General Procedure for Plotting Bode Diagrams.

MATLAB provides an easy way

to plot Bode diagrams. (The MATLAB approach is presented later in this section.)
Here, however, we consider the case where we want to draw Bode diagrams manually
without using MATLAB.
First rewrite the sinusoidal transfer function G(jv)H(jv) as a product of basic
factors discussed above.Then identify the corner frequencies associated with these basic
factors.
Finally, draw the asymptotic log-magnitude curves with proper slopes between the
corner frequencies. The exact curve, which lies close to the asymptotic curve, can be
obtained by adding proper corrections.
The phase-angle curve of G(jv)H(jv) can be drawn by adding the phase-angle
curves of individual factors.
The use of Bode diagrams employing asymptotic approximations requires much less
time than other methods that may be used for computing the frequency response of
a transfer function. The ease of plotting the frequency-response curves for a given trans-
fer function and the ease of modification of the frequency-response curve as
compensation is added are the main reasons why Bode diagrams are very frequently
used in practice.
EXAMPLE 7–3 Draw the Bode diagram for the following transfer function:

10(jv + 3)
G(jv) =
(jv)(jv + 2) C (jv)2 + jv + 2
D

Make corrections so that the log-magnitude curve is accurate.

To avoid any possible mistakes in drawing the log-magnitude curve, it is desirable to put
G(jv) in the following normalized form, where the low-frequency asymptotes for the first-order
factors and the second-order factor are the 0-dB line:

jv
7.5 a + 1b
G(jv) = 3
jv (jv)2 jv
(jv) a + 1b c + + 1d
2 2 2

This function is composed of the following factors:

v
v
-1 v (jv)2 -1

7.5, (jv)-1, 1 + j , a1 + j , c1 + j + d
3 2 2 2
b

The corner frequencies of the third, fourth, and fifth terms are v=3, v=2, and v = 12 ,
respectively. Note that the last term has the damping ratio of 0.3536.
To plot the Bode diagram, the separate asymptotic curves for each of the factors are shown
in Figure 7–11. The composite curve is then obtained by algebraically adding the individual
curves, also shown in Figure 7–11. Note that when the individual asymptotic curves are added at
each fre- quency, the slope of the composite curve is cumulative. Below v = 12 , the plot has
the slope of
–20 dB/decade. At the first corner frequency v = 12 , the slope changes to –60 dB/decade and
continues to the next corner frequency v=2, where the slope becomes –80 dB/decade. At the
last corner frequency v=3, the slope changes to –60 dB/decade.
Once such an approximate log-magnitude curve has been drawn, the actual curve can be
obtained by adding corrections at each corner frequency and at frequencies one octave below
and above the corner frequencies. For first-order factors (1+jvT)<1, the corrections are ;3 dB
at the corner frequency and ;1 dB at the frequencies one octave below and above the corner
frequency. Corrections necessary for the quadratic factor are obtained from Figure 7–9. The exact
log-magnitude curve for G(jv) is shown by a dashed curve in Figure 7–11.
Note that any change in the slope of the magnitude curve is made only at the corner
frequencies of the transfer function G(jv). Therefore, instead of drawing individual magnitude
curves and adding them up, as shown, we may sketch the magnitude curve without sketching
individual curves. We may start drawing the lowest-frequency portion of the straight line (that
is, the straight line with the slope –20 dB/decade for v 6 12). As the frequency is increased,
we get the effect of the complex-conjugate poles (quadratic term) at the corner frequency
v = 12 . The complex-conjugate poles cause the slopes of the magnitude curve to change from
–20 to –60 dB/decade. At the next corner frequency, v=2, the effect of the pole is to change
the slope to –80 dB/decade. Finally, at the corner frequency v=3, the effect of the zero is to
change the slope from –80 to –60 dB/decade.
 For plotting the complete phase-angle curve, the phase-angle curves for all factors have to be
sketched. The algebraic sum of all phase-angle curves provides the complete phase-angle curve,
as shown in Figure 7–11.
Example 7–3.
system
Bode diagram of the
Figure 7–11
Exact 1
curve
considered

G(jv
3
)
4
in

5 2

dB0
f –90
0.20.4
–270

–180

0.20.4 0.6 0.8 1

–40

–20
90

20

40
0
0.6 0.8 1

3
1

4
v

v
2

G(jv
)
46 8 10

46 8 10

Minimum-Phase Systems and Nonminimum-Phase Systems. Transfer func-

tions having neither poles nor zeros in the right-half s plane are minimum-phase trans-
fer functions, whereas those having poles and/or zeros in the right-half s plane are
nonminimum-phase transfer functions. Systems with minimum-phase transfer functions
are called minimum-phase systems, whereas those with nonminimum-phase transfer
functions are called nonminimum-phase systems.
For systems with the same magnitude characteristic, the range in phase angle of the
minimum-phase transfer function is minimum among all such systems, while the range
in phase angle of any nonminimum-phase transfer function is greater than this
minimum.
It is noted that for a minimum-phase system, the transfer function can be uniquely
determined from the magnitude curve alone. For a nonminimum-phase system, this is
not the case. Multiplying any transfer function by all-pass filters does not alter the
magnitude curve, but the phase curve is changed.
Consider as an example the two systems whose sinusoidal transfer functions are,
respectively, 1 + jvT 1 - jvT
G (jv) = , G (jv) = , 0 6 T 6 T
1
1 + jvT1 2
1 + jvT1 1
 jv j
v

Figure 7–12 Pole–

zero configurations – – 0s – 0 1s
of a minimum- 1T 1T1 1T T
phase system G1(s) 1

and nonminimum-
phase system
G2(s). 1 + Ts 1 – Ts
G1(s) = 1 + T s G2(s) = 1 + T s
1 1

The pole–zero configurations of these systems are shown in Figure 7–12. The two sinu-
soidal transfer functions have the same magnitude characteristics, but they have differ-
ent phase-angle characteristics, as shown in Figure 7–13. These two systems differ from
each other by the factor
1 - jvT
G(jv) =
1 + jvT
The magnitude of the factor (1-jvT)/(1+jvT) is always unity. But the phase
angle equals –2 tan–1 vT and varies from 0° to –180° as v is increased from zero to
infinity. As stated earlier, for a minimum-phase system, the magnitude and phase-angle
char-
acteristics are uniquely related. This means that if the magnitude curve of a system is
specified over the entire frequency range from zero to infinity, then the phase-angle
curve is uniquely determined, and vice versa. This, however, does not hold for a non-
minimum-phase system.
Nonminimum-phase situations may arise in two different ways. One is simply when
a system includes a nonminimum-phase element or elements. The other situation may
arise in the case where a minor loop is unstable.
For a minimum-phase system, the phase angle at v=q becomes –90°(q-p),
where p and q are the degrees of the numerator and denominator polynomials of the
transfer function, respectively. For a nonminimum-phase system, the phase angle at
v=q differs from –90°(q-p). In either system, the slope of the log-magnitude curve
at v=q is equal to –20(q-p) dB/decade. It is therefore possible to detect
whether the system is minimum phase by examining both the slope of the high-
frequency asymptote of the log-magnitude curve and the phase angle at v=q. If the
slope of the log-magnitude curve as v approaches infinity is –20(q-p) dB/decade
and the phase angle at v=q is equal to –90°(q-p), then the system is minimum
phase.
f

0

Figure 7–13 Figure 7–12. G1(jv)

Phase-angle
characteristics of the
systems G1(s) and G2(jv)
G2(s) shown in
 –90

–180
v
 Nonminimum-phase systems are slow in responding because of their faulty behavior
at the start of a response. In most practical control systems, excessive phase lag should
be carefully avoided. In designing a system, if fast speed of response is of primary
importance, we should not use nonminimum-phase components. (A common example
of nonmini- mum-phase elements that may be present in control systems is transport lag
or dead time.) It is noted that the techniques of frequency-response analysis and
design to be presented in this and the next chapter are valid for both minimum-
phase and
nonminimum-phase systems.

Transport Lag. Transport lag, which is also called dead time, is of nonminimum-
phase behavior and has an excessive phase lag with no attenuation at high
frequencies. Such transport lags normally exist in thermal, hydraulic, and pneumatic
systems.
Consider the transport lag given by
G(jv) = e-jvT
The magnitude is always equal to unity, since
@ G(jv) @ = ∑cos vT - j sin vT∑ = 1
Therefore, the log magnitude of the transport lag e–jvT is equal to 0 dB. The phase
angle of the transport lag is
/ G(jv) = -vT (radians)
= -57.3 vT (degrees)
The phase angle varies linearly with the frequency v. The phase-angle characteristic
of transport lag is shown in Figure 7–14.

0

–100 G

–200
G(jv) = e–jvT
|G(jv)| = 0
e–jvT –300 dB

– 400

–500

Figure 7–14 transpo  0.2

Phase-angle rt lag. 0.1
–
characteristic of 600
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 4 6
8
v 10
T
 EXAMPLE 7–4 Draw the Bode diagram of the following transfer function:

G(jv) = e-jvL
1+
j vT
The log magnitude is

1
20 log@ G(jv) @ = 20 log @ e-jvL @ + 20 log 2 2
1 + jvT
1
= 0 + 20 log 2 2
1 + jvT

The phase angle of G(jv) is

1
/ G(jv) = / e-jvL + n
1 + jvT

= -vL - tan-1 vT

The log-magnitude and phase-angle curves for this transfer function with L=0.5 and T=1 are
shown in Figure 7–15.

20

10

dB 0

–10

–20 e–0.5
jv
1+
jv 1
0 1+ 0
jv

–90
–100
e–0.5
jv
1+ –180
e–0.5
–200 jv jv

Figure 7–15
Bode diagram for the –270
–300
system e–jvL/(1+jvT)
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10
with L=0.5 and T=1.
v