Ev - Part 03 - Vehicle Fundamentals - Part B

MAK 4009E
Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Part #3
Asst. Prof. Dr. Osman Taha Şen

İstanbul Technical University
Department of Mechanical Engineering
senos@itu.edu.tr
www.adl.itu.edu.tr
Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 1

Vehicle Lateral Dynamics : Cornering

Lateral Acceleration Regions
of a Passenger Car
max. 10 m/s2
0-0.5 m/s2 0.5-4 m/s2 4-6 m/s2 6-10 m/s2

Smooth Normal cornering Normal to Hard Hard cornering
cornering No critical driving cornering Critical driving
Also no situations occur Critical driving situations can
cornering on dry roads situations can occur.
cases like: Linear tire behavior occur. Nonlinear tire
Cross wind Good Some vehicles behavior.
Road representation of behave Oftenly very
unevenness lateral dynamics linear some do close to
with bicycle model not. accidents.

Forces and Moments acting on a Vehicle Body
Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

Forces acting on a Vehicle Body
• Longitudinal force Fx
It is a force acting along the x-axis. The resultant Fx > 0 if the vehicle is
accelerating, and Fx < 0 if the vehicle is braking. Longitudinal force is
also called forward force, or traction force.
• Lateral force Fy
It is an orthogonal force to both Fx and Fz. The resultant Fy > 0 if it is
leftward from the driver’s viewpoint. Lateral force is usually a result of
steering and is the main reason to generate a yaw moment and turn
a vehicle.
• Normal force Fz
It is a vertical force, normal to the ground plane. The resultant Fz > 0 if
it is upward. Normal force is also called vertical force or vehicle
load.

Moments acting on a Vehicle Body
• Roll moment Mx
It is a longitudinal moment about the x-axis. The resultant Mx > 0 if the
vehicle tends to turn about the x-axis. The roll moment is also called
the bank moment, tilting torque, or overturning moment.
• Pitch moment My
It is a lateral moment about the y-axis. The resultant My > 0 if the
vehicle tends to turn about the y-axis and move the head down.
• Yaw moment Mz
It is an upward moment about the z-axis. The resultant Mz > 0 if the
body tends to turn about the z-axis. (The moment about the z-axis for
the tire is also called the aligning moment.)

Yaw Angle, Sideslip Angle, Cruise (Heading) Angle
Types of wheel numbering:

- Clockwise (here)
- Axlewise

Rigid Vehicle Newton-Euler Dynamics
A rigid vehicle is assumed to act similar to a flat box moving
on a horizontal surface. A rigid vehicle has a planar motion
with three degrees of freedom that are: translation in the x
and y directions, and a rotation about the z-axis.
Equations of planar motion

(global coordinate frame):

Vehicle Motion (t=0 ... t=dt)

Oversteering / Understeering while
Cornering
Oversteering Understeering
With ESP With ESP
Without Without
ESP ESP
Reference : Reif, K., Fahrstabilisierungssysteme und Fahrerasistenzsysteme, Vieweg+ Teubner, 2010.

Roll-Over Phenomena
Rollover accidents are
directly related to a vehicle's
stability in turns. That
stability is influenced by the
relationship between the
center of gravity and the
track width (distance
between the left and right
wheels). A high center of
gravity and narrow track
can make a vehicle
unstable in fast turns or
sharp changes of
direction.
Reference : http://www.howstuffworks.com/
Vehicle Vertical Dynamics : Comfort

Vibration and Sound
Reference : Guney, A., Vehicle NVH Lecture Notes, 2012.

The Ride Dynamic System
The spectrum of vehicle vibrations may be divided up according to frequency
and classified as ride (0-25 Hz) and noise (25-20000 Hz). The 25 Hz
boundary point is approximately the lower frequency threshold of hearing.
The vehicle vibrations are important in the judgment of vehicle customers:

"Quality of the car"
On-board
Sources
(All rotating)
Reference : Gillespie, T.D., Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE, 1992.

Road Roughness
Road roughness encompasses everything from potholes resulting from
localized pavement failures to the ever present random deviations reflecting
the practical limits of precision to which the road surface can be constructed
and maintained.
Roughness is described by the elevation profile along the wheel tracks over
which the vehicle passes. Road profiles fit the general category of "broad-
band random signals", and hence, can be described either by the profile itself
or its statistical properties. One of the most useful representations is the power
spectral density function.
Like any random signal, the elevation profile measured over a length of road
can be decomposed by the Fourier transform process into a series of sine
waves varying in their amplitudes and phase relationships.

Tire/Wheel Assembly
The imperfections in the manufacture of tires, wheels, hubs, brakes and other
parts of the rotating assembly may result in nonuniformities of three major
types:
1) Mass imbalance
2) Dimensional variations
3) Stiffness variations
These nonuniformities all combine in a tire/wheel assembly causing it to

experience variations in the forces and moments at the ground as it rolls.
These in turn are transmitted to the axle of the vehicle and act as excitation
sources for ride vibrations. The force variations may be in the vertical (radial)
direction, longitudinal (tractive) direction, or the lateral direction.
The moment variations in the directions of the overturning moment, aligning

torque, and rolling resistance moment generally are not significant as sources
of ride excitation, although they can contribute to steering system vibrations.

Driveline
For purposes of discussion, the driveline therefore consists of the driveshaft,
gear reduction and differential in the drive axle, and axle shafts connecting to
the wheels. Of these various components, the driveshaft with its spline and
universal joints has the most potential for exciting ride vibrations. The rear axle
gearing and remainder of the driveline are also capable of generating vibrations
in the nature of noise as a result of gear mating reactions and torsional
vibration along the drivetrain. However, these generally occur at frequencies
above those considered as ride.

Engine/Transmission
The engine serves as the primary power source on a vehicle. The fact that it
rotates and delivers torque to the driveline opens the possibility that it may be a
source for vibration excitation on the vehicle. Further, the mass of the engine in
combination with that of the transmission is a substantial part in the chassis,
and, if used correctly, can act as a vibration absorber.
Piston engines deliver power by a cyclic process; thus the torque delivered by
the engine is not constant in magnitude. At the crankshaft the torque delivered
consists of a series of pulses corresponding to each power stroke of a cylinder.
The flywheel acts as an inertial damper along with the inertias and compliances
in the transmission. Thus the torque output to the driveshaft consists of a
steady-state component plus superimposed torque variations. Those torque
variations acting through the driveline may result in excitation forces on the
vehicle similar to those produced by the secondary couple from the cross-type
universal joints explained in the previous sections.

Vehicle Vibrations
Cabin
Seat
Seat suspension
Cabin suspension
Body springs and dampers
Tires at wheels

Vehicle Vibrations

Body to Frame Attachment

Transfer Mechanisms of Sound and Vibration
(Example)

Lumped Mass
A motor vehicle is made up of many components distributed within its exterior
envelope.
For many of the elementary analyses applied to it, all components move together.
- Braking
- Acceleration
- Cornering
For ride analysis, it is often necessary to treat the wheels as separate lumped
masses: => sprung mass (body), unsprung masses.
For single mass representation, the vehicle is treated as a mass concentrated

at its center of gravity. The point mass at the center of gravity, with
appropriate rotational moments of inertia, is dynamically equivalent to the
vehicle itself for all motions in which it is reasonable to assume the vehicle to
be rigid.

Sprung and Unsprung Mass
In a vehicle with a suspension, such as an automobile, sprung
mass is the portion of the vehicle's total mass that is supported
above the suspension, including in most applications approximately
half of the weight of the suspension itself.
The sprung mass typically includes the body, frame, the internal
components, passengers, and cargo, but does not include the
mass of the components suspended below the suspension
components (including the wheels, wheel bearings, brake rotors,
calipers, which are part of the vehicle's unsprung weight.
Reference : www.wikipedia.org/
Two, Three, and One DOF Models
quarter car model ms: body mass (sprung)

mu: wheel mass (unsprung)
ku: tire stiffness

cu: tire damping
1/8 car model
ks: body spring stiffness
cs: body damper coeff.
md: drivers mass

kd: drivers seat stiffness
cd: drivers seat damping

Stiffness of the Body Spring
Pass. Cars: 1-1.5 Hz, Sports cars: 2-2.5 Hz
Because the suspension spring
is in series with a relatively stiff
tire spring, the suspension spring
predominates in establishing the
ride rate and, hence, the natural
frequency of the system in the
bounce (vertical) mode.
Since road acceleration inputs

increase in amplitude in higher
frequencies the best isolation is
achieved by keeping the natural
frequency low as possible.
The lowest acceleration occurs at the natural frequency of 1 Hz. At higher values of natural
frequency (stiffer suspension springs) the acceleration peak in the 1 to 5 Hz range increases.

Body Dampers
At very light damping (10%) the
response is dominated by a very
high response at 1 Hz. This type of
response often referred to as "float",
causes the sprung mass to amplify
long undulations in the roadway.
Benefit is obtained at all
frequencies above the resonant
Float ! point as a result of the high
attenuation achieved.
common
The 40% damping ratio curve is
reasonably representative of most
cars.
At 100% (critical damping) the 1 Hz

bounce motions of the sprung mass
are well controlled, but with
penalties in the isolation at higher
frequencies.

Natural Frequencies
Vehicle Body
Human
Wheel
Seat
Natural Frequency

Vehicle Powertrains

Dry Clutch – Schematic
Kavrama Diski Pressure
Baskı DiskiplateBaskı
Pressure
Yayı spring
Friction plate
Flywheel
Volan
Clutch Pedal
Kavrama pedalBağlantısı
connection
Engine
Motordan Gearbox
Moment Değiştiriciye
Max. Permissible pressure on friction plate passenger cars 0.2 ... 0.5 MPa,
heavy commercial vehicles 0.15 ... 0.25 MPa

Flywheel
Pressure plate
Friction plate
Release bearing
Dry Clutch

Clutch Plates
Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.

Automotive Transmission Types

Trends in the Use of Passenger Car
Transmissions in Europe

Velocity/engine-speed Diagram, Overall Gear Ratio

Gear Steps
Geometrical Gear Steps Progressive Gear Steps

Arrangement of the Powertrain Elements in a Passenger Car
Front-wheel drive Standard drive
Rear-motor drive

Powertrain Packaging for all-wheel drive passenger
cars

Porsche Cayenne Powertrain Architecture

Powertrain Packaging for Trucks with One or More Powered Axles

Powertrain Packaging for Buses

Vehicle Brake Systems

Brake System Actuation via Driver
ATZ
Brake System Principle
ATZ

Disc Brake System - Main Parts
ATZ
Drum Brake System - Main Parts
ATZ
Pneumatic Brake System for Heavy Commercial
Vehicles

Vehicle Suspension Systems

Road Vehicle Suspension Mechanisms
• The suspension is what links the wheels to the vehicle body and
allows relative motion.
• There are two general types of suspensions: dependent, in which the left
and right wheels on an axle are rigidly connected, and independent, in
which the left and right wheels are disconnected. Solid axle is the most
common dependent suspension, while McPherson and double A-arm are
the most common independent suspensions.
• Sprung mass refers to all masses that are supported by the spring, such as
vehicle body. Unsprung mass refers to all masses that are attached to and
not supported by the spring, such as wheel, axle, or brakes.
• Wheels should be able to propel, steer, and stop the vehicle. So, the
suspension system must transmit the driving traction and deceleration
braking forces between the vehicle body and the ground. The suspension
members must also resist lateral forces acting on the vehicle.
Solid Axle Suspension
A solid axle with leaf spring suspension
The solid axle with leaf spring combination came to vehicle industry from horse-drawn
vehicles.

acceleration braking
A driving and braking trust force leaf springs into an S shaped profile.

Leaf springs are not suited for
taking up the driving and braking
traction forces. The driving and
braking flexibility of leaf springs,
generates a negative caster and
increases instability. To reduce the
effect of a horizontal force and S-
shaped profile appearance in a
solid axle with leaf springs, the axle
may be attached to the chassis by
a longitudinal bar (anti-tramp
bar).
A solid axle with an anti-tramp bar may be

kinematically approximated by a four-bar
linkage

Panhard arm to guide the solid axle

A triangle mechanism and a Panhard arm to guide the solid axle

• A solid axle is counted as an unsprung member, and hence, the unsprung
mass is increased where using solid axle suspension.
• A heavy unsprung mass ruins both, the ride and handling of a vehicle.
• Lightening the solid axle makes it weaker and increases the most dangerous
problem in vehicles: axle breakage.
• The solid axle must be strong enough to make sure it will not break under
any loading conditions at any age.
• When a vehicle is rear-wheel-drive and a solid axle suspension is used in

the back, the suspension is called live axle. A live axle is a casing that
contains a differential, and two drive shafts. The drive shafts are connected
to the wheel hubs. A live axle can be three to four times heavier than a
dead I-beam axle. It is called live axle because of rotating gears and shafts
inside the axle.
Solid axle with leaf springs Solid axle with coil springs Solid axle with torsional springs

Independent Suspensions
• Independent suspensions are introduced to let a wheel to move up and down
without affecting the opposite wheel.
• There are many forms and designs of independent suspensions. Double A-arm,
multi-link and McPherson strut suspensions are the most common designs.
Double A-Arm (Double Wishbone) Suspension McPherson Strut Suspension

Earle S. MacPherson (1940)
Double A-Arm (Double Wishbone) Suspension
McPherson Strut Suspension

Trailing Arm Suspension
Semi-trailing Arm Suspension

Spring Types
Air spring suspension Hydropneumatic suspension

Steel spring suspension
Reference : IfF – TU BS.

Roll Center and Roll Axis
• The roll axis is the instantaneous line about which the body of a vehicle rolls.
• Roll axis is found by connecting the roll center of the front and rear
suspensions of the vehicle.
Roll Center of a Double A Arm Suspension

Roll Center and Roll Axis
A suspension roll center at

(a) on
(b) above
(c) below
the road surface.

Wheel-Body Relative Kinematics
"Toe Angle"
When a pair of wheels

is set so that their
leading edges are
pointed toward
each other, the wheel
Toe Angle pair is said to have
toe-in. If the leading
edges point
away from each other,
the pair is said to have
toe-out.

Caster Angle
Caster is the angle to which the steering pivot axis is tilted forward or rearward from
vertical, as viewed from the side. Negative caster aids in centering the steering wheel
after a turn and makes the front tires straighten quicker. Most street cars are made with
4−6deg negative caster. Negative caster tends to straighten the wheel when the vehicle
is traveling forward, and thus is used to enhance straight-line stability.
Camber Angle
negative camber positive camber

Camber is the angle of the wheel relative to vertical line to the road, as viewed from the
front or the rear of the car. A tire develops its maximum lateral force at a small camber
angle. Camber is not generally good for tire wear.

"Steering Axis Position"
King-Pin
Caster Angle
Inclination
or lean angle
Scrub Mechanical
radius trail

Vehicle Steering Systems

Frontwheel Steering
Ackermann Condition
(Zero Side Slip Angles)
w is the front kinematic condition

track width between the inner and
Rear track width outer wheels that allows
can be also zero! the wheels to turn slip-
free
x
w/2 w/2
equivalent steer angle
of a bicycle having the
same wheelbase l and
radius of rotation R.
Ackermann Condition
• The Ackerman condition is needed when the speed
of the vehicle is too small, and slip angles are zero.
There is no lateral force and no centrifugal force to
balance each other. The Ackerman steering condition
is also called the kinematic steering condition,
because it is a static condition at zero velocity (like
parking).
• A device that provides steering according to the
Ackerman condition is called Ackerman steering,
Ackerman mechanism, or Ackerman geometry. There
is no four-bar linkage steering mechanism that can
provide the Ackerman condition perfectly.

Ackermann Condition for Single-Track
Model

Trapezoidal Steering Mechanism
Important Parameters:
β and d
2
⎛w ⎞
w
(
sin ( β + δ i ) + sin ( β − δ o ) = + ⎜ − 2sin β ⎟ − cos ( β − δ o ) − cos ( β + δ i ) )
2
d ⎝d ⎠

Increase in Vehicle Speed:
Other Steering Types
Especially in Race Cars Especially in Race Cars

Rack and Pinion Steering System
(Passenger Cars)
Top view
(Tie rod)

Vehicle Design – Main Issues

Vehicle Design
Comfort Environment
150000
km
Economy Quality Active safety
Design Passive safety
Reference: IfF – TU BS

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MAK 4009E

Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Asst. Prof. Dr. Osman Taha Şen

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 1

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 2

0-0.5 m/s2 0.5-4 m/s2 4-6 m/s2 6-10 m/s2

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 3

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

Types of wheel numbering:

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

Equations of planar motion

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

With ESP With ESP

Reference : Reif, K., Fahrstabilisierungssysteme und Fahrerasistenzsysteme, Vieweg+ Teubner, 2010.

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 12

Reference : Guney, A., Vehicle NVH Lecture Notes, 2012.

The vehicle vibrations are important in the judgment of vehicle customers:

Reference : Gillespie, T.D., Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE, 1992.

Reference : Gillespie, T.D., Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE, 1992.

These nonuniformities all combine in a tire/wheel assembly causing it to

The moment variations in the directions of the overturning moment, aligning

Reference : Gillespie, T.D., Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE, 1992.

Reference : Gillespie, T.D., Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE, 1992.

Reference : Gillespie, T.D., Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE, 1992.

Body springs and dampers

Reference : Guney, A., Vehicle NVH Lecture Notes, 2012.

Reference : Guney, A., Vehicle NVH Lecture Notes, 2012.

Reference : Guney, A., Vehicle NVH Lecture Notes, 2012.

Reference : Guney, A., Vehicle NVH Lecture Notes, 2012.

For single mass representation, the vehicle is treated as a mass concentrated

Reference : Gillespie, T.D., Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE, 1992.

quarter car model ms: body mass (sprung)

ku: tire stiffness

md: drivers mass

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

Since road acceleration inputs

Reference : Gillespie, T.D., Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE, 1992.

At 100% (critical damping) the 1 Hz

Reference : Gillespie, T.D., Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE, 1992.

Reference : Guney, A., Vehicle NVH Lecture Notes, 2012.

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 29

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 30

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 31

Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.

Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.

Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.

Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.

Geometrical Gear Steps Progressive Gear Steps

Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.

Front-wheel drive Standard drive

Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.

Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 39

Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.

Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 42

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 44

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 47

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 48