Name: Shahd Wael

Pyramids American School Final Year Project

G12/B Third Trimester Physics

PART (A)

Answer The following Questions:

1) Briefly describe how to find the different ways to calculate capacitance.

𝑄
1- Capacitance is the ratio of charge to potential difference C=
∆𝑉
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
Capacitance =
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
2- Capacitance depends on the size and shape of the capacitor. Capacitance for a parallel-plate
𝐴
capacitor in a vacuum: C= ε₀ Capacitance= permittivity of a vacuum ×
𝑑
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠

2) Briefly describe how to find the electric resistance of a circuit.

Resistance is defined as the ratio of potential difference to current.
∆𝑉 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
R= Resistance =
𝐼 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

3) Briefly describe the differences between electric potential and potential energy.
Electric potential is electrical potential energy divided by charge.
-Electric potential energy is energy that a charged object has because of its shape and its position in an
electric field.

Part (B)

Solar Cells

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into
electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon.

Individual solar cell devices can be combined to form modules, otherwise known as solar panels. Solar
cells can be found almost everywhere, from children’s toys, flashlights, calculators, and satellites, etc.
Solar cells are also known as photovoltaic cells (PV). Photo means “light” and voltaic means “electricity”,
which generate electricity directly from visible light means of photovoltaic effect.
A group of PV cells that are electrically connected and placed in a frame is called a module (or solar
panel), which can then be combined into larger groups of modules to form a solar system.

Photovoltaic cells are made of semiconductors such as silicon, which is most commonly used. When light
hits the cell, some of it is absorbed in the semiconductor material. The energy of the absorbed light is
transferred to the semiconductor. The transferred energy then releases electrons and lets them flow
freely.

PV cells have electric fields that force electrons released by light absorption to flow in a specific direction.
This flow of electrons is an electric current; With the metal contacts attached to the top and bottom of
the PV cell, we can draw the power for external use.

Construction Of Solar Cells

The semiconductor materials such as arsenide, indium, cadmium, silicon, selenium and gallium are used
to manufacture the PV cells. Usually, silicon and selenium are used to manufacture the cell.

Working Of Solar Cell

When sunlight strikes a solar cell, electrons in the silicon are ejected, which results in the formation of
“holes”—the vacancies left behind by the escaping electrons. If this happens in the electric field, the field
will move electrons to the n-type layer and holes to the p-type layer.

I know, I know it looks like rocket science, but not let’s discuss it in detail. A solar cell is made of two
types of semiconductors, called p-type and n-type silicon.

The p-type silicon is produced by adding atoms such as boron or gallium that have one less electron in
their outer energy level than does silicon. Because boron has one less electron than is required to form
the bonds with the surrounding silicon atoms, an electron vacancy or “hole” is created.

The n-type silicon is made by including atoms that have one more electron in their outer level than
silicon, such as phosphorus. Phosphorus has five electrons in its external energy level, not four. It bonds
to its neighboring silicon atoms, but an electron is not involved in the bond. Instead, it can move freely
within the silicon structure.

A solar cell consists of a layer of p-type silicon, which is arranged next to a layer of n-type silicon. There is
an excess of electrons in the n-type layer and there is an excess of positively charged holes in the p-type
layer.

Near the junction of the two layers, the electrons on one side of the junction (n-type layer) move into the
holes on the other side of the junction (p-type layer). This creates an area around the junction called the
depletion zone where the electrons fill the holes.
When all the holes in the depletion zone are filled with electrons, the p-type side of the depletion zone
(where holes were originally present) will now contain negatively charged ions and the n-type side of the
depletion zone (where electrons were present) will now contain positively charged ions.

A solar cell is a sandwich of n-type silicon (blue) and p-type silicon (red). It generates electricity by using
sunlight to make electrons hop across the junction between the different flavors of silicon:

When sunlight shines on the cell, photons (light particles) bombard the upper surface.

The photons (yellow blobs) carry their energy down through the cell.

The photons give up their energy to electrons (green blobs) in the lower, p-type layer.

The electrons use this energy to jump across the barrier into the upper, n-type layer and escape out into
the circuit.

Flowing around the circuit, the electrons make the lamp light up.

The presence of these oppositely charged ions creates an internal electric field that prevents electrons in
the n-type layer from filling holes in the p-type layer.

If you connect the n-type and p-type layers with a metallic wire, the electrons will travel from the n-type
layer to the p-type layer by crossing the depletion zone and then go through the external wire back of the
n-type layer, creating a flow of electricity.

Types Of Solar Cell

The following are the different types of solar cells:

- Amorphous Silicon solar cell (a-Si)

- Biohybrid solar cell.
- Cadmium telluride solar cell (CdTe)
- Concentrated PV Cell (CVP and HCVP)
- Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells (CI(G)S)
- Crystalline silicon solar cell (c-Si)
- Float-zone silicon.

Most solar cells have some other type of silicon. In fact, about 90% of all solar or photovoltaic cells
contain silicon. The efficiency of a solar cell to convert sunlight into power is directly proportional to the
purity of their silicon molecules.
Also, the better the efficiency, the more expensive the solar panel is. However, this aspect should not be
the deciding factor for choosing one type and not the other.

In addition to the hybrid version, solar panels are classified into three types, mainly in commercial
production. All three types are silicon semiconductor-based.

1. Monocrystalline Solar Cells

These solar panels are made using thin wafers of silicon, which are extracted from artificially grown
crystals. Single crystals developed in isolation help to form these cells and make them the most efficient

This is why these are the most expensive among the other types. Compared to their counterpart
polycrystalline cells, monocrystalline solar cells are about 35% more expensive and provide an efficiency
rate between 15–24%.

2. Polycrystalline Solar Cells

Polycrystalline solar cells are also made using thin silicon wafers derived from artificially grown crystals,
the only difference being that these are not single crystals. Rather, they use multiple interlocking silicon
crystals propagated simultaneously.

Therefore, their production is less expensive and they still offer an efficiency rate of 13–18%.

3. Amorphous Solar Cells

The cheapest form of solar cells is an amorphous solar cell. These are newly launching cells that are
manufacture in a unique way. They avoid the use of crystals. Instead, their production process involves
thin silicon deposits on the backing substrate.

Amorphous solar cells provide two major benefits, ie. Flexibility in solar cells with its extremely thin
silicon layer, and high efficiency in low levels of light during winter.

But, while these promise the above benefits, they also compromise on efficiency. They provide the lowest
efficiency rates of 7% – 9% compared to the other two variants. Thus, they require about twice the panel
area to give the same output.
Until now, they do not even have an approved production technology in the industry, and therefore, they
are less robust than the other two types of solar panels.

4. Hybrid Solar Cells

It is not a completely solar cell, but a hybrid solar cell is a mixture of monocrystalline solar cells and
amorphous solar cells. Hybrid solar cells called HET (heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer) solar cells.

Compared to each individual type of solar cell, the hybrid type is the most efficient due to the
combination of the power of the two solar cells. These work best during sunny seasons, ie beyond the
250C temperature. In view of the same, this helps generates about 10% more electricity.

If one has to choose the best, polycrystalline cells prove to be the most suitable for most installations due
to their value for money, design and efficiency rate.

Material Uses In Solar Cell

Solar cells are typically named after the semiconducting material they are made of. These materials must
have certain characteristics in order to absorb sunlight.

- Crystalline silicon
- Amorphous Silicon (a-Si)
- Copper-Indium Gallium Diselenide (CIGS)
- Gallium arsenide thin film
- Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
- Monocrystalline silicon
- Epitaxial silicon development
- Polycrystalline silicon
- Ribbon silicon
- Mono-like-multi silicon (MLM)

Advantages Of Solar Cell:

 Renewable energy: The energy can be used to generate electricity as well as heat in the house,
either through solar PV or solar thermal energy.
 Economical Energy: Solar cells are a great way to save money on your electricity bill because you
don’t pay for the energy you generate.
 Environmentally friendly energy: There is almost no pollution with solar cells. Discharge of
waste and pollution are inevitable in connection with the manufacture of solar cells.
  Innovative energy: Photovoltaics is a popular topic in green energy and is considered a good
solution for preventing climate change.
 Infinite Energy: If you have the ability to draw energy from the sun’s rays, it is a source of energy
that will never be depleted.
 Long-term energy: PV systems often have a long service life and a good service life.
 Selling energy: If your home has solar panels, it is often easier to sell the property at a higher
price.

Disadvantages Of Solar Cell:

 Interior needs: Not all households that meet their requirements and can get the most out of
their solar cells.
 High investment requires: The installation costs for solar modules are relatively high.
 Seasonal energy: Compared to other types of renewable energies, the solar power plant is highly
seasonal.
 Difficult to install Solar panels in your home: It may be more difficult to install solar panels in
older households as they often have different designs that can provide shade.

Use Of Solar Cell:

Solar cells are very useful in powering space vehicles such as satellites and telescopes.

It may be used to charge batteries.

Used in light meters.

It is used to power calculators and wristwatches.

It can be used in spacecraft to provide electrical energy.

References:

https://www.engineeringchoice.com/what-is-solar-cell/

https://www.explainthatstuff.com/solarcells.html#:~:text=Artwork%3A%20How%20a%20simple%2C%20
single-
junction%20solar%20cell%20works.,cell%2C%20photons%20%28light%20particles%29%20bombard%20t
he%20upper%20surface.