Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 174 (2019) 1309–1320

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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/petrol

Effect of surfactant chemistry on drilling mud performance T

Gilles Landry Numkam , Babak Akbari ∗

Craft and Hawkins Department of Petroleum Engineering, Louisiana State University, Louisiana 70803, USA

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Drilling muds used in deepwater operations experience large variations in temperature, as well as pressure, when
Phase inversion flowing through the different geometric conduits that are; the drill string, openhole (casing) - riser annuli present
Drilling muds when drilling offshore. They behave as viscoelastic mixtures due to the suspension- and emulsion-dispersions
Nonionic surfactants used in their preparation. As a consequence, they display liquid-like and solid-like flow properties depending on
Cuttings transport
the time scale of deformation they are subjected to. In addition to rate of deformation, environmental conditions
Cuttings suspension
Fluid loss
such as temperature, and to a lesser extent pressure, are known to affect their rheological behavior.
Nonionic surfactants are commonly used upstream in the stabilization of emulsions in drilling fluids, and in
some instances as wetting agents. Inversion of pure emulsions systems stabilized by nonionic surfactants, from
one type to another, as a result of temperature changes has been investigated and finds great application in the
food and chemical industries.
In this study, assessment of phase inversion occurrence in drilling muds, as well as resulting changes in their
rheology was experimentally investigated at temperatures ranging from 0 to 90. Water- (WBM) and oil-based
muds (OBM) samples were prepared using nonionic and ionic surfactants. Effect of surfactant nature and dis-
persed phase volume fraction on fluid loss properties of the different mud samples was equally carried at room
temperature.
Phase inversion of WBM samples stabilized by nonionic polyoxyethylene oleyl ether surfactants was observed
for the range of conditions covered in the experimental investigation. Differences in flow behavior and apparent
viscosity of the sample, as a result of inversion from one mud type to another, was equally noted.
On one hand, the results underscored the importance of assessing potential application of nonionic surfactants
to induce phase inversion in drilling fluids used for offshore operations. On the other hand, setbacks observed in
the use of complex fluids for offshore drilling could possibly be accounted by the unknown occurrence of this
phenomenon.

1. Introduction drilling industry.

It is essential for drilling fluids used during operations to display
desired rheology. The latter enables reliable hydraulic parameters
prediction, which minimizes well control problems resulting from low
or excessive pressures on the wellbore. Successful and timely comple-
tion of the well at minimal cost, safety of rig personnel and equipment
as well as preservation of the environment depends on efficient well
control and monitoring. With the ever increasingly challenging en-
vironments in which drilling operations are carried, improvement in
practices and technology through sound understanding of underlying
phenomena and mechanisms has been continuously observed in the
In deepwater operations, where both extremes of the temperature
scale is experienced by drilling fluids, sharp changes in their rheology is
commonly observed. With the aforementioned being more significant
than those resulting from changes in pressure (Alderman et al., 1988;
Vryzas et al., 2017).The resulting variations in their rheological beha-
vior, OBMs in particular, result in multiple technical problems during
drilling (Young et al., 2012). Some of the problems associated to the use
of conventional OBMs in deepwater drilling include; high surge/swab
pressures following trips or connections, and excessively high gel
strengths and mud viscosity with decreasing temperatures (Young et al.,
2012). At elevated temperatures, significant mud shear thinning has

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: gnumka1@lsu.edu (G.L. Numkam).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2018.11.075
Received 21 May 2018; Received in revised form 27 November 2018; Accepted 28 November 2018
Available online 03 December 2018
0920-4105/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
G.L. Numkam, B. Akbari
been reported to lead to barite sagging, poor hole cleaning and lost
circulations due to cutting beds formation (Young et al., 2012).
These drawbacks have been attributed to the compressibility, nat-
ural gas solubility, and change in intrinsic viscosity of the base oil of
OBMs with temperature and pressure (Xu et al., 2014; Leaper et al.,
2006). As a result of these challenges, Flat Rheology Invert Drilling
Fluids (FRIDF) were developed by the drilling industry. FRIDFs are
commonly defined as drilling fluids having consistent 3 and 6 rpm
readings, yield point, and 10 min gel strength over wide ranges of
temperature. Their composition backbone consists of a structured ma-
trix polymer, organoclay, and emulsifier interactions which help in the
effective prevention of fluid loss into induced fractures (Young et al.,
2012; Power et al., 2003).
In comparison to conventional OBMs, FRIDFs have been successful
in delivering consistent desired fluid rheology when used in offshore
drilling operations. Their use however has not been void of its own
challenges. FRIDFs has been associated to excessively high hydraulics
(frictional pressure losses) (Leaper et al., 2006), excessive 10 min gel
strengths following contamination by low specific gravity solids, the
ineffectiveness of certain rheology modifiers beyond certain tempera-
tures, and their difficult field maintenance and engineering due to the
large number and high complexity of their components (Young et al.,
2012).
Temperature-induced phase inversion is a form of Transitional
Phase Inversion (TPI) (Jahazad et al., 2009). Changes in the physico-
chemical properties of nonionic surfactants with temperature is the
driving force behind the inversion of a base emulsion type to another
induced via temperature variation (McClements, 2011).
Specifically, it is the change in the optimum curvature or solubility
of the surfactants with temperature that accounts for the inversion from
emulsion system to another (Anton et al., 2007; Anton and Vandamme,
2009; Sole et al., 2008). The optimum curvature of surfactants is the
resulting monolayer geometry that allows the most efficient packing of
the molecules when in an aqueous medium (Israelachvili, 1992). The
packing parameter, P, is a variable used to describe the micelle mole-
cular geometry, defined as (Israelachvili, 1992):
v
P=
lao (1)
Where ao represents the cross-sectional area of the hydrophilic head
group, and v and l are the volume and length of the hydrophobic tail
respectively. The optimum curvature that favors one base emulsion
over another is determined by the surfactant packing parameter (P )
(McClements, 2011). For values of P < 1, the optimum curvature is
convex and the formation of O/W emulsions are favored, while for
P > 1 the stabilization of W/O is favored with the optimum curvature
being concave.
Studies on the mechanism and application of TPI have been re-
ported in the pharmaceutical (Anton et al., 2007; Anton and
Vandamme, 2009), and food industries (McClements, 2011) amongst
others. In the drilling industry, phase inversion in drilling muds through
alteration of the nonionic surfactant(s) affinity for the continuous phase
using acids and bases was investigated for offshore application (Patel,
1998). The study highlighted the advantages of muds capable of being
inverted from OBM to WBM for drilling and completion operations
respectively.
However, studies on the occurrence and resulting rheological and
physical property changes in drilling fluids as a result of phase inver-
sion due to temperature changes has not been investigated. The im-
portance of assessing the occurrence of this phenomenon in drilling
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 174 (2019) 1309–1320
fluids with temperature as driving force, is underscored by: the large
temperature variations that prevail in deepwater operations and the
popular use of nonionic surfactants for emulsification and wettability
alteration.
In this study, both microscopic and macroscopic changes in the
properties of drilling muds due to large scale temperature variations
were investigated. The objective was: to (i) assess and contrast the
occurrence of phase inversion due to temperature change in mud
samples stabilized by nonionic and ionic surfactants, and (ii) determine
associated rheological changes and (iii) highlight the effect of drilling
fluid structural variables that are: polarity nature of surfactants, sur-
factant concentration, Hydrophilic Lipophilic Balance (HLB) and dis-
persed phase volume fraction.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Chemicals
WBM and OBM samples were prepared using synthetic paraffin oil,
deionized water, and Wyoming bentonite. The effect of the polarity
nature (nonionic versus ionic) of surfactants on the occurrence of phase
inversion was assessed by stabilizing the base emulsion of the mud
samples using nonionic surfactants: Brij 93 (polyoxyethylene (2) oleyl
ether), Brij O10 (polyoxyethylene (10) oleyl ether), Span 80 (sorbitan
monooleate) and ionic surfactants: SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate) and
CTAB (cetrimonium bromide).
2.2. Apparatus
Microscopic characterization, microstructure images and interfacial
tension, of the samples was done through the use of a Leica DM6 mi-
croscope and Thetha optical tensiometer. Macroscopic properties that
are: rheology and fluid loss, were conducted using a scientific MCR 52
rheometer and low pressure low temperature (LPLT) mud filter press.
2.3. Objectives
The first objective of the study was aimed at determining the oc-
currence of phase inversion in the mud samples prepared with both
nonionic and ionic surfactants and assessing associated rheological
changes. The study was equally aimed at highlighting the effect of
drilling fluid structural variables on rheological and physical properties
critical to the functions performed by drilling fluids during operations.
In that respect, both WBM and OBM samples were prepared.
Quantitative experimental variables were: Oil:Water ratio ranging
from 50:50–80:20, surfactant concentrations of 1, 2, and 3 wt%, and
HLB values of 4.3, 7.5 and 11.5. Wyoming bentonite concentration was
kept constant at 9 wt% with respect to the water phase volume fraction.
The qualitative variable in the study was the polarity nature of the
surfactant's hydrophilic head group: nonionic versus ionic.
2.4. Methodology
2.4.1. Preparation of mud samples
WBM samples were prepared at HLB values of 7.5 and 11.5. Thus,
giving a total of 3 different WBM samples holding all other quantitative
variables constant (Table 1) and 1 for OBM (Table 2).
The HLB values used in preparing the WBM and OBM samples was
based on Griffin's empirical quantitative scale (Griffin, 1949) that de-
fines values of 7–18 and 3–6 for stabilization of oil-in-water (O/W) and
G.L. Numkam, B. Akbari Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 174 (2019) 1309–1320

Table 1 For spherical droplets the equation can be rewritten as:

WBM samples.
2
Surfactant HLB Nature Mixture Mixture HLB P=
R (3)
Brij O10 12.4 Nonionic Mixture 1 (M1) 7.5,11.5
Brij 93 4.0 Nonionic where p represents the pressure difference across the oil and water
SDS 40.0 Anionic Mixture 2 (M2) 11.5 phases, R1 and R2 are the principal radii of curvature of the pendant
CTAB 10.0 Cationic droplet and is the interfacial tension between the two phases.

2.4.3. Macroscopic characterization

Table 2
OBM sample.
Surfactant Nature
Span 80 Surfactant 1 (S1) Nonionic
water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions respectively.
Oil:Water ratios ranging from 50:50–80:20 were used in the mud
samples preparation, with the actual volume fraction of dispersed phase
differing based on the mud type. A 60:40 Oil:Water for example
translates to 60 vol% oil dispersed phase for WBM and 40 vol% water
dispersed phase in an OBM sample. All surfactant concentrations were
above their respective critical micelle concentration (CMC).
WBM samples were prepared by first homogenizing the surfactant
mixtures in paraffin oil using a digital Blue Spin magnetic stirrer at
900 rpm for 20 min. Wyoming bentonite and the homogenized oil-sur-
factant mixture were then added to the water continuous phase and
mixed using a Hamilton Beach mixer at maximum speed for 3 min.
Dispersion of the surfactant mixture into the oil phase for the WBM
samples was in agreement with the preparation procedure for phase
inversion investigation in abnormal emulsions (Jahazad et al., 2009;
Lehnert et al., 1994).
Sample preparation was carried at room temperature and pressure,
and measurements were performed 24 h following preparation to con-
firm sample stability and proper bentonite hydration.
A similar protocol to that of WBM samples was used in preparing the
OBM samples, whereby the surfactant was homogenized in the paraffin
oil. The exception to the WBM sample preparation procedure, was the
addition of water and bentonite to the continuous oil phase before
mixing at maximum speed with a Hamilton Beach mixer.
2.4.2. Microstructure characterization
Characterization of the droplet dimension of the dispersed phase
was done using a Leica DM6 microscope equipped with heatable sample
holder. Microstructure images were acquired at temperatures ramped
up (and down) from 0 to 90 °C .
Interfacial tension between the water and oil phases, in the presence
and absence of surfactants, was conducted using a Thetha optical ten-
siometer. The tensionmeter used the pendant drop technique, whereby
interfacial tension is determined by fitting the measured water droplet
contour using the Young-Laplace equation, Equation (2) (Butt et al.,
2003).
1 1
P= + was done to highlight the effect of the properties (polarity nature, HLB)
R1 R2
The flow curves of the samples were measured using a MCR 52
rheometer over shear rates spanning four orders of magnitude (0.1
– 3000 s 1). All samples were pre-sheared for 1 min at 50 s 1 to estab-
HLB lish the same shear history.
4.3
Measurements were performed at temperatures ranging from 0 to
90 °C, and an equilibration time of 5 min was observed at each tem-
perature to ensure the samples reached thermal steady-state. The
maximum measurement temperature of 90 °C was chosen to avoid
possible evaporation of water in the samples.
In addition to flow behavior, yield stress is another rheological
property of drilling fluids that defines their ability to suspend cuttings
following flow interruption (Equation (4) (Tehrani, 2007)), such as
during the tripping in and out of the drill string. Stress sweep mea-
surements were performed in that respect to compare the yielding
properties of the different mud samples at, 0 °C , 25 °C and 90 °C.
dp
y = g
(4)
6
Where y is the yield stress of the drilling fluid, dp is the cutting (density
additive) particle diameter, is the difference in density between the
solid particle and fluid, and g is the gravity constant. Shear stresses
from 0 to 50 Pa were applied to all samples to determine their yield
stress.
The static fluid loss properties of the mud samples were measured
using a standard filter press at room temperature. 100 psig pressure
differential was applied and the filtrate volume over time as described
by Darcy's equation (Bourgoyne et al., 1991) (Equation (5)) was mon-
itored.
dVf kA P
=
dt µhmc (5)
dV
Where f is the filtration rate, P is the pressure drop across the
dt
mudcake, µ is the filtrate volume viscosity, k is the mudcake perme-
ability, A is the filter paper cross-sectional area and hmc is the mudcake
thickness.
The test was carried over 7.5 min and total filtrate volume was
calculated using Equation (6) (Bourgoyne et al., 1991) based on the
relationship between filtrate volume and measurement time (Vf t ).
V30 = 2(V7.5 VSP ) + VSP (6)
Where V30 and V7.5 is the filtrate volume collected after 30 and 7.5 min
respectively, and VSP is the spurt loss volume.
Surfactant concentration in the fluid loss test was kept constant at
the maximum value of 3 wt% and Wyoming bentonite concentration
was reduced to 6 wt% with respect to the water volume fraction. This
(2)
of the different surfactants used.

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G.L. Numkam, B. Akbari
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Microstructure and interfacial properties
Fig. 1 compares the microstructures of the different WBM and OBM
samples at an Oil:Water ratio of 60:40 and surfactant concentration of
3 wt% acquired at room temperature. Differences were observed in the
formation of dispersed droplets, as well as in the dimension of the
aforementioned. The variation in microstructures observed highlight the
effect of interfacial tension, HLB and surfactant type (nonionic vs ionic).
Fig. 1. Microscopic images of mud samples at room temperature: (a)
Oil + Water + Wyoming Bentonite (no surfactant), (b) WBM M1 7.5 HLB, (c)
WBM M1 11.5 HLB (d) WBM M2 (Ionic), and (e) OBM S1.
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 174 (2019) 1309–1320
Fig. 1. (continued)
The absence of surfactant in Fig. 1 (a) accounts for the large (> 30
µm ) dispersed oil droplets observed, resulting from the high interfacial
tension between the oil and water phases. The interfacial tension for the
surfactant void mixture had a value of 57.1 mN/n, Fig. 2 (a).
For the nonionic-stabilized WBM samples, larger HLB values were
observed to lead to a greater degree of emulsification of the oil dis-
persed phase. For WBM M1 at an HLB of 7.5 (Fig. 1 (b)), the formation
of a bicontinuous network of oil dispersed phase in a water-bentonite
matrix was observed. This was accounted for by the lower mass fraction
of the highly polar Brij O10 surfactant molecules in mixture 1 at an HLB
of 7.5.
At a value of 11.5, Fig. 1 (c), the presence of a greater fraction of Brij
O10 increases the existing affinity of the surfactant mixture (M1) to-
wards the water phase, thereby facilitating the emulsification of par-
affin oil as the dispersed phase.
The greater polarity of Brij O10 stems from its greater number (8
more) of ether: R-O-R and alcohol: ReOH groups in comparison to Brij
93, Fig. 3 (a) and (b). Where R represents an alkyl group.
The effect of the surfactant's polarity nature, nonionic versus ionic,
on the resulting microstructure of the WBM samples is illustrated when
comparing Fig. 1 (d) to (b) and (c). The presence of a larger mass
fraction of the cationic surfactant CTAB in mixture 2 of WBM M2
(Ionic) favored the formation a gel-like bentonite network.
As opposed to WBM M1 (at the same HLB of 11.5) where a high
degree of emulsification was observed, the presence of positively
charged surfactant molecule (cation) in mixture 2 (Fig. 3 (e)) led to
G.L. Numkam, B. Akbari Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 174 (2019) 1309–1320

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)
Fig. 3. Chemical structure of surfactants: (a) Brij 93, (b) Brij O10, (c) Span 80,
(d) SDS and (e) CTAB.

Fig. 2. Interfacial tension at RTP: (a) Paraffin oil - deionized water (no
surfactant) = 57.1 mN/m, (b) Paraffin oil + M1 - deionized water: low in-
terfacial tension for 7.5 and 11.5 HLBs. (c) Paraffin oil + S1 – deionized
water = 3.5 mN/m.

enhanced swelling and flocculation of the bentonite particles as illu-

strated in Fig. 4.
For the OBM sample (OBM S1) in Fig. 1 (e), formation of dispersed
water droplets was observed. The effect of interfacial tension is high-
lighted by the sample's smaller dispersed droplets in comparison to the
surfactant free mixture (Fig. 2 (a)), but greater in size when compared
to the dispersed phase in WBM M1 (Fig. 2 (c)). Determination of the Fig. 4. (a) Cation exchange between CTAB surfactant molecules and Sodium
ions leads to enhanced swelling of interlayer spacing of clay particle, resulting
interfacial tension of WBM M2 was not feasible due to the high opacity
from steric repulsion between hydrophobic tails of the surfactant molecules, (b)
of the resulting mixture.
Attractive electrostatic forces between negatively charged bentonite particles as
a result of screening effect of positively charged CTAB surfactant molecules.

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3.2. Temperature induced phase inversion

Fig. 5 shows the phase inversion as a result of temperature change of

WBM M1 at an HLB of 7.5, 3 wt% surfactant concentration, and Oil:-
Water ratio of 60:40. At a room temperature, an interwoven network of
the hydrated bentonite and oil phase was observed. As temperature was
decreased to 10 °C , no significant change was seen in the sample's
microstructure.
Following temperature increase, formation of nano-sized water
droplets started to occur at 75 °C. At 90 °C, the significant formation of
dispersed water droplets was indicative that the sample had undergone
phase inversion from a O/W to W/O base emulsion.
The occurrence of phase inversion was distinct for WBM samples
stabilized by mixture M1. The phase inversion temperature (PIT) was
found to depend on Oil:Water ratio and HLB value of the samples.
Reversibility of the base emulsion of WBM M1 from a W/O back to an
O/W base emulsion upon temperature decrease was not observed.
This is due to the difference in thermodynamic stability of the initial
and final emulsion formed following phase inversion. For WBM M1 at
an HLB of 7.5 the starting interwoven O/W base emulsion is a macro-
emulsion i.e. an emulsion having dispersed droplets with diameters
ranging between 100 nm and 100 µm , while the resulting temperature-
induced phase inversion W/O base emulsion is a microemulsion.
Microemulsions have dispersed droplets with diameters between 2 and
50 nm, and are thermodynamically more stable than macroemulsions
(McClements, 2011). This explains the non-reversible behavior ob-
served for the base emulsion of the WBM M1 at 7.5 HLB.
No phase inversion was observed at all volume fractions in WBM
M2. As opposed to surfactant mixture M1, M2 was a mixture of ionic
surfactants and thus does not possess the physicochemical properties
that induce a change in the surfactant packing parameter (P ) with
temperature.

3.3. Flow behavior characterization

Fig. 6 shows the effect of surfactant concentration on the flow curve

of phase inversion mud sample in Fig. 5, WBM M1 at 7.5 HLB and 60:40
Oil:Water ratio. The flow curve of the sample were conducted at tem-
peratures of 10, 25, and 90 °C. Measurements were repeated thrice to
ensure reproducibility. Measurements were performed with a scientific
MCR 52 rheometer using a Cone and Plate (CP) measuring geometry at
the standard measuring gap of 150 µm (0.15 mm).
At 10 °C, Fig. 6 (a), the effect of bentonite swelling and degree of
emulsification of the oil phase on the flow behavior of the mud sample
was observed. Due to the absence of a net charge electrostatic charge,
the effect of high concentrations of nonionic surfactant mixture 1 leads
to deflocculation of the bentonite particles in the sample.
Thus, at 1 wt% the high shear stress levels observed result from the
high structuration level conferred by the lesser level of deflocculation of
bentonite particles. While the greater shear stress level at 3 wt% in
comparison to 2 wt%, stems from the greater degree of emulsification.
At 25 °C, Fig. 6 (b), wall slip effect on the flow behavior of the WBM
M1 can be observed at concentrations of 1 and 2 wt%. As defined per
equation (7), the slip behavior of non-Newtonian mixtures such as
drilling fluids increases with shear stress and decreasing viscosity of the
slip layer thickness (Fig. 7) (Soltani and Yilmazer, 1998; Yilmazer and
Kaylon, 1989). Where Us is the slip velocity of the bulk fluid, is the
measured shear stress, T is temperature, is the slip layer thickness and
µs is the slip layer viscosity.

Us ( , T ) =
µs (T ) (7)
Fig. 5. Phase inversion of WBM M1 7.5 HLB (3 wt%, Oil:Water = 60:40) as a
result of temperature change: 10–90 ℃. Significant formation of nano-sized The main consequence of wall slip in non-Newtonian mixtures are
water droplets at 90 ℃. breaks in flow curve, the existence of apparent yield stress at lower
shear stresses and/or unexpected Newtonian plateaus (Barnes, 1995).

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Fig. 7. Schematic of the apparent slip mechanism of non-Newtonian fluids.

Wall slip occurrence is prominent when the size of dispersed particles in

Fig. 6. Flow curve of WBM M1 at 7.5 HLB, 60:40 Oil:Water ratio: (a) 10 °C , (b)
25 °C and 90 °C .
viscoelastic mixtures are relatively large.
This is the case in the sample at low surfactant concentrations of 1
and 2 wt% due to the lower degree of emulsification. Accounting for the
wall slip observed at low shear rates for the former and shear rates
between 10 and 100 1/s in the latter, Fig. 6 (b).
At 90 °C, Fig. 6 (c), wall slip becomes more prominent at all con-
centrations due to the dependence of the slip layer viscosity on tem-
perature as defined by Equation (7). More importantly, increase in
shear stress as a result of phase inversion was observed at 3 wt% sur-
factant concentration.
The increase in apparent viscosity as a result of temperature-in-
duced phase inversion, is further underscored by Fig. 8. In Fig. 8 (a), the
rheopectic behavior characteristic of phase inversion emulsion systems
(Lehnert et al., 1994) is observed at the temperature at which nano-
sized droplets started to form, Fig. 5.
Fig. 8 (b), shows the increase in shear stress with temperature when
moving from 75 to 90 °C , which is a trend opposite to the expected
decrease in shear stress (apparent viscosity) observed for normal base
emulsion systems (Chen and Tao, 2004; Oltedal et al., 2015). Tem-
perature-induced phase inversion accounted for the increase shear
stress from 75 to 90 °C following the initial decrease observed when
moving from 50 to 75 °C .
Fig. 9, highlights the effect of HLB, nature of surfactant polarity
(nonionic versus ionic), and volume fraction of dispersed phase on the
flow behavior of the different mud samples at temperatures of 10, 25
and 90 °C.
The greater structuration in WBM M2 (Ionic) as a result of enhanced
swelling and flocculation of bentonite (Fig. 4) is observed in the high
shear stress levels displayed at all temperatures.
On the other hand, the effect of HLB on the flow curve of WBM M1
shows the effect of degree of emulsification and thus structuration as
defined by Equation (3). Where the level of structuration of viscoelastic
mixture stems from the amount of work needed to increase the inter-
facial area of the dispersed droplets (Mason, 1999), the aforementioned
being inversely proportional to the emulsion droplet radius (R ).
This explains the higher shear stress levels observed for WBM M1 at
an HLB of 11.5, as opposed to 7.5, at 10 and 25 °C . The early phase
inversion in WBM M1 at 7.5 HLB accounts for the higher shear stresses
observed at 90 °C. The PIT for polyoxyethylene oleyl ether surfactants
increasing in value with increasing HLB (Lehnert et al., 1994).
Following phase inversion, the base W/O microemulsion in WBM
M1 (7.5 versus 11.5 HLB) leads to greater shear stress values as defined
per Equation (3) due to its greater level of structuration.
The effect of dispersed phase volume fraction, 40 vol% for OBM S1 as
opposed to 60 vol% for the WBM samples was equally highlighted by the
flow curve measurements at all temperatures. From low to intermediate
shear rates, the WBM samples holistically displayed shear stresses greater
than the OBM due to their greater relative viscosity as defined by
Einstein's equation (Einstein, 1906; Tadros, 1994), Equation (8).

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G.L. Numkam, B. Akbari Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 174 (2019) 1309–1320

Fig. 8. WBM M1 at 7.5 HLB, 60:40 Oil:Water ratio: (a) rheopectic behavior at
starting temperature of phase inversion and (b) increase in shear stress with
temperature following phase inversion.

µr = 1 + k1 + k2 2 + k3 3 +… (8)

Where µr is the relative viscosity of the emulsion, k1 is Einstein's coeffi-

cient, and ki k1 are the hydrodynamic interaction coefficients, and is
the dispersed phase volume fraction. At elevated shear rates, prevailing
structural re-arrangements that include droplet stretching, coalescence
and rupturing (Mason, 1999; Lequeux, 1998) account for the different
trends in shear stresses observed.

3.4. Cuttings transport capacity

It is critical for drill cuttings to be effectively transported to the

surface in order to minimize non-productive time (NPT) and thus make Fig. 9. Flow curve comparison at 3 wt% surfactant concentration and 60:40
the completion of the well safe and economical. In horizontal wells, this Oil:Water ratio of WBM M1 7.5 HLB, WBM M1 11.5 HLB, WBM M2 (Ionic) and
is achieved by making sure the time required for cuttings transport to OBM S1 at: (a) 10 °C, (b) 25 °C and (c) 90 °C .

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G.L. Numkam, B. Akbari Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 174 (2019) 1309–1320

the surface is less than the cuttings’ settling time.

The ability of the drilling fluid to ensure the effective cuttings
transport can be defined through the solid's transportation, settling
times and Stokes' equation (Tehrani, 2007):

D
Ts =
Vs (9)

L
TT =
VT (10)

TT Ts (11)

gd 2
Vs =
18µm (12)

L d g
µm
DVT 18 (13)

Where µm is the continuum viscosity, d is the particle diameter, is

the density difference between the solid particle and drilling fluid, D
and L are the diameter and length of the horizontal section, Ts and TT
are respectively the settling and transport times, and Vs and VT are the
settling and flow driven translational velocities of the particle respec-
tively.
In the case of cuttings transport by drilling fluids, µm represents the
fluid's apparent viscosity. Figs. 10 and 11 respectively show the low-
shear and plastic viscosities of the mud samples at temperatures of 10,
25 and 90 °C. Low-shear and plastic viscosities here are defined as the
measured viscosity profile at shear rates < 1.0 and > 1000.0 1/s re-
spectively.
The effect of temperature-induced phase inversion, HLB, nature of
surfactant polarity and dispersed phase volume fraction on low-shear
viscosity are highlighted in Fig. 10. As temperature is increased from 10
to 90 °C the increase in the apparent viscosity of WBM M1 at 7.5 HLB
was observed as a result of phase inversion.
The enhanced swelling and flocculation in WBM M2 (Ionic), re-
sulting in its high level of structuration due to the presence cationic
surfactant accounts for its highest low-shear viscosity at all tempera-
tures. The lower volume fraction in OBM S1 (40 vol%) translates to
lower relative viscosities as defined by Equation (8).
In Fig. 11 (a), at 10 °C , the thermal compression (expansion) coef-
ficient of the continuous oil phase of OBM S1 results in higher plastic
viscosities (Xu et al., 2014; Leaper et al., 2006; Herzhaft et al., 2001). At
90 °C, Fig. 11 (c), the thermal expansion coefficient of the continuous
oil phase OBM S1 once more accounts for its greater decrease in visc-
osity in comparison to the WBM samples.
Based on the lowest plastic viscosity measured at the maximum
shear rate of 3000 1/s for the different samples, maximum rate of pe-
netration (ROP) can therefore be expected for WBM M2 (Ionic), WBM
M1 (7.5 HLB) and OBM S1 at 10, 25 and 90 °C respectively. The
aforementioned assumes the apparent viscosity, µa , in Equation (14)
(Bourgoyne et al., 1991; Millheim and Apostal, 1981), can be ap-
proximated by the viscosity value of the samples at 3000 1/s.
an
dD v¯n dn
dt µa (14)

Where dD / dt is the penetration rate (ROP), is the drilling fluid den-

sity, v̄n is the nozzle velocity, dn is the nozzle diameter, µa is the ap-
parent viscosity of the drilling fluid at the shear rate of 10,000 1/s and
ag is a constant.
Fig. 10. Low-shear viscosity at constant Oil:Water ratio of 60:40 and 3 wt%
surfactant concentration of WBM M1 7.5 HLB, WBM M1 11.5 HLB, WBM M2
(Ionic) and OBM S1: (a) 10 °C, (b) 25 °C and (c) 90 °C .

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3.5. Cuttings suspension capacity

During non-flow periods such as during trips for pipe connections or

during control operations that require the well to be shut, it is critical
for the drilling fluid under such static conditions to display structura-
tion levels that prevent drill cuttings and/or solid additives from

Fig. 11. Plastic viscosity at constant Oil:Water ratio of 60:40 and 3 wt% sur-
factant concentration of WBM M1 7.5 HLB, WBM M1 11.5 HLB, WBM M2 Fig. 12. Stress sweep at constant Oil:Water ratio of 60:40 and 3 wt% surfactant
(Ionic) and OBM S1: (a) 10 °C, (b) 25 °C and (c) 90 °C. concentration of WBM M1 7.5 HLB, WBM M1 11.5 HLB, WBM M2 (Ionic) and
OBM S1: a) 0 °C, (b) 25 °C and (c) 90 °C .

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G.L. Numkam, B. Akbari Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 174 (2019) 1309–1320

Fig. 13. Schematic representation of depletion flocculation (Tadros, 1994).

settling. The fluid's capacity to prevent particle sedimentation in the

absence of flow can be related to its yield stress as defined by Equation
(4).
Fig. 12 shows the strain deformation profiles of the different mud
samples in response to a stress sweep at temperatures of 0, 25 and 90
°C . The effect of nature of surfactant polarity (nonionic versus ionic)
and dispersed phase volume fraction was highlighted at temperatures of
0 and 25 °C.
WBM M2 (Ionic) was observed to display the lowest level of de-
formation at 0 and 25 °C as a result of the enhanced swelling and
flocculation of bentonite as a result of elevated concentrations of CTAB.
OBM S1 on the other hand was observed to yield at the aforementioned
temperatures as a result of its lower dispersed phase volume fraction
conferring it lower resistance to flow per Equation (8).
The absence of yielding of OBM S1 at 90 °C as opposed to lower
temperatures, can be explained by the increase in structuration of the
sample as a result of depletion flocculation, Fig. 13 (Tadros, 1994; Fig. 14. Fluid loss measurements at 3 wt% surfactant concentration at
Packman and Tadros, 1992). At 3 wt%, surfactant concentration in Oil:Water ratios ranging from 50:50–80:20 of WBM M1 7.5 HLB, WBM M1 11.5
OBM S1 is 3408 times above its CMC. With the average outer diameter HLB, WBM M2 (Ionic) and OBM S1: (a) filtrate volume (mL) and (b) mudcake
of micellar structures being 3–6 nm, thermal motion of the aforemen- thickness (cm).
tioned is significant at 90 °C favoring depletion flocculation phenom-
enon. nonionic-stabilized WBM samples. The aforementioned resulting from
the lower structuration level in OBM S1 due to its lower dispersed phase
3.6. Static fluid loss volume fraction at Oil:Water ratios greater than 50:50.

Fig. 14 shows the static fluid loss measurements, and associated
mudcake thickness, for the different samples at room temperature for
Oil:Water ratios ranging from 50:50–80:20. The effect of HLB, dispersed
phase volume fraction, as well as the nature of surfactant polarity on
the filtrate volume and mudcake thickness were highlighted in the re-
sults obtained.
WBM M2 (Ionic) displayed the highest level of fluid loss and had the
thickest mud cakes, Fig. 14 (a) and (b) respectively. The enhanced
swelling and flocculation that occurs as a result of the cationic surfac-
tant present in mixture 2 led to the formation of thick permeable
mudcakes. Higher HLB values for WBM M1 were associated to smaller
fluid loss and thinner mudcakes. This was due to a higher degree of
emulsification at an HLB of 11.5 as opposed to 7.5, Fig. 1 (b) and (c).
The effect of dispersed phase volume fraction on formation damage
resulting from drilling fluid filtrate influx was equally put into per-
spective. With the exception of WBM M1 (7.5 HLB) at 50:50 Oil:Water
ratio, greater fluid losses were observed in OBM S1 in comparison to the
4. Conclusions
Surfactants play key roles in the emulsification of one immiscible
phase into another and wettability alteration of drill cuttings for
transportation to the surface (Butt et al., 2003; Bourgoyne et al., 1991).
They are applied both in conventional and novel drilling fluids such as
FRIDFs, with the exception that in the latter greater complexity in the
drilling fluid composition results from the number and type of surfac-
tants being used.
In offshore operations, drilling fluids are subject to large tempera-
ture variations which not only result in drastic changes in their physical
and rheological properties as is the case with FRIDFs, but can also result
in phenomenon such as phase inversion as a result of temperature
variations.
Results showed that phase inversion in drilling muds stabilized by
nonionic surfactants occurs, and that the PIT is dependent on a number
of variables (HLB, nonionic surfactant type, Oil:Water ratio) and the

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trend of inversion occurrence with these variables are in good agree- Anton, N., Gayet, P., Benoit, J.P., Saulnier, P., 2007. Nano-emulsions and nanocapsules by
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