Теор стилистика

1. Provide the stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. Explain why the neutral layer
dominates over the rest of the vocabulary.
The word-stock of any given language can be roughly divided into three uneven groups, differing from each
other by the sphere of its possible use. The biggest division is made up of neutral words, possessing no
stylistic connotation and suitable for any communicative situation, two smaller ones are literary and
colloquial strata respectively.
Literary words serve to satisfy communicative demands of

 official,
 scientific,
 poetic messages.
For the most part, literary words are mainly observed in the written form, as most literary messages appear
in writing.
Taking for analysis printed materials we shall find literary words in

 authorial speech,
 descriptions,
 considerations.
Colloquial words are employed in non-official everyday communication, their usage is associated with the
oral form of communication.
Though there are many examples of colloquialisms in writing:

 informal letters,
 diaries,
 certain passages of memoirs, etc.
Taking for analysis printed materials colloquialisms will be observed in the types of discourse, simulating
(copying) everyday oral communication:

 in the dialogue of a prose work,

 in the interior monologue of a prose work.
Each of the two named groups of words is not homogeneous as to the quality of the meaning, frequency of
use, sphere of application, or the number and character of potential users. This is why each one is further
divided into:

 the general, i.e. known to and used by most native speakers in generalized literary (formal) or
colloquial (informal) communication,
 and special bulks (are subdivided into subgroups, each one serving a rather narrow, specified
communicative purpose).
Neutral layer is the biggest one as it possesses no stylistic connotation and is suitable for any
communicative situation.
When we classify some speech (text) fragment as literary or colloquial it does not mean that all the words
constituting it have a corresponding stylistic meaning. More than that: words with a pronounced stylistic
connotation are few in any type of discourse, the overwhelming majority of its lexis being neutral.

Literary words Colloquial words

general special general special
Examples: Terms words (word- Widely used by Slang. Slang words, used by most
  population combinations) denoting
 Commence a scientific concept.
 Infant (words denoting
 Divergence objects, processes,
A lot of phenomena of science,
humanities, technique)
phraseological
 Anatomy
combinations also
 Renaissance
belong to the
 Retreat
general literary
stratum: in  transplant
accordance with,
with regard to, to
lend assistance.
Archaisms
Words
 denoting
historical
phenomena
which are no
more in use
(such as
"yeoman",
"vassal",
falconet"). These
are historical
words.
 used in poetry in
the XVII-XIX cc.
(such as "steed"
for "horse";
"quoth" for
"said"; main
(sea), maid (girl)
list (listen) albeit
(although) betwixt
(between)
"woe" for "sorrow").
These are poetic words.
in the course of
language history ousted
by newer synonymic
words (such as
"whereof" = of which;
"to deem" = to think;
"repast" = meal) or
forms ("maketh" =
makes;
"thou wilt" = you will;
"brethren" = brothers).
These are called
archaic words proper.
all speakers of speakers in very informal
the language in communication, are highly emotive
their everyday and expressive and as such, lose their
communication originality rather fast and are replaced
("dad", "kid", bу newer formations. This tendency to
"crony", "fan", synonymic expansion results in long
"to pop", "folks") chains of synonyms of various
Make a move degrees of expressiveness, denoting
Go on, one and the same concept.
teenager Examples:
 "pal", "chum," "crony" for
"friend";
 "how's tricks" for "how's life";
 "beat it" for "go away".
 banana oil – flattery; ball up –
make a mess; angel dust – drug;
brain bucket – motorcycle
helmet;
Jargonisms stand close to slang, also
being substandard, expressive and
emotive, but, unlike slang they are
used by limited groups of people,
united either
 professionally (in this case we
deal with professional
jargonisms, or
professionalisms - connected
with the technical side of some
profession),
tin-fish (shipping) – submarine
Uncle Bob: Specific to wedding photographers, an
‘Uncle Bob’ is the guest who comes with his (or
her?) own very fancy camera, gets in the way,
lectures to the photographer how things should be
done
Olympic torch: Just as the Olympic torch never
goes out, this term refers to an officer who never
leaves the station.
 or socially (here we deal with
jargonisms proper -
characterized by similar
linguistic features, but differ in
function and sphere of
application.). They originated
from the thieves' jargon. Their
major function thus was to be
secretive. This is why among
them there are cases of conscious
deformation of the existing
words. The so-called back jargon
can serve as an example: in their
effort to conceal the
machinations of dishonest card-
playing, gamblers used numerals
in their reversed form: "owt" for
"two", "erth" for "three".
Vulgarisms are coarse words with a
strong emotive meaning, mostly
derogatory, normally avoided in polite
 conversation.
In fact, at present we are faced with
the reverse of the problem: there are
practically no words banned from use
by the modern permissive society.
Such intensifiers as "bloody",
"damned", "cursed", "hell of,
Dialectal words are normative and
devoid of any stylistic meaning in
regional dialects, but used outside of
them, carry a strong flavour of the
locality where they belong.
Dialects markedly differ on the
phonemic level: one and the same
phoneme is differently pronounced in
each of them. They differ also on the
lexical level, having their own names
for locally existing phenomena. Some
of them have entered the general
vocabulary and lost their dialectal
status ("lad", "pet", "squash", "plaid").
Australian: brekky – breakfast, mossie
– mosquito,
Literary words, both general (also called Colloquial words mark the message as
learned, bookish, high-flown) and special,  informal,
contribute to the message the tone of  non-official,
 solemnity,  conversational.
 sophistication,
 seriousness,
 gravity,
 learnedness.
They are used in
 official papers and documents,
 in scientific communication,
 in high poetry,
 in authorial speech of creative prose.
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2. Provide proof that phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices - alliteration / consonance,
rhyme and rhythm, onomatopoeia – contribute to the general impact of the text on the addressee.
Point out which of the functional styles may possess phonetic stylistic devices.

alliteration - the repetition of consonants, usually in the beginning of words, and assonance - the repetition of
similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables. They both may produce the effect of euphony (a sense of ease and
comfort in pronouncing or hearing) or cacophony (a sense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing).

cacophony - He is a rotten, dirty, terrible, trudging, stupid dude!

Klarissa Klein drives an old, grumbling Cadillac which has a crumpled bumper and screaming,
honking horn.

Euphony is achieved through the use of vowel sounds in words of generally serene imagery. Vowel sounds, which
are more easily pronounced than consonants, are more euphonious; the longer vowels are the most melodious.
Liquid and nasal consonants and the semivowel sounds (l, m, n, r, y, w) are also considered to be euphonious. Due
to the fact that euphony is meant to please the ear, many lullabies are examples of euphony in order to lull a baby to
sleep - Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are. Up above the world so high, Like a diamond in the
sky.

Alliteration- Initial consonant sounds: safe & sound; rhyme & rhythm, rocky road, Coca Cola
Consonance - Final consonant sounds: odds & ends; a struck of luck

Assonance - The repetition of stressed vowels - wear and tear

 Rhythm – regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. Rhythm is the pattern of stressed and
unstressed beats. Although commonly found in poetry, it can be also found in some drama and prose work.
Rhythm can be analyzed by determining the number of lines of a poem, the number of syllables in the line,
and the arrangement of syllables based on their nature – short or long, stressed or unstressed.
 There are five main rhythms in English poetry; they are Iamb, Trochee, Spondee, Dactyl, and Anapest.
 Iamb consists of two syllables: one unstressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable.
 Trochee consists of one stressed syllable followed by one unstressed syllable.
 Spondee consists of two syllables that are consecutively stressed.
 Dactyl consists of three syllables: the first syllable is stressed, and the other two are unstressed.
 Anapest consists of three syllables: the first two syllables are unstressed, and the last syllable is stressed.

 Syllabic system (French poetry) the same number of syllables in different lines, whether stressed or
unstressed;
 Tonic system (old Anglo-Saxon poetry) the number of stresses syllables;
 Syllabic-tonic (modern English, Russian) the same number of stressed and unstressed syllables.
 Main unit – foot – a division of poetic line from stress to stress
 Iamb – gloomy (Мой дядя самых честных правил)
 Trochee – light буря мглою небо кроет
 Peter, Peter, pumpkin eater Had a wife and couldn’t keep her
 Dactyl Why do you cry Willie
 Amphibrach A diller, a dollar, a ten o’clock scholar
 Pyrric foot It consists of two unaccented, short syllables.
 When the blood creeps and the nerves prick.
 A spondee (Latin: spondeus) is a metrical foot consisting of two stressed syllables in modern meters.

What is Rhyme
Rhyme is the correspondence of sound between words, especially when these are used at the ends of lines of
poetry. Two words that end with the same sound are said to rhyme. For example, words like light and night share
the same ending. Thus, they are rhyming words. Rhyme is often used in poetry to lend a pleasing effect to poetry
which makes it enjoyable.

Rhyming words also help us to memorize. This is why many nursery rhymes use rhymes. For example,

Twinkle, twinkle little star

How I wonder what you are”

onomatopoeia - the use of words whose sounds imitate those of the signified object or action, such as Bang!
Boom! Cock-a-doodle-doo!, "murmur", "bump" and many more. Imitating the sounds of nature, man,
inanimate objects, the acoustic form of the word foregrounds the latter, inevitably emphasizing its meaning too.
Thus, the phonemic structure of the word proves to be important for the creation of expressive and emotive
connotations. A message, containing an onomatopoeic word is not limited to transmitting the logical information
only, but also supplies the vivid portrayal of the situation described.

To create additional information in a prose discourse sound instrumenting is seldom used. In contemporary
advertizing, mass media and, above all, creative prose sound is foregrounded.
Galperin: Functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a
definite aim in communication.
 1. Belles-lettres style/ fiction - yes
  2. Academic style - no
 3. Official style/ style of official documents = no
 4. Newspaper style/ media style – yes (Sea, Surf and Sun
 5. Publicistic style – yes
Publicistic style has 2 forms: written (articles, essays) and oral (orator, radio-TV), main function – persuade, convince
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3. Analyse the following lexical stylistic devices: metaphor, metonymy, irony. Explain why all of the
given devices are based on the interaction of ordinary and contextual logical meaning.
Metaphor is a SD denoting a transference of meaning based on resemblance. It is based on the interaction
between logical and contextual logical meanings stemming from some existing (or suggested) likeness of
meanings. The transference of meaning is based on associations of similarity. The wider is the gap
between the associated objects the more striking and unexpected - the more expressive - is the metaphor.
If a metaphor involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects, we deal with personification, as in
"the face of London", or "the pain of the ocean".
Metaphor, as all other SDs, is fresh, original when first used, and trite, stale when often repeated. In the
latter case it gradually loses its expressiveness becoming just another entry in the dictionary, as in the "leg
of a table" or the "sunrise", thus serving a very important source of enriching the vocabulary of the
language.
Examples: “White blanket” instead of “snow on the ground” (there is a resemblance in color and the way snow
covers the ground is similar to the way blanket covers the bed)
· Fresh/original/: Trees are poems the earth writes upon the sky. The sun was a toddler insistently
refusing to go to bed
· Trite/hackneyed/stale: A city is a jungle.
Personification is a type of metaphor which involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects:
· Healthy economy (the economy is as fine as a person who is not ill)
· The sun is smiling at me (the sunlight is as pleasant as a smiling, welcoming person)
Metaphor can be expressed by all notional parts of speech, and functions in the sentence as any of its
members.
Conceptual metaphor refers to the process of establishing cognitive links, or mappings, between several
concepts , pertaining to different domains.
Source domain: the conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions. Target domain: the
conceptual domain that we try to understand.
A mapping is the way in which a source domain tracks onto and describes aspects of the target domain:
Time is money. Love is a journey (love is so unpredictable and full of surprises (but usually pleasant ones) as a
journey)
Metonymy is a SD based on the common grounds of existence (or on the same function). Like Metaphor, it
is a deliberate use of words in 2 meanings (dictionary and contextual)
metonymy is created by a different semantic process and is based on contiguity (nearness) of objects or
phenomena. Transference of names in metonymy does not involve a necessity for two different words to
have a common component in their semantic structures, as is the case with metaphor, but proceeds from
the fact that two objects (phenomena) have common grounds of existence in reality. Such words as "cup"
and "tea" have no linguistic (semantic) nearness, but the first one may serve the container of the second,
hence - the conversational cliche "Will you have another cup?", which is a case of metonymy, once original,
but due to long use, no more accepted as a fresh SD.
Function: metonymy can often allow writers and speakers to refer to complicated concepts or large groups
of people with a single world. It also helps to create a quick mental image by using everything that the
metonymy evokes. When it is expressive, its purpose is often to focus on a specific quality of the object.
Types
1. The result for the cause: He desperately takes the death (hook). Grey hair is not always respected;
2. The symbol for the thing signified: The crown had to yield.
3. Characteristic feature for the bearer: This bonnet and this dress floated; Little Red Riding Hood
(Красная Шапочка, a distinctive piece of clothing to refer to the girl who bears it), Bluebeard (Синяя
Борода, a distinctive detail of appearance, making its bearer stand out)
4. The instrument for the action: Give me a hand (help me); Pen knows no compromise (writing)
5. The container for the contained: The kettle boils (water in the kettle); Would you like another cup? (a
cup of tea)
6. An abstract noun for a concrete one: Labor demonstrated in the streets; not expressive; when I was
awakened, old sleepy Mary was up and gone, coffee & bacon were afoot - кухарка
7. The material for the thing made of it: A shower of steel; not expressive; I am fond of glass (хрусталь)
8. The name of the creator for the creation: A whole Shakespeare (a book); not expressive
9. The age for the person: A pale eighteen (a pale eighteen-year-old girl)
10. The institution for people working in it: The Church is against it.
11. Synecdoche (a special type of metonymy, part for the whole): my new wheels (a car); he has many
mouths to feed (children).
Irony is a SD based on interplay of two meanings. Contrary to the metaphor and metonymy, the meaning
that is born in context is the opposite to the dictionary meaning of the word. (Interplay between positive and
negative). The essence of this SD consists in the foregrounding not of the logical but of the evaluative
meaning.
The context is arranged so that the qualifying word in irony reverses the direction of the evaluation, and the
word positively charged is understood as a negative qualification. Irony thus is a stylistic device in which the
contextual evaluative meaning of a word is directly opposite to its dictionary meaning.
Function: irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning. It may be used to express displeasure,
irritation, pity, regret and to achieve a humorous effect.

· “She turned with a sweet smile of an alligator” (Steinbeck). A sweet smile, which is supposed to be a sign of
friendliness, in this case is rather evil and threatening, like that of an alligator, and alligators are the opposite of
“friendly” (the speaker aims to achieve a humorous effect).
“Lovely weather we're having today!” when it is raining outside. Rain is usually considered gloomy, depressing
weather (the speaker expresses displeasure).
“Oh, great!” when something bad happens (to express regret, irritation).
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4. Analyse the following lexical stylistic devices: antonomasia, epithet, oxymoron. Determine which
of the given devices is associated with a paradox. Comment on its nature.
Antonomasia is SD based on the interaction of logical and nominal meaning. It’s a SD in which a proper name is used instead of
a common one. the use of a proper name to denote a different person who possesses some qualities of the primary owner of the
name.

Antonomasia can be metaphoric (the Jaconda smile) and metonymic (he has a Cezanne)
 1. proper – common Don Juan, Othello. It’s lexicalized through long usage. It belongs to the language, not original.
Every Caesar has his Brutus.
2. Common – proper (always original) Lady Snake, Mr Proud, Mr Know All, Mr Owl Eyes
3. Abstract nouns – concrete nouns Doctor Rest, Doctor Diet and Doctor Fresh Air
4. Speaking names – characterize a person simultaneously with naming him: Becky Sharp, Собакевич, Doctor Who,
доктор Зло, Молчалин, Плюшкин, Коробочка
antonomasia is used to call attention to a certain characteristic.
Example 1 Imagine that you have a friend who is a fantastic chef. Normal sentence: “Oh, look! Sam’s arrived!”
Sentence with Antonomasia: “Oh, look! Gordon Ramsay arrived!”
Here, the use of antonomasia allows you to greet your friend with a nickname which also reveals something about his
character: he’s a great chef.
Another type of antonomasia we meet when a common noun serves as an individualizing name. "There are three
doctors in an illness like yours. Dr. Rest, Dr. Diet and Dr. Fresh Air.
For another example, consider that you have a grumpy teacher: Normal sentence: “He’s grumpy, boring, doesn’t want to listen
to anyone, and definitely doesn’t want to help anyone.” Sentence with Antonomasia: “Mr. Grumps doesn’t want to listen to
anyone, and definitely doesn’t want to help anyone.” Replacing the teacher’s actual name with his defining characteristic,
grumpiness, serves to highlight just how much the mood is associated with the man.

Example 3 For a commonly use example of antonomasia, consider two women discussing men: Normal sentence:
“He’s such a good guy. I enjoy his company so much! I just hope he’s the right guy for me.”
With the addition of antonomasia, we can emphasize the quality she hopes to find in this man: Sentence with
Antonomasia: “I just hope he’s Mr. Right.“ Giving a man the title “Mr. Right” is an everyday example of antonomasia
in conversation.
Antonomasia is created mainly by nouns, more seldom by attributive combinations (as in "Dr. Fresh Air") or phrases
(as in "Mr. What's-his name").

Epithet expresses a characteristic of an object existing or imaginary. It’s basic feature is emotiveness & subjectivity:
the characteristic attached to the object to qualify it is always chosen by the speaker himself.
Thus epithet is based on interplay of logical & emotive meaning. The later is born in context & prevails over the
logical meaning.
Through long and repeated use epithets become fixed. Many fixed epithets are closely connected with folklore and can
be traced back to folk ballads (e.g. "true love", "merry Christmas".
Semantically, there should be differentiated two main groups, the biggest of them being affective (or emotive proper).
These epithets serve to convey the emotional evaluation of the object by the speaker. Most of the qualifying words
found in the dictionary can be and are used as affective epithets (e.g. "gorgeous", "nasty", "magnificent", "atrocious",
etc.). The second group - figurative, or transferred, epithets-is formed of metaphors, metonymies and similes
expressed by adjectives. E.g. "the smiling sun", "a ghost-like face", "a dreamlike experience".
All previously given examples demonstrated single epithets. Pairs are represented by two epithets joined by a
conjunction or asyndetically as in "wonderful and incomparable beauty" or "a tired old town". Chains (also called
strings) of epithets present a group of homogeneous attributes varying in number from three up to sometimes twenty
and even more.
inverted epithets. They are based on the contradiction between the logical and the syntactical: logically defining
becomes syntactically defined and vice versa. E.g. instead of "this devilish woman"- "this devil of a woman". Here
"of a woman" is syntactically an attribute. All inverted epithets are easily transformed into epithets of a more habitual
structure where there is no logico-syntactical contradiction, Cf.: "the giant of a man" (a gigantic man); "the prude of a
woman" (a prudish woman), etc. "the toy of the girl" (the toy belonging to the girl); "the toy of a girl" (a small,
toylike girl), or "the kitten of the woman" (the cat belonging to the woman); "the kitten of a woman" (a kittenlike
woman).
Oxymoron is a variety of epithet. It is stylistic device the syntactic and semantic structures of which come to clashes.
is a combination of two semantically contradictory notions. As a rule, one of the two members of oxymoron
illuminates the feature which is universally observed and acknowledged while the other one offers a purely subjective
individual perception of the object. Oxymorons rarely become trite. There are few colloquial oxymorons, all of them
showing a high degree of the speaker's emotional involvement in the situation, as in "damn nice", "awfully pretty"
+E.g.: crowded loneliness, An ugly beauty, To shout silently.
Example - For instance, imagine a woman who has a thirty-five year old son who still lives in her attic, playing video
games and refusing to get a real job. An oxymoronic name for him could be used in this way: That’s my adult child.
Poor thing still can’t get himself into the real adult world.
An “adult child” literally does not make sense—you cannot have an adult who is also a child. This oxymoron, though,
serves to describe an adult who refuses to act like an adult.
For one, they spice up everyday conversation with wit and humor. On the other hand, they also challenge audiences in
speeches, poetry, and prose with confusing phrases that apparently contradict themselves, but upon further inspection,
make sense. Oxymoron encourages audiences to think beyond everyday logic in order to critically think about and
understand paradoxes.

Oxymoron is associated with a paradox as it is a juxtaposition of two contrasting notions (living dead)
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5.Analyse the following lexical stylistic devices: zeugma and pun. Prove that they have common features.
Lexical SD based on interaction of primary and derivative logical meaning .

Zeugma is connected with the interaction of primary and derivational meaning (verbs with a large lexical
valency can be combined with nouns that are not connected semantically)
Break a vase/a promise/ one’s heart/ the record, etc
  Deliberate use of polysemantic words (or homonyms) in two or more meanings. These SDs are used
to create a humorous effect.
 The difference between them is structural. The context that realizes zeugma is more restricted and
the word that is used in 2 meanings is not repeated.
 "She looked at the object with suspicion and a magnifying glass
Pun is more independent than zeugma -effect produced by words similar or identical in their sound form
and incompatible, contrastive in their meaning. Contextual conditions leading to the formation of pun may
vary: it can be misinterpretation of one speaker's utterance by the other, which results in his remark
dealing with a different meaning of the misinterpreted word or its homonym. Punning may be the result of
the speaker's intended violation of the listener's expectation: "There comes a period in every man's life,
but she is just a semicolon in his." Here we expect the second half of the sentence to unfold the content,
proceeding from "period" understood as "an interval of time", while the author has used the word in the
meaning of "punctuation mark".

 Did you hit a woman with a child?-No, Sir, I hit her with a stick
It's better to love a short girl than not a tall. "War does not determine who is right - only who is left. Panda eats
shoots and leaves

 Zeugma+Pun = PLAY ON WORDS,

they have much in common both in the mechanism of their formation and in
their functioning. The effect of these SDs is humorous.

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6.Analyse the following lexical stylistic devices: simile, periphrasis, euphemism, hyperbole,
understatement. Comment on the growing importance of euphemisms in social life.

Simile is an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes. Similes have a
set of formal elements being used to structure them; they are connective words such as like, as, such, as if, as
though, to seem, to resemble. The air was warm and felt like a kiss. a simile aims at finding some point of
resemblance but keeping the objects apart. The one which is compared is called the tenor, the one with
which it is compared, is called the vehicle.
EXAMPLES: "He stood immovable like a rock ", She is like a rose.
A simile, often repeated, becomes trite and adds to the stock of language phraseology. Most of trite similes
have the foundation mentioned and conjunctions "as", "as ... as" used as connectives. Cf.: "as brisk as a
bee", "as strong as a horse", to fit like a glove; to smoke like a chimney
Similes in which the link between the tenor and the vehicle is expressed by notional verbs such as "to
resemble", "to seem", "to recollect", "to remember", "to look like", "to appear", etc. are called disguised,
because the realization of the comparison is somewhat suspended, as the likeness between the objects
seems less evident.
EXAMPLE: "His strangely taut, full-width grin made his large teeth resemble a dazzling miniature piano
keyboard in the green light." (J.)
FUNCTION: - to find the point of resemblance but keep the objects apart, - to create an image
PERIPHRASIS
Periphrasis is a SD which is used in cases when the generally accepted nomination of the object is
replaced by the description of one of its features or qualities. that seems to the author to be most important.
Depending on the mechanism of this substitution, periphrases are classified into figurative (metonymic and
metaphoric), and logical. The first group is made, in fact, of phrase-metonymies and phrase-metaphors, as
you may well see from the following example: "The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting
products of the fighting in Africa" (I. Sh.) where the extended metonymy stands for "the wounded". Logical
periphrases are phrases synonymic with the words which were substituted by periphrases: (logical): "Mr.
Du Pont was dressed in the conventional disguise with which Brooks Brothers cover the shame of
American "millionaires." (M. St.) "The conventional disguise" stands here for "the suit" and "the shame of
American millionaires" - for the belly"
 P may be trite (my better half)
 and fresh/stylistic: mute evidences of his failure (pictures)
 Stylistic P may be logical or figurative
 Logical -The author of Hamlet
 Figurative - The most pardonable of human weaknesses – love
FUNCTION: - to convey a purely individual perception of the described object. , - to intensify or bring out a
specific feature

EUPHEMISM
Euphemism is a type of periphrasis. Because the direct nomination of the not too elegant feature
of appearance was substituted by a roundabout description this periphrasis may be also
considered euphemistic, as it offers a more polite qualification instead of a coarser one.

EXAMPLE: correctional institution (prison), To pass away, Negative patient outcome instead of died,
Between jobs instead of unemployed, Big-boned instead of fat
Purpose: Avoidance
Reasons for using euphemisms vary by context and intent. Commonly, euphemisms are used to avoid directly addressing
subjects that might be deemed negative or embarrassing, e.g. death, sex, excretory bodily functions.

Mitigation
Euphemisms are also used to mitigate, soften or downplay the gravity of large-scale injustices, war crimes, or other events
that warrant a pattern of avoidance in official statements or documents.

often use euphemisms when talking about sensitive topics – death, love, body processes,
anything they might not want to speak of directly.
Here is an example. Consider the noun, alcohol. Alcohol consumption can be a taboo topic in
American society. So, some restaurants and stores sell adult beverages instead.
HYPERBOLE
Hyperbole-a stylistic device in which emphasis is achieved through deliberate exaggeration, - like
epithet relies on the foregrounding of the emotive meaning. Hyperbole may be the final effect of
another SD - metaphor, simile, irony, as we have in the case "The man was like the Rock of
Gibraltar""
Hyperbole can be expressed by all notional parts of speech. There are words though, which are
used in this SD more often than others. They are such pronouns as "all", "every", "everybody" and
the like, also numerical nouns ("a million", "a thousand"), as was shown above, and adverbs of
time ("ever", "never"). Hyperbole can be trite or fresh.

EXAMPLE trite: I’m so hungry that I could eat a horse. I Love You to the moon and back.
This suitcase weighs a ton. That purse looks like it cost a million dollars.
I would walk 500 miles, And I would walk 500 more, Just to be the man who walked 1,000 miles to
fall down at your door.
FUNCTION:
- to intensify the quantitative or the qualitative aspect of the mentioned object
- to express emotions (admiration or anger)
- show satirical attitude
UNDERSTATEMENT Understatement is way of speaking which minimizes the significance of
something. Understatement may be a sign of embarrassment (compromise between good manners
and truthfulness) He knows a thing or two.
Comedic: This type of understatement adds humor to an otherwise serious situation. For example, there is
a hurricane and there is most likely severe damage to the house. You say, "At least the plants will get
watered.
Modest: This type of understatement is used instead of boasting about something. For example, winning
your first trophy and saying it was "not a big deal" when it really was a big deal.
Polite: This type of understatement can be used in difficult situations when you may disagree with
someone's opinion but still want to remain polite. For example, when talking politics and you and a friend
are on completely opposite sides, but you simply say, "I think our opinions are slightly different on this
matter."

 You just hit the biggest lottery of all time! An understatement would be: "I'm kind of excited."
(Modest)
 You are out to dinner with a friend who spills food down the front of her white shirt. An
understatement would be: "Really, it's hardly noticeable." (Polite)
 On the coldest day of the year with record low temperatures an understatement would be: "I might
need a jacket today." (Comedic)
__________________________________________________________________________
7.Analyse the following lexico-syntactical stylistic devices: antithesis, gradation and back-
gradation.
Antithesis
Antithesis, which literally means “opposite,” is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put
together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect. It is a syntactical parallel arrangement of words,
phrases and sentences semantically opposed to one another. Antithesis is aimed at emphasizing the
difference in the nature of things described.
"If we don't know who gains by his death we do know who loses by it." Here we have the leading
antonymous pair "gain-lose" and the supporting one, made stronger by the emphatic form of the affirmative
construction - "don't know / do know".
Antithesis emphasizes the idea of contrast by parallel structures of the contrasted phrases or clauses. The
structures of phrases and clauses are similar, in order to draw the attention of the listeners or readers. For
example: Setting foot on the moon may be a small step for a man but a giant step for mankind.” The use of
contrasting ideas, “a small step” and “a giant step,” in the sentence above emphasizes the significance of
one of the biggest landmarks of human history.
Man proposes, God disposes.
He was a bad winner and a good looser.
Foreigners have souls; the English haven’t.
Sometimes I am so merry and sometimes I am so sad.

Functions:
1) to compare things or actions by contrasting them: New England had… . Virginia had… .
2) to convey the actual inner unity as parts of the whole: Contempt and longing; hopelessness and rage.
3) To achieve a certain rhythm due to parallel structures.
Climax (gradation) -a stylistic pattern in which every successive unit (a word, word group, clause, sentence) is more
significant or emotionally stronger in meaning than the preceding one.

type of semantically complicated parallelism is presented by climax, in which each next word combination (clause,
sentence) is logically more important or emotionally stronger and more explicit: "Better to borrow, better to beg, better to
die!"

3 types: logical, emotional, quantitative.

1) logical: every succeeding concept is logically more important than the previous: a hundred diseases, many fevers…

2) emotional: synonyms with emotive meaning which gradually increase the emotional tension: have terrified, have
tortured, have destroyed me. Beautiful, perfect, flawless Fiona!

3) quantitative: every successive unit is greater in number than the preceding. Hundreds of houses, thousands of stairs,
innumerable kitchens

Functions:

 climax is used as a stylistic device or a figure of speech to render balance and brevity to speech or
writing. it qualifies itself as a powerful tool that can instantly capture the undivided attention of
listeners and readers alike. To create emotional tension
 To depict a phenomenon dynamically
 To logically intensify the last element of the series
I am sorry. I am so sorry. I am so extremely sorry.
Anti-climax (back-gradation) – instead of a few elements growing in intensity without relief there
unexpectedly appears a weak or contrastive element that makes the statement humorous or ridiculous.
Climax suddenly interrupted by an unexpected turn of the thought which defeats expectations of the reader
(listener) and ends in complete semantic reversal of the emphasized idea

This war-like speech, received with many a cheer Had filled them with desire of fame, and beer.
The plane that Joanna was planning to board from Singapore crashed. Almost everyone got injured and their
baggage got misplaced.
The fire burnt Peter's house down and he lost his cell phone.
The enemies had conquered about three fourth of the Empire and the Emperor realized he didn't have his
breakfast.

______________________________________________________________________________
8.Analyse the significance of syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices in different functional styles.

Galperin: Functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a
definite aim in communication.
1. Belles-lettres style/ fiction

2. Academic style/ scientific prose style

3. Official style/ style of official documents

4. Newspaper style/ media style

5. Publicistic style

-Academic style/ scientific prose style (found in articles, brochures, monographs and other scientific, academic publications.)
Aim – to prove hypothesis; describe new phenomena; to make known newly discovered laws. Each branch
of science has its own object. The main function of scientific prose is proof. The selection of language
means must therefore meet this principle requirement. The language means used, therefore, tend to be
objective, precise, unemotional, and devoid of any individuality; there is a striving for the most generalized
form of expression.

Syntactic level: structures are logical, emphatic syntax is avoided. Sequence markers, logical connectors: on
the one hand, first, second, hence, therefore; participial constructions before the modified word. Long
complete (non-elliptical) sentences are preferable. Complicated structures. Complex sentences prevail over
> compound sentences. Impersonal passive constructions (the doer is not mentioned). Ex: It must be
assumed.
- Official style/ style of official documents

Official style, or the style of official documents, is the most conservative one. Addressing documents and
official letters, signing them, expressing the reasons and considerations leading to the subject of the
document -all this is strictly regulated both lexically and syntactically. All emotiveness and subjective
modality are completely banned out of this style.
Its forms - pacts, treaties, charters, business & commercial correspondence, military orders, instructions,
memorandum.
Style-forming features: Formal and “dry” , Logical and unemotional, Objective and impersonal, Clear-cut
and precise, Fact-based, Standardized, Convectional, Conservative and rigid
The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking.
Another aim of communication in this style is to reach agreement between two contracting parties.
Syntactical level: A new line - with a small letter; paragraphing, use of colon, semicolon;: Parallel
structures: grammatical form stresses the importance of every part. Long sentences. Link and auxiliary verbs
may be omitted.
-Belles-lettres style/ fiction

Belles-lettres style or the style of creative literature may be called the richest register of
communication: besides its own language means which are not used in any other sphere of communication,
belles-lettres style makes ample use of other styles too, for in numerous works of literary art we find
elements of scientific, official and other functional types of speech. Besides informative and persuasive
functions, also found in other functional styles, the belles-lettres style has a unique task to impress the reader
aesthetically.
A double function, which is called aesthetico-cognitive. The first object of the belles-lettres style is to
present some idea for considerations, to suggest a possible interpretation of a phenomenon of life and
force the reader to see the view-point of the writer. This is the cognitive function. The second object is to
appeal to the feelings of the reader. This is the aesthetic function

The belles-lettres style rests on certain indispensable linguistic features which are:
1.Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by linguistic devices.
4.A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax
Rhetorical Question. Repetition. Parallel Constructions. Chiasmus. Inversion. Suspense. Detachment
Ellipsis. Break. Polysyndeton. Asyndeton. Attachment
Rhetorical questions present statements in the form of a question requiring no answers. It is asked in
order to make a statement rather than to get a reply. They are frequently used in dramatic
situation and in publicistic style. In prose r.q. serve to

-make listen, i.e. organize the point the writer wishes to develop;

-convey a certain reaction on the part of the reader.

semi-exclamatory sentences widely used in oratory “familiar style”.

  Who does not know Shakespeare?

 But it may also be without an open negation: Can we change the time?

Stylistic inversion is used to emphasize a certain part of a sentence by placing it in the

front position >

Becomes logical and emotional centre of the sentence. Talent he has

Syntactic parallelism consists in the similarity of the syntactical structures of successive clauses of sentences.

|| may be supported by lexical repetition & by antithesis.

|| are full of dynamism. | | helps to convey the emotional state of the character. || rhythmical, easy to comprehend. Sometimes || are made
by synonymic repetition > makes the narration more concrete, precise

The warm sun is falling, the black wind is blowing.

Chiasmus - Reversed parallelism. In the days of old men made the manners; manners now make men.

Chiasmus may be used to break monotony or produce an ironic effect.

Polysyndeton -
is a deliberate repetition of connectives before each component part where it is
generally not expected. sequences of actions: & they would run, & would find

Asyndeton - is connection between parts of sentence without any formal sign. It gives rhythm,
balance to the utterance. It expresses swift movements: He stopped, ran back.
In the attachment the second part of the utterance is separated from the first one by a full stop
though their semantic and grammatical ties remain very strong. The second part is often connected
with the beginning of the utterance with the help of a conjunction which brings the latter into the
foregrounded opening position. Cf.: "It wasn't his fault. It was yours. And mine.
 Repetition (of words or groups of words)
 As a SD, it is used to lay logical (not emotional) emphasis and draw the reader’s attention to
something very important in the utterance.
 Ex.: Bad ministers, bad Parliament, bad judges.
 Stylistic functions of repetition:
5. Emphasis
6. Form the attitude of the reader
7. Show durability of some action
) Anaphora

Repetition of one and the same word(s) at the beginning of several successive sentences or clauses.

A…, A…, A… . Bad ministers, bad Parliament, bad judges.

2) Epiphora

Repetition of the final word(s)

…A, …A, …A. I wake up and I’m alone, I talk with people and I’m alone.

5) framing (ring repetition) > reiteration of initial words at the end of a clause

A…A Never more … never more.

Climax (gradation) - a stylistic pattern in which every successive unit (a word, word group, clause, sentence) is more
significant or emotionally stronger in meaning than the preceding one. "Better to borrow, better to beg, better to die!"
Beautiful, perfect, flawless Fiona!
which gradually increase the emotional tension
Anti-climax (back-gradation) – instead of a few elements growing in intensity without relief there
unexpectedly appears a weak or contrastive element that makes the statement humorous or ridiculous.
Climax suddenly interrupted by an unexpected turn of the thought which defeats expectations of the reader
(listener) and ends in complete semantic reversal of the emphasized idea

This war-like speech, received with many a cheer Had filled them with desire of fame, and beer.

Antithesis -
is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a
contrasting effect. It is a syntactical parallel arrangement of words, phrases and sentences semantically
opposed to one another. Antithesis is aimed at emphasizing the difference in the nature of things
described.
"If we don't know who gains by his death we do know who loses by it." Here we have the leading
antonymous pair "gain-lose" and the supporting one, made stronger by the emphatic form of the affirmative
construction - "don't know / do know".
Antithesis emphasizes the idea of contrast by parallel structures of the contrasted phrases or clauses. The
structures of phrases and clauses are similar, in order to draw the attention of the listeners or readers. For
example: Setting foot on the moon may be a small step for a man but a giant step for mankind.” The use of
contrasting ideas, “a small step” and “a giant step,” in the sentence above emphasizes the significance of
one of the biggest landmarks of human history.
He was a bad winner and a good looser.
Foreigners have souls; the English haven’t.
Sometimes I am so merry and sometimes I am so sad.
Functions:
1) to compare things or actions by contrasting them: New England had… . Virginia had… .
2) to convey the actual inner unity as parts of the whole: Contempt and longing; hopelessness and rage.
3) To achieve a certain rhythm due to parallel structures.
suspense - a deliberate postponement of the completion of the sentence. To hold the reader in suspense
means to keep the final solution just out of sight. Detective and adventure stories are examples of suspense
fiction. The theme, that which is known, and the rheme, that which is new, of the sentence are distanced
from each other and the new information is withheld, creating the tension of expectation. Technically,
suspense is organized with the help of embedded clauses (homogeneous members) separating the predicate
from the subject and introducing less important facts and details first, while the expected information of
major importance is reserved till the end of the sentence (utterance).
A specific arrangement of sentence members is observed in detachment, a stylistic device based on singling
out a secondary member of the sentence with the help of punctuation (intonation). The word-order here is
not violated, but secondary members obtain their own stress and intonation because they are detached from
the rest of the sentence by commas, dashes or even a full stop as in the following cases: "I have to beg you
for money. Daily." due to detachment and the additional pause and stress - are foregrounded into the focus
of the reader's attention.
ellipsis, or deliberate omission of at least one member of the sentence. employed by the author to reflect the
natural omissions characterizing oral colloquial speech. …sure. You went to the restaurant. And…?
Where is he? Out in the garden.
Break is also used mainly in the dialogue or in other forms of narrative imitating spontaneous
oral speech. It reflects the emotional or the psychological state of the speaker: a sentence may be
broken because the speaker's emotions prevent him from finishing it. In many cases break is the
result of the speaker's uncertainty as to what exactly he is to promise (to threaten, to beg). To
mark the break dashes and dots are used. It is only in cast-iron structures that full stops may also
appear, as in the well-known phrases "Good intentions, but", or "It depends"

Features typical of newspaper (media) style

 On the syntactic level:

 Complicated syntax (not in headlines), includes a number of clauses, participial constructions, extended
prepositional structures, long sentences, use of hedging
 Inverted W.O. – P. – S.: said Mr. John
 Adverbials in initial position (normal – post-verbal)
 Past Simple is dominant.
 In popular press active forms dominate over passive.
 Headlines – may contain elements of praise (or the opposite), subjective attitudes, emotional words, exclamatory
sentences, questions, direct speech. Laconism (elliptical structures), omission of articles, auxiliary verbs, introductory it.
Visual feature – paragraphing
 Subheadings
 The first word – in capitals; the first paragraph – in a larger type.
 No commas – to avoid disturbing the tempo of reading; dash instead of commas (paranphesis is more independent);
presence of quotation marks.
Advertisements and announcements

Publicistic style - Substyles: articles, oratorical, essay

-
Oratory substyle:
- Aim: to inform, to persuade audience, to stimulate activity.
- Features: direct address to audience, contracted forms (I’ll), colloquial words, 2 nd persons of pronouns. Desire
of the speaker to draw attention: suspense (+gradation, climax), repetition on each level, antithesis, rhetorical
questions, SDs are traditional, balance and rhythm help to memorize the main idea.
- Essay: Philosophical, aesthetic and literary subjects. Never goes deep into the subject. Resembles belles-
lettres style. The style of the essay depends on the author’s individuality. It may be emotional or may
resemble scientific prose.
_________________________________________________________________
9.Identify the functional styles that employ manipulative means. Provide examples of
manipulative means at different levels of the language.
Galperin: Functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a
definite aim in communication.
1. Belles-lettres style/ fiction

2. Academic style/ scientific prose style

3. Official style/ style of official documents

4. Newspaper style/ media style

5. Publicistic style

Media style (newspaper style) - the main function is to inform, Linguistic manipulation +/-
Publicistic style - Main function – to convince, Linguistic manipulation ++ (Manipulation is realized when the
listener cannot see the speaker’s covered intentions behind what is actually being said. Manipulative functions of
discourse create covert, masked layer of linguistic data that is not easily separated from purely informational content.)

Publicistic style
Substyles: articles, oratorical, essay
Main function – to convince.
Texts are peculiar in their logical arrangement combined with emotional appeal, which is achieved
through words with emotive meaning + SDs (not original).
Publicistic style has 2 forms: written (articles, essays) and oral (orator, radio-TV)
Articles: comment on the event, explain, convince the reader.
Reviews: richer in emotionally coloured vocabulary, bookish words, neologisms.
Oratory substyle:
 purpose of oratory is persuasion
 requires a lot of eloquence
 speeches on political and social occasions (party meetings, weddings, funerals, in debates, in
speeches of counsel and judges in courts of law)
 direct address to the audience by special formulas (Ladies and Gentlemen)
 final formulas to thank the audience (Thank you very much; Thank you for your time)
 use of we, let’s (identifying with the audience)
 features of colloquial style (I’ll; won’t; haven’t; isn’t, etc) to reach closer contact;
 the emotional colouring may be solemn, or ironic, but not “lowered” - jocular, rude, vulgar,
or slangy;
 stylistic devices to rouse the audience and keep it in suspense (repetition, climax, rhetorical
questions, parallel constructions, etc.)
Skills of public speaking:
 voice
 intonation and pausation
 ability to break the monotony
Essay: is a literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social, scientific or literary
subjects.
 preserves a clearly personal character
 has no pretence to deep or strictly scientific treatment of the subject
 a number of comments, without any definite conclusions
 brevity of expression;
 use of the first person singular (a personal approach to the problems treated);
 an expended use of connectives, which facilitates the process of grasping the correlation of
ideas;
 abundant use of emotive words;
 use of similes and metaphors as one of the media for the cognitive process.
Philosophical, aesthetic and literary subjects. Never goes deep into the subject. Resembles belles-
lettres style.
The style of the essay depends on the author’s individuality. It may be emotional or may resemble
scientific prose.
Features: moderate length, use of “I”, similes, metaphors, literary vocabulary, logical
argumentation, syntactically well-ordered, subjective approach.
Media style (newspaper style) observed in the majority of information materials printed in
newspapers
Informative, unbiased and evaluative to a certain extent specific vocabulary to avoid direct
responsibility:
The minister is reported to have denied the fact
The President was quoted as saying that there was no reason for panic.
 the language style of brief news items
 the language style of newspaper headlines;
 the language style of advertisements
(not all that is in a newspaper) Central function – to inform
Brief-news items – facts without comments, state facts without giving explicit comments, mostly
implicit evaluation, stylistically neutral, unemotional, matter-of-fact and stereotyped forms, neutral
and common literary vocabulary.
Ellipsis –to attract the readers’ attention, to convey the essence
Headlines – may contain elements of praise (or the opposite), subjective attitudes, emotional words,
exclamatory sentences, questions, direct speech. Laconism (elliptical structures), omission of
articles, auxiliary verbs, introductory it. Visual feature – paragraphing
 to inform the reader briefly what the text that follows is about
 to arouse the reader's curiosity
 to express the newspaper’s attitude to the information (elements of appraisal)
 almost a summary of the information
 short phrases: “Freddie, Fannie and Friends”
 citing: “Give Scotland own digital channel, says inquiry”
 elliptical sentences (with auxiliary verbs, articles, subject, predicate omitted):

On the phonemic level: They both may produce the effect of euphony (a sense of ease and comfort in
pronouncing or hearing) or cacophony (a sense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing).

Euphony is achieved through the use of vowel sounds in words of generally serene imagery. Vowel sounds, which
are more easily pronounced than consonants, are more euphonious; the longer vowels are the most melodious.
Liquid and nasal consonants and the semivowel sounds (l, m, n, r, y, w) are also considered to be euphonious.

On the morphemic level: different parts of speech, personal pronouns (we – addresing the
audience)
On the lexical level: epithets, metaphors
On the syntactic level: rethorical questions

Advertisements and announcements

On the phonemic level: Alliteration -You'll never put a better bit of butter on your knife - Country Life Butter
The daily diary of the American dream - Wall Street Journal
Functional... Fashionable... Formidable... - Fila
Don't dream it. Drive it. - Jaguar
Irish Bank: Britain's best business bank.

Rhyme - Jaguar – Grace, Space, Pace

On the morphemic level: Word-formation > Penguin Books “Unputdownable”, Mercedes-Benz

“Fabuttractive. The E-Class Coupé. It deserves a whole language.” This blend combines two
adjectival bases: fabulous + attractive, Valentino “Rock’n Rose”. Fitness Together “Because lipo
leaves marks” (see Appendix 4, 11.) This slogan promoting the world’s largest personal training
franchise contains an example of clipping. The word lipo comes from the original liposuction
Frequent use of personal pronouns - Reebok – I am what I am. McDonalds – I'm loving it. Visa – It's
everywhere you want to be. L’Oreal - because you’re worth it. The National Lottery – it could be you.

On the lexical level:

Metaphors – at the heart of image (Nikon), Red Cross – the greatest tragedy is indifference
Play on words – Get N or get out (nintendo), see what we meen (Canon)

On the phraseological level: use of clichés, trite phraseology, bookish vocabulary in order to avoid
misunderstanding (public opinion, crucial problems, to unleash the war, cold war, a far reaching
effect, in response to). Some clichés are based on metaphors and are emotionally coloured (a storm
of applause, captains of industry, pillars of society, war hysteria).
On the syntactic level:
Antithesis – mac pro – Beauty outside, beast inside.
Harley Davidson – American by birth, revel by choice.
Playstation- live in your world. Play in ours.
Asyndeton – Ebay – Buy it. Sell it. Love it.
Repetition - Energizer- keeps going and going and going.

_____________________________________________________________________________

10.Outline the main features of the academic style. Compare it to the belles-lettres style
Galperin: Functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a
definite aim in communication.
1. Belles-lettres style/ fiction

2. Academic style/ scientific prose style

3. Official style/ style of official documents

4. Newspaper style/ media style

5. Publicistic style
Academic style (scientific prose style)
found in articles, brochures, monographs and other scientific, academic
publications.
 Aim – to prove hypothesis; describe new phenomena; to make known newly discovered laws. Each
branch of science has its own object.
 Lexical level: a large amount of terms; everyday words are used in their direct meaning; complete
absence of dialectal words, slang; a comparatively limited vocabulary, a smaller range of word-
building means; We instead of I.
 Syntactic level: structures are logical, emphatic syntax is avoided. Sequence markers, logical
connectors: on the one hand, first, second, hence, therefore; participial constructions before the
modified word. Long complete (non-elliptical) sentences are preferable. Complicated structures.
Complex sentences prevail over > compound sentences. Impersonal passive constructions (the doer
is not mentioned). Ex: It must be assumed.
 Paragraphs: connected through connectors (but, and).
 Quotations, references, footnotes.
 New trends – to address the reader, flashes of emotive speech.
 Popular scientific prose: fewer terms, simple structures, far less objective, more vivid.
NO Idiomatic / colloquial (slang)
Kids / boss / gonna / stuff
NO Phrasal verbs
Go up / look up
NO Personal Pronouns
I, we, In my opinion (limit use)
NO Contractions
It’ll = it will / It’s = it is
NO Questions
So why did the project fail?
NO Personal adverbs
Surprisingly / fortunately
NO Repetition
Constant repeating same words
NO vague language
And so on.. / etc…
NO number / bullet points
NO basic language
Like – for example
Thing – factor
Lots of – significant amount
Little/ big – large
Get – obtain
Hard – difficult
Good / bad – positive / negative
Amazing / wonderful – important

YES Formal Linkers

(In addition, Moreover, Consequently…)
YES Academic Vocabulary
See A.W.L
YES Referencing systems
(Harvard / APA / Chicago…)
YES Passive structures
We analysed the data /
The data was analysed…
YES Complex Grammar structures
[Cohesive devices – independent + subordinator + dependent clause]
Although / Despite / since…
YES Nominalisation / noun forms
The data was analysed (passive)
An analysis of the data showed… (nominalised)
YES Noun phrases
adjective + noun / quantifier + noun / noun + noun structures
YES Caution / hedging – tentative language
Possibly / seems / appears / could / may
YES Accurate vocabulary
Difference between law / rule
YES Precise facts / figures
A few years ago / in 2014

Belles-lettres style or the style of creative literature may be called the richest register of
communication: besides its own language means which are not used in any other sphere of communication,
belles-lettres style makes ample use of other styles too, for in numerous works of literary art we find
elements of scientific, official and other functional types of speech. Besides informative and persuasive
functions, also found in other functional styles, the belles-lettres style has a unique task to impress the reader
aesthetically.
These three sub-styles are:
1.The language of poetry, or simply verse.
2.Emotive prose, or the language of fiction.
3.Т'he language of the drama.
A double function, which is called aesthetico-cognitive. The first object of the belles-lettres style is to
present some idea for considerations, to suggest a possible interpretation of a phenomenon of life and
force the reader to see the view-point of the writer. This is the cognitive function. The second object is to
appeal to the feelings of the reader. This is the aesthetic function

The belles-lettres style rests on certain indispensable linguistic features which are:
1.Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by linguistic devices.
2.The use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, or at least greatly
influenced by the lexical environment.
3.A vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the author's personal evaluation of things or
phenomena.
4.A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax

For writers and readers alike, it’s sometimes hard to tell the difference between fiction and nonfiction. In general,
fiction refers to plot, settings, and characters created from the imagination, while nonfiction refers to factual stories
focused on actual events and people. Fiction is fabricated and based on the author’s imagination. Short stories, novels,
myths, legends, and fairy tales are all considered fiction. While settings, plot points, and characters in fiction are
sometimes based on real-life events or people, writers use such things as jumping off points for their stories

Fiction - Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, Harry potter series (by
J.K.Rowling ).

Nonfiction, by contrast, is factual and reports on true events. Histories, biographies, journalism, and essays are all
considered nonfiction. Usually, nonfiction has a higher standard to uphold than fiction. A few smatterings of fact in a
work of fiction does not make it true, while a few fabrications in a nonfiction work can force that story to lose all
credibility.
“Refers to the use of literary craft, the techniques fiction writers, playwrights, and poets employ to present nonfiction
—factually accurate prose about real people and events—in a compelling, vivid, dramatic manner. The goal is to make
nonfiction stories read like fiction so that your readers are as enthralled by fact as they are by fantasy.”
Polyphony

 Russian linguist and literary critic Mikhail Bakhtin used this word using a metaphor based on the
musical term polyphony., literally meaning many voiced to describe literary writing that managed to
liberate the voice of its characters from under the domination of the authorial or narratorial voice.
 In Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics (1984), Bakhtin refers to polyphony as a new kind of artistic
thinking because what he has in mind goes against the grain of the traditional privileging of
harmony, which means many voices heard as one.
 The reader of Dostoevsky, Bakhtin suggests, cannot but have the impression that he or she isn't
dealing with a single author, but is in fact faced with a multiplicity of authors (Raskolnikov, Myshkin,
Stavrogin, Ivan Karamazov, the Grand Inquisitor, and so on), each of whom has their own unique
voice.
_______________________________________________________________________

11. Outline the main features of the official style at different levels of the language.
Galperin: Functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a
definite aim in communication.
1. Belles-lettres style/ fiction

2. Academic style/ scientific prose style

3. Official style/ style of official documents

4. Newspaper style/ media style

5. Publicistic style

A style of language can be defined as a system of coordinated, interrelated and inter-coordinated language
means intended to full-fill a specific function of communication and aiming at a defined effect.
Official style, or the style of official documents, is the most conservative one. It preserves cast-iron forms
of structuring and uses syntactical constructions and words long known as archaic and not observed
anywhere else. Addressing documents and official letters, signing them, expressing the reasons and
considerations leading to the subject of the document -all this is strictly regulated both lexically and
syntactically. All emotiveness and subjective modality are completely banned out of this style.
It is not homogeneous. It is represented by the following sub-styles (variants):
8. the language of business documents;
9. the language of legal documents;
10. the language of diplomacy;
11. the language of military documents.
Its forms - pacts, treaties, charters, business & commercial correspondence, military orders, instructions,
memorandum.
Style-forming features: Formal and “dry” , Logical and unemotional, Objective and impersonal, Clear-cut
and precise, Fact-based, Standardized, Convectional, Conservative and rigid
Like other styles of the language, this one has a definite communicative purpose and its own system of
interrelated language and stylistic means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the
conditions binding two parties in an undertaking. These parties can be the state and a citizen, or citizen
and citizen; two enterprises or bodies (in business correspondence or contracts), etc. Another aim of
communication in this style is to reach agreement between two contracting parties.
Functions of the style of official documents predetermine the peculiarities of this style.
Lexical level - Words are used in their direct meaning; terms; use of permanent, stable word combinations:
clichés and set-expressions (in all respects, therefrom, above mentioned, in accordance with); rigorous
(strict) forms of expression; archaisms (non-fulfillment, in due cause, to aggravate the situation); use of
conventional forms (Dear Sirs, - Yours faithfully. But Dear Mr Jones, - yours sincerely); use of abbreviation
(e.g. MP – Member of Parliament, Gvt – government, H.M.S. – His Majesty’s Steamship, Ltd – Limited,
etc.; Abbreviations are particularly abundant in military documents: e.g. D.A.O. – Divisional Ammunition
Officer, atk – attack, adv – advance, A/T – anti-tank , ATAS – Air Transport Auxiliary Service, etc.; lexical
repetitions > no synonyms are used to avoid misunderstanding; In finance, for instance, we find terms like
extra revenue [‘revinju:] –годовой доход, taxable (облагаемый налогом) capacities. Another feature of
this style is the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning. there is no room for contextual meaning or
any kind of interplay of 2 meanings here.
Words with emotive meaning are not to be found in the style of official documents either, except those used
in business letters as conventional phrases of greetings and close such as: e.g. Dear Sir, …; Yours faithfully,
…
Syntactical level: A new line - with a small letter; paragraphing, use of colon, semicolon;: Parallel
structures: grammatical form stresses the importance of every part. Long sentences. Use of figures – to
specify items. Link and auxiliary verbs may be omitted.
Graphical level: italics, bold type, s p a c e d letters, CAPITAL-lettering
 Legal documents
  Unambiguous, precise
 Established formulas: rely on forms established in the past. Contain many French elements. No commas, no punctuation.
 Initial letters are of gothic character. Capitals for every section. Main verb may be printed in capitals. Repetition of terms, lexical items. Pronouns are
extremely rare. No anaphora. Only complete sentences, complex sentences. No questions.
 Logical structure: if X, then Z shall be\do Y.
 Intensifiers are practically completely absent. Many abstract nouns. Shall means obligation. Archaic words: witnesseth, hereinbearth (but restricted),
hereto, hereafter, herein, hereunder.
 Synonyms: able&willing, terms&conditions.

________________________________________________________________
12. Specify the main function of the belles-lettres style. Comment on the core difference between fiction and non-fiction.

Galperin: Functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a
definite aim in communication.
1. Belles-lettres style/ fiction

2. Academic style/ scientific prose style

3. Official style/ style of official documents

4. Newspaper style/ media style

5. Publicistic style

Belles-lettres style or the style of creative literature may be called the richest register of communication: besides
its own language means which are not used in any other sphere of communication, belles-lettres style makes ample
use of other styles too, for in numerous works of literary art we find elements of scientific, official and other
functional types of speech. Besides informative and persuasive functions, also found in other functional styles, the
belles-lettres style has a unique task to impress the reader aesthetically.
These three sub-styles are:
1.The language of poetry, or simply verse.
2.Emotive prose, or the language of fiction.
3.Т'he language of the drama.
A double function, which is called aesthetico-cognitive. The first object of the belles-lettres style is to
present some idea for considerations, to suggest a possible interpretation of a phenomenon of life and
force the reader to see the view-point of the writer. This is the cognitive function. The second object is to
appeal to the feelings of the reader. This is the aesthetic function
The belles-lettres style rests on certain indispensable linguistic features which are:
1.Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by linguistic devices.
2.The use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, or at least greatly influenced by
the lexical environment.
3.A vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the author's personal evaluation of things or
phenomena.
4.A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax.

For writers and readers alike, it’s sometimes hard to tell the difference between fiction and nonfiction. In general,
fiction refers to plot, settings, and characters created from the imagination, while nonfiction refers to factual stories
focused on actual events and people. Fiction is fabricated and based on the author’s imagination. Short stories, novels,
myths, legends, and fairy tales are all considered fiction. While settings, plot points, and characters in fiction are
sometimes based on real-life events or people, writers use such things as jumping off points for their stories
Fiction - Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, Harry potter series (by
J.K.Rowling ).

Nonfiction, by contrast, is factual and reports on true events. Histories, biographies, journalism, and essays are all
considered nonfiction. Usually, nonfiction has a higher standard to uphold than fiction. A few smatterings of fact in a
work of fiction does not make it true, while a few fabrications in a nonfiction work can force that story to lose all
credibility.
“Refers to the use of literary craft, the techniques fiction writers, playwrights, and poets employ to present nonfiction
—factually accurate prose about real people and events—in a compelling, vivid, dramatic manner. The goal is to make
nonfiction stories read like fiction so that your readers are as enthralled by fact as they are by fantasy.”
Polyphony

 Russian linguist and literary critic Mikhail Bakhtin used this word using a metaphor based on the
musical term polyphony., literally meaning many voiced to describe literary writing that managed to
liberate the voice of its characters from under the domination of the authorial or narratorial voice.
 In Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics (1984), Bakhtin refers to polyphony as a new kind of artistic
thinking because what he has in mind goes against the grain of the traditional privileging of
harmony, which means many voices heard as one.
 The reader of Dostoevsky, Bakhtin suggests, cannot but have the impression that he or she isn't
dealing with a single author, but is in fact faced with a multiplicity of authors (Raskolnikov, Myshkin,
Stavrogin, Ivan Karamazov, the Grand Inquisitor, and so on), each of whom has their own unique
voice.
_________________________________________________________________________

13.Outline the main features of the publicistic style in comparison with those of the newspaper style
(=media style)
Galperin: Functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a
definite aim in communication. 1. Belles-lettres style/ fiction 2. Academic style/ scientific prose style 3. Official style/

style of official documents 4. Newspaper style/ media stylen5. Publicistic style

Media style (newspaper style) - the main function is to inform

 Linguistic manipulation +/-
 Specific conditions of newspaper publication, restrictions of time and space have left their marks on the
language style of newspapers
Publicistic style - Main function – to convince, Linguistic manipulation ++ (Manipulation is realized when the
listener cannot see the speaker’s covered intentions behind what is actually being said. Manipulative functions of
discourse create covert, masked layer of linguistic data that is not easily separated from purely informational content.)

Publicistic style
Substyles: articles, oratorical, essay
Main function – to convince.
Texts are peculiar in their logical arrangement combined with emotional appeal, which is achieved
through words with emotive meaning + SDs (not original).
Publicistic style has 2 forms: written (articles, essays) and oral (orator, radio-TV)
Articles: comment on the event, explain, convince the reader.
Reviews: richer in emotionally coloured vocabulary, bookish words, neologisms.
Oratory substyle:
 purpose of oratory is persuasion
 requires a lot of eloquence
 speeches on political and social occasions (party meetings, weddings, funerals, in debates, in
speeches of counsel and judges in courts of law)
 direct address to the audience by special formulas (Ladies and Gentlemen)
 final formulas to thank the audience (Thank you very much; Thank you for your time)
 use of we, let’s (identifying with the audience)
 features of colloquial style (I’ll; won’t; haven’t; isn’t, etc) to reach closer contact;
 the emotional colouring may be solemn, or ironic, but not “lowered” - jocular, rude, vulgar,
or slangy;
 stylistic devices to rouse the audience and keep it in suspense (repetition, climax, rhetorical
questions, parallel constructions, etc.)
Skills of public speaking:
 voice
 intonation and pausation
 ability to break the monotony
Essay: is a literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social, scientific or literary
subjects.
 preserves a clearly personal character
 has no pretence to deep or strictly scientific treatment of the subject
 a number of comments, without any definite conclusions
 brevity of expression;
 use of the first person singular (a personal approach to the problems treated);
 an expended use of connectives, which facilitates the process of grasping the correlation of
ideas;
 abundant use of emotive words;
 use of similes and metaphors as one of the media for the cognitive process.
Philosophical, aesthetic and literary subjects. Never goes deep into the subject. Resembles belles-
lettres style.
The style of the essay depends on the author’s individuality. It may be emotional or may resemble
scientific prose.
Features: moderate length, use of “I”, similes, metaphors, literary vocabulary, logical
argumentation, syntactically well-ordered, subjective approach.
Media style (newspaper style) observed in the majority of information materials printed in
newspapers
Informative, unbiased and evaluative to a certain extent specific vocabulary to avoid direct
responsibility:
The minister is reported to have denied the fact
The President was quoted as saying that there was no reason for panic.
  the language style of brief news items
 the language style of newspaper headlines;
 the language style of advertisements
(not all that is in a newspaper) Central function – to inform
Brief-news items – facts without comments, state facts without giving explicit comments, mostly
implicit evaluation, stylistically neutral, unemotional, matter-of-fact and stereotyped forms, neutral
and common literary vocabulary.
characterized by an extensive use of:
 Special political and economic terms (cold war, recession)
 Non-term political vocabulary (public, people, progressive, nation-wide)
 Newspaper clichés (smear campaign, pillars of society); lots of them are pompous,
hackneyed, false and misleading (political euphemisms)
 Abbreviations (NATO, EEC)
 Complex syntactical structures
 Verbal constructions (infinitive, participial, gerundial)

Editorials are in the intermediate position between media style and publicistic style
Special graphical arrangement: spaced, different in size.
Heading – hint
Ellipsis –to attract the readers’ attention, to convey the essence
Headlines – may contain elements of praise (or the opposite), subjective attitudes, emotional words,
exclamatory sentences, questions, direct speech. Laconism (elliptical structures), omission of
articles, auxiliary verbs, introductory it. Visual feature – paragraphing
 to inform the reader briefly what the text that follows is about
 to arouse the reader's curiosity
 to express the newspaper’s attitude to the information (elements of appraisal)
 almost a summary of the information
 short phrases: “Freddie, Fannie and Friends”
 citing: “Give Scotland own digital channel, says inquiry”
 elliptical sentences (with auxiliary verbs, articles, subject, predicate omitted):
Subheadings
The first word – in capitals; the first paragraph – in a larger type.
No commas – to avoid disturbing the tempo of reading; dash instead of commas (parenthesis is
more independent); presence of quotation marks.
Advertisements and announcements
Goal: to inform, to appeal to the reader, to persuade the reader to respond accordingly
Features typical of newspaper style
On the phonemic level: Alliteration (in headings) for rhythmical effect (antithesis)
On the morphemic level: Word-formation > great inventiveness of compounds > occasionalisms
On the lexical level:
 Mixture of literary and colloquial words. Use of abstract words. Economic, political terms
(constitutional, the Polling day, constituency, gross output).
 Frequent use of abbreviations: AMC (American Motor Company), FBI, HQ (Head Quarters).
 Shortenings: lib(eral), A-bomb, Brum (Birmingham).
 Neologisms: a stay-downer, brexiteer (many of colloquial character).
 Stylistic devices are traditional.
On the phraseological level: use of clichés, trite phraseology, bookish vocabulary in order to avoid
misunderstanding (public opinion, crucial problems, to unleash the war, cold war, a far reaching
effect, in response to). Some clichés are based on metaphors and are emotionally coloured (a storm
of applause, captains of industry, pillars of society, war hysteria).
On the syntactic level:
 Complicated syntax (not in headlines), includes a number of clauses, participial
constructions, extended prepositional structures, long sentences, use of hedging
 Adverbials in initial position (normal – post-verbal)
 Past Simple is dominant.
 In popular press active forms dominate over passive.
PUBLICIST vs NEWSPAPER STYLE
Publicist style: goal - to give ‘views’, i.e. to shape the audience’s opinion, to make the audience
accept the speaker’s point of view.
Newspaper style: goal – to give news, i.e. to inform the audience.