fact, the other devices present in the
system play their roles to allow the processor to reach its full potential.
 
 Software support – 
Newer, the faster processor enables the use of the latest software, which
provides support for running heavy software on our PC and saves our time by
working efficiently and with faster processing. 

 
 Reliability and Stability – 
The quality of the processor is one factor that determines how reliably the system
will run .while most processors are dependable some processors or not. This also
depends to some extent on the age of the processor, energy consumption of the
processor, motherboard, power supply voltages, cooling, etc.

 
 Energy consumption and cooling – 
Originally processors consumed relatively little power compared to other system
devices. But some processors consume a great deal of power. Power
consumption has an impact on everything from cooling device selection to
overall system reliability.
 

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  Motherboard Support – 
The processor is the system is a major determining factor in the selection of
chipset and the type of motherboard. The motherboard in turns dictates many
facets of the system’s capabilities and performance.

Processor generation and Families

Transistor was invented in 1948 (23 December 1947 in Bell lab). IC was invented in 1958
(Fair Child Semiconductors) By Texas Instruments J kilby. First microprocessor was
invented by INTEL(INTegrated ELectronics). 
Size of microprocessor – 4 bit 

Size of microprocessor – 8 bit 

Size of microprocessor – 16 bit 

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Size of microprocessor – 32 bit 

Size of microprocessor – 64 bit 

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Generations of microprocessor: 
1. First generation – 
From 1971 to 1972 the era of the first generation came which brought
microprocessors like INTEL 4004 Rockwell international PPS-4 INTEL 8008
etc. 
 
2. Second generation – 
The second generation marked the development of 8 bit microprocessors from
1973 to 1978. Processors like INTEL 8085 Motorola 6800 and 6801 etc came
into existence. 
 
3. Third generation – 
The third generation brought forward the 16 bit processors like INTEL
8086/80186/80286 Motorola 68000 68010 etc. From 1979 to 1980 this
generation used the HMOS technology. 
 
4. Fourth generation – 
The fourth generation came into existence from 1981 to 1995. The 32 bit
processors using HMOS fabrication came into existence. INTEL 80386 and
Mororola 68020 are some of the popular processors of this generation.  
 
5. Fifth generation – 
From 1995 till now we are in the fifth generation. 64 bit processors like
PENTIUM, celeron, dual, quad and octa core processors came into existence.  
 
Types of microprocessors : 
 Complex instruction set microprocessor – 
The processors are designed to minimise the number of instructions per program
and ignore the number of cycles per instructions. The compiler is used to
translate a high level language to assembly level language because the length of
code is relatively short and an extra RAM is used to store the instructions. These
processors can do tasks like downloading, uploading and recalling data from
memory. Apart from these tasks these microprocessor can perform complex
mathematical calculation in a single command. 

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 Example: IBM 370/168, VAX 11/780 
 
 Reduced instruction set microprocessor – 

These processor are made according to function. They are designed to reduce
the execution time by using the simplified instruction set. They can carry out
small things in specific commands. These processors complete commands at
faster rate. They require only one clock cycle to implement a result at uniform
execution time. There are number of registers and less number of transistors. To
access the memory location LOAD and STORE instructions are used.  
Example: Power PC 601, 604, 615, 620 
 
 Super scalar microprocessor – 

These processors can perform many tasks at a time. They can be used for ALUs
and multiplier like array. They have multiple operation unit and perform tasks
by executing multiple commands. 
 
 Application specific integrated circuit – 

These processors are application specific like for personal digital assistant
computers. They are designed according to proper specification.  
 
 Digital signal multiprocessor – 

These processors are used to convert signals like analog to digital or digital to
analog. The chips of these processors are used in many devices such as RADAR
SONAR home theatres etc. 
 
Advantages of microprocessor – 
1. High processing speed
2. Compact size
3. Easy maintenance
4. Can perform complex mathematics
5. Flexible
6. Can be improved according to requirement 
 
Disadvantages of microprocessors – 
1. Overheating occurs due to overuse
2. Performance depends on size of data
3. Large board size than microcontrollers
4. Most microprocessors do not support floating point operations

Processor Socket

A socket is a place on the motherboard plate of the computer where the processor is inserted.
It acts as a connector to connect and provide mechanical and electrical connections between
the central processing unit (CPU) to the motherboard.

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As we how motherboard is important for determine chip compatibility for CPU sockets either
in desktops or servers. But in a case of laptops, they generally use surface-mounted
processors instead of socket processors to save space on the motherboard and reduce its
overall physical size.

The processor, before it is installed in the motherboard, must match its socket. So the
processor socket is almost the most important characteristic. It is this that you should pay
attention to when buying a new processor because it may happen that the processor does not
fit the computer’s motherboard precisely because of the socket.

Sockets differ in the number of pins, which usually grows with the power and complexity of
the processors. Some of the pins are used to power the processor, and some are in use for the
operation of the processor itself, PCI Express bus, RAM, etc.

4 Types of CPU Sockets

There is a wide variety of sockets where each one is used in different types of
microcomputers. They have different pins and have differences in terms of the
interconnection made and their geometric arrangement. Depending on the physical
arrangement of the socket components, there are mainly four types of computer
processor sockets:

1. LGA Sockets
The LGA (Land Grid Array) is a socket whose assembly is in packaging for integrated
circuits. In these types of sockets, the needles are located in the CPU socket, and there are
metallic points of contact in the lower area of the processor. The LGA can be electrically
connected to a motherboard through a connector or by soldering the board directly.

Since the socket has the pins on the motherboard instead of on the microprocessor, the
microprocessor contains holes in its lower part where they insert; this prevents the
microprocessor pins from being damaged, and it is the most current of all sockets.
Many Intel sockets have seen LGA types, such as the LGA 1150, LGA 1155, or LGA 1200.
AMD has also used this type of socket since the powerful “Opteron” chips in the early 2000s.

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2. PGA Sockets
The PGA (Pin Grid Array) is an integrated circuit packaging identified by being rectangular
or square, whose pins are aligned in a regular matrix. Here, the pins may not cover the entire
surface but leave gaps between them, with the standard spacing of 2.54mm.

It is designed to contain processors with a set of pointing pins. A PGA grip applies a
compressive force once the handle is in place. This allows for better mechanical retention and
avoids the risk of bending the pins when inserting the processor into the socket.

It falls within the oldest types of CPU sockets in computing, although they are not the most
senior. Their configuration allows more pins per circuit than DIP sockets, which are much
older. The big problem with the PGAs was that if a pin broke, it becomes worthless.

Examples of processors that have used PGA, like the legendary Intel 80386 or 80486, used
this socket.

3. ZIF sockets
ZIF (Zero Insertion Force): This is an evolution of the PGA, where the pins are carried by the
microprocessor and inserted into the socket connectors. This mechanism is defined by not
exerting any pressure (Zero Insertion Force) when installing or removing the processor
from the socket.

But rather uses a lever that acts as a safety device, the lever next to the socket allows it to be
inserted without force, preventing the pins from bending and blocking it so that it does not
come off even if the heatsink is not installed.
For CPU chips with many pins, the ZIF type of CPU sockets is preferred. To install a
processor in a ZIP CPU socket, simply remove the chip. Once the chip is in place, turn a

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lever to lock the CPU in place. To remove the processor, turn the lever in the other direction
and lift the chip.

ZIF sockets are widely used in memories or any computer component that allows the
modification of informative data.

4. BGA Sockets
Not as famous as other types of sockets, the BGA (Ball Grid Array) socket is not technically
a socket because its main characteristic is that the microprocessors are permanently
mounted in this socket.
In this case, instead of pins, some copper balls are soldered directly to the
motherboard. Eliminate any possibility of upgrading or replacing the microprocessor.
The BGA connector and motherboard could cost less, but there are very few equivalents
between consumer BGA and LGA and PGA products. So, where do you find this socket?
Well, in laptops, mobiles, memory chips, or any other small electronic board.

However, with the increase in system-on-a-chip (Intel) hardware, Intel has expanded the use
of its BGA socket. Likewise, ARM, Broadcom, Qualcomm, Nvidia, and other SoC
manufacturers rely heavily on BGAs.

1. Intel CPU Sockets

There are several types of sockets that INTEL has used from its origins, some of them are:

 Socket 423: It was used in the versions that gave rise to the Pentium 4 – a kind of
legend: the “quality mark” that every computer geek dreamed of.
 LGA 771: To install server and desktop Xeons and Core 2.
 LGA 775: Released in 2004 for 4 Stumps, Dual-Core, and Core 2 Duo.
 LGA 1155: Introduced in 2011. For “stones” on Sandy Bridge architecture.
 LGA 1356: It appeared in 2012 as a solution for dual-processor servers.

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  LGA 1151: Replacement LGA1150, introduced in 2015. In 2017, version 1151v2
appeared, which is currently supported.
 LGA 2066: Replacement of LGA 2011-3 released in 2017.
 LGA 1200: Released in Q2 2020 for Comet Lake architecture (generally new!)

2. AMD CPU Sockets

Concerning AMD, several types of sockets have been used that has even existed since its
origins, such as:

 Socket A: Introduced in 1999 as a solution for the new Athlon CPU, the main
competitor to the Pentium III.
 Socket 754: This is the first socket to be used in the AMD Athlon 64 processor. This
type allows the use of Turion and Sempron.
 Socket 939: “Simplified” version of the server Socket 940. Used since 2004.
 AM3. It appeared in 2009. Designed for processors that already support DDR3.
 FM1. Introduced in 2011 as a solution for hybrid CPUs with Fusion architecture.
 AM1. Introduced in 2014 for budget Kabini CPUs with Jaguar microarchitecture.
 AM4. Introduced in 2016 as a slot for Ryzen brand processors on Zen architecture.
 TR4. Modification for Ryzen Threadripper processors, released in 2017.

RISC Processor

RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer Processor, a microprocessor

architecture with a simple collection and highly customized set of instructions. It is built to
minimize the instruction execution time by optimizing and limiting the number of
instructions. It means each instruction cycle requires only one clock cycle, and each cycle
contains three parameters: fetch, decode and execute. The RISC processor is also used to

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perform various complex instructions by combining them into simpler ones. RISC chips
require several transistors, making it cheaper to design and reduce the execution time for
instruction.

Examples of RISC processors are SUN's SPARC, PowerPC, Microchip PIC processors,
RISC-V.

Advantages of RISC Processor

1. The RISC processor's performance is better due to the simple and limited number of
the instruction set.
2. It requires several transistors that make it cheaper to design.
3. RISC allows the instruction to use free space on a microprocessor because of its
simplicity.
4. RISC processor is simpler than a CISC processor because of its simple and quick
design, and it can complete its work in one clock cycle.

Disadvantages of RISC Processor

1. The RISC processor's performance may vary according to the code executed because
subsequent instructions may depend on the previous instruction for their execution in
a cycle.
2. Programmers and compilers often use complex instructions.
3. RISC processors require very fast memory to save various instructions that require a
large collection of cache memory to respond to the instruction in a short time.

RISC Architecture

It is a highly customized set of instructions used in portable devices due to system reliability
such as Apple iPod, mobiles/smartphones, Nintendo DS,

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Features of RISC Processor

Some important features of RISC processors are:

1. One cycle execution time: For executing each instruction in a computer, the RISC
processors require one CPI (Clock per cycle). And each CPI includes the fetch,
decode and execute method applied in computer instruction.
2. Pipelining technique: The pipelining technique is used in the RISC processors to
execute multiple parts or stages of instructions to perform more efficiently.
3. A large number of registers: RISC processors are optimized with multiple registers
that can be used to store instruction and quickly respond to the computer and
minimize interaction with computer memory.
4. It supports a simple addressing mode and fixed length of instruction for executing the
pipeline.
5. It uses LOAD and STORE instruction to access the memory location.
6. Simple and limited instruction reduces the execution time of a process in a RISC.

CISC Processor

The CISC Stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer, developed by the Intel. It has a
large collection of complex instructions that range from simple to very complex and
specialized in the assembly language level, which takes a long time to execute the
instructions. So, CISC approaches reducing the number of instruction on each program and
ignoring the number of cycles per instruction. It emphasizes to build complex instructions
directly in the hardware because the hardware is always faster than software. However, CISC
chips are relatively slower as compared to RISC chips but use little instruction than RISC.
Examples of CISC processors are VAX, AMD, Intel x86 and the System/360.

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Characteristics of CISC Processor

Following are the main characteristics of the RISC processor:

1. The length of the code is shorts, so it requires very little RAM.

2. CISC or complex instructions may take longer than a single clock cycle to execute the
code.
3. Less instruction is needed to write an application.
4. It provides easier programming in assembly language.
5. Support for complex data structure and easy compilation of high-level languages.
6. It is composed of fewer registers and more addressing nodes, typically 5 to 20.
7. Instructions can be larger than a single word.
8. It emphasizes the building of instruction on hardware because it is faster to create than
the software.

CISC Processors Architecture

The CISC architecture helps reduce program code by embedding multiple operations on each
program instruction, which makes the CISC processor more complex. The CISC architecture-
based computer is designed to decrease memory costs because large programs or instruction
required large memory space to store the data, thus increasing the memory requirement, and a
large collection of memory increases the memory cost, which makes them more expensive.

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RISC CISC

It is a Reduced Instruction Set Computer. It is a Complex Instruction Set Computer.

It emphasizes on software to optimize the instruction It emphasizes on hardware to optimize the instruction set.
set.

It is a hard wired unit of programming in the RISC Microprogramming unit in CISC Processor.
Processor.

It requires multiple register sets to store the instruction. It requires a single register set to store the instruction.

RISC has simple decoding of instruction. CISC has complex decoding of instruction.

Uses of the pipeline are simple in RISC. Uses of the pipeline are difficult in CISC.

It uses a limited number of instruction that requires less It uses a large number of instruction that requires more
time to execute the instructions. time to execute the instructions.

It uses LOAD and STORE that are independent It uses LOAD and STORE instruction in the memory-to-
instructions in the register-to-register a program's memory interaction of a program.
interaction.

RISC has more transistors on memory registers. CISC has transistors to store complex instructions.

The execution time of RISC is very short. The execution time of CISC is longer.

RISC architecture can be used with high-end CISC architecture can be used with low-end applications
applications like telecommunication, image processing, like home automation, security system, etc.
video processing, etc.

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It has fixed ormat instruction. It has variable format instruction.

The program written for RISC architecture needs to take Program written for CISC architecture tends to take less
more space in memory. space in memory.

Example of RISC: ARM, PA-RISC, Power Examples of CISC: VAX, Motorola 68000 family,
Architecture, Alpha, AVR, ARC and the SPARC. System/360, AMD and the Intel x86 CPUs.

Advantages of CISC Processors

1. The compiler requires little effort to translate high-level programs or statement
languages into assembly or machine language in CISC processors.
2. The code length is quite short, which minimizes the memory requirement.
3. To store the instruction on each CISC, it requires very less RAM.
4. Execution of a single instruction requires several low-level tasks.
5. CISC creates a process to manage power usage that adjusts clock speed and voltage.
6. It uses fewer instructions set to perform the same instruction as the RISC.

Disadvantages of CISC Processors

1. CISC chips are slower than RSIC chips to execute per instruction cycle on each
program.
2. The performance of the machine decreases due to the slowness of the clock speed.
3. Executing the pipeline in the CISC processor makes it complicated to use.
4. The CISC chips require more transistors as compared to RISC design.
5. In CISC it uses only 20% of existing instructions in a programming event.

Bus structures

6. A bus is a connection between components or devices connected to a computer. For

example, a bus carries data between a CPU and the system memory via
the motherboard. The bus contains multiple wires (signal lines) with addressing
information describing the memory location of where the data is being sent or
retrieved. Each wire in the bus carries a bit(s) of information, which means the more
wires a bus has, the more information it can address. For example, a computer with a
32-bit address bus can address 4 GB of memory, and a computer with a 36-bit bus can
address 64 GB of memory.

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8. A bus transfers electrical signals from one place to another. An actual bus appears as
an endless amount of etched copper circuits on the motherboard's surface. The bus is
connected to the CPU through the Bus Interface Unit.
9. Data travels between the CPU and memory along the data bus. The location (address)
of that data is carried along the address bus. A clock signal which keeps everything in
synch travels along the control bus.
10. The clock acts like a traffic light for all the PC's components; the "green light" goes
on with each clock tick. A PC's clock can "tick" anywhere from 20 to 65 million times
per second, which makes it seem like a computer is really fast. But since each task
(such as saving a file) is made up of several programmed instructions, and each of
those instructions takes several clock cycles to carry out, a person sometimes has to
sit and wait for the computer to catch up.

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