ACTION RESEARCH

in Schools and Communities

Michelle Vaughan & Kathryn Wolfe

College of Education
Florida Atlantic University
Action Research in Schools and Communities

© 2018 Michelle Vaughan & Kathryn Wolfe

College of Education
Florida Atlantic University

Abstract: The chapters within this document support students who will engage in action research based on problem posing and
problem-solving as an integral part of educational inquiry grounded in practice. The readings provide historical, critical, and con-
ceptual frameworks for action research, locally, nationally, and internationally.

Keywords: action research, teacher research, classroom research

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. To view a
copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.

Produced in cooperation with FAU’s Center for eLearning and FAU Libraries.
WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?
 WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH? 2

WHAT IS ACTION
RESEARCH?
Now that you have been introduced to the field of Action
Research (AR), we are going to dive into the fundamentals of
AR and look at examples of AR studies. Module 1 provided
a foundation to the history and background of AR and this
will be touched on again in Module 3. For this module, we
are going to look at the purpose of action research as a
methodological approach.
 WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH? 3

BACKGROUND TO ACTION RESEARCH

For this module we are going to look at a few different websites that are dedicated to the study of AR and examine some examples of AR
studies. We will begin with the Center for Collaborative Action Research (CCAR) at Pepperdine University in Malibu, California. The goal
of the CCAR is to bring “together educators, researchers, and community members. The Center’s aim is to create deep understanding of
educational problems in a range of different contexts including but not limited to schools, and to encourage evidence-based reasoning
to solve these problems” (Center for Collaborative Action Research, 2017, para. 1). While this definition is aimed towards to the CCAR’s
mission and focus, it also illustrates the overarching goal of AR which is to examine a variety of educational concerns and provide
evidence-based solutions to address these concerns.

The Center for Collaborative Action Research’s “What is?” page provides a great foundation to the field of AR. Before going to the page,
here are the three sections you should read over and examine as well as some thoughts/ questions to think about during your reading:

Section 1: “Understanding Action Research” by Margaret Riel

• According to the author, what is Action Research?
• What are the essential components of AR?

Section 2: “Goals of Action Research include:”

• Why is reflection essential to AR?
• Does teacher research = action research?

Section 3: “Action Research and Learning Circles”

• How is AR a collaborative process?

The remainder of this page deals with writing, deciphering, and creating good research questions for AR and this will be further explored
in Module 5. Please click on the link and begin this reading here.
 WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?
APPROACHES TO ACTION RESEARCH
Another wonderful AR tool is The Center for Education
Innovation (TCEI). This resource provides three models
for AR and a few simplified and streamlined examples of
Practical Action Research (model 2).
On the Center for Education Innovation’s page begin by
examining the “Three Action Research Models” and think
about which model/approach you think would be best for
your classroom or school. Then look at Example 1, “Using
interactive multimedia to support information systems
training: system design and learning issues”. While these
examples have two “cycles” in their action research process,
examine the design and key components of each cycle.
Please click on the link and begin here.
4
Now that you have read through TCEI’s page and Example
1, think about each step of Cycle 1. While the “order” and
stages of cycles can vary, it is important to note that you
must begin with a research question or statement. Example
1, “Using interactive multimedia to support information
systems training: system design and learning issues”, had
a research statement but the “aim” of the AR project could
just as easily been turned into a research question. Also,
the plan and literature review (part of cycle 2) will often
appear in a different order depending on the organization
and purpose of the project. Creating research questions,
examining articles for a literature review, forming an action
research plan, and reflecting on the process will all be
discussed in further detail in the upcoming modules.
 WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?
EXAMINING ACTION RESEARCH STUDIES
Just like FAU, many colleges and departments use Action
Research as a capstone course or final project in masters
and specialists degrees. In order to begin getting your
“feet wet” in action research, we are going to spend some
time looking at AR studies that are apart of The Carnegie
Academy for the Scholarship of Teaching in Learning in
K-12’s “Gallery of Teaching and Learning,” or better known
as the CASTL K-12 Collection. This website contains 15
online/ virtual portfolios (cases) for AR studies/projects.
Before you dive into a study on your own, this will be your
discussion board for this week, I want to “walk” through
one with you.
5
We will be looking at Irma Lyons’ “Multiple Measures of
Student Achievement in an Interdisciplinary Unit on the
Harlem Renaissance”.
While each case is designed differently and contains
various different elements, each should have a purpose
or aim of the AR study. For the “Interdisciplinary Unit on
the Harlem Renaissance, there were a few main goals:
• Create a year-long interdisciplinary unit
• Encourage parental involvement/parental
outreach
• Have students present their project (for
individual grades)
• Create a collaborative environment of
learning
Are there any other goals that you notice, explicit or
implicit?
 WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH? 6

EXAMINING ACTION RESEARCH STUDIES

Before you dive into some of the videos of the students
and parents, take a look at “My Belief System”. When you
click on this area of the portfolio, it illustrates Ms. Lyons’
views on her students, education, and curriculum. In most
areas of AR, the researcher is examining something about
their own teaching practice, leadership style, classroom
environment, etc. Therefore, it is important to highlight
the researcher’s views, roles, and goal to see how the
researcher views things.
Next, the case has two other important tabs “The
Curriculum” and “Learning Community”. The curriculum
provides an overview of what topics will be discussed and
each interdisciplinary aspect. The learning community
highlights how the teacher initiated contact with the
parents and kept the project going throughout the school
year.

Finally, take some time and look through the case and
watch some of the videos and clips that she uploaded. As
you look through these elements, ask yourself is this data?
And how does it illustrate the goals of the AR study?

Have fun as you look at the Harlem Renaissance Unit as

you begin thinking about what AR can look like! Here is the
link again for reference.
 WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH? 7

ACTION RESEARCH CASES

Please read through the following assigned AR cases/studies from the CASTL K-12 Collection.

Last names A-H:

Yvonne Divans Hutchinson, “A Friend of Their Minds: Capitalizing on the Oral Tradition of my African American Students”
Begin here.

Last names G-L:

Emily Wolks, “Pio Pico Researchers Participatory Action Research: From Classroom to Community, Transforming Teaching
and Learning”
Begin here.

Last names M-R:

Esther Wojcicki, “Setting Up a Successful Journalistic Learning Community”

Begin here.

Last names S-Z:

Esther Wojcicki and Kim Austin, “Creating a Community of Learners: Lessons from a High School Journalism Program”
Begin here.
 WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH? 8

REFERENCES
• The Carnegie Academy for the Scholarship of Teaching in Learning in K-12 (n.d.). The gallery of teaching and
learning. Retrieved from http://gallery.carnegiefoundation.org/gallery_of_tl/castl_k12.html

• Center for Collaborative Action Research (2017). Understanding action research. Retrieved from
http://cadres.pepperdine.edu/ccar/define.html

• Center for Education Innovation (2016). Models and examples. Retrieved from
http://cei.ust.hk/teaching-resources/action-research/models-and-examples
AN OVERVIEW OF
ACTION RESEARCH
 AN OVERVIEW OF ACTION RESEARCH 2

AN OVERVIEW OF ACTION RESEARCH

In Module 1, you watched a video that summarized some key points and people in Action Research (AR) history. The image on the
next page reflects the timeline of that history. If you would like a review, you can watch the video again here.

History of Action Research

 AN OVERVIEW OF ACTION RESEARCH 3

HISTORY OF ACTION RESEARCH

John Dewey
Kurt Lewin

John Collier

Tavistock Clinic
Stephen Corey
Paulo Freire
Lawrence Stenhouse

Gaining popularity across disciplines

1920s 1930s - 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s- 1980s -1990s

Decline

Source: https://linlinthelibrarian.wordpress.com/

What is important to remember when discussing the history of AR is that there are a myriad of terms that often serve as synonyms or
are closely related to AR. You will hear such terms as practitioner research, self-study, inquiry, action learning, and participatory action
research when discussing core ideals of action research. Each of these terms may have its own history and new terms may continue
to enter the field as the methodology grows into new disciplines. There is not one “right” term to describe AR and the many faces of
AR represent the flexibility of the methodology in a variety of contexts. We will use the term AR, but do not be surprised when you are
reading literature that describes a similar process but uses a different term.
 AN OVERVIEW OF ACTION RESEARCH 4

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

In addition to the diversity of terms used to describe AR, Stringer’s definition retains the Cochran-Smith and Lytle
there are also many definitions of action research within the perspective of AR as a vehicle for meaningful change for
field. Peter Reason and Hillary Bradbury (2000) define AR those involved in the project. Lastly, we must look at what
as seeking “to bring together action and reflection, theory is means to be involved in an AR project and the power
and practice, in participation with others, in the pursuit of dynamics that may exist within a research project. Working
practical solutions to issues of pressing concern to people” from Herr and Anderson’s (2005) definition, AR is “inquiry
(p. 1). Cochran-Smith and Lytle (2009) describe AR as that is done by or with insiders to an organization or
a vehicle of change and a tool for advocacy through the community, but never to or on them (p. 3).”
development of ‘inquiry as stance’. They describe inquiry
as stance as a “grounded theory of action that positions
the role of practitioners and practitioner knowledge as
central to the goal of transforming teaching, learning,
leading, and schooling (p. 119).” While this explanation
may be easily accessed by those teaching in classrooms,
it is important to expand the reach of AR to those working
within communities as well. Stringer (2007) formally
conceptualizes AR as a process that

provides the means by which stakeholders – those

centrally affected by the issue investigated – explore
their experience, gain greater clarity and understanding
of events and activities, and use those extended
understandings to construct effective solutions to the
problem(s) on which the study was focused (p.20).
 AN OVERVIEW OF ACTION RESEARCH 5

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

Regardless of the definition guiding a particular project, there are core principles that create a thread through all AR projects.

• AR is a cyclical process - representing a continuous attempt(s) to solve a particular issue

• AR is transformative – researchers and participants may experience a transformation in knowledge
• AR is systematic - providing an organized research method to address concerns in classrooms, communities, and
organizations

As you begin to think about your own context, focus on the tensions that may exist there. AR projects often grow from those
tensions and the process of brainstorming potential solutions with those involved.
 AN OVERVIEW OF ACTION RESEARCH 6

THE ACTION RESEARCH CYCLE

Each definition of AR often has a visual representation and this section will show a number of different cycles that depict a
similar process. Depending on the context you are conducting your research in, one cycle may speak more to you than others.
The image below is pulled from a simple Google Image search to show the plethora of visuals that come up when “action
research cycle” is searched.
Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3

Study and Study and Study and

Participatory Action plan plan plan
Life in society Experience

PAR Take action

Take action Take action

Collect and Collect and Collect and

Research Analyze Evidence Analyze Evidence Analyze Evidence
Mind, Knowledge

Reflect Reflect Reflect

Progressive Problem Solving with Action Research

 AN OVERVIEW OF ACTION RESEARCH 7

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

The image here is a great teaching tool because it uses POSSIBLE MODEL FOR AN ACTION RESEARCH CYCLE
an actual research question, ‘How can I motivate the
children in my class who are not excited about learning Identify issue Reflect
in literacy lessons?’ to show the steps completed by the How can I motivate the Why are some children
children in my class who are demotivated? What are the factors
researchers within an action research cycle. One of the not excited about learning in
I could change? Who can I discuss
literacy lessons?
initial portions of this cycle is a reflection, this can come this with? What changes can I make
in the form of a journal, speaking with a colleague, or and why? Consider ethical issues
— how can I involve the children in
perhaps researching the issue in professional journals the research in a fair and respectful
to find out more. After reflecting on the issue, the Reflect on the findings way?
What have I found out?
researcher implements a change they feel will best Are the learners more motivated
address their question. Next, data is gathered to because they are working in
mixed ability groups? If not, what
evaluate whether that change has made a difference. In will I do now? If they are more
Implement a change
this scenario, assessments are gathered to look at their motivated what more could be
Introduce mixed ability groups into
done? If I don’t know, how could I
literacy lessons.
learning and a discussion is planned with the students find out?
All these responses could lead to
and other relevant adults to gather their input about the a new issue.
use of mixed ability groups. As the researcher analyzes
the data, they have also built in a discussion with their
Gather data
colleagues, this is an important step to validate their Compare current assessments of
Analyze the data the children’s work with examples
data. Lastly, the researcher reflects on the findings,
Focus on the research question from before the change was
perhaps the data is positive and now the researcher — do I have relevant data? made, have discussions with the
wants to introduce mixed ability groups in other Read, review and reflect on children about their perceptions
issues that the data reveals. and with other significant adults
subjects. Or maybe the data doesn’t show a change and Discuss my analysis with who work with the children.
the researcher is left to try another solution. Either way colleagues.
(and there are a number of different outcomes that
could occur), the cycle continues and evolves.
 AN OVERVIEW OF ACTION RESEARCH 8

THE ROLE OF ACTION RESEARCH IN

SCHOOLS AND COMMUNITIES
A primary focus of action research is the improvement of research, and noted an increase in their self-confidence
classroom practice and, as a result, student learning. Mertler as a teacher, deeper knowledge of professional practice,
(2014) highlights four distinct ways action research is used and an altered and more complex understanding of the
in education: “to effectively connect theory to practice, to students in their classroom. A closer relationship with
improve educational practice, to empower teachers, and as students, whether they are participants in the study or
a means for promoting professional growth” (p. 22). In this co-researchers is another well-documented outcome of
section we will discuss the various ways action research is the use of action research in the classroom (Brydon-Miller
being used in schools, districts, and communities. & Maguire, 2009; Goodnough, 2011). Strengthening the
relationship between student and teacher and providing
Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) are an ideal fit a voice for students can have a direct impact on their
for action research as the purpose of a PLC is to collaborate learning and motivation as a learner. Additionally, action
with educators to improve student learning. In a PLC, research has been used successfully to support the needs
teachers work together to understand practice as well as of individual students in the classroom through projects
change their practice and action research can be the vehicle that explore successful inclusion models.
used to implement and study the initiatives discussed by the
group. In a research project that involved 50 teachers across
a district working together on action research projects
related to science pedagogy, Goodnough (2011) explains
that the use of collaboration within the project provided
support for “their action research through self-reflective
spirals of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting” (p. 77).
Goodnough further examined 10 of the 50 participants’
experiences before, during, and after participation in action
 AN OVERVIEW OF ACTION RESEARCH 9

THE ROLE OF ACTION RESEARCH IN

SCHOOLS AND COMMUNITIES
and strategies. Not only do teacher researchers become more comfortable with the research process, but the use of action research
in classrooms continues to support their own development as a professional, and can, as a result, be a vehicle to help transform the
profession.

Action research has also been instituted in school districts to understand and mitigate problems that occur throughout a school district.
While district-level use of action research is not yet commonplace, the following case study (Mastrorilli, Harnett, & Zhu, 2014) highlights
a partnership between a large urban district and local arts organizations as they work together to study the impact of an innovative arts
program.

Case Study: Arts Achieve

Founded in 2011, The Arts Achieve: Impacting Student Success in the Arts project is a partnership between the New York City
Department of Education (NYCDOE) and five of the city’s premier arts organizations. “Arts Achieve” provides professional development
to art teachers over a three-year period. The goal of this project is to improve the quality of art teachers’ instruction through in-service
professional development where teachers design both formative and summative assessments to capture the increase in students’ arts
achievement. Developed by a professional learning committee composed of art teachers, they incorporate action research to review
student data and examine the impact on current instructional practices. Additionally, each art teacher pairs with a facilitator from the
arts organizations to support them over the course of the project. These specific professional development activities included on-site
consultancies, assessment retreats, inter-visitations, and an online community. Arts Achieve also provides participating art teachers
with resources to support this work, such as units of study and technology bundles. Using action research teachers were able to use
student scores to inform their instructional methods and adjust practices to see the impact on the next assessment (Mastrorilli, Harnett,
& Zhu, 2014).
 AN OVERVIEW OF ACTION RESEARCH 10

WHY ACTION RESEARCH?

You have gained a good overview about what action research process can look like and the many applications it can have in schools and
communities. So, why be an action researcher? Action research is a methodology designed to address the tensions that exist in your
own context and provides a systematic way to make improvements in places that matter most to the researcher involved. It provides
a vehicle for change and empowerment to many populations that may not otherwise be involved in the decision-making process. The
short video here and shown below synthesizes key reasons for being involved in action research and the potential for its impact.

What’s so great about self-study?

 AN OVERVIEW OF ACTION RESEARCH 11

REFERENCES
• Brydon-Miller, M., & Maguire, P. (2009). Participatory action research: Contributions to the development of practitioner
inquiry in education. Educational Action Research, 17(1), 79-93. doi:10.1080/09650790802667469

• Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (2009). Inquiry as Stance: Practitioner Research for the Next Generation. New York, NY:
Teachers College Press.

• Goodnough, K. (2011). Examining the long-term impact of collaborative action research on teacher identity and practice:
The perceptions of K-12 teachers. Educational Action Research, 19(1), 73-86.

• Herr, K., & Anderson, G. L. (2005). The Action Research Dissertation: A Guide for Students and Faculty. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.

• Mastrorilli, T. M., Harnett, S., & Zhu, J. (2014). Arts Achieve, impacting student success in the arts: Preliminary findings after
one year of implementation. Journal for Learning through the Arts, 10(1), 1-24.

• Mertler, C. (2014). Action Research: Improving Schools and Empowering Educators (4th ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

• Stringer, E. T. (2007). Action Research (3rd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
GETTING STARTED WITH
ACTION RESEARCH
 GETTING STARTED WITH ACTION RESEARCH 2

IS IT QUALITATIVE OR QUANTITATIVE?
Some of the initial confusion around engaging in action research is figuring out what “counts” as action research.
Action research is often listed under the qualitative umbrella of research because the nature of qualitative research
“lies with the idea that meaning is socially constructed by individuals in interaction with their world” (Merriam, 2002,
p.3). The interaction referred to by Merriam fits well with how action researchers might define their own work, by
socially constructing meaning with those involved (students, community members) in their own study.
 GETTING STARTED WITH ACTION RESEARCH
IS IT QUALITATIVE OR QUANTITATIVE?
The definition below by Miles, Huberman, and Saldana
(2014) provides us with additional positive aspects of
engaging in qualitative research.
Qualitative data are a source of well-grounded,
rich descriptions and explanations of human
processes. With qualitative data, one can preserve
chronological flow, see which events led to which
consequences, and derive fruitful explanations.
Then, good qualitative data are more likely to lead
to serendipitous findings and to new integrations;
they help researchers get beyond initial conceptions
and generate or revise conceptual frameworks.
Finally, the findings from well-analyzed qualitative
studies have a quality of “undeniability.” Words,
especially organized into incidents or stories, have
a concrete, vivid, and meaningful flavor that often
proves far more convincing to a reader – another
researcher, a policymaker, or a practitioner – than
pages of summarized numbers (p. 4).
While classrooms are full of “words” created by students
and teachers alike, there is also a very high amount of
quantitative data produced by those same students and
teachers. While it is commonplace to read an action
3
research study that pulls solely from qualitative data, it is
also just as common to read one that uses only quantitative
data (test scores, survey results, checklists, etc). As an
action researcher, it is important for you to know that there
is no one “type” of data you need to limit yourself to when
designing your study. Qualitative research often relies on
interviews, observations, and documents (Merriam, 2002),
but when designing your own study it is most important to
think deeply about what type of data you would need to
answer your own action research question. If your question
is looking at the impact on student achievement, you may
need to lean more heavily on quantitative sources but if
you are focusing on student engagement or motivation,
you may find that interviews with your students will give
you a better sense of how they are feeling. The data you
include depends on your question, not the orientation of
the methodology.
 GETTING STARTED WITH ACTION RESEARCH 4

The image below shows how action research can differ from some types of traditional education research and is a great synthesis
of some of the key ideas we’ve discussed so far.
Seek answers through scientific method

Qualitative (inductive) versus quantitative (deductive) methods

Traditional educational
research
Nonexperimental versus experimental research designs

Mixed methods research design

Educational Research Alignment with reflective teaching

Various models of action research exist

Importance
Action research • Connecting theory to practice
• Improvement of educational practice
• Connection to school improvement
• Teacher empowerment
• Professional growth
• Social justice advocacy

Applications
• Identifying problems
• Developing and testing solutions
• Preservice teacher education
• In-service professional growth

Mertler, C. A. (2016). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators. Sage Publications.
 GETTING STARTED WITH ACTION RESEARCH
THINGS TO CONSIDER BEFORE ENGAGING
IN ACTION RESEARCH
There are a number of ethical considerations action
researchers need to reflect on when thinking about action
research and designing their project. Not all decisions have
a clear cut answer, but talking through some common
scenarios might help to get you thinking about how you
will handle your own project.
Informed consent. Ethical research requires that you
inform your participants about the nature and purpose of
your study. In action research, this is particularly important
because often the researcher is in a position of power
(teacher, principal, etc) in relation to the participants
(students). At a minimum, your participants should be
5
informed of your study and give consent to participate,
however, we would also encourage you to think about
how you can collaborate with the participants in your
study to give them a voice within your study as well as
valuable research experience. Action research becomes
more valuable when it is shared within a group and by
including participants in a meaningful way researchers
find a higher level of buy-in within their study in addition
to providing an enriching collaborative experience for
all involved. As the researcher, think about the following
questions surrounding ethical behavior and informed
consent.
• Have participants knowingly consented to
participate?
• Are participant’s rights and consents maintained
during and after the study?
• Were participants given a clear description of
the study and its purpose?
• Were participants told how the researcher
would protect their identity?
 GETTING STARTED WITH ACTION RESEARCH 6

THINGS TO CONSIDER BEFORE ENGAGING

IN ACTION RESEARCH

Protection from harm. Protecting our participants from harm usually comes in the form of keeping their identity confidential
and ensuring anonymity within the study. Researchers can accomplish this by using pseudonyms when reporting their
results and carefully describing their context to avoid identification. When designing your study, particularly in classroom
research, it is important to consider who will benefit (and who will not benefit) from any strategies or interventions you
are using within your study. For example, you may think about creating a control group to have something to compare the
results of your study to. But in creating a control group you may be denying students the opportunity to learn in a way you
feel would benefit them. So, in this instance, the benefit of a control group does not outweigh the potential harm that may
be done to students who do not have the opportunity to receive the innovative strategy you are implementing. There may
be natural opportunities for comparison of your data, but in action research it is unnecessary to have a control group to
make your study valid or reliable.
 GETTING STARTED WITH ACTION RESEARCH 7

THINGS TO CONSIDER BEFORE ENGAGING

IN ACTION RESEARCH
Positionality of the researcher. Action researchers often
play multiple roles simultaneously. Of course, they can
be the researcher and a participant within the context,
collecting, analyzing, and participating within the data. But
they also may be an outsider collaborating with insiders
in a study where a graduate student with a degree in
education and perhaps even teaching experience pairs
up with a classroom teacher to study his/her classroom.
In that scenario, the graduate student is an insider to the
field of education, but an outsider to that classroom. In
that minimizes its impact on the findings. The table below is
adapted from Herr and Anderson’s text, The Action Research
Dissertation, and gives some examples of positionality types.
For further explanation, this text is a great resource for
doctoral students considering an action research dissertation.
Positionality type Example actions
Research writes diary and analysis of his/her
1.Insider studies self
classroom-based teaching practices

another situation, a teacher could be studying the impact 2. Insider in collaboration Researcher and two colleagues use same
with insiders curriculum in their classes and compare
of test preparation materials in her classroom. Here, he experiences
may be an insider to his classroom context, but he is an 3. Insider in collaboration Researcher invites co-researchers from other
outsider in the decision-making process (if materials are with ousiders institutions to observe and analyze his/her
situation
selected by administration or the district). The positionality
4. Insider-outsider teams Researcher teams in two institutions analyze
of researchers is fluid and it is important to sit down and their own situations and compare experiences
think about what insider knowledge you may have in your
5. Outsider in Researcher joins another researcher and
own study context and where you may be an outsider (race, collaboration with insider studies his/her teaching setting

gender, age, etc.) in that context and with your participants. 6. Outsider studies Researcher visits another school for
This is key in determining where you may hold bias within insiders observations and interviews

your study, so you can employ strategies to mitigate its

Adapted from Herr & Anderson, 2005
influence in your study. Bias is a natural part of any study,
our job as action researchers is to create a rigorous study
 GETTING STARTED WITH ACTION RESEARCH 8

MOVING FORWARD WITH YOUR DESIGN

As you begin to think what type of data you need to
collect based on your action research question, read
through the following helpful information pulled from
Richard Sagor’s text, Guiding School Improvement with
action research. Here, he discusses concepts of reliability,
validity, and triangulation that are key to any good action
research study.
After you’ve thought through some of the quality criteria
presented by Sagor, it’s time to choose which type of data
will best help you answer your research question. The list
below is to help get you thinking about different types of
data that may exist in your study, but it is by no means
complete. Hopefully, this will give you some ideas, but
data collection can be unique to each study.
• Interviews (one-on-one or focus groups)
• Observation (completed by the researcher or a peer/
outsider)
• Documents (tests, quizzes, lesson plans, mission
statements, meeting agendas, etc.)
• Surveys (pre/post, exit slips, daily/weekly)
• Communication (notes, emails, memos)
• Journals (researcher, students)
• Standardized data (tests, attendance records)
Lastly, here are two examples of study designs that meet
the quality criteria discussed. Take time to look through
both examples, one that leans more heavily on qualitative
data and one that pulls from quantitative data.
Quantitative Example:
Here is a great example of an action research study
completed by a graduate student within her first grade
classroom. Be sure to click on Method to see details of
her plan.
Qualitative Example:
The beginning of this article by Dr. Nancy Dana contains
some great information on types of qualitative data that
can be collected within an action research study. Scroll
down to the bottom to read through an example of how
one teacher implemented their project.
 GETTING STARTED WITH ACTION RESEARCH 9

REFERENCES
• Anderson, G. L., Herr, K., & Nihlen, A. S. (2007). Studying your own school: An educator’s guide to practitioner action
research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

• Herr, K., & Anderson, G. L. (2014). The action research dissertation: A guide for students and faculty (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications.

• Merriam, S. B. (2002). Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion and analysis. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass Inc Pub.

• Mertler, C. A. (2016). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.

• Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldana, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook (3rd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

• Sagor, R. (2000). Guiding school improvement with action research. ASCD.

THE LITERATURE REVIEW
 THE LITERATURE REVIEW 2

WHAT IS A LITERATURE REVIEW?

One of the first steps in conducting a research study is to review what has already been written about the topic. A
literature review can contain a wide range of media including popular periodicals, websites, peer-reviewed articles, and
books. While a variety of sources can be included in a literature review, the bulk of the sources should be from peer-
reviewed researcher articles. A literature review summarizes the significant points of each source and more importantly,
synthesizes this information and connects it to your research questions. To illustrate what a literature review is, and
just as important what it isn’t, here is a short introductory video:

Writing the Literature Review

 THE LITERATURE REVIEW 3

HOW DO I CREATE A LITERATURE REVIEW?

In order to best understand what goes into a literature
review and the ways of constructing your literature
review, we have put together a collection of resources
that aim at answering all of your questions about
literature reviews.

Begin with the Writing Lab at the University of North
Carolina. This website explains the various components
of a literature review and provides strategies for how
to tackle your own. Keep in mind the sequence and
guidelines that the Writing Lab suggests because this
will help you when you sit down to start researching
your topic!
Before you start working on your research analysis
matrix watch this short video! This video illustrates
examples of BOTH constructing the research analysis
matrix and then taking the matrix and writing your
literature review with it. This is an extremely valuable
resource as it uses the work of students who have
previously taken this course. Watch here:

While literature reviews in the social sciences

traditionally adhere to the same guidelines, it is
important to understand how to write a literature
review for this course. Here is a short PowerPoint
that addresses the ins and outs of writing a literature
review, as well as specifics for your assignment and a
grading rubric.

Literature Review Process

 THE LITERATURE REVIEW 4

HOW DO I INCLUDE ALL

OF THESE SOURCES?
It is important that the writing is your own original
work and can include a small percentage of properly
cited direct quotes. APA prefers that you summarize
the studies, placing them in your own words. Proper
paraphrasing comes in handy when writing a literature
review. While this resource is geared toward writing
a literature review for a dissertation, it is very helpful
in deciphering when to paraphrase and when to cite
directly.

It is also vital that all sources are cited properly.

Both direct quotes and paraphrasing (summarizing)
should be cited, although direct quotes require more
information. The consequences for plagiarism can be
severe and, in this class, will mean the failure to pass
an assignment. This video provides an enjoyable way
to learn how to avoid plagiarism in your writing.
 THE LITERATURE REVIEW 5

WHAT IF I AM STILL STUCK?

If you are trying to leap into your research but are finding it difficult to begin here are
some wonderful resources from both the FAU and Purdue University’s Online Writing
Lab (OWL).

If you need help finding research within the field of curriculum and instruction:
http://libguides.fau.edu/c.php?g=324912&p=2180048

Here are aids on how to write a literature review:

http://libguides.fau.edu/c.php?g=325509&p=2182108

The library provides resources and videos on how to conduct research:

http://www.library.fau.edu/depts/ref/instsrv/webtut.htm

Also the library provides workshops, some are even online!

http://www.library.fau.edu/depts/ref/instsrv/mainwksh.htm

Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab (OWL) has some wonderful writing
and APA resources:
https://owl.purdue.edu/research/research.html
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_
style_guide/general_format.html
 THE LITERATURE REVIEW 6

REFERENCES
• Academic Coaching and Writing LLC (2018). V. Presenting the Work of Others: When to Paraphrase and When to Quote.
Retrieved from: https://academiccoachingandwriting.org/dissertation-doctor/dissertation-doctor-blog/v-
presenting-the-work-of-others-when-to-paraphrase-and-when-to-quote

• The Writing Center (2018). Literature Reviews. Retrieved from: https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/literature-

reviews/
AN OVERVIEW OF
DATA ANALYSIS
 AN OVERVIEW OF DATA ANALYSIS 2

AN OVERVIEW
OF DATA ANALYSIS
At this point in your project, you have finished data collection
and have started to sift through all that you have collected
in order to make sense of it. This is exciting and can be a bit
daunting as you start the process to answer your research
questions. Data analysis is the process of breaking down
your data into smaller parts according to their meaning and
then reconfiguring that data to create findings that address
your research questions. In this section, we will talk about
how to do that based on the type of data you chose to collect
and try to give helpful examples. Remember that you have
looked at many examples of action research studies and
you have also read many articles where data was analyzed.
Before you begin your own data analysis, it might be helpful
to revisit some of the studies you have read to see how
data like yours was analyzed.
 AN OVERVIEW OF DATA ANALYSIS 3

GETTING STARTED WITH QUALITATIVE DATA

The analysis of qualitative data, similar to the analysis of quantitative data, is systematic and rigorous. There are steps to follow
to ensure that your results are trustworthy. The analysis of qualitative data is an inductive process with the goal of reducing the
volume of your data into key patterns and themes that result in findings for your study. Let’s talk through the steps of qualitative
data by discussing a fictional action research study.

Allison is a sixth-grade language arts teacher who has conducted an action research study that focuses on the impact of using collaborative
writing through Google Docs in a unit on argumentative writing. As part of her data collection, she has asked the students to provide
written feedback on how what they thought about the process of writing collaboratively and the experience of using Google Docs. She
is also analyzing student work, chat transcripts through the comments recorded in Google Docs, as well as a log of how many times
students logged in and worked on their paper. She begins with coding the written feedback, she sees a student say “I loved that I could
work on my paper on my own time” in a transcript and puts the initials FLX next to that statement to mean that students were talking
about the “flexibility” of using Google Docs. Every time that concept comes in ANY piece of data, Allison will write FLX next to it so she can
see if this is a reoccurring concept in her data. Allison now has her first code, FLX, and will continue to read through her data to see what
other concepts are being discussed so she can create more codes to add to her code list.

Coding is a process of assigning “codes” to smaller pieces of data that have meaning in
relation to your research question. Some researchers code using acronyms, like Allison,
other researchers may prefer to use short phrases like “flexibility for students” instead of
using an acronym. That is the preference of the researcher. After you go through all your
data, you should have a long list of codes. If you are using coding software, you will highlight
your codes and name them and then you can easily re-sort them by code, so you can see all
the pieces of data that fall under one code. Some pieces of data may be coded for more than
one code because perhaps the participant was discussing an idea that relates to more than
one concept. The chart on the next page talks about some of the types of codes researchers
may find within their data (Anderson, Herr, & Nihlen, 2007, p. 217-218).
 AN OVERVIEW OF DATA ANALYSIS 4

GETTING STARTED WITH QUALITATIVE DATA

Setting/Context Codes Simple codes that refer to the large context of the study

Codes that refer to how participants define the setting or specific

Situation Codes topics

General points of view held by participants or how they think of

Perspectives Held by Participants each other and their world

Process Codes Codes that refer to changes over time usually seen by researcher

Regularly occurring behaviors (attendance, lunch, typical student

Activity Codes behaviors)

Codes about reoccurring or important single events (teacher being

Event Codes fired, school fight)

Codes referring to tactics, methods, and techniques used by

Strategy Codes people

Relationship and Social Codes that include formal relationships or relationships not
defined by the organization, like friendships, romances, enemies,
Structure Codes or mentors
 AN OVERVIEW OF DATA ANALYSIS 5

GETTING STARTED WITH QUALITATIVE DATA

At this point, step back and look at all your codes,
you will likely see that some codes appear more
often than others and that some codes connect
in a meaningful way. Stopping and reflecting
on your codes, called introspection, is way to
remain objective and interpret data with an
open mind. Some researchers “count” their
codes to see how often some are showing up.
Counting codes doesn’t necessary determine
which ideas are more important than others
but it is a strategy that some researchers use
to help them get to the next step of analysis,
creating categories. Let’s revisit Allison’s project
as she starts to create categories.

Allison has coded all her data and has 50 codes for this project. Some of her codes seem to connect to each other,
she has a code FLX that talks about students liking the flexibility of Google Docs and two codes, LN (late night) and PH
(phone), where students talk about being able to do some of their best thinking late at night and wanting to work on their
phone or other smaller device. Allison sees a connection between these ideas, they seem to all fall under a category she
is going to call “Flexibility in where and when students work.” Allison sees that one of the benefits of using Google Docs
within collaborative writing seems to be that students can choose where and how they will write, this gives them more
control over their learning.
 AN OVERVIEW OF DATA ANALYSIS 6

GETTING STARTED WITH QUALITATIVE DATA

real and valid and can be reported as an outcome of the
study. So, before you jump into the findings of a study or
creating themes, see what is going on across your data.

Allison is now looking across her data to see how her

As your codes shrink into categories, it is time to look
across your data. Perhaps you have some quantitative
data you have collected or data from other sources
within your study. Action researchers often employ
a mixed methods approach when it comes to data
collection and this is a great benefit when it comes to
triangulating your data. You read about the importance
of triangulating your data earlier in this course, but, in
simple terms, triangulating your data means looking
to see if a particular idea shows up in multiple places
within different types of data. Like a triangle, if an idea
is discussed in an interview with a teacher, a separate
interview with an administrator, and is also observed
by the researcher, it is safe to say that this idea is
categories fit together or align with other pieces of data
she has collected. As she looks at her log of student activity
from various Google Docs, she sees that some students
log-in right after school, other students are working at 10
pm at night and some are even working on the weekend!
While there doesn’t seem to be a pattern in when they are
logging in, this certainly supports the idea that students
need flexibility in accessing their work. The ideas discussed
by her students about liking the fact that they can work
at any time is supported by the timestamps of when they
are logging in. In addition, she sees that students are
logging in multiple times and responding to each other’s
comments. This data is triangulated! Allison now feels very
confident in saying that one the findings of her study is that
students appreciate that using Google Docs allows them to
collaborate at times that work best for them and gives them
flexibility in how and when they work on an assignment,
which results in higher levels of collaboration.
 AN OVERVIEW OF DATA ANALYSIS 7

GETTING STARTED WITH QUALITATIVE DATA

As you are looking across your data and finding points of triangulation, keep a close eye on your research questions.
Remember that you set out to answer those and as the data starts to narrow in on a few key ideas, try to form these
ideas into sentences (answers) that address your research question. These are your findings. In qualitative data, they
can also be called themes, so those terms may be used interchangeably but you will see terms like findings written
within many research articles. We followed Allison through one small slice of her data analysis but remember that
she also had student work to analyze, dialogue through the Google chat boxes, and other written feedback, so there
are more findings to this study that will address what the real “impact” was of her study. The more data you collect,
the more there is to say about it. Watch the short video below to review some of what we’ve discussed and talk more
about how themes can be related to each other within a particular study.

Qualitative Data Analysis - Coding & Developing Themes

 AN OVERVIEW OF DATA ANALYSIS 8

GETTING STARTED WITH QUANTITATIVE DATA

How you analyze your quantitative data also depends Quantitative data is helpful to tell researchers the
on your research question and what you are trying to what and qualitative data can tell us the why, and
find out. Unlike qualitative data analysis, quantitative when they work together we often get more of a
data analysis is a deductive process, using descriptive full picture. For those who are interested in moving
or inferential statistics (Mertler, 2014). While we will beyond simple statistics, the video below talks
not delve into deeper levels of statistical analysis, it about how to choose the appropriate statistical test
is important not to shy away from using numbers to for your data.
support the research we are doing within the field
of action research. There are many things to “count”
within a classroom or community and, like we saw
with Allison’s project, the numbers go a long way in
supporting what our qualitative data tells us. Many
projects may greatly benefit from using descriptive
statistics in their quantitative data. Three basic
categories of descriptive statistics are listed below
(Mertler, 2014).

• Measures of central tendency (mean, median,

mode)
• Measures of dispersion (range, standard
deviation) Choosing a Statistical Test
• Measures of relationships (correlation
coefficients)
 AN OVERVIEW OF DATA ANALYSIS 9

GETTING STARTED WITH

QUANTITATIVE DATA

After you analyze your quantitative data, you must

also think about how you will display your data. Data
displays such as histograms, distribution tables, pie
charts, and bar graphs are important ways to transmit
your results to your readers. Reflect as much on how
to visually display your data as you would on which key
quotes to share within your findings.
 AN OVERVIEW OF DATA ANALYSIS 10

AN OVERVIEW OF DATA ANALYSIS

To wrap up, these are some of the key terms we have Hopefully you are excited by what your data tells you
discussed for quick reference as you analyze your data. within your project and remember that even if an
intervention doesn’t produce positive results within
the context, the data still tells us something important.
• Coding – the process of attaching labels to In many action research studies, the findings lead to
lines of text so that the researcher can a “deepened understanding of the question posed
group and compare similar or related pieces of as well as to more sophisticated questions” (Herr &
information Anderson, 2015,p. 107). Do not be dismayed if you end
your study with more questions than you started, that
• Codes – a way to label, compile, and organize is the cyclical nature of quality action research.
data

• Themes – idea categories that emerge from

grouping lower-level data points

• Triangulation – relating multiple sources of data

to establish trustworthiness of the findings

• Findings – the outcomes of a research project in

relationship to the research questions

• Unintentional findings – significant outcomes

of research that are outside of the intended
purpose of a research project
 AN OVERVIEW OF DATA ANALYSIS 11

REFERENCES
• Anderson, G. L., Herr, K., & Nihlen, A. S. (2007). Studying your own school: An educator’s guide to
practitioner action research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

• Herr, K., & Anderson, G. L. (2014). The action research dissertation: A guide for students and faculty.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications.

• Mertler, C. A. (2014). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage publications.
DIVING INTO YOUR DATA
 DIVING INTO YOUR DATA 2

DIVNG INTO YOUR DATA

Now that you have been introduced to qualitative and

quantitative approaches as well as methods of analyzing
data, let us now shift gears and look at YOUR data. A good
way to begin is to think back to the articles and studies you
looked at for your literature review. Remember completing
your Research Analysis Matrix? You looked at each source’s
research question(s) and methodology, and then what the
results of the study were. Now think about how each author
set up their findings section. How did they answer their
research questions? How did they balance incorporating
both quantitative and qualitative data? If you need to take
a few minutes and go back and look at a few of the studies,
pay close attention to how they present their findings.
 DIVING INTO YOUR DATA 3

BEGINNING WITH THE TEMPLATE

Then are two boxes for the specific quantitative and
qualitative data you used in this research project.
Again, be as specific and detailed as possible. For
quantitative data we often think we need a “big”
number to show student learning or growth, but
many times we have all of this wonderful data we
are not thinking about. For example, if you collected
pre-test and post-test scores for three quizzes. How
many students were there? How many students
completed both the pre-test and post-test? Did you
collect a class average? What were the three quizzes’
As you start sorting through your data it can seem
subject matter? Was there a change from quiz #1 to
overwhelming. You might have test or quiz scores,
quiz #3? What was it? Think about all of the data that
teacher and/or student journals, writing assignments,
you have.
rubrics, assignments, grades, interviews, field notes,
or student work and it begins to look like stacks and
The same is true for your qualitative data. Often
stacks of information. We have created a Data Analysis
times in the course of the four to six-week study you
Template in order to help you sort through your
will journal. If you journaled twice a week that is a
information. As you look at the Data Analysis Template,
minimum of eight to twelve journal entries-which
it is important to note that the best way to use this tool
is a lot of data! Also, you might have had students
is to be as specific and detailed as possible. Begin by
journal at the beginning and the end of the process,
inserting your research question(s). While this might
again if you have a class of 24 students, you have the
seem like a mundane task, it is helpful because as you
possibility of having 48 journal entries. Both of these
move through your findings you can refer back to it
items would be wonderful to address and explain in
and this will aid you in presenting how each answers
your qualitative box.
your research question.
 DIVING INTO YOUR DATA 4

MAKING SENSE OF YOUR FINDINGS

Next, the Data Analysis Template has you start plugging times, findings are hard to nail down because they are
in your findings. In the previous section, “An Overview very specific to your research question(s) and data.
of Data Analysis,” we discussed the importance of Students can get stuck when they are trying to see the
codes and themes and their relationship to your themes in and across the different types of data. Try not
findings; remember that findings are the outcomes to get bogged down with this, remember back to your
and trends that emerge from your research project “ah ha” moments during your Action Research project.
(data, codes, themes, etc.) that directly relate to your What was an interesting moment that you noticed?
research question(s). The findings are crucial to your Was there a time in your Action Research study you
research project because this is how your reader were surprised? Why? If you were not surprised by
will understand how your research questions were anything, why do you think that is?
answered. Sometimes findings will be explicit and clear
from your data, other times a finding may be more
implicit or something you saw during the research
process. It is imperative to note that ALL findings must
be supported with data. If there is something vital or
important to your research study, you must have data
to back it up.

Before you start filling in your Data Analysis Template,

we are going to take a look at a few examples of
completed templates here. As you can see from the
video each example was very different, but each
student was able to determine trends from their data Data Analysis Template
that directly answered their research questions. Often
 DIVING INTO YOUR DATA 5

HELPFUL HINTS AS YOU BEGIN

As was mentioned at the beginning of this section, be as specific as possible when you are filling in your Data Analysis Template.
If your template has the numbers, quotes, and examples already filled in writing up your finds will be much easier. As you fill
in your template please keep in mind that you need to remove all identifying information, such as students’ names (for quotes
or scores), school or teacher names, and anything else that would bring identification to your subjects. Again, the more you do
now, the quicker and easier writing up your findings will be. Finally, here is an example of a completed Data Analysis Template
for some reference.
WRITING UP YOUR FINDINGS
 WRITING UP YOUR FINDINGS 2

WRITING UP
YOUR FINDINGS
You are almost there! You have your data
analysis template filled in and are getting
ready to sit down and write up your findings.
Sometimes this can seem overwhelming;
but, if you tackle each finding as its own
separate section and before you know it
you will be done!
 WRITING UP YOUR FINDINGS 3

BEFORE YOU BEGIN WRITING

This section will be a bit shorter because it has a longer (but vital) video. The video will explain, through the use of two student
examples, how they migrated from the data analysis template to a completed findings section. As you watch the video pay
attention to how each source is discussed, how the data was analyzed, and how the results were presented. Also, it is always
helpful to use charts, graphs, examples, etc. in your findings, so look at how the two examples presented their findings. And of
course, did the results answer the research question(s)? Watch here.

Findings and Results Section

 WRITING UP YOUR FINDINGS 4

BEFORE YOU BEGIN WRITING

Hopefully, the video provided you some guidance as

you move into writing your findings. It is important
that as you shift into the next phase of your writing you
see as many examples as possible. Therefore, we have
found an Action Research study which examines the
modes of teacher observation to use as an example.
Please begin by examining the research questions (on
the bottom of page 330 and top of 331) and then head
over to the Findings/Results section (beginning on page
333). As you read through the research questions and
the findings section, answer the following questions:

• Are the research question(s) answered?

• What themes emerged from the data?
• Did the researcher(s) use both quantitative and
qualitative data in addressing each finding?
• Is there enough data to support the claims
and/or conclusions?
 WRITING UP YOUR FINDINGS 5

AS YOU START THE WRITING PROCESS

As you sit down to start writing your findings make sure you are using the themes and data from your Data Analysis
Template, but more importantly that you are answering your research question(s). As you write make sure you include
plenty of evidence (data) to support your claims (themes/findings). It is important that everything is backed up with
data. And do not forget about the amount and types of data that you have collected. Often times we neglect our own
journaling, field notes, or other items we wrote down during the action research study, remember that quiz scores,
student journals, and other data sources are wonderful, but the more data the better!
 WRITING UP YOUR FINDINGS 6

BEFORE YOU BEGIN WRITING

As you are sitting down to begin writing up your findings, if you discover
you are struggling or having a hard time getting started here are some
additional resources that can help!

• The University of Southern California’s Library has set up a Research

Guide and section 7 discusses ways to present your results.

• Monash University has a Graduate Research & Writing page which

outlines how to organize and write up findings for a thesis or
dissertation, but no worries the suggestions and approaches
still apply here.

• This is a wonderful resource that not only breaks down the process
of writing your Findings/Results section, but also includes
examples and ideas.

• As always the FAU Library has wonderful resources for conducting
research:
http://www.library.fau.edu/depts/ref/instsrv/webtut.htm
http://www.library.fau.edu/depts/ref/instsrv/mainwksh.htm