OPTICAL

EXPERIMENTS
 EX.NO: MEASUREMENT OF LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBER
DATE:

AIM

1. To measure the propagation loss in plastic fiber cable, find out the
attenuation loss in dB/m.
2. To measure bending loss in plastic fiber cable.
3. To measure coupling loss between fiber cable (or) connector loss.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

VOFT-02-A1, VOFT02-B1.
Function Generation 1Hz -2MHz
Two channel 20MHz oscilloscope
1m & 3m plastic fiber cable Coupling setup.

THEORY

Measure the light power before it is directed into an optical fiber and then measure it again
as it emerge from the fiber, would you expect to get same power? of course not, the power
coming out of the fiber should be less than the power entering it, that’s called attenuation.

In fiber - optic communication, attenuation is the decrease in light power or intensity

during light propagation along an optical fiber. Here the light loss caused by the violation of
total internal reflection concept during installation or manufacturing called bending loss and
the light delays its power while propagating through the fiber called propagation loss.

The loss in optical fiber is depends on wavelength and fiber material (glass or plastic), this
section practices on attenuation with respect to plastic fiber characteristics.

PROCEDURE

Propagation Loss Measurement

1. Establish the analog link as suggest in experiment 2 with input signal

amplitude and frequency of 1Vpp and 1KHz respectively.
 2. Connect the output of VOFT-02-B1 (Test Point P1) to the channel 1 of
oscilloscope using BNC - SP7 cable and keep fiber cable length of 1m
between transmitter and receiver.

3. Turn the gain control POT at the receiver and set output amplitude level to
5Vpp, let us say it V1. Now replace 1m fiber cable by 3m fiber cable without
altering any other settings (receiver gain (or) input voltage). Measure the output
voltage level for 3m fiber cable, let us say it V2. The difference between the
two readings is the extra loss in lost one due to the extra length of the fiber.

α = 10 log10 [V2 / V1]

4. Determine the attenuation loss for 1m fiber in dB/m,

Bending Loss Measurement

5. Establish the analog link as suggest in experiment 2. Set the input sine wave
amplitude and frequency to 1Vpp and 10KHz respectively, connect the output of
VOFT-02-B1 (test point P1) with the oscilloscope using BNC - SP7 cable.

6. Keep fiber cable length of 1m between transmitter and receiver, turn receiver
gain control POT and set the output amplitude level to 5Vpp. Now bend the 1m
fiber cable to 5cm of diameter as suggest in figure., note down output signal
amplitude level for 5cm of fiber bending.

7. Reduce the bending diameter in steps of 1cm from 5cm and note down
corresponding signal amplitude level for all bending diameter and tabulate,

Bending O/P Voltage Gain = -10log (V0/Vin) (dB)

diameter (cm) (volts)

8. Draw a graph for bending Vs gain as shown in figure .

 Fiber Bending and its Characteristics Curve

Coupling Loss Measurement:

9. Establish the analog link as suggest in experiment-1 for 660nm link, Set
the sinusoidal signal amplitude and frequency to 1Vpp and 1KHZ
respectively using variable control POTs on VOFT-06 unit. Connect I/O3
output with oscilloscope using BNC-BNC cable.

10. Connect the 1m fiber cable between optical Tx1 and optical Rx1.Turn
GAIN control POT so as to make 4Vpp at the receiver unit.

11. Replace a 3m fiber cable instead of 1m fiber cable. Note down output
signal amplitude level without altering receiver gain & input signal
amplitude and find out attenuation loss for 3m fiber cable as,

Convert this attenuation 3m ( for 3 meter) into 1m ( for 1m fiber) as
follows,
 12. Connect one end of 3m fiber cable into optical Tx1, connect one end of
1m fiber cable into optical Rx1, and insert free ends of 1m and 3m fiber
cable into fiber-fiber connector as close as possible.

13. Note down the output signal amplitude level in oscilloscope and find-
out coupling loss as follows.

Where, 1m is the attenuation in dB/m and couple is the coupling loss in
dB. Typical connector loss is 3 to 4 dB.

RESULT:
 EX.NO: NUMERICAL APERTURE FOR A PLASTIC FIBER
DATE:

AIM

1. Study of light collecting capability (NA) of a multimode plastic fiber,

find out acceptance angle for that fiber.
2. Determine the refractive index of the core for given refractive index of
cladding.
3. Determine umber of mode present in the fiber.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED
VOFT-02-A1
1m plastic fiber cable
Numerical Aperture setup

THEORY

For light rays to be propagated along a fibre they must fall within the fibers acceptance angle.
The numerical aperture of a fibre is an indication of how much light a fibre can accept to
propagate through it. The light transmitted inside a fiber account the total internal reflection,
light travel not only along fiber’s central axis but also various angles to centerline. The light
rays fallen out of acceptance angle deviates from total internal reflection, they gets refracted
from core-cladding boundary, provides losses to the information.

Figure 6.1 Acceptance Angle Theory

From the above figure, at the air-fiber interface, the beam at an angle a is the incident beam
and the beam at an angle c is the launched one which is the refracted beam with respect to air-
core interface and reflected beam with respect to the core-cladding interface respectively.
Hence launched beam(critical angle) makes internal reflection whenever the incident beam( a)
achieves an angle called acceptance angle

PROCEDURE

Numerical Aperture and Acceptance Angle

1. Connect a 1m fiber cable between optical transmitter and NA setup as shown in

figure 6.4.

2. Insert the fiber cable in numerical aperture setup as follows,

a. Unscrew the topside screw of NA setup. b.

Insert the fiber through topside hole.
c. Make the fiber cable end to 0.2 cm above from the base of NA
setup.

Numerical Aperture Setup

 3. Now a circular red color spot is shown in graph attached with the base of NA
setup. Measure the circle in horizontally & vertically and find out mean radius of
circle spot as,

r = (DE+BC)/ 4

4. Find out the numerical aperture for a distance as,

where, d is distance in cm, r is mean radius of circle spot.

5. Measure the NA for other distances of 0.4 cm, 0.6cm, 0.8cm and 2cm, finally take an
average for all readings of NA which is the Numerical Aperture for the given plastic fiber. Typical fiber’s
NA is 0.5 to 0.

RESULT:
EX.NO: MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBER
DATE:

AIM
To find and study the V-number (or) mode number of a multimode glass fiber

REQUIRED EQUIPMENTS

1. VLT Module
2. NA Setup
3. 3m ST end multimode glass fiber
4. Fiber coupling metal posts
5. Power supply, power cord & cable

PROCEDURE:
1. Construct the experimental setup as instructed.
2. Insert the free end of glass fiber into the numerical aperture setup. Adjust the collimated
lens, distance between VLT-01 and fiber coupling setup to make a red colour spot on NA
Graph sheet.
3. Measure the circle spot in horizontally and vertically and find out the mean radius of circle.
Spot as R = (DE+BC) / 4.

4. Find out the numerical aperture for a distance as,

5. Now find the Vnumber (or) mode number by substituting d= 9µm & 659 nm as,

Vnumber = (πd / λ) x NA
Where , V= mode number
λ = laser wavelength
d = distance of core

SINGLE/ MULTIMODE FIBER:

TABULATION:
S.No. Type NA Vnumber = (πd / λ) x NA

1. Single Mode

2. MultiMode

CALCULATION:

RESULT:
EX: NO: CHARACTERISTICS OF LED
DATE:

OBJECTIVE
To measure the V-I and P-I characteristics of LED.

REQUIRED EQUIPMENTS

1. VOFT-07A Trainer - 01
2. Digital multimeter - 02

THEORY

The major function of the LED in fiber optic system is to convert electrical
energy into optical energy. The LED having characteristics of allowing linear current
variation with respect to the linear input voltage variation. The linear current variation
of LED can be monitor in VOFT-07A trainer by applying variable DC voltage to its inputs.

The VOFT-O7A transmitter trainer emits the light in 660nm (Red color) wavelength
which can be visible by human beings. The LED used in VOFT-07-A1 named as SFH756V
which comes with plastic package for easy coupling into plastic fiber cable.

V-I Characteristics of LED

PROCEDURE

1. Construct the equipment as shown in above figure.

2. Switch ON the power supply using IR switch.

3. Set the SPDT switch (Source switch) in OFF position.

4. Turn the POT 1 to minimum level.

TABULATION

Input Voltage = +5V

S.NO. voltage across Series Voltage across Current

Resistor(VR) resistance(R) Diode(VD) through diode

(mA)

5. Now measure the diode series resistance at P1 and P3 (Terminal protective

resistance - 660 ).

Diode series resistance R = Total resistance - 660

6. Switch ON the SPDT switch and measure series voltage across resistor (VR) at P1 and
P3.

7. Calculate the diode current I = VR/R

8. Measure the voltage across diode.

9. Now step by step vary the POT 1 minimum level to maximum level and note down
the corresponding readings.

10. Now plot the graph for voltage across diode VD Vs current.

MODEL GRAPH

RESULT:
EX: NO: CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTO DIODE
DATE:

OBJECTIVE

To obtain the forward, reverse, and zero biasing characteristics of

photo diode.

REQUIREMENTS

1. VOFT - 07A Trainer.

2. VOFT - 07B Trainer.
3. Multimeter.

PROCEDURE

FORWARD BIAS

1. Construct the equipment as shown in figure,

2. Vary the POT to maximum level (i.e) high intensity in LED (VOFT - 07A)
3. Check the input voltage across R1 at pin P1 & P2.
4. Now find the current flowing through photo diode by

Voltage across points P1 & P2

I=
100 Ω
5. Now step by step reduce the Bias control voltage in -0.6V to -0.1V.

6. Note down photo diode across voltage VPD

 7. Plot the graph in photo diode across voltage VPD Vs current.

TABULATION: R = 100

Resistor across Diode across I = V R/R

Voltage (V R) Voltage (VPD)

MODEL GRAPH
REVERSE BIAS

1. Construct the equipment as shown in figure.

2. Vary the POT to maximum level (i.e) high intensity in LED (VOFT - 07A)

3 Connect the fiber cable between light emitting diode and pin photo diode.

4. Check the input voltage across R1 at pin P1 & P2.

5. Now find the current flowing through photo diode by

Voltage across points P1 & P2

I=
100Ω
6. Now step by step increase the Bias control voltage in 1.28V to 5V.

7. Note down photo diode across voltage VPD.

8. Plot the graph in photo diode across voltage VPD Vs I (current).

TABULATION
R = 100

Resistor across Diode across I = VR/R

Voltage (VR) Voltage (VPD)

MODEL GRAPH

RESULT:
EX.NO: BASIC ANALOG LINK AND BANDWIDTH
DATE: MEASUREMENT

AIM

1. To analyze analog link establishment using plastic fiber cable

2. Input - output relationship of a fiber optic system in 660nm wavelength.
3. To measure analog link bandwidth for the given LED source.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

VOFT-02-A1, VOFT-02-B1
Function Generator 1Hz - 3MHz
Two channel 20MHz oscilloscope
1m plastic fiber cable

THEORY

This experiment has been provided to familiarize the users with this trainer kit. The
basic analog link can be established by 660nm wavelength source, the input to the
analog transmitter may be a sinusoidal, or AM signal with the maximum amplitude level of 1
Vpp.

The analog optical transmitter section converts the electrical signal into the optical
signal. The analog optical receiver section has a current to voltage converter and amplifier to
convert the optical signal back into electrical signal.

PROCEDURE

1. Make initial connections on VOFT-02 as follows,

a. Connect a function generator with the VOFT-02 transmitter (test point

P2) board using BNC to SP7 cable.
 b. Connect an oscilloscope with the VOFT-02 receiver (test point P1)
board using BNC to SP7 cable.
c. Slightly unscrew the LED Tx cap, insert one end of 1m fiber cable and
screw tightly. Similarly connect other end of 1m fiber to the receiver end
photo diode by unscrew and screw the Rx PD cab.

2. Set the input sine wave frequency to 10KHz and amplitude of 1Vpp on
function generator.

3. Switch ON the trainer (switch provided in back side of the power supply unit).

4. Observe the sine waveform on oscilloscope, turn gain control POT in

clockwise direction and observe the sine waveform with necessary amplitude
level, analog link have been established.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Function Transistor
Generator Amplifier LED

Fiber
Cable
Op-Amp with Photo
CRO
gain control Diode
 5. Reduce the input signal amplitude to 0.2Vpp say it Vin, set the output sinewave
amplitude to 1Vpp, say it Vout. Note down Vin and Vout, increase input signal
amplitude in steps of 0.2Vpp and note down corresponding output signal
amplitude without altering gain control POT.

6. Plot a graph for Vin Vs Vout , is the plot linear? If yes, fiber optic is a linear
system.

System Bandwidth Measurement

7. Make the analog link for 660nm wavelength, set the input analog signal
amplitude and frequency of 1Vpp, 1000Hz respectively on external function
generator.

8. Display the received sine waveform at test point P2 of VOFT-02-B1 board on

oscilloscope. Turn gain control POT at the receiver end and set the output
signal amplitude to 1Vpp.

9. Increase sine wave frequency in steps of 1KHz until 10KHz and in Steps of 10KHz until
100KHz and in steps of 100KHz until 3MHz, note down the corresponding output signal
amplitude level without changing receiver gain.

10. Tabulate the readings as follows,

V
Input Voltage Vin = pp
Frequency O/P Voltage Gain = -20log (Vout/Vin)dB

(Hz) Vout(volts)
 11. Plot the frequency response curve for frequency Vs gain in semi log graph sheet and
find-out -3dB bandwidth. This is the analog link bandwidth.

Frequency Response Curve

RESULT:
 EX:NO : FIBER OPTIC DIGITAL LINK
DATE:

AIM

To analyze the basic digital link by using a plastic fiber cable.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

VOFT-06
Function Generator 1Hz - 2MHz
Two channel 20MHz Oscilloscope
1m Plastic Fiber Cable

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Function Generator LED

Fiber Cable

Photo
CRO
Diode

PROCEDURE

1. Make Initial connections on VOFT-06 as follows:

a. Do the Jumper and wiring connections for 660nm wavelength source as in figure 4.1.
b. Connect the internal Function generator output(P1) to the test point J9-Y using 1mm patch
chord.
c. Insert 1m fiber cable between optical Tx1 and optical Rx2 as suggest in trainer
initialization. Make connection on J10-X1 & Y, J14-X2 & Y using shorting links Connect
P1 to J9-Y and J15-Y to I/O3 using 1mm patch chord.
 2. Set the function generator frequency to 1KHz, and observe the TTL signal
transmitted through fiber cable at test point J15-X.
3. Vary the function generator frequency and observe the receiver TTL signal
frequency also varied.

Intensity Modulation and Maximum bit rate

4. Connect an external function generator in place of internal function generator, Set the function
generator in TTL mode and frequency to 0.5Hz. Remove fiber cable from optical Rx2 and
observe the light blinking at 2 Seconds rate, that is intensity modulation. Increase frequency
slowly and observe blinking rate also increases.

5. Now we go for find-out maximum bit rate that can be sent over this fiber cable. Insert the loosen
fiber cable to optical Rx2 and Set the external function generator frequency to 1KHz.

6. Observe the TTL signal at test point J15-X, note down On/Off time of TTL signal and frequency.
Increase the TTL frequency in steps of 1KHz and note down output TTL signal frequency and duty
cycle up to which received TTL signal having 50% of duty cycle.

7. Find-out maximum data rate that can be sent over the fiber cable with 50% of duty
cycle.

RESULT:
 EX.NO: BIT ERROR RATE MEASUREMENT

DATE:

AIM:

To measure the Bit Error Rate and Study of Bit error insertion and Pseudo random sequence.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

VOFT-06

Two channel 20MHz Oscilloscope

1m Plastic Fiber Cable

Theory of Bit Error Rate

The Bit Error Ratio(BER) is commonly used as the fundamental measure of performance for the digital
communication systems. The BER is the average number of errors that would occur in a sequence of n bits received.
At the transmitter side an error sequence added with the data bits called pseudo random sequence. The bit error
adder intentionally inject the error pattern with the data stream using a error sequence (PRBS). The error sequence
may contains unknown 0's&1's, that is we cannot predict the sequence bits at any time so that only we add the error
randomly, now you can understand why we go for PRBS sequence to inject errors with the data bits. Finally the
error added data sent over the channel.

At the receiver end, Bit Error Detector compares the received data stream with the transmitter data and
detects the error which counted by a counter called binary error counter, counter output drives the LED to indicate
number of error bits.

Procedure

PRBS Pattern and Error Insertion

1. Make Jumper connections as in below figure.

Connect a 1m fiber cable between optical Tx1 and optical Rx1. Turn gain control POT and makes
MUX-DMUX to proper working condition. If you don’t understand wiring connection as in figure 12.1,
do following connections,  Make connection on J1-X & Y, J2-X & Y, J3-X&Y, J4-X & Y, J5-X &Y,
J6-X & Y, J7-X2 & Y, J8-X & Y, J9-X1 & Y, J10-X1 & Y, J12-X & Y, J13-X1 & Y, J14-X1 & Y,
J15-X & Y1, J16-X2 & Y, J17-X & Y, J18-X & Y, J19-X & Y, J20-X & Y, J21-X2 & Y, J22-X & Y,
J23-X & Y, J24-X & Y using shorting links.
 2. Observe the PRBS data at test point P11 and note down. This is a 128 bit pattern with sequence
rate of 48Kbps.Remove shorting plug at J24 and connect it with the 3-pin patch chord and
display the waveform on oscilloscope. Actually this is error inserting pulse at approximately
1Hz rate which could not be easily view in portable oscilloscope, but you can observe trigger
LED blinking whenever error inserted. If you have Digital Storage Oscilloscope, you can
observe this waveform.

Bit Error Ratio Measurement

3. Now press SW15 present at the bit error detector and counter block, the counter starts to count
the error present in received signal, enable stop watch to count the time (t).

4. An error is inserted for every 1.536Mbps, wait for counting 255 errors and disable the stop
watch, note down time (t), find-out total number of bits received by,

Nbits = t*1.536*106

5. Find-out the Bit Error Rate by,

BER = Nerror/ Nbits
Where, Nbits is number of bits received, Nerror is number of errors counted.

Note: If you don’t have stop watch, you can use any type of wrist watch, but note down starting
time(t1) and ending time(t2), determine time(t) by, t = t2 - t1
RESULT:
 Study of Eye Pattern

Theory of Eye Pattern

The eye pattern is generally useful for evaluating the digital system performance, eye diagram is a overlay
of multiple pulses by triggering the oscilloscope with the clock pulses. How can pulses are overlap or overlay?
Whenever oscilloscope triggers on external clock pulse, it captures whatever data waveform is present at the channel
input and displays it on the screen, upon next trigger pulse it captures another data which differs from previous data,
so the display shows a combination of two patterns called eye patterns. The eye pattern tells about received signal
quality or performance, now we go for experimenting to know on eye pattern, what is that, how it helps to identify
receiver performance.

Learning Objective

1. Study of eye pattern observation, draw the pattern.

2. 2. Study of receiver performance using eye pattern.

Equipments Required

VOFT-06

Two channel 20MHz Oscilloscope

1m Plastic Fiber Cable

Procedure

Eye Pattern Study

1. Make Jumper connections as in figure 14.2. Connect 1m fiber cable between optical Tx1 and optical
Rx1, observe the waveform at test point J12-X on channel 1 and the transmitter clock at test point P12
on channel 2 of oscilloscope. If you don’t understand wiring connection as in figure 12.1, do following
connections,
 Make connection on J1-X & Y, J2-X & Y, J3-X&Y, J4-X & Y, J5-X &Y, J6-X & Y, J7-X2 & Y,
J8-X & Y, J9-X1 & Y, J10-X1 & Y, J13-X1 & Y using shorting links.  Connect P12 to I/O2 and
J12-X to I/O3 using 1mm patch chord.
2. The transmitter clock is used to trigger the received signal, adjust the HOLD OFF knob in
CRO and observe the eye pattern, draw it.

3. Turn Gain control POT to maximum position on clock wise direction and note down

maximum eye openings, turn gain control POT counter clock wise direction slowly,
 observe the eye closing.

Receiver Performance Study using Eye Pattern

4. Setup the trainer in copper cable communication through EMI setup and ensure that the
Mux and Demux working as in experiment 10.
5. Turn gain control POT counter clock wise direction upto which the receiver can able to
work perfectly, if receiver is not working at a particular eye pattern, that’s can be say as eye is closed,
note down this waveform also.
6. Connect a function generator with EMI setup, set function generator frequency and
amplitude to 2MHz and 10Vpp, observe the eye pattern affected due to the EM interference.
7. Replace copper cable with the fiber cable, don’t disturb the EMI setup, now adjust the
Gain control POT and observe the eye pattern, pattern could not be affected by EM signal.
RESULT:
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

EXPERIMENTS
Block Diagram:
EX.NO: WIRELESS CHANNEL SIMULATION INCLUDING FADING AND

DATE : DOPPLER EFFECTS

AIM:

To simulate the wireless channel including Rayleigh and Rician multipath fading channel

system objects and Doppler shifts.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Personal computer

MATLAB software

THEORY:

Fading:
Fading is used to describe the rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases or multipath delays of a
radio signal over a short period of time or travel distance, so that large-scale path loss effects may be
ignored. Fading is caused by interference between two or more versions of the transmitted signal which
arrive at the receiver at slightly different times. These waves called multipath waves, combine at the receiver
antenna to give a resultant signal which can vary widely in amplitude and phase, depending on the
distribution of the intensity and relative propagation time of the waves and the bandwidth of the transmitted
signal.
The three most important effects are
 Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval.
 Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different
multipath signals.
 Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath propagation delays.

Doppler Effects:
Due to the relative motion between the mobile and base station each multipath wave experiences an
apparent shift in frequency. The shift in received signal frequency due to motion is called Doppler Effect, and it is
directly proportional to the velocity and direction of motion of the mobile with respect to the direction of arrival of
the received multipath wave.

PROCEDURE:
Processing a signal using a fading channel involves the following steps:
1. Create a channel System object that describes the channel that you want to use. A channel object is a type
of MATLAB variable that contains information about the channel, such as the maximum Doppler shift.
2. Adjust properties of the System object, if necessary, to tailor it to your needs. For example, you can
change the path delays or average path gains.
 3. Apply the channel System object to your signal using the step method, which generates random discrete
path gains and filters the input signal. The characteristics of a channel can be shown with the built-in visualization
support of the System object.
PROGRAM:

sampleRate500kHz = 500e3; % Sample rate of 500K Hz

sampleRate20kHz = 20e3; % Sample rate of 20K Hz
maxDopplerShift = 200; % Maximum Doppler shift of diffuse components (Hz)
delayVector = (0:5:15)*1e-6; % Discrete delays of four-path channel (s)
gainVector = [0 -3 -6 -9]; % Average path gains (dB)
KFactor = 10; % Linear ratio of specular power to diffuse power
specDopplerShift = 100; % Doppler shift of specular component (Hz)

% Configure a Rayleigh channel object

rayChan = comm.RayleighChannel( ...

'SampleRate', sampleRate500kHz, ...
'PathDelays', delayVector, ...
'AveragePathGains', gainVector, ...
'MaximumDopplerShift', maxDopplerShift, ...
'RandomStream', 'mt19937ar with seed', ...
'Seed', 10, ... 'PathGainsOutputPort', true);

% Configure a Rician channel object

ricChan = comm.RicianChannel( ...
'SampleRate', sampleRate500kHz, ...
'PathDelays', delayVector, ...
'AveragePathGains', gainVector, ...
'KFactor', KFactor, ...
'DirectPathDopplerShift', specDopplerShift, ...
'MaximumDopplerShift', maxDopplerShift,...
'RandomStream', 'mt19937ar with seed', ...
'Seed', 100, ...
'PathGainsOutputPort', true);
qpskMod = comm.QPSKModulator( ...
'BitInput', true, ...
'PhaseOffset', pi/4);

% Number of bits transmitted per frame is set to be 1000. For QPSK

% modulation, this corresponds to 500 symbols per frame.
bitsPerFrame = 1000;
msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1); % Modulate data for transmission over channel
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);

% Apply Rayleigh or Rician channel object on the modulated data

rayChan(modSignal);
ricChan(modSignal);
release(rayChan);
release(ricChan);
rayChan.Visualization = 'Impulse and frequency responses';
rayChan.SamplesToDisplay = '100%';
numFrames = 2;

for i = 1:numFrames

% Display impulse and frequency responses for 2 frames

% Create random data
msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
% Modulate data
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
% Filter data through channel and show channel responses
rayChan(modSignal);
end

release(rayChan);
rayChan.Visualization = 'Doppler spectrum';
numFrames = 5000;

for i = 1:numFrames % Display Doppler spectrum from 5000 frame transmission

msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
rayChan(modSignal);
end
Narrowband or Frequency-Flat Fading
release(rayChan);
rayChan.Visualization = 'Impulse and frequency responses';
rayChan.SampleRate = sampleRate20kHz;
rayChan.SamplesToDisplay = '25%'; % Display one of every four samples

numFrames = 2;
for i = 1:numFrames % Display impulse and frequency responses for 2 frames
msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
rayChan(modSignal);
end

release(rayChan);

rayChan.PathDelays = 0; % Single fading path with zero delay

rayChan.AveragePathGains = 0; % Average path gain of 1 (0 dB)
for i = 1:numFrames % Display impulse and frequency responses for 2 frames
msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
rayChan(modSignal);
end

release(rayChan);
rayChan.Visualization = 'Off'; % Turn off System object's visualization
ricChan.Visualization = 'Off'; % Turn off System object's visualization
% Same sample rate and delay profile for the Rayleigh and Rician objects

ricChan.SampleRate = rayChan.SampleRate;
ricChan.PathDelays = rayChan.PathDelays;

ricChan.AveragePathGains = rayChan.AveragePathGains;
% Configure a Time Scope System object to show path gain magnitude gainScope = dsp.TimeScope( ...
'SampleRate', rayChan.SampleRate, ...
'TimeSpan', bitsPerFrame/2/rayChan.SampleRate, ... % One frame span
'Name', 'Multipath Gain', ...
'ShowGrid', true, ...
 'YLimits', [-40 10], ...
'YLabel', 'Gain (dB)');

% Compare the path gain outputs from both objects for one frame
msg = randi([0 1],bitsPerFrame,1);
modSignal = qpskMod(msg);
[~, rayPathGain] = rayChan(modSignal);
[~, ricPathGain] = ricChan(modSignal);
% Form the path gains as a two-channel input to the time scope
gainScope(10*log10(abs([rayPathGain, ricPathGain]).^2));

RESULT:

Thus the wireless channel including Rayleigh and Rician multipath fading channel system objects and
Doppler shifts were simulated and the graphs are noted.
EX.NO: SIMULATION OF CHANNEL ESTIMATION, SYNCHRONIZATION AND

DATE : EQUALIZATION TECHNIQUES

AIM:

To Simulate the Channel Estimation, Synchronization & Equalization techniques using MATLAB.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Personal computer

MATLAB software

THEORY:

Channel Estimation:

In digital wireless communication systems, information is transmitted through a radio channel. For
conventional, coherent receivers, the effect of the channel on the transmitted signal must be estimated to recover the
transmitted information. For example, with binary phase shift keying (BPSK), binary information is represented as
+1 and −1 symbol values. The radio channel can apply a phase shift to the transmitted symbols, possibly inverting
the symbol values. As long as the receiver can estimate what the channel did to the transmitted signal, it can
accurately recover the information sent. Channel estimation is a challenging problem in wireless communications.
Transmitted signals are typically reflected and scattered, arriving at the receiver along multiple paths. When these
paths have similar delays, they add either constructively or destructively, giving rise to fading. When these paths
have very different delays, they appear as signal echoes. Due to the mobility of the transmitter, the receiver, or the
scattering objects, the channel changes over time.

Program:

enb.NDLRB = 15; % Number of resource blocks

enb.CellRefP = 1; % One transmit antenna port
enb.NCellID = 10; % Cell ID
enb.CyclicPrefix = 'Normal'; % Normal cyclic prefix
enb.DuplexMode = 'FDD'; % FDD
SNRdB = 22; % Desired SNR in dB
SNR = 10^(SNRdB/20); % Linear SNR
rng('default'); % Configure random number generators
cfg.Seed = 1; % Channel seed
cfg.NRxAnts = 1; % 1 receive antenna
cfg.DelayProfile = 'EVA'; % EVA delay spread
cfg.DopplerFreq = 120; % 120Hz Doppler frequency
cfg.MIMOCorrelation = 'Low'; % Low (no) MIMO correlation
cfg.InitTime = 0; % Initialize at time zero
cfg.NTerms = 16; % Oscillators used in fading model
cfg.ModelType = 'GMEDS'; % Rayleigh fading model type
cfg.InitPhase = 'Random'; % Random initial phases
cfg.NormalizePathGains = 'On'; % Normalize delay profile power
cfg.NormalizeTxAnts = 'On'; % Normalize for transmit antennas

cec.PilotAverage = 'UserDefined'; % Pilot averaging method

cec.FreqWindow = 9; % Frequency averaging window in REs
cec.TimeWindow = 9; % Time averaging window in Res

gridsize = lteDLResourceGridSize(enb);
K = gridsize(1); % Number of subcarriers
L = gridsize(2); % Number of OFDM symbols in one subframe
P = gridsize(3); % Number of transmit antenna ports

txGrid = [];
% Number of bits needed is size of resource grid (K*L*P) * number of bits
% per symbol (2 for QPSK)
numberOfBits = K*L*P*2;

% Create random bit stream

inputBits = randi([0 1], numberOfBits, 1);

% Modulate input bits inputSym = lteSymbolModulate(inputBits,'QPSK');

% For all subframes within the frame

for sf = 0:10

% Set subframe number

enb.NSubframe = mod(sf,10);
% Generate empty subframe
subframe = lteDLResourceGrid(enb);

% Map input symbols to grid

subframe(:) = inputSym;

% Generate synchronizing signals

pssSym = ltePSS(enb);
sssSym = lteSSS(enb);
pssInd = ltePSSIndices(enb);
sssInd = lteSSSIndices(enb);

% Map synchronizing signals to the grid

subframe(pssInd) = pssSym;
subframe(sssInd) = sssSym;

% Generate cell specific reference signal symbols and indices

cellRsSym = lteCellRS(enb);
cellRsInd = lteCellRSIndices(enb);

% Map cell specific reference signal to grid

subframe(cellRsInd) = cellRsSym;

% Append subframe to grid to be transmitted

txGrid = [txGrid subframe]; %#ok
end

[txWaveform,info] = lteOFDMModulate(enb,txGrid);
txGrid = txGrid(:,1:140);

cfg.SamplingRate = info.SamplingRate;
% Pass data through the fading channel model
rxWaveform = lteFadingChannel(cfg,txWaveform);
% Calculate noise gain
N0 = 1/(sqrt(2.0*enb.CellRefP*double(info.Nfft))*SNR);
% Create additive white Gaussian noise
noise = N0*complex(randn(size(rxWaveform)),randn(size(rxWaveform)));
% Add noise to the received time domain waveform
rxWaveform = rxWaveform + noise;

offset = lteDLFrameOffset(enb,rxWaveform);
rxWaveform = rxWaveform(1+offset:end,:);
rxGrid = lteOFDMDemodulate(enb,rxWaveform);
enb.NSubframe = 0;
[estChannel, noiseEst] = lteDLChannelEstimate(enb,cec,rxGrid);
eqGrid = lteEqualizeMMSE(rxGrid, estChannel, noiseEst);
% Calculate error between transmitted and equalized grid
eqError = txGrid - eqGrid;
rxError = txGrid - rxGrid;

% Compute EVM across all input values

% EVM of pre-equalized receive signal
EVM = comm.EVM;
EVM.AveragingDimensions = [1 2];
preEqualisedEVM = EVM(txGrid,rxGrid);
fprintf('Percentage RMS EVM of Pre-Equalized signal: %0.3f%%\n', ...
preEqualisedEVM);
% EVM of post-equalized receive signal
postEqualisedEVM = EVM(txGrid,eqGrid);
fprintf('Percentage RMS EVM of Post-Equalized signal: %0.3f%%\n', ...
postEqualisedEVM);
% Plot the received and equalized resource grids
hDownlinkEstimationEqualizationResults(rxGrid, eqGrid);

Synchronization:
Synchronization is the process by which a receiver node determines the correct instants of time at which to
sample the incoming signal. Carrier synchronization is the process by which a receiver adapts the frequency and
phase of its local carrier oscillator with those of the received signal.
Equalization:
Equalization is the reversal of distortion incurred by a signal transmitted through a channel. Equalizers are
used to render the frequency response—for instance of a telephone line— flat from end-to-end. When a channel has
been equalized the frequency domain attributes of the signal at the input are faithfully reproduced at the output.
Telephones, DSL lines and television cables use equalizers to prepare data signals for transmission.
Equalizers are critical to the successful operation of electronic systems such as analog broadcast television.
In this application the actual waveform of the transmitted signal must be preserved, not just its frequency content.
Equalizing filters must cancel out any group delay and phase delay between different frequency components.

PROCEDURE:
The example generates a frame worth of data on one antenna port. As no transport channel is created in this
example the data is random bits, QPSK modulated and mapped to every symbol in a subframe. A cell specific
reference signal and primary and secondary synchronization signals are created and mapped to the subframe. 10
subframes are individually generated to create a frame. The frame is OFDM modulated, passed through an Extended
Vehicular A Model (EVA5) fading channel, additive white Gaussian noise added and demodulated. MMSE
equalization using channel and noise estimation is applied and finally the received and equalized resource grids are
plotted.

Result:
Thus the Simulation of Channel Estimation, Synchronization & Equalization techniques was done
using MATLAB and the output was verified.
EX.NO: ANALYSING IMPACT OF PULSE SHAPING AND MATCHED

DATE FILTERING USING SOFTWARE DEFINED RADIOS

AIM:

To analyse the impact of pulse shaping and matched filtering by using SDR.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Personal computer

MATLAB software

SDR hardware

THEORY:
Pulse shaping:
Pulse shaping is the process of changing the waveform of transmitted pulses. Its purpose is to make the
transmitted signal better suited to its purpose or the communication channel, typically by limiting the effective
bandwidth of the transmission. By filtering the transmitted pulses this way, the intersymbol interference caused by
the channel can be kept in control. In RF communication, pulse shaping is essential for making the signal fit in its
frequency band. Typically pulse shaping occurs after line coding and modulation. Examples of pulse shaping filters
that are commonly found in communication systems are:
 Sinc shaped filter
 Raised-cosine filter
 Gaussian filter

PROGRAM:
M = 16; % Modulation order
k = log2(M); % Number of bits per symbol
numBits = 3e5; % Number of bits to process
sps = 4; % Number of samples per symbol (oversampling factor)
filtlen = 10; % Filter length in symbols
rolloff = 0.25; % Filter rolloff factor
rrcFilter = rcosdesign(rolloff,filtlen,sps);
fvtool(rrcFilter,'Analysis','Impulse')
rng default; % Use default random number generator
dataIn = randi([0 1],numBits,1); % Generate vector of binary data
dataInMatrix = reshape(dataIn,length(dataIn)/k,k); % Reshape data into binary 4-tuples dataSymbolsIn =
bi2de(dataInMatrix); % Convert to integers
dataMod = qammod(dataSymbolsIn,M);
txFiltSignal = upfirdn(dataMod,rrcFilter,sps,1);
EbNo = 10;
snr = EbNo + 10*log10(k) - 10*log10(sps);
rxSignal = awgn(txFiltSignal,snr,'measured');
rxFiltSignal = upfirdn(rxSignal,rrcFilter,1,sps); % Downsample and filter
rxFiltSignal = rxFiltSignal(filtlen + 1:end - filtlen); % Account for delay
dataSymbolsOut = qamdemod(rxFiltSignal,M);
dataOutMatrix = de2bi(dataSymbolsOut,k);
dataOut = dataOutMatrix(:); % Return data in column vector
[numErrors,ber] = biterr(dataIn,dataOut);
fprintf('\nFor an EbNo setting of %3.1f dB, the bit error rate is %5.2e, based on %d errors.\n', ...
EbNo,ber,numErrors)

Visualize Filter Effects

EbNo = 20;
snr = EbNo + 10*log10(k) - 10*log10(sps);
rxSignal = awgn(txFiltSignal,snr,'measured');

rxFiltSignal = upfirdn(rxSignal,rrcFilter,1,sps); % Downsample and filter

rxFiltSignal = rxFiltSignal(filtlen + 1:end - filtlen); % Account for delay

eyediagram(txFiltSignal(1:2000),sps*2);
eyediagram(rxSignal(1:2000),sps*2);
eyediagram(rxFiltSignal(1:2000),2);
scatplot = scatterplot(sqrt(sps)*...
rxSignal(1:sps*5e3),...
sps,0,'g.'); hold on;
scatterplot(rxFiltSignal(1:5e3),1,0,'kx',scatplot);
title('Received Signal, Before and After Filtering');
legend('Before Filtering','After Filtering');
axis([-5 5 -5 5]); % Set axis ranges
hold off;

Matched Filter:
A matched filter is obtained by correlating a known delayed signal, or template, with an unknown signal to
detect the presence of the template in the unknown signal. This is equivalent to convolving the unknown signal with
a conjugated time-reversed version of the template. The matched filter is the optimal linear filter for maximizing the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in the presence of additive stochastic noise.
Matched filters are commonly used in radar, in which a known signal is sent out, and the reflected signal is
examined for common elements of the out-going signal. Pulse compression is an example of matched filtering. It is
so called because impulse response is matched to input pulse signals. Two-dimensional matched filters are
commonly used in image processing, e.g., to improve SNR for Xray. Matched filtering is a demodulation technique
with LTI (linear time invariant) filters to maximize SNR. It was originally also known as a North filter.

Software Defined Radio:

Software-defined radio (SDR) is a radio communication system where components that have been
traditionally implemented in hardware (e.g. mixers, filters, amplifiers, modulators/demodulators, detectors, etc.) are
instead implemented by means of software on a personal computer or embedded system. While the concept of SDR
is not new, the rapidly evolving capabilities of digital electronics render practical many processes which were once
only theoretically possible.

A basic SDR system may consist of a personal computer equipped with a sound card, or other analog-to-
digital converter, preceded by some form of RF front end. Significant amounts of signal processing are handed over
to the general-purpose processor, rather than being done in special-purpose hardware (electronic circuits). Such a
design produces a radio which can receive and transmit widely different radio protocols (sometimes referred to as
waveforms) based solely on the software used. Software radios have significant utility for the military and cell
phone services, both of which must serve a wide variety of changing radio protocols in real time.

In the long term, software-defined radios are expected by proponents like the SDR Forum (now The
Wireless Innovation Forum) to become the dominant technology in radio communications. SDRs, along with
software defined antennas are the enablers of the cognitive radio. A software-defined radio can be flexible enough to
avoid the "limited spectrum" assumptions of designers of previous kinds of radios, in one or more ways including.

 Spread spectrum and ultra wideband techniques allow several transmitters to transmit in the same
place on the same frequency with very little interference, typically combined with one or more error
detection and correction techniques to fix all the errors caused by that interference.
 Software defined antennas adaptively "lock onto" a directional signal, so that receivers can better
reject interference from other directions, allowing it to detect fainter transmissions.

 Cognitive radio techniques: each radio measures the spectrum in use and communicates that
information to other cooperating radios, so that transmitters can avoid mutual interference by
selecting unused frequencies. Alternatively, each radio connects to a geolocation database to obtain
information about the spectrum occupancy in its location and, flexibly, adjusts its operating
frequency and/or transmit power not to cause interference to other wireless services.

 Dynamic transmitter power adjustment, based on information communicated from the receivers,
lowering transmit power to the minimum necessary, reducing the near-far problem and reducing
interference to others, and extending battery life in portable equipment.

 Wireless mesh network where every added radio increases total capacity and reduces the power
required at any one node. Each node transmits using only enough power needed for the message to
hop to the nearest node in that direction, reducing the near-far problem and reducing interference to
others.
Result:

Thus the impact of Pulse Shaping and Matched Filtering was analyzed using Software Defined Radios and
its outputs were verified.
EX.NO: OFDM SIGNAL TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION USING SDR

DATE

AIM:

To transmit and receive the OFDM signal using SDR.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Personal computer

MATLAB software

SDR

THEORY:

Implementation of OFDM in actual hardware using Software Defined Radio (SDR) concepts and
verification of its performance with different channel estimation methods in various propagation environments have
been almost unexplored. The great flexibility feature of SDR systems facilitates the implementation and
experimentation of OFDM systems with less cost and effort, compared to the implementation of the whole system in
hardware. In this paper, a customized SDR testbed has been developed based on the GNU radio software platform
and version-2 Universal Software Radio Peripheral (USRP2) devices to evaluate the practical error performance of
OFDM-based systems in both Gaussian and Rician propagation environments. Three different channel interpolation
techniques, namely linear interpolation, second-ordered interpolation and cubic spline interpolation, and a blind
SNR estimation algorithm have been implemented in our testbed. The performances show that, as opposed to our
intuition, linear channel interpolation in some cases might not only be simpler, but also more accurate than the two
other non-linear interpolation techniques, implying that channels might change linearly between neighboring
subcarriers. The experimental OFDM system on the developed SDR testbed performs very close to the simulated
OFDM system, thus the developed testbed can be used to verify advanced signal processing techniques in OFDM
systems in various realistic channels by simply developing software, without the need for otherwise complicated
hardware developments.
PROGRAM %========================================================================
== % The mfile investigates the generation, transmission and reception of % the OFDM signal without channel
noise or HPA effect
%======================================================================== ==
clear all
clc
close
% ---------------
% A: Setting Parameters
% ---------------
M = 4; % QPSK signal constellation
no_of_data_points = 64; % have 64 data points
block_size = 8; % size of each ofdm block
cp_len = ceil(0.1*block_size); % length of cyclic prefix
no_of_ifft_points = block_size; % 8 points for the FFT/IFFT
no_of_fft_points = block_size;
% ---------------------------------------------
% B: % +++++ TRANSMITTER +++++
% ---------------------------------------------
% 1. Generate 1 x 64 vector of data points phase representations
data_source = randsrc(1, no_of_data_points, 0:M-1);
figure(1)
stem(data_source);
grid on;
xlabel('data points');
ylabel('transmitted data phase representation')
title('Transmitted Data "O"')
% 2. Perform QPSK modulation
qpsk_modulated_data = pskmod(data_source, M);
scatterplot(qpsk_modulated_data);
title('qpsk modulated transmitted data')

% 3. Do IFFT on each block

% Make the serial stream a matrix where each column represents a pre-OFDM
% block (w/o cyclic prefixing)
% First: Find out the number of colums that will exist after reshaping
num_cols=length(qpsk_modulated_data)/block_size;
data_matrix = reshape(qpsk_modulated_data, block_size, num_cols);
% Second: Create empty matix to put the IFFT'd data
cp_start = block_size-cp_len;
cp_end = block_size;
% Third: Operate columnwise & do CP for i=1:num_cols,
ifft_data_matrix(:,i) = ifft((data_matrix(:,i)),no_of_ifft_points);
% Compute and append Cyclic Prefix
for j=1:cp_len,
actual_cp(j,i) = ifft_data_matrix(j+cp_start,i);
end
% Append the CP to the existing block to create the actual OFDM block
ifft_data(:,i) = vertcat(actual_cp(:,i),ifft_data_matrix(:,i));
end
% 4. Convert to serial stream for transmission
[rows_ifft_data cols_ifft_data]=size(ifft_data);
len_ofdm_data = rows_ifft_data*cols_ifft_data;
% Actual OFDM signal to be transmitted
ofdm_signal = reshape(ifft_data, 1, len_ofdm_data);
figure(3)
plot(real(ofdm_signal));
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('OFDM Signal');
grid on;
% ------------------------------------------
% E: % +++++ RECEIVER +++++
% ------------------------------------------
% 1. Pass the ofdm signal through the channel

recvd_signal = ofdm_signal;
% 4. Convert Data back to "parallel" form to perform FFT
recvd_signal_matrix = reshape(recvd_signal,rows_ifft_data, cols_ifft_data);
% 5. Remove CP
recvd_signal_matrix(1:cp_len,:)=[];
% 6. Perform FFT
for i=1:cols_ifft_data,
% FFT fft_data_matrix(:,i) = fft(recvd_signal_matrix(:,i),no_of_fft_points);
End
% 7. Convert to serial stream
recvd_serial_data = reshape(fft_data_matrix, 1,(block_size*num_cols));
% 8. Demodulate the data
qpsk_demodulated_data = pskdemod(recvd_serial_data,M); scatterplot(qpsk_modulated_data);
title('qpsk modulated received data')
figure(5)
stem(qpsk_demodulated_data,'rx');
grid on;
xlabel('data points');
ylabel('received data phase representation');
title('Received Data "X"')
Result:
Thus the OFDM signal transmission and reception was done using SDR.
MICROWAVE
EXPERIMENTS
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Klystron
Power CRO
Supply

Slotted
Line
Klystron Variable Frequency Section Detector
Isolator Attenuator meter With Mount
Mount
Tunable
Probe

VSWR
Meter

Frequency and wavelength measurement

EX. NO: MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
DATE:

AIM

To measure the frequency and wavelength of microwave oscillator and to demonstrate the
relationship between frequency, guide wavelength and frequency space wavelength.

APPARATUS REQUIREMENT

1. Klystron power supply

2. Klystron tube.

3. Klystron mount.

4. Isolator.

5. Frequency meter.

6. Variable attenuator.

7. Slotted section.

8. Tunable probe.

9. Wave guide stand.

10. Movable short / Matched Termination.

11. CRO / VSWR meter
 TABULATION

Beam voltage = 290V C = 3X10 8 a =2.3cm

Frequency meter reading =

Mean value =

INITIAL SETUP IN VSWR METER:

1. Set input selector switch in 200 Ohms.

2. Keep meter selector in Normal.
3. Select the range as 50db or 40db or 30db and then vary the gain knob (fine and coarse) to get
minimum attenuation. (VSWR = 1).

PROCEDURE

1. Setup the equipment as shown in block diagram.

2. Keep the control knobs of Klystron power supply (KPS) as below.
Beam voltage – off Reflector Voltage – off Mod Switch - AM
AM Amp knob – Mid position AM Frequency knob – Mid position

3. Switch ON the Klystron power supply, VSWR meter and Cooling fan.
4. Set Beam Voltage at 290V. Select AM in mod-switch. Vary the switch beam voltage to
beam current and notify beam current if necessary.
 5. Change switch from beam current to reflector voltage
6. Tune the reflector voltage knob for maximum deflection in VSWR / Maximum square wave
amplitude in CRO
7. Tune the frequency meter to get a ‘dip’ on the CRO/VSWR. Measure the operating frequency using
frequency meter and detune the frequency meter.
8. The position of the slotted line section is varied to get the minimum point (zero output in
the CRO). The position of the tunable probe is noted for the scale provided in the
slotted line section as “d1”.
9. The tunable probe is moved in the same direction as above and the very next minima is
found and noted as “d2”.
10. Note that two consecutive minima readings should be taken. From these reading λc,λg,

λ0’ and f0’ can be calculated using the equation.

11. The same procedure form 2 to 5 can be repeated for various values of frequencies of
oscillation.
CALCULATION

RESULT:

Thus the frequency and wavelength of the microwave oscillator were determined.

1. Practical frequency =________ GHz

2. Theoretical frequency = ________ GHz
3. Guided wavelength = _______cm
4. Free space wavelength = ________ cm
5. Cut off wavelength = ________ cm
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Measurement of VSWR of an unknown load

 EX. NO: MEASUREMENT OF VSWR OF AN UNKNOWN LOAD

DATE: AND IT’S IMPEDANCE

AIM

To measure the VSWR of an unknown load and determine its impedance using a smith chart.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Klystron Power Supply.

2. Reflex Klystron with waveguide mount.
3. Isolator / Attenuator.
4. VSWR meter.
5. Diode detector.
6. Slotted line section.
7. Movable short.
8. Unknown load.
9. CRO.
10. BNC-BNC Connector.

PROCEDURE

1. Connections are made as shown in the block diagram.

2. Klystron is fired to oscillate in any one of its mode to get maximum output in the
CRO.
3. Connect the unknown load after the slotted line section and by adjusting the probe
penetration, position of probe, repeller voltage for maximum output in the CRO.
4. Now replace CRO by VSWR meter at 30 or 40 db position and by varying the gain
control of VSWR meter or variable attenuator, find maximum deflection that is zero db
or ‘1’ of SWR scale.
5. Move the probe of slotted line section to get first minimum position in the CRO and note
it down as d1. Keeping at this position connect VSWR meter and find VSWR value of
the unknown load and note it down.
 6. To find the impedance replace the unknown load by movable short and find the next
minimum point and note it down as d2.
7. Find the consecutive minimum and note it down on d3, the difference between d2 and d3

will give . [ = 2 (d2 ~ d3)]

8. A Smith chart is taken and a circle is drawn for the radius of VSWR value, by keeping ‘1’
as center.

9. Then find from the equation and find the point on smith chart for towards the
load, join this point and center point of the smith chart “1”.
10. Now this line will intersect the circle at one point.
11. From this intersection point the impedance (reactance and resistance) can be found with
the characteristic impedance.
12. The actual impedance of the load can be found by multiplying the
Normalized impedance with the characteristic impedance.

CALCULATION:
RESULT:

Thus, the VSWR and the impedance of the unknown load were determined.
DIRECTIONAL COUPLER:
 EX. No : CHARACTERIZATION OF DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS

DATE

AIM:

To characterise the directional coupler.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
1. Klystron Power Supply
2. Klystron tube
3. Klystron mount
4. Isolator
5. Variable Attenuator
6. Frequency Meter
7. Multihole Directional Coupler
8. Tunable Detector Mount
9. Matched Termination
10. VSWR Meter, DSO
11. Bayonet Neill Concelman(BNC) Connector
12. Threaded Neill Concelman(TNC) Connector
13. Cooling Fan
14. Waveguide Stand, Screw & Net

THEORY:
A directional coupler is a device with which it is possible to measure the incident and reflected
wave separately. It consist of two transmission lines the main arm and auxiliary arm,
electromagnetically coupled to each other. The power entering, in the main-arm gets divided between
port 2 and 3, and almost no power comes out in port (4) Power entering at port (2) is divided between
port (1) and (4)
 The coupling factor is defined as
Coupling (dB) = 10 log 10 [P1/P3] where port 2 is terminated.
Isolation (dB) = 10 log 10 [P2/P3] where P1 is matched.
With built-in termination and power entering at Port 1, the directivity of the coupler is a
measure of separation between incident wave and the reflected wave. Directivity is measured indirectly
as follows:
Hence Directivity D (dB) = Isolation – Coupling
= 10 log 10 [P2/P1]

Insertion loss = 10 log 10 [P1/P2]

INITIAL SETUP IN VSWR METER:

1. Set input selector switch in 200 Ohms.
2. Keep meter selector in Normal.
3. Select the range as 50db or 40db or 30db and then vary the gain knob (fine and coarse) to
get minimum attenuation. (VSWR = 1).

PROCEDURE:

1. Setup the equipment as shown in block diagram.

2. Keep the control knobs of Klystron power supply (KPS) as below.
i. Beam voltage – off Reflector Voltage – off Mod Switch - AM
ii. AM Amp knob – Mid position AM Frequency knob – Mid position

3. Switch ON the Klystron power supply, VSWR meter and Cooling fan.
4. Set Beam Voltage at 290V. Select AM in mod-switch. Vary the switch beam voltage to
beam current and notify beam current if necessary.

5. Change switch from beam current to reflector voltage

6. Tune the reflector voltage knob for maximum deflection in VSWR / Maximum square wave amplitude in

CRO .

7.Remove the multi-hole directional coupler and connect the detector mount of the

frequencymeter.
8. Set any reference level of power on VSWR meter with the help of variable attenuator, gain
control knob of VSWR meter, and note down the reading (reference level let X)
 9. Insert the directional coupler as shown in block diagram with detector to the auxiliary port 3 and
matched termination to port 2. (Without changing the position of variable attenuator and gain
control knob of VSWR meter).
10. Note down the reading on VSWR meter on the scale with the help of range-dB switch if
required. (Let it be Y).
11. Calculate coupling factor which will be X–Y=C(dB)
12. Now carefully disconnect the detector from the auxiliary port 3 and match termination from port
2 without disturbing the set-up.
13. Connect the matched termination to the auxiliary port 3 and detector to port 2 and measure the
reading on VSWR meter. Suppose it is Z.
14. Compute insertion loss X–Z in dB.
15. Connect the directional coupler in the reverse direction. i.e. port 2 to frequency meter side.
Matched termination to port 1 and detector mount to port 3. (Without disturbing the position of
variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter.)
16. Measure and note down the reading on VSWR meter. Let it be Yd. X–Yd gives Isolation I (dB).
17. Compute the directivity as Y–Yd = I – C

OBSERVATION:
Frequency of Oscillation = GHz.
X = dB (Without Directional Coupler)
Z = dB (I/p at port 1, o/p at port 2, Terminate at port 3)
Y = dB (I/p at port 1, o/p at port 3, Terminate at port 2)
Yd = dB (I/p at port 2, o/p at port 3, Terminate at port 1)
Coupling Factor, C = X–Y = dB
Insertion loss, = X–Z = dB
Isolation I = X–Yd = dB
Directivity D = Y–Yd = Db
RESULT:
Thus the Directional coupler was characterized and the following measurement was done.
Coupling Factor, C= dB
Insertion loss, = dB
Isolation I = dB
Directivity D= dB
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Klystron Matched
Power Termination
Supply

Slotted
Line
Klystron Variable Frequency Section
Isolator Isolator/
Mount Attenuator meter With
Tunable Circulator
Probe

VSWR Detector
Meter Mount
 EX.NO: S - PARAMETER MEASUREMENT OF ISOLATOR AND
DATE : CIRCULATOR

AIM:
To measure the S - parameter measurement of isolator and circulator.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
1. Microwave source (klystron power supply)
2. Klystron Mount
3. Isolator
4. Variable Attenuator
5. Frequency meter
6. Circulator / Isolator
7. VSWR Meter
8. Matched termination

THEORY:

ISOLATOR:
An isolator is a two-port device that transfers energy from input to output with little attenuation and from output
to input with very high attenuation The isolator can be derived form a three-port circulator by simply placing a matched
load (reflection less termination) on one port. The important isolator parameters are:
A. Insertion loss: Insertion loss is the ratio of power detected at the output port to the power supplied by source
to the input port, measured with other ports terminated in the matched load/ detector mount. It is expressed in dB.
B. Isolation: Isolation is the ratio of power applied to the output to that measured at the input. This ratio is
expressed in dB. The isolation of a circulator is measured with the third port terminated in a matched load.
C. Input VSWR: The input VSWR of an isolator or circulator is the ratio of voltage maximum to voltage
minimum of the standing wave existing is the line with all parts except the test port are matched

Circulator:

The circulator is a multi-port junction that permits transmission in certain ways. The wave incident at nth port can
be coupled to (n+1)th port only.
PROCEDURE:

Isolator

1. Set the components as shown in the block diagram,

2. Keep the control knob of microwave power supply as mentioned in the basic setup.

3. Switch on the power supply and energize the microwave source. Get the maximum output

In VSWR meter without connecting the Isolator. Measure the gain using VSWR.

4. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a dip in VSWR and note down the frequency of oscillation directly.
Detune the frequency meter.
5. Connect the Isolator in forward direction i.e. port 1 at input side(Frequency meter) and port 2 at output side
(Tunable Detector) measure the input and output gain using VSWR .
6. Now connect the isolator in reverse direction i.e. Port 1 at output side and port 2 at input
side and measure the output gain using VSWR.

Circulator

1. Set the components as shown in the block diagram,

2. Keep the control knob of microwave power supply as mentioned in the basic setup.
3. Switch on the power supply and energize the microwave source. Get the maximum output
in VSWR meter without connecting the circulator. Measure the gain using VSWR.
4. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a dip in VSWR and note down the frequency of
 oscillation directly. Detune the frequency meter.

5. Connect the port 1 of circulator at input side (Frequency meter) and port 2 at output side

(Tunable Detector) and port 3 is at matched termination. Measure the output gain using

VSWR .

6. Similarly measure the output voltage by interchanging the ports.

The S matrix of Isolator

 TABULATION

CIRCULATOR

RESULT:

Thus the S-parameters of Isolator and circulator were found and its values are noted.
EX.NO: STUDY OF GUNN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
DATE :

AIM :
To study the characteristics of Gunn Diode.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

i. Gunn power Supply

ii. Gunn oscillator
iii. PIN modulator
iv. Isolator
v. Frequency Meter
vi. Variable Attenuator
vii. Detector Mount
viii. CRO
ix. Bayonet Neill Concelman(BNC) Connector
x. Threaded Neill Concelman(TNC) Connector
xi. Cooling Fan
xii. Waveguide Stand, Screw & Net

THEORY:
Gunn diodes are negative resistance device which are normally used as low power oscillator at microwave
frequencies in transmitter and as local oscillator in receiver front end. J.B. Gunn in 1963 discovered microwave
oscillation. At low electric field in the material most of the electron will be located in the lower central valley. At high
electric field most of the electron will be transferred in to the higher frequency satellite L and X valleys.
PROCEDURE:

1. Set the components as shown in block diagram.

2. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply (GPS) as below.

Meter Switch – off Gunn bias knob – Fully anticlockwise

PIN Mod. Amp knob – Mid position PIN Mod. Freq.knob – Mid position
 3. Switch ON the Gunn power supply, VSWR meter and Cooling fan. Set Gunn bias Voltage at 7.5V.

4. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.

5. Measure the operating frequency using frequency meter.

6. Measure the Gunn Diode Current corresponding to the various Gunn bias voltage. Do not

exceed the bias voltage above 10 volts.

7. Plot the voltage Vs Current and measure the threshold voltage which corresponds to

maximum current.

NOTE:

Do not keep gun bias knob position at threshold position for more than 10-15 seconds reading should be obtained
as fast as possible. Otherwise due to excessive heating, Gunn diode may burn

RESULT:

Thus the V-I characteristics of Gunn diode were studied.

FILTER DESIGN :

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF BANDPASS FILTER

 EX.NO: MICROWAVE FILTER CHARACTERISTICS

DATE:

AIM:
To construct and obtain the characteristics of the RF bandpass filter with the lower 3 dB cutoff
frequency of 2.4 GHz and an upper 3 dB cutoff frequency of 2.5 GHz.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
 Personal computer
 MATLAB software

THEORY:
Filters are used in many areas of electronics. One of the main areas where they are used is
within theradio frequency or RF domain. RF filters are used to remove or accept signals that fall in
certain areas of the radio spectrum.

There are many different instances where they can be used - the list of applications is almost
infinite. They are sued within radio receivers to provide the selectivity, as well as only enabling the
right band of frequencies to enter the latter parts of the set. They are used within transmitters to
ensure that unwanted or spurious signals are not transmitted. RF filters are used to ensure that the
required mix products from mixers are passed on to the next stages.
The cut off frequency of the filter is defined as the point at which the output level from the filter
falls to 50% (-3 dB) of the in band level, assuming a constant input level. The cut off frequency is
sometimes referred to as the half power or -3 dB frequency.
The stop band of the filter is essentially the band of frequencies that is rejected by the filter. It is
taken as starting at the point where the filter reaches its required level of rejection. The band pass RF
filter only allows through signals within certain frequencies. Above and below the cut- off frequencies,
the signals will be attenuated and within the accepted band of radio frequencies, signals will be passed
through.
TIME DOMAIN RESPONSE OF BANDPASS FILTER
PROCEDURE:
1. Choose inductance and capacitance values using the classic image parameter design method.
2. Use rfckt.seriesrlc, rfckt.shuntrlc, and rfckt.cascade objects to programmatically construct a
Butterworth circuit as a 2-port network.
3. Use analyze to extract the S-parameters of the 2-port network over a wide frequency range.
4. Use s2tf function to compute the voltage transfer function from the input to the output.
5. Use rationalfit function to generate rational fits that capture the ideal RC circuit to a very high
degree of accuracy.
6. Create a noisy input voltage waveform.
7. Use timeresp function to compute the transient response to a noisy input voltage waveform.

PROGRAM :

Ro = 50;
f1C = 2400e6;
f2C = 2500e6;

Ls = (Ro / (pi*(f2C - f1C)))/2;

Cs = 2*(f2C - f1C)/(4*pi*Ro*f2C*f1C);

Lp = 2*Ro*(f2C - f1C)/(4*pi*f2C*f1C);
Cp = (1/(pi*Ro*(f2C - f1C)))/2;
Seg1 = rfckt.seriesrlc('L',Ls,'C',Cs);
Seg2 = rfckt.shuntrlc('L',Lp,'C',Cp);
Seg3 = rfckt.shuntrlc('L',Lp,'C',Cp);
Seg4 = rfckt.seriesrlc('L',Ls,'C',Cs);

cktBPF = rfckt.cascade('Ckts',{Seg1,Seg2,Seg3,Seg4});
freq = linspace(2e9,3e9,101);
analyze(cktBPF,freq);
sparams = cktBPF.AnalyzedResult.S_Parameters;
tf = s2tf(sparams);
fit = rationalfit(freq,tf);
widerFreqs = linspace(2e8,5e9,1001);
resp = freqresp(fit,widerFreqs);

figure
semilogy(freq,abs(tf),widerFreqs,abs(resp),'--','LineWidth',2)
xlabel('Frequency (Hz)')
ylabel('Magnitude')
legend('data','fit')
title('The rational fit behaves well outside the fitted frequency range.')
fCenter = 2.45e9;
fBlocker = 2.35e9;
FREQUENCY DOMAIN RESPONSE OF BANDPASS FILTER
period = 1/fCenter;
sampleTime = period/16;
signalLen = 8192;
t = (0:signalLen-1)'*sampleTime; % 256 periods

input = sin(2*pi*fCenter*t); % Clean input signal

rng('default')
noise = randn(size(t)) + sin(2*pi*fBlocker*t);
noisyInput = input + noise; % Noisy input signal

% Time domain response

xmax = t(end)/8;
figure
subplot(3,1,1)
plot(t,input)
axis([0 xmax -1.5 1.5])
title('Input')

subplot(3,1,2)
plot(t,noisyInput)
axis([0 xmax floor(min(noisyInput)) ceil(max(noisyInput))])
title('Noisy Input')
ylabel('Amplitude (volts)')

subplot(3,1,3)
plot(t,output)
axis([0 xmax -1.5 1.5])
title('Filter Output')
xlabel('Time (sec)')
%Frequency domain response
NFFT = 2^nextpow2(signalLen); % Next power of 2 from length of y
Y = fft(noisyInput,NFFT)/signalLen;
samplingFreq = 1/sampleTime;
f = samplingFreq/2*linspace(0,1,NFFT/2+1)';
O = fft(output,NFFT)/signalLen;

figure
subplot(2,1,1)
plot(freq,abs(tf),'b','LineWidth',2)
axis([freq(1) freq(end) 0 1.1])
legend('filter transfer function')
ylabel('Magnitude')
subplot(2,1,2)
plot(f,2*abs(Y(1:NFFT/2+1)),'g',f,2*abs(O(1:NFFT/2+1)),'r','LineWidth',2)
axis([freq(1) freq(end) 0 1.1])
legend('input+noise','output')
title('Filter characteristic and
noisy input spectrum.')
xlabel('Frequency (Hz)')
ylabel('Magnitude (Volts)')

RESULT :

Thus the characteristic response of the RF Bandpass filter was

obtained for the proposedcutoff frequency.