Electromagnetism Problems& Solutions Ashutosh Pramanik

ELECTROMAGNETISM
Problems with Solutions

ELECTROMAGNETISM
Problems with Solutions
THIRD EDITION
ASHUTOSH PRAMANIK
Professor Emeritus
Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Pune
Formerly of Corporate Research and Development Division, BHEL
(Senior Dy. General Manager)
and
The Universities of Birmingham and Leeds
(Research Engineer and Lecturer)
and
Nelson Research Laboratories
English Electric, Stafford (Now GECAlsthon)
(Research Engineer)
and
D.J. Gandhi Distinguished Visiting Professor, IIT Bombay
New Delhi-110001
2012
ELECTROMAGNETISM: Problems with Solutions, Third Edition
Ashutosh Pramanik
© 2012 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this
book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
ISBN-978-81-203-4633-8
The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.
Fifth Printing (Third Edition) ... ... ... September, 2012
Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Rajkamal Electric Press, Plot No. 2, Phase IV, HSIDC,
Kundli-131028. Sonepat, Haryana.
To the revered memory of
my parents
Tarapada Pramanik and Renubala Pramanik
whose encouragement and support for my professional career
made this book possible
and
to the memory of my two great teachers
J.G. Henderson
(Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, The University of Birmingham)
and
Professor G.W. Carter
(Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Leeds)
who were instrumental in developing my interest in Electromagnetism
and
thus made possible the writing of this book
Contents
Preface ......................................................................................................................................... ix
Preface to the Second Edition .................................................................................................... xi
Preface to the First Edition ..................................................................................................... xiii
0 Vector Analysis..................................................................................................................... 1
1 Electrostatics I ................................................................................................................... 52
2 Electrostatics II—Dielectrics, Conductors and Capacitance ......................................... 103
3 Electrostatic Field Problems ............................................................................................ 189
4 Electric Currents (Steady) ................................................................................................ 290
5 Magnetostatics I .............................................................................................................. 332
6 Electromagnetic Induction and Quasi-static Magnetic Fields ....................................... 423
7 Forces and Energy in Static and Quasi-static Magnetic Systems
(with inductance calculations) ......................................................................................... 520
8 Maxwell’s Equations ....................................................................................................... 562
9 Vector Potentials and Applications ................................................................................. 590
10 Poynting Vector and Energy Transfer ............................................................................ 631
11 Magnetic Diffusion (Eddy Currents) and Charge Relaxation ........................................ 648
12 Electromagnetic Waves—Propagation, Guidance and Radiation ................................. 717
13 Electromagnetism and Special Relativity ........................................................................ 855
Appendix 1 Roth’s Method ................................................................................................... 887
Appendix 2 Solid Angles ....................................................................................................... 894
Appendix 3 Poynting Vector: A Proof ................................................................................. 897
Appendix 4 Magnetic and Electric Fields in Poynting Vector: A Proof ........................... 898
Appendix 5 Bicylindrical Coordinate System and Associated Conformal Transformations... 899
Bibliography............................................................................................................................. 905
vii
Preface
Since the main textbook Electromagnetism—Theory and Applications, Second Edition, is currently
being significantly revised and enlarged, this companion text on problems and solutions has been
revised first. Whilst the main philosophy of these books remains the same, the additions and
modifications are fairly substantial. This has happened because it has now been realized that in spite of
the very significant enhanced computing facilities, the progress in other associated fields is causing the
revival of some of the classical techniques and methods, which initially were thought to be made
obsolete by the “numerical methods” used in computers. A typical example is that of the applications of
new permanent magnet materials (i.e. NdFeB) in the development of permanent magnet motors and
generators of rotary as well as linear types. Design and development engineers are now using various
methods of analysis of these devices by using the methods which had been nearly eliminated by the
advent of modern powerful computers. Attempts have been made to provide information and
knowledge of such topics in both the books. Examples of such topics are illustrated by the usage of
topics such as Fröhlich’s equations, Evershed criterion and similar other relations.
A very significant addition in the third edition has been made to the problems on electromagnetic
induction (Chapter 6), covering nearly all aspects of applications of Faraday’s law. This chapter now
contains 61 problems instead of the original 43 problems, making it fully comprehensive for a sound
understanding of the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. Furthermore, none of the problems are
of “formula substitution type” and, hence, they give a proper insight into the physics of the
phenomenon. Regarding other chapters, problems have been added to all the main topics starting from
vector analysis to Lorentz transformation in the last chapter titled Electromagnetism and Special
Relativity. There have been additions to problems on eddy currents (i.e. magnetic diffusion) which
illustrate the effects of a.c. resistance as well as the inductance of the devices in cylindrical geometry.
My thanks are due to the College of Engineering, Pune, for providing me with the necessary
facilities for completing this third edition of the book. I would like to mention in particular the interest
and help of Prof. B.N. Chaudhari, Head of the Department of Electrical Engineering in this connection.
I must also acknowledge the help and meticulous work in bringing out this edition, of the staff of
PHI Learning, with particular mention of Mr. Darshan Kumar, Executive Editor.
Last but not the least, I must acknowledge the encouragement of my daughter, Mrinmayee, at all
stages of this work and the silent support of my wife, Lalita, in spite of her ill-health.
I have tried to eliminate the printing errors as far as possible, but it is likely there may be some
missed out ones. I would greatly appreciate the kindness and interest of any readers who would point
out such omissions, which can then be corrected in the subsequent printruns and editions.
A. PRAMANIK
ix
Preface to the Second Edition
Along with the revision of the main textbook Electromagnetism: Theory and Applications, this
opportunity is being taken to revise this ‘companion’ volume as well. There has been no change in the
philosophy of this book. It was mentioned earlier that the problems had been so chosen that the main
emphasis was on the ‘inside physics’ of them, and the associated mathematical manipulations remain as
simple as possible. Hence the problems dealing with cylindrical and spherical geometries were kept to
a minimum. But it has come to notice that these geometries are widely used in problems dealing with
waveguides and antennae and hence they need the use of Bessel and Legendre functions. Hence a
number of problems in these geometries have been added even at the initial stage of electrostatics and
magnetostatics, so that the readers would develop familiarity with these important mathematical
functions at an earlier stage. Though these problems are in electrostatics and magnetostatics, it is quite
easy to modify and extrapolate them so as to convert such problems to electromagnetic problems. Also,
some problems in antennae have been solved by using the Hertz vector and then their equivalence to the
vector and the scalar potentials have been shown in these solutions. These intermediate steps are not
essential integral parts of such solutions. This has been done just to show how the use of Hertz vector
makes the solving of these problems easier. Such problems solved by using the Hertz vector directly
would still be easier and more compact. Some problems on transmission lines requiring the use of
Bicylindrical coordinate system have also been included. Nearly 40 new problems have been added to
the original list of 440 problems.
Since the choice of the additional problems is based on my discussions with Prof. S.V. Kulkarni
and Prof. R.K. Shevgaonkar of IIT Bombay, I express my thanks to them. Once again the staff members
of PHI Learning deserve my thanks for their help and meticulous work in bringing out this edition and
the names I would mention in this connection are Mr. S. Ramaswamy, Regional Sales Manager,
Ms. Pushpita Ghosh, Managing Editor, and Mr. Darshan Kumar, Senior Editor.
Finally, I repeat my sincere thanks to my daughter Mrinmayee for her constant encouragement
and support and my wife Lalita for her patience and forbearance during this long period.
I have tried to eliminate the printing errors and omissions as far as possible, but it is likely that
some would have been missed out. I shall be grateful to all the readers who would kindly bring to my
notice any such missed-out errors, which can then be eliminated in subsequent printruns and editions.
A. PRAMANIK
xi
Preface to the First Edition
This book is a companion volume to the textbook on Electromagnetism (Electromagnetism:

Theory and Applications). It presents the solutions to more than 400 problems covering the whole
range of topics discussed in the main text. The present book follows the overall trend of the first
book, though, of course, the sequence has not been followed rigorously because of a number of
logical reasons.
Before going into the details of these points of discussion, it should be made absolutely
clear that no originality whatsoever is being claimed regarding the origin and source of the
problems in this book. These problems have been collected from various sources and through my
colleagues in the academic world as well as in the industries during my professional life, and they
have passed through so many stages that it has not been possible for me to identify correctly the
original sources of all these problems. So, I have refrained myself from mentioning the sources of
any of these problems. However, the solutions have been worked out by me, except for the
problems on relativity which Late Prof. G.W. Carter of University of Leeds presented to me along
with his all other papers on Electromagnetism and Relativity on the day of his retirement. A
number of these solved problems have already been tried on various groups of design and
development engineers in the industries during in-house refresher courses on Electromagnetism
conducted by me during my stay in the industries, with somewhat non-uniform results and partial
successes.
The arrangement of the solved problems in the book follows a similar trend of the topics
as in the main textbook, i.e. Vector Analysis, Electrostatics (in free space, conductors and
insulators, forces and energy in E.S. fields, and E.S. field problems), Electric Current,
Magnetostatics, Quasi-static Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction, Forces and Energy in
Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Field Analysis, Maxwell’s Equations, Vector Potentials and
Applications, Electromagnetic Energy Transfer, Magnetic Diffusion and Eddy Currents and
Charge Relaxation, Electromagnetic Waves (propagation with reflection, refraction and
transmission, guidance, and radiation and reception), and finally Electromagnetism and Special
Relativity. Though attempts have been made to follow the main themes of the textbook, it has not
been always possible to maintain exactly the chapterwise distribution of the problems. This is
because there are quite a number of problems which contain more than “single-chapter” topics
and the relative location of such problems has been a matter of choice. For this reason, the
number of the chapters in this book has been reduced while keeping in mind the overall
classification of the topics and the problems. To give a specific example, a magnetostatic field
problem requiring the concept of magnetic vector potential had to be located in the chapter
on “Vector Potentials and Applications” and not in the chapter on the “Magnetostatic Fields”
which preceded the chapter on Vector Potentials. However, the chapter dealing with the
“Electromagnetic Induction” contains all the problems on induction including those requiring the
xiii
xiv PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
“moving media” concept which logically could have been located in the chapter on “Special
Relativity” at the end of the book. This arrangement has been chosen because it would be more
helpful for readers to have all the induction problems at the same place so that an integrated
picture of the various facets of electromagnetic induction can be obtained for a better insight into
all the aspects of this phenomenon. Next, all the wave problems have been included in a single
chapter which consists of propagation, guidance, and radiation and reception of waves. The
reasons for such unification have been that the problems contain more than one aspect of the
waves in each and hence it was considered more effective to contain all wave problems in the
same chapter.
Another topic which has been included in the chapter on vectors is that of the “Dirac-delta
function”. While the physicists (and the students of physics) are well aware of this function and
are at ease with the handling of this function, the engineering students are, in general, at a
comparative disadvantage in using this function (as well as the Kronecker delta function). So, in
the first chapter itself, this function, along with some simple integration problems, has been
introduced. Later, at various places in the book, the use of delta function has been illustrated in a
number of problems dealing with point charges, line charges, and line currents. Such problems
have been explained in Cartesian geometry only, to keep the associated mathematics as simple as
possible. However, it should be noted that this is not a restriction on the usage of the delta
function as it can also be used for problems in other coordinate systems such as cylindrical polar
and spherical polar systems and so on. The main reason for not including problems in these
coordinate systems is that while these problems require the use of more complicated mathematical
functions like Bessel functions and Legendre functions, they do not illuminate any new physical
concepts.
As mentioned in my previous book, a book like this can only be produced by the assistance
of various people with whom I have been associated in my professional life. The two persons
who have deeply influenced my study of electromagnetism and whom I freely acknowledge are
Late Mr. J.G. Henderson of the University of Birmingham and Late Prof. G.W. Carter of the
University of Leeds. It was Mr. Henderson who introduced me to the initial study of Roth’s
method and my association with Prof. Carter enabled me to approach the subject of
electromagnetism with proper perspective and insight.
I would also like to express my sincere thanks to my daughter Mrinmayee and my wife
Lalita for their help, support and encouragement during the preparation of this book. My
daughter’s active encouragement and inspiration helped me to complete this book in specified
time. My wife’s patience and forbearance has seen me through this arduous period of preparing
the final manuscript and also the printing process.
It is no mean task turning a hand-written manuscript into a finished book. The efforts of my
publishers are much appreciated. I would like to make a special mention of Ms. Pushpita Ghosh,
Manager, Editorial and Marketing, for her overall supervision, Mr. Darshan Kumar, Editor, for
his painstakingly editing the manuscripting and detailed checking of the typescript, and
Mr. S. Ramaswamy, Sr. Marketing Executive for his support and help in smoothing the process of
publishing.
Finally, I have tried to eliminate the printing errors and omissions as far as possible, but it is
likely that some would have been missed out. I shall be grateful to all readers who would kindly
bring to my notice any such missed-out errors, which can then be eliminated in subsequent
printing and editions.
A. PRAMANIK
Vector Analysis
0
0.1 INTRODUCTION
The problems in this chapter are aimed at developing, in the students, the capability to handle the
various vector calculations used in the study of electromagnetism. It should be understood that
electromagnetism can be studied and developed without the use of vector analysis. If it is done this
way, then it is found that soon the resultant algebra becomes highly complicated and in the process
there is a great danger that the physical contents of processes will get lost in a maze of symbols. At
advanced levels of study and applications of electromagnetism, use of vector analysis is universal;
today even at elementary levels of study of the subject, the vector analysis is being used more and more.
The notations for the vectors used in this chapter are the same as those in the textbook titled
ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009. The
problems in this chapter initially deal with vector algebra, followed by derivatives and then
integration which include line integrals as well as surface and volume integrals. The effects of time
variation in vectors have also been included.
0.2 SOME VECTOR OPERATORS IN THE THREE COORDINATE SYSTEMS
∂V ∂V ∂V
1. grad V = i x + iy + iz (Cartesian)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
= ir + iφ + iz (Cylindrical)
∂r r ∂φ ∂z
∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
= iρ + iθ + iφ (Spherical)
∂ρ ρ ∂θ ρ sin θ ∂φ
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az

2. div A = + + (Cartesian)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ar ∂Ar 1 ∂Aφ ∂Az

= + + + (Cylindrical)
r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
2 Aρ ∂Aρ 1 ∂Aθ cot θ 1 ∂Aφ

= + + + Aθ + (Spherical)
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂θ ρ ρ sin θ ∂φ
1
2 ELECTROMAGNETISM: PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS
ix iy iz
∂ ∂ ∂
3. curl A = (Cartesian)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az
ir iφ r iz
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
= (Cylindrical)
r ∂r ∂φ ∂z
Ar rAφ Az
iρ iθ ρ iφ ρ sin θ
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
= 2 (Spherical)
ρ sin θ ∂ρ ∂θ ∂φ
Aρ ρ Aθ ρ sin θ Aφ
0.3 DELTA FUNCTION (CONCENTRATED FORCE)

Though rigorously speaking, the delta function is not essentially a vector quantity, it is of great
practical usage and hence we conclude our discussion of vectors (particularly while considering their
integrals) with a brief introduction to the delta functions.
There are many examples of practical interest where the forces act in a concentrated manner at
a specified point. We first consider an example in electrostatics, e.g. the charge density of a point
charge is zero everywhere except at the location of the charge where it is infinite. To describe the
charge density analytically, a symbol is now introduced as d (x - a) which means that it is zero
everywhere except at the point a where it is infinite such that
∫ f ( x) δ ( x − a) = f (a )
if the interval of integration includes the point a, and equals zero if the interval does not include the
point a.
Another non-electrical practical example is that of a transverse force applied to a small point
of a string held rigidly at the two ends. This can be idealized to a force applied at a point on the string
and thus can be expressed as the limiting case of a force:
Î0, x Y ( ' /2)
Ñ
F(x) = Ï F / ', Y ( ' /2) x Y ( ' /2)
Ñ0, x ! Y ( ' /2)
Ð
where the length D of the portion of the string acted upon by the force F tends to zero in the limit.
Thus in the limit,
Î0, x ( ' /2)
Ñ
d (x) = lim Ï1/ ', ( ' /2) x ( ' /2)
' 0
Ñ0, x ! ( ' /2)
Ð
VECTOR ANALYSIS 3
The quantity d (x - a) {or d (x)} is known as the Dirac-delta function. It is not really a function
but a distribution or a generalized function or a weak function. Morse and Feshback have called it a
pathological function, because it does not have the physically normal properties of continuity and
differentiability at the point x = a. However, it is of considerable help in the analysis of many
problems. Remembering that integration has been defined as a limiting sum, the integral rule for the
delta function as stated earlier is

Ô f (Y ) E (Y x) dY f ( x)
A closely-related function which illustrates the integral properties of the delta function is the
unit step function:
x
Î0 for x 0
u ( x) Ô E (Y ) dY

Ï
Ð1 for x ! 0
This is also a generalized function and the differentiation should be attempted with great care.
Note: The generalized functions have the property of possessing any number of derivatives.
Though, so far, we have discussed the delta function in one dimension only, its theory can be
extended to two or more dimensions. Now, we consider some of the practical aspects of the delta
function by studying the behaviour of the vector V such that
A
V = ir 2 in spherical polar coordinate system.
r
It should be noted that this is a general vector representing the forces obeying the inverse square
law of distances (such as Coulombs law in electrostatics or gravitation law). At every point, V is
directed radially outwards, and hence it seems likely that it will have a large positive divergence.
\ Calculating the divergence by using the differential operator form, we get
1 È 2 AØ
³¹V r 0
r 2 r Ê r 2 Ú
which is surprising.
On the other hand, if we consider the surface integral of V over a sphere of radius R, centred
at the origin, we get
È A i Ø ( R 2 sin R dR d G i )
w
ÔÔ V ¹ dS
R
= w
ÔÔ Ê R 2 rÚ r
R
Q 2Q
= A Ô
0
sin R ¹ dR Ô
0
dG 4Q A
But the volume integral ÔÔÔ (³ ¹ V) dv is zero.

The reason for this apparent inconsistency is that at the origin, V ® ¥. In fact, Ñ × A = 0
everywhere, except at the origin. At the origin, the situation is more complicated, and it should be
further noted that the surface integral given above is independent of R. So, the entire contribution to
the integral comes from the point r = 0, i.e. the origin in this case. A normal function, in general, does
not behave like this and it is here that the delta function becomes useful. So, initially we shall
have a look at the one-dimensional delta function (both the geometrical and the mathematical
interpretations).
0.3.1 The One-Dimensional Dirac-delta Function

This function can be pictured as an infinitely high, infinitesimally narrow spike as shown in Fig. 0.1,
i.e.
d (x) = 0 for x ¹ 0
= ¥ for x = 0
and

Ô E ( x) dx

=1
d(x)
x
0
Fig. 0.1 Representation of one-dimensional Dirac-delta function.
This function can also be considered as the limit of sequence of functions, e.g. rectangles Rn(x)
of height n and width 1/n as shown in Fig. 0.2(a), or isosceles triangles Tn(x) of height n and base 2/
n as shown in Fig. 0.2(b).
2 2
R2(x)
T2(x)
1 1
R1(x)
T1(x)
x x
–½ –¼ 0 ¼ ½ –1 –½ 0 ½ 1
(a) (b)
Fig. 0.2 Limiting approach to delta function.
Possibly, the most important fact about the delta function is that if f (x) is a normal function (and
not a delta function or a generalized function), then the product f (x)d (x) is zero everywhere, except
at x = 0. Hence,
f (x)d (x) = f (0)d (x)

\

Ô f ( x) E ( x) dx = f (0) Ô E ( x) dx

f (0)
Note that this integral need not extend from - ¥ to + ¥. It is sufficient if this domain extends
across the delta function, and in this case - e to + e would also serve the purpose. Furthermore, the
location of the delta function can be shifted from the origin x = 0 to any other point x = a. Then,
VECTOR ANALYSIS 5
+∞
⎧0 for x ≠ a ⎫
δ ( x − a) = ⎨ ⎬ with
⎩∞ for x = a ⎭ ∫ δ ( x − a) dx = 1
−∞
The above equation then generalizes to

f (x) d (x - a) = f (a) d (x - a)
and the integral becomes

Ô

f ( x) E ( x a ) dx f (a)
Note: Even though the d-function is not a normal or legitimate function, integrals over d are perfectly
acceptable. In fact, the d-function can be considered as something which is always intended to
be used under an integral sign.
0.3.2 The Three-Dimensional Delta Function

The theory of delta function can be extended to two or more dimensions. The generalized function of
the position vector R in terms of Cartesian coordinates (say) would be
d (R - R¢) = d (x - x¢) d (y - y¢) d (z - z¢)
In the spherical polar coordinate system, it will be
E ( R R ) E (R R ) E (G G )
d (R - R¢) =
R 2 sin R
In fact, this method (of using the delta function) of solving is applicable for any number of
independent variables, provided d is modified appropriately. Thus, if the problem involves the
Cartesian coordinates x, y, z and time t, then the appropriate d-function will be
d (x - x¢) d ( y - y¢) d (z - z¢) d (t - t¢)
or some equivalent form.
Thus,

ÔÔÔ
x E (R ) dv Ô Ô Ô E ( x) E ( y) E ( z) dx dy dz 1
On generalizing, we get
ÔÔÔ
x f (r) E (r a) dv f (a)
As in the case of one-dimensional delta function, the integration with delta picks out the value
of the function d at the location of the spike.
Now, with the help of the delta function, the problem of divergence of È i r 2 Ø can be analyzed
A
Ê r Ú
correctly. From the definition of the delta function, it is obvious that
³ ¹ È ir 2 Ø
A
4QE (r ) A
Ê r Ú
A number of problems involving integration of delta function have been considered along with
the solved problems of vector calculus.
Notes: (i) The Dirac-delta function should in no way be confused with the Kronecker delta
(sometimes also called the Kronecker delta function) dmn which is zero when m is not equal to
n, and unity when m equals n. Its applications are in direction cosine relations, Maxwells stress
tensor representation and so on.
(ii) A useful rigorous discussion of the Dirac-delta function has been given by M.J. Lighthill in his
book Introduction to Fourier Series and Generalized Functions and also by D.S. Jones in
Generalized Functions.
0.4 PROBLEMS
0.1 If A = ix 1 + iy 1 + iz 1 and B = ix 1 + iy 2 + iz 3 are two vectors, determine their scalar and
vector products and the angle between them.
0.2 Under what circumstances are the vectors A ´ (B ´ C) and B ´ (A ´ C) equal?
0.3 If V is a scalar function of x and y, show that the divergence of the vector field F = iz ´ grad V
is always zero.
0.4 Evaluate the divergence of F at the origin for the following:
(a) F = ix x2y2z2 + iy 9 sin y + iz ( y + z)
(b) F = ix x + iy y + iz z
(c) F = ir 2r2 sin f + if 3r2 sin f + iz 7z
0.5 Find the curl of the following vectors:
(a) A = ix xy + iy yz + iz zx
(b) B = ix y - iy x
(c) C = ir 2r cos f + if r (Cylindrical coordinates)
(d) D = if (1/r) (Cylindrical coordinates)
0.6 The potentials of two different two-dimensional electric fields are given by
(a) V = ax2 + (b/y2) (b) V = a/(x2 + y2)
Calculate the field intensity E (= - grad V) in each case. Sketch the equipotentials V = 1 and
V = 4 in (b), assuming a = 1.
0.7 A charge Q = 1 moves with velocity v through fields E = ix 1 + iy 0 + iz 0 and B = ix 0 + iy 0
+ iz 1. Using the equation F = Q (E + v ´ B), determine the difference between the directions
of the forces acting on Q for the two cases v = 0 and v = ix 1 + iy 1 + iz 1.
Note: Since this is an exercise in vector manipulation, the dimensions of the quantities are
immaterial.
0.8 A force F = ix 1 + iy 2 + iz 3 moves a particle from a point (1, 1, 1) to another point (2, 2, 2).
Calculate the work done.
0.9 Find a, b, c such that B = ix (2x - 3y + az) + iy (bx + 4y - 5z) + iz (6x + cy + 7z) is irrotational.
Find the scalar function whose gradient is the above vector B.
VECTOR ANALYSIS 7
m⋅r
0.10 If y = , where r is the position vector of a field point and m is a constant vector, prove
r3
m 3 (m ¹ r )
that ³Z r.
r3 r5
0.11 Cartesian axes are taken within a non-magnetic conductor which carries a steady current density
J which is parallel to the z-axis at every point but may vary with x and y. B is everywhere
perpendicular to the z-axis, and the current distribution is such that Bx = K (x + y)2. Prove that
By = f (x) - K(x + y)2,
where f (x) is a function of x only. Deduce an expression for Jz, the single component of J, and
prove that if Jz is a function of y only, then f (x) = 2Kx2.
[Hint: The relevant Maxwells equations are
Ñ×B= 0
Ñ ´ H = J,
and the constituent relationship is
B = m0H in the concerned medium.]
0.12 Water flowing along a channel with sides along x = 0, x = a has a velocity distribution
v(x, y) = iy (x - a/2)2z2
A small freely rotating paddle wheel with its axis parallel to the z-axis is inserted into the fluid
as illustrated below. Will the paddle wheel rotate? Find the relative rates of rotation at the points
(a) x = a/4, z = 1; (b) x = a/2, z = 1; and (c) x = 3a/4, z = 1. Will the paddle wheel rotate if its
axis is parallel to the x- or y-axis?
0.13 The direction of the vector A is radially outwards from the origin, and its magnitude is krn,
where
r 2 = x 2 + y2 + z 2
Find the value of n for which div A = 0.
dA
0.14 If the vector A has constant magnitude, show that the vectors A and are perpendicular,
dt
dA
provided ¹ 0.
dt
0.15 A point P moves so that its position vector r, relative to another point O satisfies the equation
dr
= w ´ r,
dt
where w is a constant vector. Prove that P describes a circle with constant velocity.
0.16 Show that the time-derivative of a vector field A moving with constant velocity
dx dy dz
v ix iy iz ix vx i y v y iz vz
dt dt dt
is given by
dA A
v (³ ¹ A) curl ( v A),
dt t
where vx, vy and vz are constants.
0.17 A point P as shown below has the velocity given by
dr dG
v ir iG r
dt dt
in a cylindrical polar coordinate system.
P
r(t)
f (t)
O
Show that its acceleration is
Î d 2r dG 2 Þ Î d 2G dr d G Þ
i r Ï 2 r È Ø ß iG Ï r 2 2
dv
Ê Ú ß,
dt ÑÐ dt dt Ñà Ð dt dt dt à
where
dG Ø 2
rÈ is the centripetal acceleration, and
Ê dt Ú
dr d G
2 is the Coriolis acceleration.
dt dt
VECTOR ANALYSIS 9
0.18 Prove that

p ´ {(a ´ q) ´ (b ´ r)} + q ´ {(a ´ r) ´ (b ´ p)} + r ´ {(a ´ p) ´ (b ´ q)} = 0.
0.19 In Cartesian coordinates, evaluate the following:
(a) div (SA), where S is a scalar and A is a vector
(b) curl (SA)
(c) curl (grad W), where W is a scalar
(d) div (grad W).
0.20 A vector A is given in cylindrical coordinates by
A = ir 2r cos f + if r
Evaluate the line integral of A around the contour in the z = 0 plane bounded by +x- and
+y-axes and the arc of the circle of radius 1 unit. Check the answer by performing the
appropriate surface integral of curl A.
0.21 A line integral vÔ

( x 2 y dx 2 xy dy ) is to be evaluated in a counterclockwise direction (as
viewed from the +z-axis) around the perimeter of the rectangle defined by x = ±3, y = ±5.
Obtain the result directly by Stokes theorem.
0.22 A vector field F is expressed in Cartesian coordinates as
F = ix x2yz + iy y2zx + iz z2xy
Evaluate the surface integral of F over the surface of the box bounded by the planes x = 0,
x = 1, y = 0, y = 1, z = 0, z = 1. Verify the answer by using the divergence theorem and
performing a volume integration.
0.23 A vector field expressed in cylindrical coordinates is given by
F = ir r cos f if r sin f
Evaluate the surface integral of F over the following surfaces:
(a) The box bounded by the planes z = 0, z = l and the cylinder r = a
(b) The box bounded by the planes x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, z = l and the cylinder r = a.
0.24 By decomposing a tetrahedron whose vertices are (0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)
into laminae parallel to the face opposite the origin, or otherwise, show that the volume integral
ÔÔÔ f ( x, y, z ) dv
taken over the volume of the tetrahedron is given by

1
1
ÔM f (M ) d M
2
2
0
Hence, evaluate w
ÔÔ A ¹ d S taken over the surface of the tetrahedron, if A = i x x2 + iy y2 + iz z2.
Note: The volume of the tetrahedron with one vertex at the origin and the other three points at
(xi, yi, zi), where i = 1, 2, 3, is given by
x1 y1 z1
1
v= x2 y2 z2
6
x3 y3 z3
0.25 By transforming to a triple integral, evaluate
I= w
ÔÔS
( x3 dy dz x 2 y dz dx x 2 z dx dy ),
where S is the closed surface consisting of the cylinder x2 + y2 = a2 (0 £ z £ b) and the circular
discs z = 0, z = b, and (x2 + y2 £ a2).
0.26 If r is the radius vector from the origin of the coordinate system to any point, show that
(a) Ñ × r = 3,
(b) Ñ (A ´ r) = A, where A is a constant vector.
0.27 Show that in Cartesian coordinates, for any vector A,
Ñ ´ (Ñ2A) = Ñ2 (Ñ ´ A)
0.28 If A = r f (r) represents a vector field, then show that
(a) Ñ × A = 0, provided f (r) = C/r2, where C is a constant
(b) Ñ ´ A = 0, for all A.
0.29 Find Ñ ´ (A ´ r/r3), where A is a constant vector and r is the radius vector.
0.30 The vector A is everywhere perpendicular to and directed away from a given straight line.
Hence, find Ñ ´ A.
1
0.31 Show that d (kx) = d (x), where k is any non-zero constant.
|k |
0.32 Evaluate the following integrals:
6
∫ (3x − 2 x − 1) δ ( x − 3) dx
2
(a)
2
5
(b)
∫ cos x δ ( x − π ) dx
0
3
(c)
∫x δ ( x + 1) dx
3
+2
(d) ∫ (2 x + 3) δ (3x) dx
−2
VECTOR ANALYSIS 11
0.33 Evaluate the integral
3) ³ ¹ È i r 2 Ø dv,
A
I= ÔÔ Ô (r
2
Ê r Ú
v
where v is the volume of a sphere of radius R and has its centre at the origin.
I= ÔÔ Ô e v
cr
^ Ê r Ú `
³ ¹ È i r 2 Ø dv,
b
where v is the volume of a sphere of radius R with centre at the origin.

0.35 A point charge Q is located at the point r¢ in the spherical polar coordinate system. Derive the
expression for its electric charge density r (r).
0.36 Write down the expression for the charge density r (r) of an electric dipole which consists of
a point charge -Q at the origin and another point charge +Q at the point a.
ÔÔÔ (r
x r ¹ a a 2 ) E (r a) dv,
2
where a is a fixed vector and its magnitude | a | = a.
Note:
ÔÔÔ
x means integration over the whole space, i.e. all space.
Ô Ô Ô r
r 2 (r ¹ c) c 4 E (r c) dv,
4
I=
v
where v is the volume of a sphere of radius 6 about the origin and c = ix 5 + iy 3 + iz 2 with
magnitude | c | = c.
d
0.39 Show that x {δ ( x)} = − δ ( x) .
dx
0.40 Show that

Ñ × (Ñ ´ A) = 0
by using a combination of Stokes theorem with the divergence theorem.
0.41 Prove vectorially, that for any triangle, the line joining the mid-points of any two sides is
parallel to the third and half its length.
0.42 Show vectorially, that for any quadrilateral the figure obtained by joining the successive mid-
points of its sides is always a parallelogram.
0.43 Given two vectors a and b with the smaller angle between their positive directions being q,
show that
B C
¹ B C
TJO R
B ¹ B
C ¹ C
0.44 From Problem 0.43, prove the identity
B¹B B¹C
B C
¹ B C
B¹C C¹C
0.45 Derive the sine theorem for a plane triangle, from the following vector relationship
c ´ c = c ´ (a + b)
which holds for any triangle and where a, b, c are the vectors representing the three sides BC,
CA and AB respectively of any triangle ABC.
0.46 Prove vectorially that the cosine theorem holds for any triangle.
0.47 By using vector analysis, prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
0.48 Prove vectorially that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.
0.5 SOLUTIONS
0.1 If A = ix 1 + iy 1 + iz 1 and B = ix 1 + iy 2 + iz 3 are two vectors, determine their scalar and
vector products and the angle between them.
Sol. Show that A × (A ´ B) = 0 (Why?)

A × B = (ix 1 + iy 1 + iz 1) × (ix 1 + iy 2 + iz 3)
=1´1+1´2+1´3=1+2+3=6
A ´ B = (ix 1 + iy 1 + iz 1) ´ (ix 1 + iy 2 + iz 3)
⎡i x iy iz ⎤
= ⎢1 1 1⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 2 3 ⎥⎦
= ix (1 ´ 3 - 1 ´ 2) + iy (1 ´ 1 - 1 ´ 3) + iz (1 ´ 2 - 1 ´ 1)
= ix 1 - iy 2 + iz 1
A × B = AB cos q = ( 1 +1 +1
2 2 2
)
12 + 22 + 32 cos θ
= 3 14 cos θ = 42 cos θ = 6
VECTOR ANALYSIS 13
6 6
Hence, cos q = \ q = cos-1
42 7
A × (A ´ B) = (ix 1 + iy 1 + iz 1) × (ix 1 - iy 2 + iz 1)
=1´1-1´2+1´1=0
The vector (A ´ B) is perpendicular to the plane containing the vectors A and B and hence is
perpendicular to the vector A.
\ In this case, cos q = cos p/2 = 0.
0.2 Under what circumstances are the vectors A ´ (B ´ C) and B ´ (A ´ C) equal?

Sol. A = ixAx + iyAy + izAz
B = ixBx + iyBy + izBz
and C = ixCx + iyCy + izCz
\ A ´ (B ´ C) = (ixAx + iyAy + izAz) ´ {ix (ByCz - BzCy) + iy (BzCx - BxCz)
+ iz (BxCy - ByCx)}
= ix{Ay(BxCy - ByCx) - Az(BzCx - BxCz)}
+ iy{Az(ByCz - BzCy) - Ax(BxCy - ByCx)}
+ iz{Ax(BzCx - BxCz) - Ay(ByCz - BzCy)}
= ix{Bx(AxCx + AyCy + AzCz) - Cx(AxBx + AyBy + AzBz)}
+ iy{By(AxCx + AyCy + AzCz) - Cy(AxBx + AyBy + AzBz)}
+ iz{Bz(AxCx + AyCy + AzCz) - Cz(AxBx + AyBy + AzBz)}
= B(A × C) - C(A × B)
Note: The quantities (A × C) and (A × B) in the above brackets, are scalar quantities.
\ A ´ (B ´ C) = B(A × C) - C(A × B)
B ´ (C ´ A) = C(A × B) - A(B × C)
and C ´ (A ´ B) = A(B × C) - B(C × A)
\ A ´ (B ´ C) + B ´ (C ´ A) + C ´ (A ´ B) = 0
Hence, A ´ (B ´ C) + B ´ (C ´ A) = - C ´ (A ´ B)
or A ´ (B ´ C) - B ´ (A ´ C) = - C ´ (A ´ B)
=0
if and only if:
(i) A and B are parallel,
(ii) C is perpendicular to both A and B when A and B are coplanar.
0.3 If V is a scalar function of x and y, show that the divergence of the vector field F = iz ´ grad V
is always zero.
Sol. V = V (x, y)
∂V ∂V
grad V = ix + iy
∂x ∂y
∂V ∂V
iz ´ grad V = iz ´ ix + iz ´ iy
∂x ∂y
∂V ∂V
= iy - ix =F
∂x ∂y
∂ ⎛ ∂V ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂V ⎞
\ div F =
∂x ⎜ − ∂y ⎟ + ∂y ⎜ ∂x ⎟ = 0
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
0.4 Evaluate the divergence of F at the origin for the following:

(a) F = ix x2y2z2 + iy 9 sin y + iz ( y + z)
Sol. (a) F = ix x2y2z2 + iy 9 sin y + iz ( y + z)

\ div F = 2xy2z2 + 9 cos y + 1
Hence, {div F}000 = 0 + 9 × 1 + 1 = 10
\ div F = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
Hence, {div F}000 = 3
\ div F = 2r sin f + 4r sin f + 3r cos f + 7
Hence, {div F}000 = 7
0.5 Find the curl of the following vectors:

(a) A = ix xy + iy yz + iz zx
(b) B = ix y - iy x
VECTOR ANALYSIS 15
Sol. (a) A = ix xy + iy yz + iz zx
ix iy iz
∂ ∂ ∂
\ curl A = = i x (0 − y ) + i y (0 − z ) + i z (0 − x)
∂x ∂y ∂z
xy yz zx
= - ix y - iy z - iz x
(b) B = ix y - iy x
ix iy iz
∂ ∂ ∂
\ curl B = = i x (0 − 0) + i y (0 − 0) + i z (− 1 − 1)
∂x ∂y ∂z
y −x 0
= - iz 2
ir iφ iz
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 1
\ curl C = = {i r (0 − 0) + iφ (0 − 0) + i z ( +2r sin φ + 2r )}
r ∂r ∂φ ∂z r
2r cos φ r⋅r 0
= iz (2 + 2 sin f)
ir iφ iz
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 1
\ curl D =
r ∂r ∂φ ∂z
=
r
{i r (0 − 0) + iφ (0 − 0) + i z (0 − 0)}
0 r (1/ r ) 0
=0
0.6 The potentials of two different two-dimensional electric fields are given by
(a) V = ax2 + (b/y2) (b) V = a/(x2 + y2)
Calculate the field intensity E (= - grad V ) in each case. Sketch the equipotentials V = 1 and
V = 4 in (b), assuming a = 1.
∂V ∂V b
Sol. (a) E = - grad V = - ix - iy , V = ax2 + 2
∂x ∂y y
2b
= - ix 2ax - iy b(- 2y-3) = - ix 2ax + iy
y3
∂V ∂V a
(b) E = - grad V = - ix - iy , V= 2
∂x ∂y x + y2
= - ix{- a(x2 + y2)-2 × 2x} - iy{- a(x2 + y2)-2 × 2y}
2a
= (ix x + iy y)
( x + y 2 )2
2
The two equipotentials V = 1 and V = 4, a = 1 are concentric circles with the centre at the origin
(0, 0) and radii 1 and 2, respectively.
0.7 A charge Q = 1 moves with velocity v through fields E = ix 1 + iy 0 + iz 0 and B = ix 0 +
iy 0 + iz 1. Using the equation F = Q(E + v ´ B), determine the difference between the
directions of the forces acting on Q for the two cases v = 0 and v = ix 1 + iy 1 + iz 1.
Note: Since this is an exercise in vector manipulation, the dimensions of the quantities are
immaterial.
Sol. F1 = 1{i x 1 + i y 0 + i z 0 + 0 (i x 0 + i y 0 + i z 1)}

= ix 1
and F2 = 1{i x 1 + (i x 1 + i y 1 + i z 1) × (i z 1)}
= 1{i x 1 + (− i y 1) + (i x 1) + 0}
= ix 2 - iy 1
The angular displacement between F1 and F2 is q in the -ve y-direction as shown in Fig. 0.3,
where θ = cos−1 ( 5/2).
Fig. 0.3 Forces represented graphically.
0.8 A force F = ix 1 + iy 2 + iz 3 moves a particle from a point (1, 1, 1) to another point (2, 2, 2).
Calculate the work done.
Sol. Work done = Component of the force in the direction of the displacement ´
the length of the displacement (Fig. 0.4)
VECTOR ANALYSIS 17
= Fx (x2 - x1) + Fy ( y2 - y1) + Fz (z2 - z1)

= 1 (2 - 1) + 2 (2 - 1) + 3 (2 - 1)
=1+2+3=6
Fig. 0.4 Force and distance represented in the three-dimensional coordinate system.
0.9 Find a, b, c such that B = ix (2x - 3y + az) + iy (bx + 4y - 5z) + iz (6x + cy + 7z) is irrotational.
Find the scalar function whose gradient is the above vector B.
ix iy iz
∂ ∂ ∂
Sol. curl B = Ñ ´ B =
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 x − 3 y + az bx + 4 y − 5 z 6 x + cy + 7 z
= 0, for B to be irrotational
That is,
ix (c + 5) + iy (a - 6) + iz (b + 3) = 0
\ c = -5, a = 6, b = -3
\ B = ix (2x - 3y + 6z) + iy (- 3x + 4y - 5z) + iz (6x - 5y + 7z)
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
Let B = grad f = Ñf = i x + iy + iz
∂x ∂y ∂z
Hence,
∂φ
= 2x - 3y + 6z \ f = x2 - 3xy + 6zx + f (y, z)
∂x
∂φ
= -3x + 4y - 5z \ f = -3xy + 2y2 - 5yz + g(z, x)
∂y
∂φ 7 2
and = 6x - 5y + 7z \ f = 6zx - 5yz + z + h(x, y)
∂z 2
where f, g, h are constants of integration.
A comparison of the above three expressions indicates that f must be of the same form in all
these three equations.
This is possible only if we choose
7 2
f ( y, z) = 2y2 - 5yz + z
2
7 2
g(z, x) = x2 + 6zx + z
2
h(x, y) = x2 - 3xy + 2y2
7 2
\ f = x2 + 2y2 + z - 3xy - 5yz + 6zx
2
m⋅r
0.10 If y = , where r is the position vector of a field point and m is a constant vector, then
r3
m 3 (m ⋅ r )
prove that ∇ψ = 3 − r.
r r5
Sol. Let m = ix mx + iy my + iz mz
and r = ix x + iy y + iz z,
where mx, my and mz are constants.
\ m × r = mx x + my y + mz z
m⋅r mx x + m y y + mz z
\ = =y
r3 ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ
\ Ñy = i x + iy + iz
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ψ mx ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 − ( mx x + m y y + mz z ) (3 / 2) ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/ 2 ⋅ 2 x
=
∂x ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3
mx 3 ( mx x + m y y + mz z ) x
= −
(x + y + z )
2 2 2 3/ 2
( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )5/ 2
VECTOR ANALYSIS 19
Similarly,
∂ψ my 3 ( mx x + m y y + mz z ) y
= −
∂y (x + y + z )
2 2 2 3/ 2
( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )5 / 2
∂ψ mz 3 ( mx x + m y y + mz z ) z
= −
∂z (x + y + z )
2 2 2 3/ 2
( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )5 / 2
m 3 (m ⋅ r )
\ Ñy = − r
r3 r5
0.11 Cartesian axes are taken within a non-magnetic conductor which carries a steady current density
J which is parallel to the z-axis at every point but may vary with x and y. B is everywhere
perpendicular to the z-axis, and the current distribution is such that Bx = K(x + y)2. Prove that
By = f (x) - K(x + y)2,
where f (x) is a function of x only. Deduce an expression for Jz, the single component of J, and
prove that if Jz is a function of y only, then f (x) = 2Kx2.
[Hint: The relevant Maxwells equations are,
Ñ×B= 0
Ñ ´ H = J,
and the constituent relationship is B = m0H in the concerned medium.]
Sol. B = i x Bx + i y By + i z 0
∂Bx ∂By
Since Ñ × B = 0, we get + =0
∂x ∂y
It is given that Bx = K(x + y)2.
∂B y
\ 2K(x + y) + =0
∂y
\ By must be a function of x and y and hence integrating the above equation with respect to y,
we get
By = -K(x + y)2 + f (x),
where f (x) is the constant of integration.
∂H y ∂H x 1 ⎛ ∂B y ∂Bx ⎞
\ Jz = (curl H)z = − = −
∂x ∂y μ0 ⎜⎝ ∂x ⎟
∂y ⎠
1
= {− 2 K ( x + y) + f ′( x ) − 2 K ( x + y)}
μ0
1
= { f ′( x ) − 4 K ( x + y)}
μ0
If this is a function of y only (as stated in the problem), then
f ¢(x) = 4Kx
or f (x) = 2Kx2 + C
0.12 Water flowing along a channel with sides along x = 0, x = a has a velocity distribution
v(x, z) = iy (x - a/2)2 z2
A small freely rotating paddle wheel with its axis parallel to the z-axis is inserted into the fluid
as illustrated below. Will the paddle wheel rotate? What are the relative rates of rotation at the
points (a) x = a/4, z = 1; (b) x = a/2, z = 1; and (c) x = 3a/4, z = 1? Will the paddle wheel rotate
if its axis is parallel to the x- or y-axis?
Fig. 0.5 Rotating paddle wheel suspended in the water channel.
ix iy iz
∂ ∂ ∂
Sol. curl v = Ñ ´ v =
∂x ∂y ∂z
0 ( x − a /2) 2 z 2 0
= i x {0 − 2 z ( x − a /2) } + i y {0 − 0} + i z {2( x − a / 2) z − 0}
2 2
Hence, there will be no rotation of the paddle wheel when its axis is parallel to y-axis, i.e. along
the direction of flow of water in the channel. When the axis of the paddle wheel is parallel to
the z-axis (Fig. 0.5):
(a) Rotation µ 2 (x - a/2)z2, x = a/4, z = 1 \ Rotation µ 2 (- a/4) × 1, i.e. µ - a/2
(b) x = a/2, z = 1 \ Rotation µ 2(a/2 - a/2) × 1, i.e. µ 0
(c) x = 3a/4, z = 1 \ Rotation µ 2(3a/4 - a/2) × 1, i.e. µ +a/2.
0.13 The direction of the vector A is radially outwards from the origin, and its magnitude is krn,
where
r 2 = x 2 + y2 + z 2
Find the value of n for which div A = 0.
VECTOR ANALYSIS 21
Sol. Given | A | = krn

\ A = rkrn-1
Hence, A = ix kxrn-1 + iy kyrn-1 + iz kzrn-1, since the vector r = ix x + iy y + iz z.
⎧∂ ∂ ∂ ⎫
\ Ñ × A = k ⎨ ( xr n −1 ) + ( yr n −1 ) + ( zr n −1 ) ⎬ = 0 (the required condition)
⎩ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭
Ñ × A = 0, when
{ r n −1 + x (n − 1) r n − 2
∂r
∂x }
⎧
+ ⎨r n −1 + y (n − 1) r n − 2
⎩
∂r ⎫
∂y ⎭ {
n −1
⎬ + r + z (n − 1) r
n − 2 ∂r
∂z}= 0
From r2 = x2 + y2 + z2, we have
∂r ∂r ∂r
2r = 2 x, 2 r = 2 y , 2r = 2z
∂x ∂y ∂z
\ The above equation becomes
3r n −1 + ( n − 1) r n − 2 ⎛⎜ x ⋅ + y ⋅ + z ⋅ ⎞⎟ = 0
x y z
⎝ r r r ⎠
or 3rn-1 + (n - 1) r n-3 (x2 + y2 + z2) = 0
or 3rn-1 + (n - 1) r n-3 + 2 = 0
\ 3 + (n - 1) = 0, since r n-1 ¹ 0
Hence, n = -2.
dA
0.14 If the vector A has constant magnitude, then show that the vectors A and are perpendicular,
dt
dA
provided ¹ 0.
dt
Sol. Since A has constant magnitude
A × A = constant
d dA dA dA
\ (A × A) = A × + × A = 2A × =0
dt dt dt dt
dA dA
Now, since ¹ 0, the vectors A and are orthogonal (perpendicular).
dt dt
0.15 A point P moves so that its position vector r, relative to another point O satisfies the equation
dr
= w ´ r,
dt
where w is a constant vector. Prove that P describes a circle with constant velocity.
dr
Sol. The vector (- velocity vector) is perpendicular to the plane containing w and r, and
dt
dr
hence is perpendicular to the vector r.
dt
dr d
\ r× = 0 or (r × r) = 0.
dt dt
dr
Since ¹ 0, r × r = constant and therefore r will be a constant magnitude vector.
dt
dr
Since is perpendicular to r, the locus of r is a circle, i.e. the point P moves along a circle.
dt
Also, since w is a constant vector and r has constant magnitude, the velocity of P will also be
constant.
0.16 Show that the time-derivative of a vector field A moving with a constant velocity
dx dy dz
v = ix + iy + iz = i x vx + i y v y + i z vz
dt dt dt
is given by
dA ∂A
= + v (∇ ⋅ A) − curl ( v × A),
dt ∂t
where vx, vy and vz are constants.
dA dAx dAy dAz

Sol. = ix + iy + iz
dt dt dt dt
dAx ∂Ax ∂Ax dx ∂Ax dy ∂Ax dz

= + + +
dt ∂t ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
∂Ax ∂Ax
= + ( v ⋅ ∇Ax ) = + ( v ⋅ grad Ax )
∂t ∂t
Similarly,
dAy ∂Ay dAz ∂Az
= + ( v ⋅ ∇Ay ) and = + ( v ⋅ grad Az )
dt ∂t dt ∂t
dA ∂A
\ = + ( v ⋅ grad) A
dt ∂t
Next, let us consider
(v × grad)A = ix (v × grad Ax) + iy (v × grad Ay) + iz (v × grad Az)
⎧ ∂Ax ∂Ax ∂Ax ⎫

= i x ⎨v x + vy + vz ⎬
⎩ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭
VECTOR ANALYSIS 23
⎧ ∂Ay ∂Ay ∂Ay ⎫ ⎧ ∂Az ∂Az ∂Az ⎫

+ i y ⎨v x + vy + vz ⎬ + i z ⎨v x + vy + vz ⎬
⎩ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭ ⎩ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭
⎡ ⎧ ∂A ∂Ay ∂Az ⎫ ⎧ ∂Ay ∂Az ⎫ ∂Ax ∂Ax ⎤

\ (v × grad)A = i x ⎢ v x ⎨ x + + ⎬ − vx ⎨ + ⎬ + vy + vz
⎣ ⎩ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭ ⎩ ∂y ∂z ⎭ ∂y ∂z ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎧ ∂A
+ i y ⎢v y ⎨ x +
⎣ ⎩ ∂x
∂Ay ∂Az ⎫
∂y
+ ⎬ − vy
∂z ⎭
∂Az ∂Ax
∂z
+
∂x {
+ vz
∂Ay
∂z
+ vx }
∂Ay ⎤
∂x ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎧ ∂A ∂Ay ∂Az ⎫ ⎧ ∂Ax ∂Ay ⎫ ∂Az ∂Az ⎤

+ i z ⎢vz ⎨ x + + ⎬ − vz ⎨ + ⎬ + vx + vy
⎣ ⎩ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭ ⎩ ∂x ∂y ⎭ ∂x ∂y ⎥⎦
The first bracket in the above three lines is div A = Ñ × A.
⎡ ⎧⎛ ∂Ay ∂Ax ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ax ∂Az ⎞ ⎫

Hence, (v × grad)A = v (Ñ × A) − ⎢ i x ⎨⎜ v x − vy ⎟ − ⎜ vz − vx ⎟⎬
⎣ ⎩⎝ ∂y ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂z ⎠ ⎭
⎧⎛ ∂Az ∂Ay ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ay ∂Ax ⎞ ⎫

+ i y ⎨⎜ v y − vz ⎟ − ⎜ vx − vy ⎟⎬
⎩⎝ ∂z ∂ z ⎠ ⎝ ∂ x ∂x ⎠ ⎭
⎧ ∂Ax ∂Az ⎞ ⎛ ∂Az ∂Ay ⎞ ⎫⎤

+ i z ⎨⎛⎜ v z − vx ⎟ − ⎜ vy − vz ⎟⎬
⎩⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ∂y ⎠ ⎭⎦⎥
⎡ ⎧∂ ∂ ⎫
= v (Ñ × A) − ⎢ i x ⎨ (v x Ay − v y Ax ) − (v z Ax − v x Az ) ⎬
⎣ ⎩ ∂y ∂z ⎭
+ iy { ∂
∂z
(v y Az − v z Ay ) −
∂
∂x
(v x Ay − v y Ax )}
⎧∂ ∂ ⎫⎤
+ i z ⎨ (v z Ax − v x Az ) − (v y Az − v z Ay ) ⎬ ⎥
⎩ ∂x ∂y ⎭⎦
= v (Ñ × A) - Ñ ´ (v ´ A)
dA ∂A
Hence, = + v (Ñ × A) - Ñ ´ (v ´ A)
dt ∂t
0.17 A point P as shown below has the velocity given by
dr dG
v ir iG r
dt dt
in a cylindrical polar coordinate system.
Fig. 0.6 A moving point in a cylindrical polar coordinate system.
Show that its acceleration is

Î d 2r dG 2 Þ Î d 2G dr d G Þ
i r Ï 2 r È Ø ß iG
dv
Ê dt Ú Ñà Ïr 2 2 ß
dt ÑÐ dt Ð dt dt dt à
where
dG Ø 2
rÈ is the centripetal acceleration, and
Ê dt Ú
dr d G
2 is the Coriolis acceleration.
dt dt
Note: Here, the unit vectors ir and if are also functions of time and not absolute constants as
in a rectangular Cartesian system, and hence during the differentiation operations, they should
be treated as such.
Sol. As the point P moves from P to P¢ (Fig. 0.7) in the time interval dt,
r(t) (= OP) ® r(t + dt) (= OP¢) = r(t) + dr
and f (t) (= ÐxOP) ® f (t + dt) (= ÐxOP¢) = f (t) + df
y iv(t)
ir(t+dt)
iv(t+dt)
ir(t)
P¢
r(t + dt) iv(t) ir(t)
P
r(t)
dv v(t + dt)
v(t)
x
O
Fig. 0.7 The representation of the point P.

VECTOR ANALYSIS 25
It should be noted that ir has moved through an angle Ðdf to ir(t + dt).
\ Change in ir = if df
At the same time, if has moved through an angle Ðdf.
\ Change in if = - ir df (The negative sign indicates that the change is in the direction of
decreasing r.)
di r δφ dφ
\ = lim iφ = iφ
dt δ t →0 δt dt
diφ δφ dφ
and = lim − i r = − ir
dt δ t →0 δt dt
dv di r dr d 2 r diφ dφ d ⎛ dφ ⎞
\ = + ir 2 + r + iφ ⎜r ⎟
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt ⎝ dt ⎠
d φ dr d 2r dφ ⎞ ⎛ dφ ⎞ ⎛ dr d φ d 2φ ⎞
= iφ + i r 2 + ⎛⎜ − i r ⎟ ⎜r ⎟ + iφ ⎜ +r 2 ⎟
dt dt dt ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt dt dt ⎠
⎪⎧ d 2 r ⎛ dφ ⎞ ⎪⎫ + i ⎧r d φ + 2 dr dφ ⎫
2 2
= ir ⎨ 2 − r ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ φ ⎨ ⎬
⎪⎩ dt ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎩ dt
2
dt dt ⎭
0.18 Prove that

p ´ {(a ´ q) ´ (b ´ r)} + q ´ {(a ´ r) ´ (b ´ p)} + r ´ {(a ´ p) ´ (b ´ q)} = 0.
Sol. In Problem 0.2, we have seen that for any three vectors p, q and r, the following vector
identity holds:
p ´ (q ´ r) + q ´ (r ´ p) + r ´ (p ´ q) = 0
If, in the terms of the above identity, the second vector quantity in each term is replaced by a
normal vector whose magnitude will be a constant multiple, i.e. q in the first term by (a ´ q),
r in the second term by (a ´ r) and p in the third term by (a ´ p) and similarly, the third vector
quantities, i.e. r in the first quantity, p in the second quantity and q in the third quantity are
replaced by b ´ r, b ´ p and b ´ q respectively, then the above identity still holds, i.e.
p ´ {(a ´ q) ´ (b ´ r)} + q ´ {(a ´ r) ´ (b ´ p)} + r ´ {(a ´ p) ´ (b ´ q)} = 0 Q.E.D.
0.19 In Cartesian coordinates, evaluate the following:
(a) div (SA), where S is a scalar and A is a vector
(b) curl (SA)
(c) curl (grad W), where W is a scalar
(d) div (grad W).
Sol. (a) div (SA), where S is a scalar and A is a vector
A = ix Ax + iy Ay + iz Az
∂ ∂ ∂
\ div (SA) = ( SAx ) + ( SAy ) + ( SAz )
∂x ∂y ∂z
⎧ ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az ⎫ ⎧ ∂S ∂S ∂S ⎫

= S⎨ + + ⎬ + ⎨ Ax + Ay + Az ⎬
⎩ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭ ⎩ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭
⎧ ∂S ∂S ∂S ⎫
= S ⋅ div A + {i x Ax + i y Ay + i z Az } ⋅ ⎨i x + iy + iz ⎬
⎩ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭
= S (Ñ × A) + A × (ÑS)
(b) curl (SA)
ix iy iz
∂ ∂ ∂
curl (SA) =
∂x ∂y ∂z
SAx SAy SAz
∂ ∂ ⎧ ∂A ∂Ay ⎫ ⎧ ∂S ∂S ⎫
{curl ( SA)}x = ( SAz ) − ( SAy ) = S ⎨ z − ⎬ + ⎨ Az − Ay ⎬
∂y ∂z ⎩ ∂y ∂z ⎭ ⎩ ∂y ∂z ⎭
and similarly, for y and z components.
\ curl (SA) = S(curl A) + (grad S) ´ A
(c) curl (grad W)
We have
∂Ω ∂Ω ∂Ω
grad W = i x + iy + iz
∂x ∂y ∂z
ix iy iz
∂ ∂ ∂
\ curl (grad W) =
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Ω ∂Ω ∂Ω
∂x ∂y ∂z
⎧ ∂ 2Ω ∂ 2Ω ⎫ ⎧ ∂ 2Ω ∂ 2Ω ⎫ ⎧ ∂2Ω ∂ 2Ω ⎫
= ix ⎨ − ⎬ + iy ⎨ − ⎬ + iz ⎨ − ⎬
⎩ ∂y∂z ∂z∂y ⎭ ⎩ ∂z ∂x ∂x∂z ⎭ ⎩ ∂x∂y ∂y∂x ⎭
= 0, an identity
(d) div (grad W)
We have
⎧ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎫ ⎧ ∂Ω ∂Ω ∂Ω ⎫
div (grad W) = ⎨i x + iy + iz ⎬ ⋅ ⎨i x + iy + iz ⎬
⎩ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭ ⎩ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭
∂ 2Ω ∂ 2Ω ∂ 2Ω
= + 2 + 2 = ∇2Ω
∂x 2
∂y ∂z
VECTOR ANALYSIS 27
0.20 A vector A is given in cylindrical coordinates by

A = ir 2r cos f + if r
Evaluate the line integral of A around the contour in the z = 0 plane bounded by +x- and
+y-axes and the arc of the circle of radius 1 unit. Check the answer by performing the
appropriate surface integral of curl A.
Sol. In cylindrical coordinates (Fig. 0.8), we have
⎧ 1 ∂Az ∂Aφ ⎫
curl A = i r ⎨
⎩ r ∂ φ
−
∂z
⎬ + iφ
⎭
∂Ar ∂Az
∂ z
−
∂r
i ⎧∂
r ⎩ ∂r {∂A ⎫
+ z ⎨ (rAφ ) − r ⎬
∂φ ⎭ }
Fig. 0.8 The path to be traversed by the vector.
The line integral solution
vÔ A ¹ dl = ∫
OA
+ ∫
AB
+ ∫
BO
OABO
φ =0 r =1 φ =π / 2
r =1 φ =π / 2 r =0
= ∫ (2r cos 0)dr + φ ∫

r =0 =0
1 ⋅ dφ + ∫ (2r cos (π /2))dr
r =1
1 π /2
⎤ ⎤ π
= r ⎥ +φ⎥
2
+ 0 = 1+
⎦⎥ 0 ⎥⎦ 0 2
The surface integral solution

1
curl A = i r (0 − 0) + iφ (0 − 0) + i z (2r + 2r sin φ )
r
= iz 2(1 + sin f)
r =1 φ =π /2
\ ∫ ∫
OABO
(curl A) ⋅ dS = ∫ φ∫
r =0 =0
2(1 + sin φ ) r dr d φ
1 π /2
⎤ ⎤
= r ⎥ (φ − cos φ ) ⎥
2
= 1{(π /2 − 0) − (0 − 1)}
⎦⎥ 0 ⎦⎥ 0
π
= +1
2
0.21 A line integral vÔ

( x 2 y dx 2 xy dy ) is to be evaluated in a counterclockwise direction
(as viewed from the +z-axis) around the perimeter of the rectangle defined by x = ±3, y = ±5.
Obtain the result directly by Stokes theorem.
Sol. The path to be traversed by the vector is shown in Fig. 0.9.
Fig. 0.9 The path to be traversed by the vector.
The line integral solution
vÔ F ¹ dl =
AB
∫ + ∫
BC
+
CD
∫ +
DA
∫
ABCDA
x = +3 y = +5 x = −3 y = −5
y 5 x 3 y 5 x 3
=
³ 2 (3) y dy ³ x ( 5) dx
³ 2 ( 3) y dy
³ x 2 ( 5) dx
2
y 5 x 3 y 5 x 3
+5 –3 –5 +3
y2 Û x3 Û y2 Û x3 Û
= 6 ( 5) (–6) (–5)
2 ÜÝ –5 3 ÜÝ +3 2 ÜÝ +5 3 ÜÝ –3
5 5
= 3(25 - 25) + (-27 - 27) - 3(25 - 25) - (27 + 27)
3 3
VECTOR ANALYSIS 29
5 × 54 5 × 54
= − − = -10 ´ 18 = -180
3 3
The solution by Stokes theorem
In this case, Ax = x2y, Ay = 2xy, Az = 0
\
⎧ ∂A
curl A = i x ⎨ z −
⎩ ∂y
∂Ay ⎫
⎬ + iy
∂z ⎭
∂Ax ∂Az
∂z
−
∂x
+ iz ⎨ {
⎧ ∂Ay ∂Ax ⎫
⎩ ∂x
− ⎬
∂y ⎭ }
= ix 0 + iy 0 + iz(2y - x2)
x = +3 y = +5 x = +3
+5
\ ∫ ∫
ABCDA
(curl A ) ⋅ dS = ∫ ∫
x = −3 y = −5
(2 y − x 2 ) dy dx = ∫
x = −3
dx ⎡⎣ y 2 − x 2 y ⎤⎦
−5
x 3
10 3 Û 3 10 54
=
x
Ô 3
(0 10 x 2 ) dx
3
x Ü
Ý 3

3
180
0.22 A vector field F is expressed in Cartesian coordinates as

F = ix x2yz + iy y2zx + iz z2xy
Evaluate the surface integral of F over the surface of the box bounded by the planes x = 0,
x = 1, y = 0, y = 1, z = 0, z = 1. Verify the answer by using the divergence theorem and
performing a volume integration.
Sol. The surface integral of F over the surface of the box (Fig. 0.10) is computed as follows:
Fig. 0.10 Volume of integration.

y =1 z =1
w
ÔÔ F ¹ dS =
∫ ∫ x 2 yz dy dz at x = 0 and x = 1
S y =0 z =0
z =1 x =1
+ ∫ ∫
z =0 x =0
y 2 zx dz dx at y = 0 and y = 1
x =1 y =1
+ ∫ ∫
x=0 y =0
z 2 xy dx dy at z = 0 and z = 1
1 1 1
y2 z 2 ⎤
1
⎤ z 2 x2 ⎤ ⎤
1
x2 y2 ⎤ ⎤
1
= −0+ ⎥ ⎥ −0+ ⎥ ⎥ −0+ ⎥ ⎥

2 ⋅ 2 ⎦ y =0 ⎥ 2 ⋅ 2 ⎦ z=0 ⎥ 2 ⋅ 2 ⎦x=0 ⎥
⎦ z=0 ⎦x=0 ⎦ y =0
3
=
4
Divergence theorem solution
We have
∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz

div F = + + = 2xyz + 2yzx + 2zxy = 6xyz
∂x ∂y ∂z
1 1 1
\ ∫∫∫ (div F) dv =
∫ ∫ ∫ 6 xyz dx dy dz
v x =0 y =0 z =0
1
1
⎤
x2 y2 z 2 ⎤ ⎤ ⎥
1
3
= 6⋅ ⎥ ⎥ =
2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⎦ x =0 ⎥ ⎥ 4
⎦ y =0 ⎦ z =0
0.23 A vector field expressed in cylindrical coordinates is given by

F = ir r cos f if r sin f
Evaluate the surface integral of F over the following surfaces:
(a) The box bounded by the planes z = 0, z = l and the cylinder r = a.
(b) The box bounded by the planes x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, z = l and the cylinder r = a.
Sol. (a) The surface integral of F over the surface bounded by the planes z = 0, z = l, and the
cylinder r = a, shown in Fig. 0.11, is computed as follows:
VECTOR ANALYSIS 31
w
ÔÔ F ¹ dS = ∫ ∫ F ⋅ dS + ∫ ∫ F ⋅ dS + ∫ ∫ F ⋅ dS
S z =0 z =l r =a
2π a 2π a 2π z =l
=
φ
∫ ∫
=0 r =0
F ⋅ dS +
φ
∫ ∫
=0 r =0
F ⋅ dS +
φ
∫ ∫
=0 z =0
F ⋅ dS
z =0 z =l r =a
Note: dS (for z = 0) = iz r dr df; dS (for z = l ) = iz r × dr df; dS (for r = a) = ir a df dz, and

ir × iz = 0, ir × if = 0 and ir × ir = 1.
Hence, the first two integrals vanish, giving

2π z =l
w
ÔÔ F ¹ dS = ∫ ∫ (i
φ =0 z =0
r r cos φ − iφ r sin φ ) ⋅ i r a dφ ⋅ dz
S
r =a
2π
2π
= a 2l ∫ cos φ dφ = a l ⋅ sin φ ⎤⎦ = a 2 l (0 − 0) = 0
2
φ =0
φ =0
By volume integral in cylindrical coordinates, we get

div F = S'S
'G '[
S S S G [
In this case, Fr = r cos f, Ff = -r sin f, Fz = 0
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 1
\ div F = (r cos φ ) + ( − r sin φ ) = ⋅ 2r cos φ − ⋅ r cos φ
r ∂r r ∂φ r r
= cos f
Hence, from Fig. 0.12

l 2π a
∫∫∫ (div F) dv =
∫ φ ∫ ∫ cos φ ⋅ r dr dφ dz
v z =0 =0 r =0
a 2π
⎡ r2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ a2
= l⋅⎢ ⎥ ⎢sin φ ⎥ = l⋅ (0 − 0) = 0
⎣ 2 ⎦0 ⎣ ⎦0 2
(b) F = ir r cos f - if r sin f
w
ÔÔ F ¹ dS = ∫ ∫ F ⋅ dS + ∫ ∫ F ⋅ dS + ∫ ∫ F ⋅ dS + ∫ ∫ F ⋅ dS + ∫ ∫ F ⋅ dS
S x=0 y=0 z =0 z =l r =a
On x = 0, dS = ix dr dz and f = p/2.
Note that on this plane, ix is perpendicular to ir.
\ F × dS = (ir r cos f - if r sin f) × ix dr dz
= ir × ix r cos(p/2) dr dz - if × ix r sin(p/2) dr dz
= 0 - r dr dz ( if × ix = +1)
On y = 0, dS = iy dr dz and f = 0.
\ F × dS = (ir r cos 0 - if r sin 0) × iy dr dz
= ir × iy r dr dz = 0 ( ir × iy = 0)
VECTOR ANALYSIS 33
On z = 0, dS = iz r dr df \ F × dS = 0, since ir × iz = 0 and if × iz = 0
On z = l, dS = iz r dr df \ F × dS = 0
On r = a, dS = ir a df dz
\ F × dS = (ir a cosf - if a sin f) × ir a df dz
= a2 cosf df dz - 0
[ M S B [ M G Q
\ w
ÔÔ F ¹ dS = Ô Ô S ES E[ Ô GÔ B DPT G EG E[ ÔÔ ÔÔ ÔÔ

S [ S [
Y S B
π /2
2 a ⎤
r ⎤ a 2l a2l
= − l ⎥ + a l sin φ ⎥ = − + a 2l =
2
2 ⎦0 ⎦⎥ 0 2 2
By volume integral, we have
z = l π /2 r = a
∫∫ ∫ (div F) dv = ∫ ∫ ∫
z =0 φ =0 r =0
cos φ ⋅ r dr dφ dz
v
π /2 a
⎤ r2 ⎤ a2l
= l ⋅ sin φ ⎥ ⎥ =
⎦0 2 ⎦0 2
0.24 By decomposing a tetrahedron whose vertices are (0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) into
laminae parallel to the face opposite to the origin or otherwise, show that the volume integral
∫∫∫ f ( x, y, z ) dv
taken over the volume of the tetrahedron is given by

1
1
∫λ f (λ ) d λ
2
2
0
Hence, evaluate w
ÔÔ A ¹ dS taken over the surface of the tetrahedron, if A = i x x2 + iy y2 + iz z2.
Note: The volume of the tetrahedron with one vertex at the origin and the other three points at
(xi, yi, zi), where i = 1, 2, 3, is given by
x1 y1 z1
1
v= x2 y2 z2
6
x3 y3 z3
Sol. In this case, let us consider the tetrahedron to be made up of strips parallel to the plane
x + y + z = 1, i.e. elemental strips between the planes x + y + z = l and x + y + z = l + dl,
where l < 1. See Fig. 0.13.
Fig. 0.13 Total volume and its elements for integration.
\ Volume of the elemental strip,

dv = Volume of the tetrahedron of base x + y + z = l + dl
- Volume of the tetrahedron of base x + y + z = l
λ + dλ 0 0 λ 0 0
1 1
= 0 λ + dλ 0 − 0 λ 0
6 6
0 0 λ + dλ 0 0 λ
1 1 1
= (l + dl)3 - l3 l 3l2dl (neglecting higher degree terms in dl)
6 6 6
1 2
\ dv = l dl
2
Hence,
λ =1 1
∫∫∫
1 1
f ( x + y + z ) dv =
∫ f (λ ) λ 2 d λ = ∫λ f (λ ) d λ
2
2 2
λ=0 0
\ w
ÔÔ A ¹ dS
S
= ∫∫∫ (div A) dv
v
where v is the volume enclosed by the closed surface S, which in this case happens to be the
specified tetrahedron.
Now, A = ix x2 + iy y2 + iz z2
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az

\ div A = + + = 2(x + y + z)
∂x ∂y ∂z
\ f (x + y + z) = 2(x + y + z)
VECTOR ANALYSIS 35
1
1 1
∫∫∫ ∫ 2λ ⋅ 2λ d λ =
2
\ f ( x + y + z ) dv =
4
v 0
1
Hence, w
ÔÔ A ¹ dS
S
=
4
0.25 By transforming to a triple integral, evaluate
w
ÔÔ ( x dy dz x y dz dx x 2 z dx dy ),
3 2
I=
S
where S is the closed surface consisting of the cylinder x2 + y2 = a2 (0 £ z £ b) and the circular
discs z = 0, z = b, and (x2 + y2 £ a2).
Sol. We have
A × dS = x3 dy dz + x2y dz dx + x2z dx dy
\ A = ix x3 + iy x2y + iz x2z
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az

\ div A = + + = 3x2 + x2 + x2 = 5x2
∂x ∂y ∂z
Hence, from Fig. 0.14
z =b x = +a y = + a2 − x2
I= ∫∫∫ (div A) dv
v
=
z =0
∫ ∫ x = −a
∫ 5 x 2 dx dy dz
y = − a 2 − x2
Fig. 0.14 Element and the total volume of integration.

z =b x = +a y =+ a 2 − x 2
⎧⎪ ⎫⎪
= 5 ∫
z =0
dz
x =− a
∫
dx ⎨ x 2 y ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎪⎭ y =− a 2 − x2
z =b x = +a
= 5
∫
z =0
dz ⋅ ∫
x = −a
2 x 2 a 2 − x 2 dx
z =b x = +a
⎧ x a2 ⎛ −1 x ⎞ ⎫
\ I = 10
∫ dz ⎨− ( a 2 − x 2 )3 + ⎜ x a − x + a sin
2 2 2
⎟⎬
⎩ 4 8 ⎝ a ⎠⎭
0 x = −a
z =b
= 10
∫
z =0
⎡1 a
dz ⎢
⎣4 4
{ a
×0− ×0 +
4
a2
8 } {
⎤
a × 0 − a × 0 + a 2 sin −1 1 − a 2 sin −1 ( − 1) ⎥
⎦
}
{ }
z =b z =b
π ⎛ π ⎞ 2 a2 π a4
= 10
∫
z =0
dz − ⎜− ⎟ a ⋅
2 ⎝ 2⎠ 8
= 10 ⋅
8 ∫ dz
z =0
5 4
= pa b
4
0.26 If r is the radius vector from the origin of the coordinate system to any point, then show that
(a) Ñ × r = 3,
(b) Ñ (A × r) = A, where A is a constant vector.
Sol. (a) r = ix x + iy y + iz z
\ Ñ × r = div r = Ñ × (ix x + iy y + iz z)
∂x ∂y ∂z
= + + =1+1+1=3
∂x ∂y ∂z
(b) Since A is a constant vector,
A = ix Ax + iy Ay + iz Az, where Ax, Ay and Az are constants.
\ A × r = (ix Ax + iy Ay + iz Az) × (ix x + iy y + iz z)
= xAx + yAy + zAz
\ Ñ (A × r) = grad (A × r)
⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞
= ⎜ ix + iy + iz ( xAx + yAy + zAz )
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠⎟
= ix Ax + iy Ay + iz Az
=A
VECTOR ANALYSIS 37
0.27 Show that in Cartesian coordinates, for any vector A,

Ñ × (Ñ2A) = Ñ2 (Ñ × A)
Sol. In Cartesian coordinates, a vector A is written as
A = ix Ax + iy Ay + iz Az
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az

\ Ñ×A= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
and Ñ2A = ix Ñ2Ax + iy Ñ2Ay + iz Ñ2Az
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
where Ñ2 º + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
\ L.H.S. = Ñ × (Ñ2A) = div (Ñ2A)
⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞
= ⎜ ix + iy + iz ⋅ (i x ∇ 2 Ax + i y ∇ 2 Ay + i z ∇ 2 Az )
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠⎟
∂ ∂ ∂
= (∇ 2 Ax ) + (∇ 2 Ay ) + (∇ 2 Az )
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 ⎛ ∂Ax ⎞ 2 ⎛ ∂Ay ⎞ ⎛ ∂Az ⎞

= ∇ ⎜ ⎟+∇ ⎜ ⎟+∇
2
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ⎠
(interchanging the order of operations)
2 ⎛ ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az ⎞

= ∇ ⎜ + + ⎟
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
= Ñ2 (Ñ × A)
0.28 If A = rf (r) represents a vector field, then show that

(a) Ñ × A = 0, provided f (r) = C/r2, where C is a constant
(b) curl A = 0, for all A.
Sol. Given A = r f (r) = ir r f (r) + if 0 + iz 0
\ In cylindrical coordinates,
Ar ∂Ar 1 ∂Aφ ∂Az
(a) Ñ×A = + + +
r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
Ar ∂Ar
= + (since Af = 0, Az = 0)
r ∂r
r ¹ f (r )
= {r f (r)} (since Ar = r f (r))
r r
= f (r) + f (r) + r f ¢(r) = 2f (r) + r f ¢(r) = 0, as required
\ The required condition is

2 d
f ¢(r) = − f (r ) = f (r )
r dr
df (r ) 2dr
\ = − or ln f (r) = -2 ln r + C1
f (r ) r
= ln r-2 + C1 = ln Cr-2
C
\ f (r) =
r2
ir riG iz
1
(b) curl A =
r r G z
r f (r ) 0 0
= ir 0 + if 0 + iz 0
Hence, curl A = 0 for all A.
0.29 Find Ñ × (A ´ r/r3), where A is a constant vector and r is the radius vector.
Sol. A = ir Ar + if Af + iz Az
r = ir r
r i
3
= r2
r r
r È 1Ø
\ A´ = (ir Ar + if Af + iz Az) ´ ir
r 3 Ê r2 Ú
È AG Ø ÈA Ø
= 0 + (if ´ ir) É 2 Ù + (iz ´ ir) É 2z Ù
Êr Ú Êr Ú
È AG Ø ÈA Ø
= - iz É 2 Ù + if É 2z Ù
Êr Ú Êr Ú
³ ¹ È A 3 Ø = div È A 3 Ø
r r
Hence,
Ê r Ú Ê r Ú
1 ∂ ⎛ Az ⎞ ∂ ⎛ − Aφ ⎞
=0+0+ ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟
r ∂φ ⎝ r 2 ⎠ ∂z ⎝ r 2 ⎠
= 0, since A is a constant vector.
0.30 The vector A is everywhere perpendicular to and directed away from a given straight line.
Hence, find Ñ × A.
VECTOR ANALYSIS 39
Sol. Without any loss of generality (and to simplify the mathematics), let the given line be
x-axis of our coordinate system, i.e. the given line is y = 0.
Since, the vector A is perpendicular to this line y = 0 and is directed away from it, we can
assume it to be parallel to y-axis and directed in its positive direction (without any loss of
generality).
\ A has y-component only, i.e.
A = iy A
∂A
\ div A = Ñ × A =
∂y
1
0.31 Show that d (kx) = d (x), where k is any non-zero constant.
|k|
Sol. For any arbitrary normal function f (x), let us consider the integral
+∞
∫
−∞
f ( x) δ ( kx ) dx
y 1
Let us substitute y = kx, so that x = and dx = dy.
k k
Note: If k is positive, then the limits of integration will be -¥ to +¥. But if k is negative, then
the limits of integration will be +¥ to -¥, i.e. a sign reversal.
+∞ +∞
f ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ δ ( y ) d y = ± f (0) =
y 1 1 1
\
∫
−∞
f ( x) δ (kx) dx = ± ∫
−∞
⎝k⎠ k k |k |
f (0)
⎛ 1 ⎞
Thus, under the integral sign, d (kx) serves the same purpose as ⎜ ⎟ δ ( x).
⎝|k |⎠
1
\ d (kx) = d (x)
|k|
and hence,
+∞ +∞
⎧ 1 ⎫
∫
−∞
f ( x) δ (kx) dx = ∫
−∞
f ( x) ⎨
⎩| k |
δ ( x) ⎬ dx
⎭
0.32 Evaluate the following integrals:

6 5
(a) ∫
2
(3x 2 − 2 x − 1) δ ( x − 3) dx (b) ∫ cos x ⋅ δ ( x − π ) dx
0
3 +2
(c) ∫
0
x3 δ ( x + 1) dx (d) ∫ (2 x + 3) δ (3x) dx
−2
∫ (3x − 2 x − 1) δ ( x − 3) dx = I
2
Sol. (a)
2
Here, f (x) = 3x2 - 2x - 1 and the d-function is located at x = 3, which lies within the limits of
integration 2 to 6.
\ I = f (3) = 3 × 32 - 2 × 3 - 1 = 27 - 6 - 1 = 20
5
(b) ∫ cos x ⋅ δ ( x − π ) dx = I
0
In this case, f (x) = cos x and the d-function is located at x = p, which lies within the limits of
integration 0 to 5.
\ I = f (p) = cos p = -1
3
∫x δ ( x + 1) dx = I
3
(c)
0
Here, f (x) = x3, and the d-function is located at x = -1, which is outside the limits of integration
0 to 3.
\ I = f (-1) = 0
+2
(d)
∫ (2 x + 3) δ (3x) dx = I
−2
From Problem 0.31,

2
1
I= ∫ (2 x + 3) δ (3x) dx = 3 ∫ (2 x + 3) δ ( x) dx
−2
Here, f (x) = 2x + 3 and the d-function is located at the origin x = 0.

1 1
\ I= f (0) = (2 ´ 0 + 3) = 1
3 3
+ 3) ∇ ⋅ ⎛⎜ i r 2 ⎞⎟ dv,
A
∫∫∫ (r
2
I=
⎝ r ⎠
v
where v is the volume of a sphere of radius R and has its centre at the origin.
Sol. First method (using the delta function)
This is a problem of three-dimensional delta function in spherical polar coordinates and the
divergence of the vector is
³ ¹ È i r 2 Ø = 4pÿ A d (r)
A
Ê r Ú
VECTOR ANALYSIS 41
+ 3) ∇ ⋅ ⎛⎜ i r 2 ⎞⎟ dv = 4π A (0 + 3) = 12π A
A
\ I=
∫∫∫ (r
2
⎝ r ⎠
v
since the spike of the delta function is located at the origin.
Second method (without using the delta function)
The divergence of the product of a scalar s and a vector P can be expanded as
Ñ × (sP) = s(Ñ × P) + P × (Ñs)
Integrating this over a volume v and using the divergence theorem, we get
Ô Ô Ô ³ ¹ (sP) dv Ô Ô Ô s(³ ¹ P) Ô Ô Ô P ¹ (³s) dv w

v v
ÔÔ (sP) ¹ da,
v S
where S is the closed surface enclosing the volume v.
\ Ô Ô Ô s(³ ¹ P) dv
v
Ô Ô Ô P ¹ (³s) dv w
v
ÔÔ (sP) ¹ da
S
In this case, s = (r2 + 3) and Ñ × P = ³ ¹ È i r 2 Ø

A
Ê r Ú
A
\ Ñs = ir 2r and P = ir
r2
2 2A 2
\ ∫∫∫ P ⋅ (∇s) dv
v
=
∫∫∫ r
A dv = ∫∫∫ r
r sin θ dr dθ dφ
v v
= 2 A 4π ∫ r dr = 4π AR
2
On the boundary of the sphere, r = R.

\ da = ir R2 sin q dq df
A 2
\ The surface integral =
w
ÔÔ (R 3) R sin R dR d G
2
R2
S
= A(R2 + 3)(4p)
\ I = -4pR2A + 4pA(R2 + 3) = 12pA
This solution is far more cumbersome than the one-line solution obtained by using the delta
function.
0.34 Evaluate
I= ∫∫∫ e
v
− cr
{ ⎝ r ⎠ }
∇ ⋅ ⎛⎜ i r 2 ⎞⎟ dv,
b
where v is the volume of a sphere of radius R with its centre at the origin.
Sol. This again is a three-dimensional delta function problem.
∫∫∫ e
− cr
\ I= 4π b δ (r ) dv
v
= 4p b × e-c ´ 0 = 4p b
The second method of solving this problem without using the delta function is very similar to
that of the Problem 0.33 and is left as an exercise for the readers.
0.35 A point charge Q is located at the point r ¢ in the spherical polar coordinate system. Derive the
expression for its electric charge density r (r).
Sol. This is a three-dimensional delta function problem.
\ r (r) = Qd (r - r¢)
0.36 Write down the expression for the charge density r (r) of an electric dipole which consists of
a point charge -Q at the origin and another point charge +Q at the point a.
Sol. This is again a three-dimensional delta function problem.
\ r (r) = -Qd (r) + Qd (r - a)
ÔÔÔ (r
x r ¹ a a 2 ) E (r a) dv,
2
where a is a fixed vector and its magnitude | a | = a.
Note:
ÔÔÔ
x means integration over the whole space, i.e. all space.
Sol. This is also a three-dimensional delta function integral, and we have
ÔÔÔ
x f (r ) E (r a) dv f (a )
Here, f (r) = r2 + r × a + a2
and f (a) = a2 + a2 + a2 = 3a2
\ ÔÔÔ (r
x r ¹ a a 2 ) E (r a) dv
2
f ( a) 3a 2
I= ∫∫∫ {r }
+ r 2 (r ⋅ c) + c 4 δ (r − c) dv,
4
v
where v is the volume of a sphere of radius 6 about the origin and c = ix 5 + iy 3 + iz 2 and its
magnitude | c | = c.
Sol. This is again a three-dimensional delta function integration problem, and we use the same
integral as before, i.e.
∫∫∫ v
f ( r ) δ (r − c) dv = f (c)
VECTOR ANALYSIS 43
Here f (r) = r4 + r2(r × c) + c4 and f (c) = c4 + c4 + c4 = 3c4 and the numerical value of
c = (52 + 32 + 2 2 ) = 38 = 6.1644.
Since the volume of integration is a sphere of radius 6 with its centre at the origin, the spike of
the delta function lies outside the volume of integration.
\ I=0
d
0.39 Show that x {δ ( x)} = − δ ( x) .
dx
Sol. Consider integration by parts, i.e.
d(uv) = u dv + v du (i)
\ u dv = d(uv) - v du
In the present problem, we have
d
u = x, dv = {d (x)}
dx
\ v = d (x) (ii)
\ From (i), we get
d
x× {d (x)} = d{xd (x)} - {d (x)} × 1
dx
If f (x) is an ordinary function, i.e. not a delta function, then
f (x) d (x) = f (0) × d (x)
\ Integrating over the whole range, we obtain
+∞ +∞
−∞
∫ f ( x) δ ( x) dx = f (0) ∫ δ ( x) dx =
−∞
f (0)
In the present problem, we have f (x) = x.

\ f (0) = 0
Hence the above integral is zero.
\ From (ii), by integrating and then equating the integrands, we get
d
x⋅ {δ ( x)} = − δ ( x)
dx
0.40 Show that
Ñ × (Ñ ´ A) = 0
by using a combination of Stokes theorem with the divergence theorem.
Sol. 1. Stokes theorem: For any vector A
ÔÔ ³ " ¹ E 4 vÔ " ¹ EM
4

where S is the surface enclosed by the closed contour C.

2. Divergence theorem: For any vector B {or even A},
ÔÔÔ ³ ¹ #
W

EW ÔÔ # ¹ E4
w
4D
where Sc is a closed surface enclosing the volume v.

Note: The validity of this theorem is dependent on having the vector B, having continuous
first derivatives throughout v and over Sc, Sc being a closed surface.
In order to combine the derivation of these two theorems, let us make the vector B to be
B=ÑÁ
Then, by Stokes theorem
ÔÔ ³ " ¹ E 4 vÔ " ¹ EM
4

$
(i)
where C is the closed curve and S is the open surface enclosed by the closed curve C.
Now, by Divergence theorem
ÔÔÔ \³ ¹ ³ "
ÊW w
W
ÔÔ ³ "
¹ E4
4D
(ii)
where Sc is the closed surface enclosing the volume v.

The integrand of the right-hand side of Eq. (ii) is same as the integrand of the left-hand side of
Eq. (i).
In Eq. (i), this integrand has been integrated over an open surface S, whereas in Eq. (ii), it has
been integrated over a closed surface Sc.
Hence it is justifiable to argue that Stokes theorem holds for every and any section S
obtained by slicing the closed surface Sc.
So the divergence theorem for this integrand holds for any closed surface Sc obtained by
rotating S about any axis lying in the plane of S and intersecting it.
In the process of this rotation, the direction of outward normal of S would reverse its sign
(i.e. +ve to ve and vice versa) and its contribution to the integral during the second-half of
rotation would be of opposite sign (but of equal magnitude) from that of the first half-part of
rotation.
\ Irrespective of the shape of Sc and S, the right-hand integral of Eq. (ii) will always be zero.
Since, in general v is not zero, on the left-hand side of Eq. (ii), the integrand has to be zero to
fulfil the above condition.
\ Ñ × (Ñ ´ A) = 0
is a vector identity.
0.41 Prove vectorially, that for any triangle, the line joining the mid-points of any two sides is
parallel to the third and half its length.
Sol. Let the sides of the triangle ABC, i.e. BC, CA, AB be represented by the vectors a, b and
c, respectively as shown in Fig. 0.15.
VECTOR ANALYSIS 45
E D
d
c
C B
a
Fig. 0.15 Scalene triangle (represented vectorially).
Then a+b+c=0
and a = (b + c)
The mid-points of the sides CA and AB are E and D, respectively, so that DE represents the
vector d.
From the triangle ADE,

E C D =0

\ E C D
= B
B

\ DE is parallel to BC and half its length.
0.42 Show vectorially, that for any quadrilateral, the figure obtained by joining the successive mid-
points of its sides is always a parallelogram.
Sol. Let the sides of the quadrilateral ABCD be denoted by vectors a, b, c, d as shown in
Fig. 0.16.
Q
a b
P C
f
e
A
R
d c
S
D
Fig. 0.16 Vectorially represented quadrilateral.
Hence a+b+c+d=0 (i)

as the quadrilateral is a closed figure.

The mid-points of the four sides AB, BC, CD and DA are as indicated P, Q, R, S, respectively.
The vectors SP and QR are denoted as e and f, respectively.

Now e = E B

and f= C D

\ e+f=0 [from Eq. (i)]
\ e = f
\ The vectors e and f are parallel and of equal length.
\ The inscribed figure PQRS is a parallelogram.
0.43 Given two vectors a and b with the smaller angle between their positive directions being q,
show that
B C
¹ B C
TJO R
B ¹ B
C ¹ C
Sol. Note that in the numerator, both the terms of the product, i.e. (a ´ b) and (a ´ b) are
vectors, whereas in the denominator the terms (a × a) and (b × b) are both scalars.
Now, the magnitude of (a ´ b) is obtained as
|(a ´ b)| = ab sin q
Also the numerator itself is a scalar, i.e.
(a ´ b) × (a ´ b) = (ab sin q) (ab sin q)
= a2b2 sin2 q
For the denominator,
a × a = a2
and b × b = b2
\ R.H.S of the reqd. expression is
B C
¹ B ¿ C
=
B ¹ B
C ¹ C
BC TJO R
BC TJO R
=
B ¹ C
= sin2 q
0.44 From Problem 0.43, prove the identity
B¹B B¹C
B C
¹ B C
B¹C C¹C
VECTOR ANALYSIS 47
Sol. It has already been shown in Problem 0.43, that the L.H.S. of the above expression is
= (a ´ b) × (a ´ b)
= a2b2 sin2q
It is to be noted that each of the four terms in the right-hand side determinant is a scalar
(obtained by the dot products of the vectors). Their magnitudes are
a × a = a2
b × b = b2
and a × b = ab cos q
\ R.H.S. determinant
B¹B B¹C
=
B¹C C¹C
B BC DPT R
=
BC DPT R C
= a2b2 a2b2 cos2 q = a2b2 (1 cos2 q)

= a2b2 sin2 q = (a ´ b) × (a ´ b)
0.45 Derive the sine theorem for a plane triangle, from the following vector relationship
c ´ c = c ´ (a + b)
which holds for any triangle and where a, b, c are the vectors representing the three sides BC,
CA and AB, respectively of any triangle ABC.
Sol. The sine theorem for any triangle ABC, with angles and sides as shown in Fig. 0.17,
states that
B C D
TJO B TJO C TJO H
This relation has to be proved vectorially.
A
a
b c
g b
C a B
Fig. 0.17 Vectorially represented triangle.
Let the three sides of the triangle, i.e. BC, CA and AB be represented as vectors a, b and c,
respectively. Then, since
a+b+c=0 (i)
we have
c = (a + b) (ii)
Then by cross-multiplying Eq. (ii) with c, we get
c ´ c = c ´ (a + b) (iii)
As cć=0
\ c ´ a =c ´ b = b ´ c
Now, | c ´ a | = ca sin (p b)
= ca sin b
and | b ´ c | = bc sin (p a)
= bc sin a
B C
\ ca sin b = bc sin a or = (iv)
TJO B TJO C
Similarly, by considering a = (b + c), it can be shown that the above ratios are also equal to
D

TJO H
Hence the sine theorem is proved.
0.46 Prove vectorially that the cosine theorem holds for any triangle
Sol. The cosine theorem for any triangle ABC as shown in Fig. 0.18 states that
a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos a
This has to be proved vectorially.
A
a
b c
g b
C a B
Fig. 0.18 Vectorially represented triangle.
Let the three sides of the triangle, i.e. BC, CA and AB be represented as vectors a, b and c,
respectively. Then since
a+b+c=0
VECTOR ANALYSIS 49
we have a = (b + c)
\ a × a = { (b + c)} × { (b + c)} = (b + c) × (b + c)
or a×a=b×b+b×c+c×c+c×b (i)
In Eq. (i), all the products are scalar quantities, that is,
a × a = a2, b × b = b2, c × c = c2
b × c = bc cos (p a) = bc cos a
c × b = bc cos (p a) = bc cos a
\ From Eq. (i),
a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos a
0.47 By using vector analysis, prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
Sol. Parallelogram is a quadrilateral with only opposite sides equal and parallel.
In Fig. 0.19, ABCD is a parallelogram with the side AB equal and parallel to the side CD and
the side BC equal and parallel to the side DA.
a B
A
a1
b1
O b
d
d1 c1
D c C
Fig. 0.19 Vectorially represented parallelogram.
Let the four sides of the parallelogram be represented as vectors a, b, c, d, where the
corresponding sides are AB, BC, CD and DA, respectively
Then a+b+c+d=0
and a =c and b = d
Let the diagonals AC and BD intersect at O.
It has to be proved that O is the mid-point of both AC and BD.
Let the intercepts of the diagonals BO, OA, DO, OC be represented as vectors b1, a1, d1 and c1,
respectively.
Considering the triangles AOB and COD, we have
a + b1 + a1 = 0
and c + d 1 + c1 = 0
Since the vectors a and c (i.e. AB and CD) are parallel, and a1, c1 and b1, d1 are collinear pairs
of vectors, then the Ds AOB and COD are similar triangles.
But a = c
i.e. AB and CD are equal in magnitude (in addition to being parallel)

\ Ds AOB and COD are congruent triangles.
\ AO = CO and BO = OD (in vector terms a1 = c1 and b1 = d1)
i.e. O is the mid-point of both the diagonals or the diagonals bisect each other.
0.48 Prove vectorially that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.
Sol. Rhombus is a parallelogram with all equal sides.
Let the four sides of the rhombus be represented by vectors, i.e. AB, BC, CD, DA are
represented by the vectors a, b, c and d, respectively (Fig. 0.20).
A
a B
f
q
O b
d e
q+f=p
f
C
D c
Fig. 0.20 Vectorially represented rhombus.
In this case,
| a| = | b| = | c| = | d| = L
and a+b+c+d=0
Since AB and BC are respectively parallel to CD and DA,
\ a = c, b = d
It has to be proved that the diagonals AC and BD intersect at right angles.
1st Proof (ab initio):
Let the diagonals CA and DB be represented by the vectors e and f, respectively.
Then from the triangles ABC and BCD, we have
a+b+e=0 and b+c+f= 0
\ e = a b and f = b c
Hence, the cross product of the two vectors e and f will be
e ´ f = ( a b) ´ ( b c)
= ( a) ´ ( b) + ( a) ´ ( c) + ( b) ´ ( b) + ( b) ´ ( c)
Since a and c are || vectors,
\ a ´ c = ( a) ´ ( c) = 0
and also b ´ b = ( b) ´ ( b) = 0
Also, the diagonal CA = | e| = 2L cos q/2, and DB = | f | = 2L sin q/2
\ Algebraic product of their length = ef = 4L2 sin q/2 cos q/2 = 2L sin q
VECTOR ANALYSIS 51
From Fig. 0.20,

| a ´ b| = L2 sin q and |b ´ c| = |L2 sin f| = L2 sin q
Also, note that both the vectors (a ´ b) and (b ´ c) are normal to the plane of the paper, i.e.
directed into it.
\ | e ´ f| = 2L2 sin q
i.e. the magnitude of the vector e ´ f is equal to the algebraic product of the magnitudes of
e and f ,
i.e. the sine of the angle between the vectors e and f = sin ÐAOB = 1 = sin p/2.
\ The diagonals AC and BD are mutually perpendicular.
2nd Proof:
Since the rhombus ABCD is a parallelogram with all equal sides, from Problem 0.47, since its
diagonals bisect each other, we have
AO = OC and BO = OD
\ Considering the triangles ABO and BCO, we have
|AB| = |BC| ® |a| = |b|
|BO| = | f/2| is common to both the triangles
and |AO| = | OC| = | e/2|.
\ The two triangles are congruent and hence BO is A to AC.
Electrostatics I
1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In electrostatics, the starting point is the Coulombs law which gives the force between isolated point
charges, thus forming the basis for defining the electrostatic force on a unit point charge (and hence
defining the E field). This concept of force is then extended to that due to multiplicity of point
charges by using the principle of superposition. This is then further generalized for continuous
distributed charges or charge clouds by the Gauss theorem. The electric field in a region is defined
as the force experienced by a unit charge in that region. It should be noted that the definition of
electric field is such that it is rigorously impossible to measure the field at any point because bringing
an extraneous unit charge to a point would distort the original field at that point.
1.2 ELECTRIC FIELD AND EQUIPOTENTIALS

A highly useful method of visualizing an electric field is by drawing the lines of force and
equipotentials. Conceptually, a line of force is a directed curve in an electric field such that the
forward drawn tangent at any point on the curve has the direction of the E-vector at that point.
Hence, it follows that if ds is an element of this curve, then
ds = lE
where l is a scalar factor. Expressing the components of E in Cartesian coordinates and equating
the values of l, the differential equation of the lines of the force is given by
dx dy dz
= =
Ex Ey Ez
Similar equations can be written in terms of other systems. Equations of the lines of force can
be obtained by integrating these equations, though there are other methods as well which are
comparatively easier. These methods can be explained best by considering some solved problems.
Next, an equipotential surface in an electric field is one at all points of which the potential is
the same.
Since, E = grad V = ÑV,
it follows that V = C,
is the equation of an equipotential surface, where C is a constant. There are often points or lines in
an electrostatic field where an equipotential surface crosses itself at least twice so that at such points
ÑV = 0. These are called neutral points (or lines), or equilibrium points (or lines), or singular points
(or lines).
52
ELECTROSTATICS I 53
1.3 GAUSS THEOREM AND ELECTRIC FLUX

By using Gauss theorem, the flux of the electric field can be obtained for both free space as well as in
regions with uniform dielectric. Gauss theorem gives a relationship between the flux of the electric
field intensity and the charge enclosed in that region, and so the equations for the lines of force can also
be expressed in terms of this flux. The flux coming out normally from the closed surface (or part of this
surface under consideration) would be expressed in terms of the enclosed charge and the solid angle
subtended on the surface under consideration from the location point of the charges.
Note: In ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009,
the solid angle has been defined as
δ S cos α
= solid angle subtended by the charge Qk at d S on S.
r2
= surface of the portion of the sphere of unit radius with its centre at O (where the
charge is located), cut by the cone subtended by d S, with the vertex at O.
In other words, it can also be stated as:
the ratio of the area of the surface of the portion of a sphere enclosed by the conical
surface forming the angle, to the square of the radius of the sphere.
Mathematically, both the above definitions are identical.
The equations of the lines of force, when there is a series of collinear charges, can be obtained
by using this concept of solid angles. Let there be a series of collinear charges Q1, Q2, ..., Qn. The
field due to these charges would have cylindrical symmetry about this line of charges, and hence by
rotating this line, any element of a line of force would form a closed surface such that no line of force
can cross its curved part. Hence, the flux of E across the plane circle at P is same as that across the
circle at Q (Fig. 1.1). Hence, the total flux from left to right across P is
n
∑ 4πε
Qi
V= × solid angle subtended at Qi
i =1 0
1
= (Q1Ω1 + Q2 Ω2 + " + Qn Ωn ),
4πε 0
where Wi = 2pÿ (1 cos qi).
Fig. 1.1 Lines of force from collinear charges.

\ The lines of force will have the equation

∑ Qi cos qi = constant
Another important point to be noted is that, since
E = grad V = ÑV,
it follows that the closed line integral of the electrostatic field over any closed contour is zero, i.e.
vÔ E ¹ dl 0
This is a useful expression for solving a large number of electric field problems.
1.4 PROBLEMS
1.1 Two point charges +Q and ±Q are located at the points x = a and x = a, respectively. Show
that the equation of the lines of force in the xy-plane is given by
(x + a){(x + a)2 + y2}1/2 ± (x a){(x a)2 + y2}1/2 = C,
for different values of C (the constant of integration).
Also, the equation for its equipotential surface will be
Q{(x + a)2 + y2}1/2 K Q{(x a)2 + y2} = 4p e C,
at a point P where its potential is C.
1.2 Show that the equation of the lines of force between two parallel linear charges of strengths +Q
and Q per unit length, at the points x = +a and x = a, respectively, in terms of the flux per
unit length N, between the line of force and the +ve x-axis is given by
{ y a cot(2pN/Q)}2 + x2 = a2 cosec2(2pN/Q)
1.3 Two point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at the origin and the point (x2, y2, 0), respectively.
Find the force on the charge Q1, expressed in newtons, if Q1 and Q2 are in mC and the distances
in metres.
1.4 Derive Coulombs law, starting from Gauss theorem. State any reasonable assumptions which
you think are necessary for the derivation.
1.5 Two point charges +Q and Q are located at the points A(a, 0) and B( a, 0), respectively. If
the line of force leaving the point A makes an angle a with the line AB, and then meets the
plane, bisecting the line AB orthogonally, at right angles at the point P, show that
α β
sin = 2 sin ,
2 2
where ÐPAB = b.
1.6 A charge Q is located at the point x = a, y = 0, z = 0. What would be the magnitude of the charge
Q ¢ in terms of Q and the flux N which passes in the positive direction through the circle
x = 0, y2 + z2 = a2 if Q ¢ is located at x = a, y = 0, z = 0?
dx x
Hint: ∫ (x 2
+a )
2 3/ 2
=
a x2 + a2
2
ELECTROSTATICS I 55
a2 − x2 a2 − x2 x
and ∫ x
dx = −
x
− sin −1
a
1.7 Two thin concentric coplanar rings of radii a and 2a carry charges Q and +Q 27 ,
respectively. Show that the only points of equilibrium in the field are at the centre of the rings
and on the axis of the rings at a distance ± a / 2 from the centre.
1.8 An infinite plane sheet of charge gives an electric field s /2e0 at a point P which is at a distance
a from it. Show that half the field is contributed by the charge whose distance from P is less
than 2a; and that in general all but f % of the field is contributed by the charge whose distance
from P is less than 100a/f.
1.9 A charge +Q is located at A(a, 0, 0) and another charge 2Q is located at B(a, 0, 0). Show
that the neutral point also lies on the x-axis, where x = 5.83a.
1.10 Three collinear points A, B, C are such that AC = l and BC = a2/l (l > a) and the charges on
them are Q, Qa/l and 4pe0V0a, respectively. Discuss the positions of the singular points on the
line ABC if 4pe0V0 = Q(l + a)/(l a)2 and if 4pe0V0 = Q(l a)/(l + a)2. Show also that there
is always a spherical equipotential surface.
1.11 Two charges of opposite signs are located at specified points. Show that the equipotential
surface for which V = 0 is spherical, whatever may be the numerical values of the charges.
Discuss the apparently exceptional case when the two charges are of equal magnitude.
1.12 An electric dipole consists of a pair of equal and opposite charges ±Q, held apart at a spacing
d which is small compared with the distances at which the field is calculated. Using the
spherical polar coordinate system, obtain the expressions for the potential and the field. Show
that the equation for the lines of force is
r = A sin2q,
where A is a parametric constant, varying from one line of force to another.
1.13 A linear quadrupole is an arrangement of a system of charges which consists of 2Q at the
origin and +Q at the two points (±d, 0, 0). Show that at distances much greater than
d (i.e. r >> d ), the potential may be written in the approximate form
Qd 2
V = (3 cos 2 θ − 1), r 2 >> d 2
4πε 0 r 3
1.14 Two equal charges Q are at the opposite corners of a square of side a, and an electric dipole of
moment m is at a third corner, pointing towards one of the charges. If m = 2 2 Qa, show that
17 Q
the field strength at the fourth corner of the square is .
2 4πε 0 a 2
1.15 A fixed circle of radius a has been drawn, and a charge Q is placed on the axis through the
centre of the circle (normal to the plane of the circle) at a distance 3a/4 from the centre. Find
the flux of E through this circle. If a second charge Q¢ is placed at a distance 5a/12 on the same
axis but on the opposite side of the circle, such that there is no net flux through the circle, then
13Q
prove that Q¢ = .
20
1.16 Starting from Gauss theorem, deduce that the tubes of force can only begin or end on charges.
Also prove that the strength of a tube of force is constant along its length.
1.17 Prove that when the net charge in an arbitrary charge distribution is zero, then the dipole
moment of the distribution is independent of the choice of the origin of the coordinate system.
1.18 There is an electric charge distribution of constant density s on the surface of a disc of radius
a. Show that the potential at a distance z away from the disc along the axis of symmetry is
σ
2ε 0
( )
z 2 + a 2 − z . Find the value of the electric field, and then by making a tend to infinity,
find the field due to an infinite layer of charge.

1.19 A spherical charge distribution has been expressed as
⎧ ⎛ r2 ⎞
⎪ ρ 0 ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ for r ≤ a
ρ = ⎨ ⎝ a ⎠
⎪0 for r > a
⎩
Evaluate the total charge Q. Find the electric field intensity E and the potential V, both outside
and inside the charge distribution.
1.20 What maximum charge can be put on a sphere of radius 1 m, if the breakdown of air is to be
avoided? For breakdown of air, | E | = 3 × 106 V/m.
1.21 Two equal point charges, each of magnitude +Q coulombs, are located at the points A and B
whose coordinates are (±a, 0, 0). A third point charge of magnitude Q coulombs and of mass
m revolves around the x-axis under the influence of attraction to points A and B. Show that if
this particle describes a circle of radius r, then its velocity v is given by
2Q 2 r 2
mv 2 = .
4πε 0 ( r 2 + a 2 )3/ 2
1.22 Show, by using Gauss theorem (flux theorem), that there is a change of rS/e0 in the normal
component of E while crossing a layer of charge of surface density rS. Hence, prove that when
a line of force crosses a positive layer of charge, it is always refracted towards the normal to
the plane of the layer.
Note: The first part is bookwork. Refer to Electromagnetism Theory and Applications,
2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, pp. 6263.
1.23 Show that the maximum and the minimum values of the electrostatic potentials exist only at
points which are occupied by positive and negative charges, respectively.
1.24 One side of a circular disc of radius R has an electric double layer of uniform strength mp,
spread over it. Prove that, along the line of symmetry which is normal to the plane of the disc
ELECTROSTATICS I 57
(and hence passing through the centre of the circle), the electric field at a distance x from the
layer is given by
m pπ a 2
2πε 0 ( a 2 + x 2 )3/ 2
1.25 Prove that the potential at all external points of a sphere of any radius, covered with an
electric double layer of uniform strength mp, is zero, and has the value mp/e0 at all internal
points.
1.26 Prove that there is a potential change of mp/ e0 on crossing an electric double layer of
strength mp.
1.27 A volume distribution of charges is bounded by a spherical surface of radius a. The charge
density inside the sphere is r(r) = r0(1 r/a), where r is the radial distance from the centre of
the sphere. Using the (Maxwells equation) Ñ × D = rC, evaluate the electric field intensity E,
both inside and outside the sphere (the permittivity is assumed to be constant at e0 throughout
the space).
1.28 The space between two very large parallel copper plates contains a weakly ionized gas which
can be assumed to have a uniform space charge of volume density r coulombs/m3 and
permittivity e0. Using the Maxwells equation div D = r, derive an expression for the electric
field strength E at a distance x (measured normally from one of the parallel plates) from one
of the plates, when both the plates are connected together and earthed. Hence, prove that the
potential at any point in the mid-plane between the plates is given by
ρd 2
V= ,
8ε 0
where d is the distance between the plates, neglecting all edge effects. Verify the answer by
obtaining a direct solution of the Poissons equation for the electrostatic potential.
1.29 Show that the equations of lines of force are given by
EY EZ E[
&Y &Z &[
with corresponding expressions in the other coordinate systems.
1.30 Two infinite parallel lines of charge, and of densities + l and l per unit length, have negligible
cross-section. The distance between the two lines is d. Find the equations for the equipotentials
in a plane perpendicular to the lines.
1.31 When and under what conditions can a moving charge problem be treated as an electrostatic
problem? Explain all the physical aspects of such a situation.
A rudimentary (and elementary) model of a diode can be considered to be made up of two
parallel plates of a conducting material.
f=0 f = Vb
Heated f = potential difference

plate
x
The heated plate (or the electrode, i.e. the cathode) located at x = 0 emits electrons which are
attracted to the other plate at x = l maintained at a constant higher potential f = Vb (by means
of a battery). This produces a steady time-independent current in the external circuit. The
quantities to be determined are the distribution of the electrons (i.e. the charges) and the
potential in the interspace between the electrode plates. Find also the relationship between the
current density (= J) and the plate voltage (= Vb).
For simplicity, treat the problem as one-dimensional with the variable x only, and neglect the
effects of the other dimension. Explain the physical implications of these simplifications. Derive
the one-dimensional Poissons equation in terms of the potential function f (x) and the volume
charge density of the moving charges r (x)this being non-uniform in the interspace between
the electrode plates. Find the kinetic energy of the electron (of charge e and mass me) moving
with the velocity v(x) in terms of the potential of the electric field.
Show that the p.d. f satisfying the Poissons equation has the final form
E G Y
ÎÑ + È N Ø ÞÑ
Ï É F Ù ß G Y

EY ÐÑ F F
Ê Ú Ñ
à
It is not necessary to solve this equation, but state the necessary boundary conditions at
x = 0 and x = l including the imposed assumption that the electrons barely get out of the
cathode.
1.32 In a specified volume of spherical shape, an electrostatic potential has been given as
7 $ TJO R TJO G XIFSF $ JT B DPOTUBOU

S
(taking the centre of the spherical region as the origin of the spherical polar coordinate system)
Show that there is no electric charge in the specified region, and find the electric field intensity
E in the region.
1.33 Two spherical metal shells of radii a and b are given electric charges Qa and Qb, respectively.
If these two shells are then connected by a wire, in which direction will the current flow?
ELECTROSTATICS I 59
1.5 SOLUTIONS
1.1 Two point charges +Q and ±Q are located at the points x = a and x = a, respectively. Show
that the equation of the lines of force in the xy-plane is given by
(x + a){(x + a)2 + y2}1/2 ± (x a){(x a)2 + y2}1/2 = C,
for different values of C (the constant of integration).
Also, the equation for its equipotential surface will be
Q{(x + a)2 + y2}1/2 K Q{(x a)2 + y2}1/2 = 4p e C,
at a point P where its potential is C.
Sol. We have, due to a point charge Q1 at a point A, the electric field at a point P as
Q1
E = ⋅ r1 ,
4πε r 2
where r is the distance AP and r1 is the unit vector along AP from A to P.
In the present problem, there are two point charges +Q and ±Q at the points x = a and
x = a, respectively (on the x-axis). See Fig. 1.2.
Fig. 1.2 Two point charges.
The resultant electric field at the point P due to the two point charges at A and A¢ will be the
vector sum of the fields due to each individual charge, which will be along the lines AP and
A¢P, respectively. So, we can resolve the field along the directions of the coordinate axes and
consider the x-component of the field.
+Q cos α ±Q cos α ′
\ Ex = + ,
4πε 0 AP 2 4πε 0 A′ P 2
as shown in Fig. 1.2.
Hence the above expression, in terms of coordinate distances, becomes
Q ( x − a) Q ( x + a)
4pe0Ex = ± (i)
{( x − a ) + y }
2 2 3/ 2
{( x + a )2 + y 2 }3/ 2
Similarly, for the y-component of the E field, we get

Q sin α Q sin α ′
Ey = ± ,
4πε 0 AP 2
4πε 0 A′ P 2
which becomes
Qy Qy
4pe0Ey = ± (ii)
{( x − a ) + y }
2 2 3/ 2
{( x + a )2 + y 2 }3/ 2
Now, using the substitutions
x+a x−a
u= and v = , (iii)
y y
Eqs. (i) and (ii) become
Qv Qu
4pe0Ex = ± 2 (iv)
y (1 + v )
2 2 3/ 2
y (1 + u 2 )3/ 2
Q Q
and 4pe0Ey = ± 2 (v)
y (1 + v )
2 2 3/ 2
y (1 + u 2 )3/ 2
We also have
dx dy dz
= = (vi)
Ex Ey Ez
Combining Eqs. (iv), (v) and (vi), we get
dy Ey (1 + v 2 )3/ 2 ± (1 + u 2 )3/ 2
= = (vii)
dx Ex u (1 + v 2 )3/ 2 ± v (1 + u 2 )3/ 2
From Eq. (iii), we have
uy = x + a and vy = x a
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get
dx = y du + u dy and dx = y dv + v dy
From these two equations, we obtain
0 = (u v)dy y(dv du) and (u v)dx = y(u dv v du)
dy dv − du
\ =
dx u dv − v du
Ey (1 + v 2 )3/ 2 ± (1 + u 2 )3/ 2
= = (viii)
Ex u (1 + v 2 )3/ 2 ± v (1 + u 2 )3/ 2
dy
From these expressions for , we get
dx
3/ 2
du ⎛ 1 + u2 ⎞
= B⎜ 2 ⎟ (ix)
dv ⎝1+ v ⎠
ELECTROSTATICS I 61
Separating the variables and integrating,
du dv
∫ (1 + u ) 2 3/ 2
± ∫ (1 + v )
2 3/ 2
= C (C being the constant of integration)
we get
u v
+ = C (x)
(1 + u )
2 1/ 2
(1 + v 2 )1/ 2
dx x
Note:
∫ (a + x )
2 2 3
=
a 2
a2 + x2
In terms of x and y, Eq. (x) becomes
x+a x−a
± = C (xi)
{( x + a ) + y }
2 2 1/ 2
{( x − a)2 + y 2 }1/ 2
This is the equation to the lines of force, as shown in Fig. 1.3. The lines of force are obtained
for different values of C.
Fig. 1.3 Field about equal charges of opposite sign. Lines of force and equipotential
lines are shown by solid and dotted lines, respectively.
The equipotential line or surface is such that no work is done in moving charges over such a
surface. Hence, the lines of force and equipotential surface (or line) must intersect orthogonally.
Hence, the equation to equipotentials for the given problem will be
Q Q
B = 4πε 0 C (xii)
{( x − a) + y }
2 2 1/ 2
{( x + a ) + y 2 }1/ 2
2
The equipotential surfaces (or lines) are shown in Fig. 1.3 by the dotted lines. The values of C
are for Q = 4pe0.
So, we next consider a generalized problem of which the given problem is a special case, i.e.
at set of collinear point charges Q1, Q2, Q3, ... situated at the points x1, x2, x3, ... along the
x-axis. So, from symmetry consideration, no line of force passes through the surfaces of
revolution generated by rotating the lines of force lying in xy-plane about the x-axis. So,
considering a surface between the planes x = K1 and x = K2, we see that by Gauss theorem
applied to charge-free region inside such a surface between the above planes (i.e. x = K1 and
x = K2), the total normal flux N entering through the section K1 equals that leaving through the
section K2, since no flux passes through the surface. The equation to the surface is then given
by the fact that N equals the sum of the normal fluxes due to each charge, i.e.
4p N = Q1W1 + Q2W2 + Q3W3 + ...,
where W1, W2, W3, ... are the solid angles which the section K1 subtends at x1, x2, x3, ...,
respectively. In terms of the angles specified in Fig. 1.4,
n n
∑ ∑ Q cos α
1 1
N = Qi (1 − cos α i ) = C ′ − i i
i =1
2 2 i =1
(x, y)
K1 K2
a3 a2 a1
x
Q3 Q2 Q1 O
Fig. 1.4 Lines of force from collinear charges.

ELECTROSTATICS I 63
Expressing the coordinates of a point on the section in terms of x and y, the equation to the line
of force is given by
n
C = ∑ Q ( x − x ) {( x − x )
i =1
i i i
2
+ y 2 }−1/ 2
This will reduce to Eq. (xi) when there are two point charges, i.e. Q1 = Q, Q2 = ±Q, x1 = a,
x2 = a, and so on. This is a much simpler solution of the same problem.
1.2 Show that the equation of the lines of force between two parallel linear charges of strengths
+Q and Q per unit length, at the points x = +a and x = a, respectively, in terms of the flux
per unit length N, between the line of force and the +ve x-axis is given by
{ y a cot(2pN/Q)}2 + x2 = a2 cosec2(2pN/Q)
Sol. There are two line charges +Q and Q at the two points (Fig. 1.5).
\ At a point P(x, y), the E field components are:
Q( x − a) Q( x + a)
ExP = −
2πε {( x − a) + y } 2πε {( x + a)2 + y 2 }
2 2
Qy Qy
and EyP = −
2πε {( x − a) + y } 2πε {( x + a)2 + y 2 }
2 2
Fig. 1.5 Two line charges.
Using the substitutions

u = (x + a)/y or uy = x + a Þ dx = u dy + y du
v = (x a)/y or vy = x a Þ dx = v dy + y dv
or 0 = (u v)dy + y(du dv) and (v u)dx = y(v du u dv)
dy dv − du
\ =
dx u dv − v du
Hence,
Qv Qu
Ex = −
2πε y (1 + v 2 ) 2πε y (1 + u 2 )
Q Q
and Ey = −
2πε y (1 + v ) 2πε y (1 + u 2 )
2
Since ds = lE,
dx dy
=
Ex Ey
Ey dy (1 + v 2 ) − (1 + u 2 )
\ = =
Ex dx u (1 + v 2 ) − v (1 + u 2 )
dy
Comparing the two equations for , we get
dx
du 1 + u2
=
dv 1 + v2
Separating the variables and integrating,
u−v {( x + a ) − ( x − a )} y
tan −1 u + tan −1 v = C = tan −1 = tan −1
1 + uv y2 + ( x2 − a2 )
C being the arbitrary constant of integration.
2ay
\ C=
x + y2 − a2
2
Since the required equation for the line of force is in terms of the flux N, we now evaluate the
flux N between the line of force and the x-axis.
y= y y= y
\ Flux, N =
∫
y =0
DxP dy = ∫εE
y =0
xP dy
y
⎡ Q ( x − a) Q ( x + a) ⎤
=
∫
y =0
⎢
⎣ 2π { y 2
+ ( x − a ) 2
}
−
2π { y 2
+ ( x + a ) 2 ⎥
} ⎦
dy
⎡ Q ( x − a ) ⎧ −1 y ⎫ y Q ( x + a) ⎧ −1 y ⎫ y ⎤
= ⎢ ⎨ tan ⎬ − ⎨ tan ⎬ ⎥
⎣⎢ 2π ( x − a ) ⎩ x − a ⎭0 2π ( x + a) ⎩ x + a ⎭0 ⎦⎥
Q ⎧ −1 y y ⎫
= ⎨ tan − tan −1 ⎬
2π ⎩ x−a x + a⎭
Q y /( x − a ) − y /( x + a )
= tan −1
2π 1 + y 2/( x 2 − a 2 )
Q y {( x + a) − ( x − a)}
= tan −1
2π y 2 + x2 − a2
ELECTROSTATICS I 65
Q 2ay
= tan −1 2
2π x + y2 − a2
2ay
\ = tan(2pN/Q)
x + y2 − a2
2
or x2 + y2 a2 = 2ay cot(2pN/Q)
Comparing this equation with the equation of lines of force, we obtain
x2 + { y2 2ay cot(2pN/Q) + a2 cot2(2pN/Q)} = a2 + a2 cot2(2pN/Q)
or x2 + { y a cot(2pN/Q)}2 = a2 cosec2(2pN/Q)
which is the equation to the lines of force.
1.3 Two point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at the origin and the point (x2, y2, 0), respectively.
Find the force on the charge Q1, expressed in newtons, if Q1 and Q2 are in mC and the distances
in metres.
Q1Q2 × 10−12
Sol. F= r1 newtons,
4πε 0 r 2
r2 = x2 + y2 , in metres
2 2
where
and r1 = unit vector along r
1.4 Derive Coulombs law, starting from Gauss theorem. State any reasonable assumptions which
you think are necessary for the derivation.
Sol. Gauss theorem states that: The flux of a vector quantity over any arbitrary closed
surface is equal to (or proportional to) the strength of the enclosed sources of the vector.
In electrostatics, in mathematical notation, this is written as
1 Q1
w
ÔÔ6 E ¹ dS F0 w
ÔÔ6 D ¹ dS F0
,
in free space, where S is the closed surface enclosing the total charge Q1.
If the charge under consideration (i.e. Q1) is a point charge, then the field around it will have
spherical symmetry (a justifiable assumption). So, the E field will have only the radial
component and will also have constant magnitude over spherical surfaces concentric with Q1.
Hence, by using Gauss theorem, we get
Q1 w
ÔÔ6 D ¹ dS F 0 Er (4Q r 2 ),
r being the radius of the sphere at whose centre is the point charge Q1 and enclosed by the
surface S.
Q1
Er =
4πε 0 r 2
Hence, the force on a point charge Q2 at a distance r from Q1 is given by
Q1Q2
F = r1 ,
4πε 0 r 2
where r1 is the unit vector in the direction of r.
The above expression is the Coulombs law of forces between electrostatic point charges.
1.5 Two point charges +Q and Q are located at the points A(a, 0) and B( a, 0), respectively.
If the line of force leaving the point A makes an angle a with the line AB, and then meets the
plane, bisecting the line AB orthogonally, at right angles at the point P, show that
α β
sin = 2 sin ,
2 2
where ÐPAB = b.
Sol. The equation to the lines of force (Fig. 1.6), as shown in Problem 1.1, is
x+a x−a
− =C
{( x + a) + y }
2 2
{( x − a )2 + y 2 }
Let the equation of the tangent to the line of force under consideration at the point (a, 0) be
written as y = x tan a + x0.
Since, it is tangent at the point (a, 0), so, 0 = a tan a + x0.
\ The equation to the tangent is y = (x a)tan a.
Fig. 1.6 Two point charges.
Next, we consider the point of intersection of this tangent with the line of force (under
consideration) passing through the point A,
x+a x−a
− = C
{( x + a ) + ( x − a ) tan α }
2 2 2
{( x − a) + ( x − a ) 2 tan 2 α }
2
ELECTROSTATICS I 67
x+a 1
or − = C
{( x + a) + ( x − a ) tan α }
2 2 2
± 1 + tan 2 α
Since the intersection happens at x = a, the above equation reduces to
1 (±cos a) = C
We take the ve sign of the denominator of the second term on the left, because of the negative
charge at B.
α
\ 1 + cos a = C Þ 2 cos2 =C
2
\ The equation to the line of force under consideration is given by
x+a x−a α
− = 2 cos2
{( x + a) + y }
2 2
{( x − a) + y }
2 2 2
The point of intersection of this line of force with the perpendicular bisector of AB, i.e. the
y-axis is obtained by substituting x = 0 in this equation, i.e.
a −a α
− = 2 cos 2
y2 + a2 y2 + a2 2
α
or 2a = y 2 + a 2 ⋅ 2 cos 2
2
Squaring and rearranging,
È BØ
B É DPT Ù
Ê Ú
y2 =
B
DPT

α
a 1 − cos 4
\ y=± 2
α
cos 2
2
⎡ 4 α ⎤
⎢ a 1 − cos ⎥
\ The coordinates of the point P are ⎢0, 2 ⎥ and those of A are (a, 0).
⎢ α ⎥
cos 2
⎣⎢ 2 ⎥⎦
\ The equation to the line PA is
y−0 x−a
=
α 0−a
a 1 − cos 4
2 −0
α
cos 2
2
α
a 1 − cos 4
2
Hence, the slope of the line m = tan ÐPAB = tan b = .
α
a cos 2
2
α α
\ tan 2 β ⋅ cos4 = 1 − cos4
2 2
α
or cos4 (tan 2 β + 1) = 1
2
α 1
or cos 4 = = cos 2 β
2 sec β
2
α β
\ cos2 = ± cos β = 1 − 2 sin 2
2 2
β α α
or 2 sin 2 = 1 − cos 2 = sin 2
2 2 2
α β
\ sin = 2 sin
2 2
1.6 A charge Q is located at the point x = a, y = 0, z = 0. What would be the magnitude of the charge
Q ¢ in terms of Q and the flux N which passes in the positive direction through the circle x = 0,
y2 + z2 = a2 if Q ¢ is located at x = a, y = 0, z = 0?
dx x
Hint: ∫ (x 2 2 3/ 2 =
+a ) a2 x2 + a2
a2 − x2 a2 − x2 x
and ∫ x
dx = −
x
− sin −1
a
Sol. See Fig. 1.7. Since the flux N through the above-specified circle ( y2 + z2 = a2, x = 0) is
due to only the x-component of E, we need to consider the expressions for Ex only.
Fig. 1.7 Two point charges and the circle in the plane x = 0.
ELECTROSTATICS I 69
Hence, the Ex distribution for the specified charge distribution as shown will be
Q ( x − a) Q ′ ( x + a)
4peEx = +
{( x − a) + y + z }
2 2 2 3/ 2
{( x + a)2 + y 2 + z 2 }3/ 2
1 ⎡ Q ( x − a) Q ′ ( x + a) ⎤
\ Dx = eEx = +
4π ⎢⎣ {( x − a ) 2 + y 2 + z 2 }3/ 2 {( x + a ) 2 + y 2 + z 2 }3/ 2 ⎥⎦
Hence, the flux through the circle x = 0, y2 + z2 = a2 is given by
N= ∫∫ D ⋅ dS through this circle

[ B Z
2B 2 B
Z B
Ë Û
=
Ô EZ Ô Ì E[
Z
ÍÌ Z [ B
Z
Q [ B
ÜÝÜ
[ B Z
y =a z = + a2 − y2
(Q ′ − Q ) a ⎡ z ⎤
=
2π
y =0
∫dy ⎢ 2 2 1/ 2 ⎥
⎣ (a + y ) ( a + y + z ) ⎦
2 2 2
z = − a2 − y2
y =a
(Q ′ − Q ) a ⎡ a2 − y2 − a2 − y2 ⎤
=
2π
y =0
∫dy ⎢ −
⎢⎣ (a 2 + y 2 ) 2a 2 ( a 2 + y 2 ) 2a 2
⎥
⎥⎦
y =a
(Q ′ − Q) a 1 a2 − y 2
=
2π
⋅
2a
⋅2 ∫
y=0
a2 + y2
⋅ dy
Using the substitution, y12 = a2 + y2, we get

2dy1 = 2dy
and a2 y2 = 2a2 (a2 + y2) = 2a2 y12
and the limits of integration become
y=0 ® y1 = a
y = a ® y1 = a 2
a 2
(Q ′ − Q) 2a 2 − y12
\ N =
π 2 ∫
a
y12
dy1
a 2
(Q ′ − Q) ⎧⎪ 2a 2 − y12 y ⎫⎪
= ⎨− − sin −1 1 ⎬
π 2 ⎩⎪
y1 a 2 ⎭⎪
a
(Q ′ − Q ) ⎧⎪ 0 a2 1 ⎫⎪
= ⎨− + − sin −1 1 + sin −1 ⎬
π 2 ⎪⎩ a 2 a 2 ⎪⎭
=
(Q ′ − Q)
π 2 2{
π π
1− +
4
=
Q′ − Q
π 2
1−
π
4 } { }
= (Q ′ − Q ) {π 1
2
−
1
4 2
} =
(Q ′ − Q ) (4 − π )
4π 2
4π 2 N
Hence, Q¢ = +Q
4 −π
1.7 Two thin concentric coplanar rings of radii a and 2a carry charges Q and +Q 27 ,
respectively. Show that the only points of equilibrium in the field are at the centre of the rings
and on the axis of the rings at a distance ± a / 2 from the centre.
Fig. 1.8 View of the charged rings.

ELECTROSTATICS I 71
Q
Sol. Charge density on the inner ring, s1 = - per unit length (circumferentially)
2π a
Q 27
Charge density on the outer ring, s2 = + per unit length
4π a
From the symmetry considerations of the system, it is obvious that the equilibrium points can
exist only on the x-axis (as shown in Fig. 1.8). Also, along the x-axis, only the x-component of
E vector exists, i.e. on x-axis, Ey = 0, Ez = 0.
Now, we calculate the Ex component on the x-axis. First we consider an element adf of the inner
ring and the corresponding element 2adf of the outer ring as shown in Fig. 1.8(a).
1 σ 1aδφ 1 σ 2 2aδφ
\ d Ex = cos α1 + cos α 2 ,
4πε r12 4πε r 22
where r12 = l 2 + a 2 , r22 = l 2 + 4a 2 ,
l l
and cos α1 = , cos α 2 = .
l +a
2 2
l + 4a 2
2
Considering all such elements over the complete circumference of the rings,
1 σ1 2π a l 1 σ 2 4π a l
Ex = ⋅ + ⋅
4πε r1 2
l 2 + a 2 4πε r2
2
l 2 + 4a 2
Q ⎧ −l l 27 ⎫
= ⎨ 2 + 2 2 3/ 2 ⎬
4πε ⎩ (l + a )
2 3/ 2
(l + 4a ) ⎭
For the points of equilibrium, Ex = 0.

Hence, l = 0, i.e. the origin (x = 0) is a point of equilibrium.
1 27
Also, + 2 = 0 satisfies the condition, i.e.
(l + a )
2 2 3/ 2
(l + 4a 2 )3/ 2
1 27
2 3 =
(l + a )
2
(l + 4a 2 )3
2
or l2 + 4a2 = 3(l2 + a2)

or 2l2 = a2
a
\ l= ± = ±21/2a
2
1.8 An infinite plane sheet of charge gives an electric field s/2e0 at a point P which is at a distance
a from it. Show that half the field is contributed by the charge whose distance from P is less
than 2a; and that in general all but f % of the field is contributed by the charge whose distance
from P is less than 100a/f.
Fig. 1.9 An infinite plane charge sheet and the coordinate system.
Sol. The electric intensity field E at the point P on the z-axis due to the element (shown in
Fig. 1.9) in the charge ring (the sheet being broken up into such concentric rings) is
σ dr ds
| dE | =
,
4πε 0l 2
where s is the charge density of the sheet, and the distances are as shown in the diagram.
This elemental force dE is directed along AP and can be resolved into two orthogonal
components, i.e. along z-axis and in a direction normal to z-axis (parallel to the plane of charge
sheet xy-plane).
Also for each element dr ds of the ring, there would be another similar element dr ds, located
diametrically opposite to the previous element, whose E field (i.e. dE) would have the same
magnitude, but be directed such that its z-component would add up with the z-component of
the previous element and the orthogonal component (parallel to xy-plane) would be oppositely
directed and hence cancel out each other.
\ The component of this field in the axial direction (i.e. z-direction), will be
σ 2π r dr a a
dEax = dEz = cos q, cos q = =
4πε 0 l 2
l a + r2
2
σ 2π a r dr
=
4πε 0 ( )
3
a2 + r 2
since the other components will cancel out.
\ The E field due to all such circular ring elements up to a radius b is
r =b b
σa r dr σ a ⎡ (a 2 + r 2 )( −3/ 2) + 1 1 ⎤
E = i ax
2ε 0 ∫(
r =0 a2 + r 2 )
3
= iz
2ε 0 ⎢⎣ − 3/2 + 1
⋅ ⎥
2 ⎦0
ELECTROSTATICS I 73
b
σa ⎧ −1 ⎫ σ a ⎧1 1 ⎫
= iz ⎨ 2 2 1/ 2 ⎬
= iz ⎨ − 2 2 1/ 2 ⎬
2ε 0 ⎩ (a + r ) ⎭0 2ε 0 ⎩ a (a + b ) ⎭
σ ⎧ a ⎫ σ ⎛ a⎞
\ E = iz ⎨1 − 2 2 1/ 2 ⎬
= iz ⎜ 1 − r ⎟ , where rb = a2 + b2
2ε 0 ⎩ ( a + b ) ⎭ 2ε0 ⎝ b ⎠
1 σ
If this is to be half the total field at P, i.e. × , then the required condition is given by
2 2ε 0
σ ⎛ a⎞ 1 σ
2ε 0 ⎜ 1 − r ⎟ = 2 2ε
⎝ b ⎠ 0
a 1
or = or rb = 2a
rb 2
\ Half the field is contributed by a disc, the distance of whose edge from the point P under
consideration is £ 2a, where the distance of the point P from the charged plane is a.
Hence, in general, if the partial field as derived is to be (100 f )% of the total field, then
σ ⎛ a⎞ σ 100 − f
⎜ 1− ⎟ =
2ε 0 ⎝ rb ⎠ 2ε 0 100
a f
\ 1− = 1−
rb 100
100a
or rb =
f
1.9 A charge +Q is located at A(a, 0, 0) and another charge 2Q is located at B(a, 0, 0). Show
that the neutral point also lies on the x-axis, where x = 5.83a.
Sol. Consider the line joining the points A and B where the charges are located on the x-axis,
with the mid-point of AB as the origin (Fig. 1.10). Ex distribution for the charges will be
Q ( x + a) − 2Q ( x − a)
4πε 0 Ex = +
{( x + a )2 + y 2 + z 2 }3/ 2 {( x − a )2 + y 2 + z 2 }3/ 2
For the location of the neutral point, E = 0.
Fig. 1.10 Two point charges +Q and 2Q.

On the x-axis, at all points, Ey = 0, Ez = 0.

1 ⎧ Q ( x + a ) − 2Q ( x − a ) ⎫
\ Ex = 0 = ⎨ + ⎬
4πε 0 ⎩ ( x + a )3 ( x − a )3 ⎭
1 2
or − =0
( x + a) 2
( x − a) 2
or (x a)2 = 2(x + a)2

or x2 2xa + a2 = 2x2 + 4xa + 2a2
or x2 + 6xa + a2 = 0
6 a 36 a 2 4 a 2
\ x =
2
= 3a 2a 2 3a 2.828a
= 5.83a, 0.17a
1.10 Three collinear points A, B, C are such that AC = l and BC = a2/l (l > a) and the charges at
these points are Q, Qa/l and 4pe0V0a, respectively. Discuss the positions of the singular points
on the line ABC if 4pe0V0 = Q(l + a)/(l a)2 and if 4pe0V0 = Q(l a)/(l + a)2. Show also that
there is always a spherical equipotential surface.
a2
Sol. See Fig. 1.11. AC = l, BC = \ AC × BC = a2
l
\ A and B are inverse points of a circle of radius a and centre at C.
Due to these three point charges, the E field at any point P(x, y) is
Q (x − l) ( − Qa / l ) ( x − a 2 / l ) 4πε 0V0 a ( x − 0)
4πε 0 E x = + +
{ y 2 + ( x − l ) 2 }3/ 2 { y 2 + ( x − a 2 / l ) 2 }3/ 2 { y 2 + ( x − 0) 2 }3/ 2
Qy ( − Qa / l ) y 4πε 0V0 ay
4πε 0 E y = + 2 + 2
{y + ( x − l) }
2 2 3/ 2
{ y + ( x − a /l ) }
2 2 3/ 2
{ y + ( x − 0) 2 }3/ 2
Fig. 1.11 Three collinear point charges.

ELECTROSTATICS I 75
On the x-axis, y = 0, \ Ey = 0
Q − Qa / l 4πε 0V0 a
and 4πε 0 Ex = + +
(x − l) 2
(x − a /l)
2 2
x2
For the points of equilibrium, Ex must also be equal to 0.
⎧ 1 al ⎫ 4πε 0V0 a
\ Q⎨ − 2 2⎬
+ = 0
⎩ (x − l) (lx − a ) ⎭
2
x2
Now, consider the point D¢, i.e. x = a. If this point is to be a singular point, then
⎧ 1 al ⎫ 4πε 0V0 a
Q⎨ + 2 2⎬
+ = 0
⎩ (− a − l ) (− la − a ) ⎭ (− a ) 2
2
⎧ 1 al ⎫ 4πε 0V0 a
or Q⎨ − 2 2⎬
+ = 0
⎩ (a + l ) a (a + l ) ⎭
2
a2
Qa (a − l ) 4πε 0V0
or + = 0
a 2 (a + l )2 a
Q (l − a )
\ 4πε 0V0 =
(l + a ) 2
which is the required condition for the point D¢ (x = a) to be an equilibrium point.
Next, consider the condition required for the point D, i.e. x = a to be an equilibrium point.
⎧ −1 al ⎫ 4πε 0V0 a
\ Q⎨ − 2 2⎬
+ = 0
⎩ (a − l ) (la − a ) ⎭
2
a2
a( a l ) 4QF 0 V0
or Q 0
a 2 (l a) 2 a
Q (l + a )
or 4πε 0V0 = ,
(l − a)2
which is the required condition for the point D, i.e. x = a to be an equilibrium point.
Note: The negative sign before 1 in the first term comes from the fact that (a l ) is negative
and that the common factor (x l ) comes from the simplified expression of Ex while
substituting for values on x-axis.
From the expression Ex, the equation for the equipotential surface can be derived as E =
grad V, which in this case is
V = − ∫E x dx
Q − Qa/l 4πε V a
i.e. + + 2 0 20 1/ 2 = K, constant of integration
{( x − l ) + y }
2 2 1/ 2
{( x − a / l ) + y }
2 2 2 1/ 2
(x + y )
We consider a point on the circle with centre at C and radius a, i.e. P(x, y) such that
x = a cos q, y = a sin q
The potential of such a point is obtained by substituting these coordinates in the potential
expression
Q − Qa/l
+
{(a cos θ − l ) + (a sin θ ) }
2 2 1/ 2
{(a cos θ − a / l )2 + (a sin θ )2 }1/ 2
2
4πε 0V0 a
+ =K
{( a cos θ ) 2 + (a sin θ ) 2 }1/ 2
This simplifies to
Q (− Qa/l ) (l/a) 4πε 0V0 a
+ 2 + = K
(a + l − 2al cos θ )
2 2 1/ 2
( a + l − 2al cos θ )
2 1/ 2 a
or 4pe0V0 = K
So, any point on this circle has a constant potential, i.e. this sphere is an equipotential surface.
1.11 Two charges of opposite signs are located at specified points. Show that the equipotential
surface for which V = 0 is spherical, whatever may be the numerical values of the charges.
Discuss the apparently exceptional case when the two charges are of equal magnitude.
Sol. Let the two charges be +Q1 and Q2 at the points (a, 0, 0) and (a, 0, 0), respectively.
It is to be noted that the system has spherical symmetry (i.e. rotational symmetry) about the axis
joining the point charges, i.e. the x-axis of our chosen coordinate system.
The equation to the equipotential lines for these two point charges will be as shown in
Problem 1.1 in the plane z = 0.
Q1 Q2
+ =V
{( x − a) + y }
2 2 1/ 2
{( x + a)2 + y 2 }1/ 2
When V = 0, the equation to the equipotential line is
Q1 Q2
= −
{( x − a)2 + y 2 }1/ 2 {( x + a )2 + y 2 }1/ 2
{( x + a ) 2 + y 2 }Q 12 = {( x − a ) + y }Q2
2 2 2
or
or ( x 2 + 2ax + a 2 + y 2 )Q12 = ( x 2 − 2ax + a 2 + y 2 )Q22
or x 2 (Q12 − Q22 ) + y 2 (Q12 − Q22 ) + 2ax (Q12 + Q22 ) + a 2 (Q12 − Q22 ) = 0
Q12 + Q22
or x2 + y2 + 2ax + a2 = 0
Q12 − Q22
This is the equation to a circle in the plane z = 0. Since, the system has spherical symmetry
about the x-axis, then V = 0 will be spherical surface whose centre will be
1/ 2
⎧ ⎛ Q12 + Q22 ⎞ ⎫ ⎡ ⎛ Q12 + Q22 ⎞ 2 ⎤
2
⎨− ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
a, 0 ⎬ and radius = ⎢ − a + ⎜ 2
2
2 ⎟
a ⎥
⎩ ⎝ Q1 − Q2 ⎠ ⎭ ⎢⎣ ⎝ Q1 − Q2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
ELECTROSTATICS I 77
= (4a 2 Q12Q22 )1/ 2

= 2aQ1Q2
When Q1 = Q2, the equation to the circle reduces to
2ax(Q12 + Q22 ) = 0, i.e. x = 0

which is the y-axis (between the limits y = ± a).
1.12 An electric dipole consists of a pair of equal and opposite charges ±Q, held apart at a spacing
d which is small compared with the distances at which the field is calculated. Using the
spherical polar coordinate system, obtain the expressions for the potential and the field. Show
that the equation for the lines of force is
r = A sin2q,
where A is a parametric constant, varying from one line of force to another.
Sol. See Fig. 1.12. At the point P,
Q ⎛1 1⎞
V= ⎜ − ⎟
4πε 0 ⎝ rb ra ⎠
d 2
ra2 = r 2 + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ + 2 ⋅ r ⋅ ⋅ cos θ
d
where
⎝2⎠ 2
−1/ 2
⎪⎧ ⎛ d ⎞ ⎪⎫
2
r d
\ = ⎨1 + ⎜ ⎟ + cos θ ⎬
ra ⎪⎩ ⎝ 2r ⎠ r ⎪⎭
2
1 ⎛ d2 d ⎞ 3 ⎛ d2 d ⎞
= 1− ⎜ 2 + cos θ ⎟ + ⎜ 2 + cos θ ⎟ + "
2 ⎝ 4r r ⎠ 8 ⎝ 4r r ⎠
Fig. 1.12 Electric dipole.
d2
Neglecting terms of order higher than , we get
r2
r d d 2 3 cos 2 θ − 1
= 1− cos θ + 2
ra 2r 4r 2
r d d 2 3 cos 2 θ − 1
Similarly, = 1+ cos θ + 2
rb 2r 4r 2
Qd
\ V = cos θ , r 2 >> d 2
4πε 0 r 2
Note that the potential due to a dipole falls off as 1/r2 whereas the potential due to a single point
charge varies as 1/r only.
The dipole moment m is defined as m = Qd.
m ⋅ r1
\ V = ,
4πε 0 r 2
where r1 is the unit vector in the direction of r.
Since E = grad V, the components of E can be computed as
∂V 2m
Er = − = cos θ
∂r 4πε 0 r 3
1 ∂V m
Eq = − = sin θ
r ∂θ 4πε 0 r 3
1 ∂V
Ef = − =0
r sin θ ∂φ
The equation for the line of force of a dipole can be obtained by considering Fig. 1.13 which
shows an element dl of a line of force. Since the two vectors E and dl are parallel, the
components of E and dl are proportional and hence
r dθ E sin θ
= θ =
dr Er 2 cos θ
Fig. 1.13 Line of force of the dipole.

ELECTROSTATICS I 79
dr 2 cos θ dθ 2d (sin θ )
\ = =
r sin θ sin θ
Hence, r = A × sin2q
is the equation for the family of lines of force for an electric dipole, and A is the parametric
constant for the lines. Figure 1.14 shows the lines of force for an electric dipole.
54 3 2 1
Fig. 1.14 Lines of force for an electric dipole.
1.13 A linear quadrupole is an arrangement of a system of charges which consists of 2Q at the
origin and +Q at the two points (±d, 0, 0) (Fig. 1.15). Show that at distances much greater than
d (i.e. r >> d ), the potential may be written in the approximate form
Qd 2
V = (3 cos2 θ − 1), r 2 >> d 2
4πε 0 r 3
z P (r, h, v)
rb
r
+Q ra
d h
– 2Q O
d
+Q
Fig. 1.15 Linear quadrupole.
Sol. The potential at the point P is

1 ⎛ Q 2Q Q ⎞
V= − + ⎟
4πε 0 ⎜⎝ ra r rb ⎠
Q ⎛ r r ⎞
= ⎜ + − 2⎟
4πε 0 r ⎝ ra rb ⎠
The ratios r/ra and r/rb can be expanded as in the previous problem, except that d now replaces
d/2. Again neglecting terms of order higher than d 2/r2, we get
r d d 2 (3 cos 2 θ − 1)
= 1 − cos θ + 2
ra r r 2
r d d 2 (3 cos 2 θ − 1)
and = 1 + cos θ + 2
rb r r 2
\ V=
2E DPT R
S !! E
QF S

The electric potential due to a linear electric quadrupole thus varies as 1/r3, whereas the field
intensity E, calculated as before, varies as 1/r4. The fields of the three charges +Q, 2Q and
+Q get cancelled almost completely for r >> d.
1.14 Two equal charges Q are at the opposite corners of a square of side a, and an electric dipole of
moment m is at a third corner, pointing towards one of the charges. If m = 2 2 Qa, show that
17 Q
the field strength at the fourth corner of the square is .
2 4πε 0 a 2
Sol. We choose a coordinate system to simplify the mathematics of the problem as shown in
Fig. 1.16. The dipole is assumed to be located at the origin (0, 0, 0), directed along the z-axis,
and one of the charges Q at (a, 0, 0) on the x-axis and the other charge Q at (0, 0, a) along the
z-axis. The fourth corner of the square, i.e. point P is (a, 0, a).
Fig. 1.16 Arrangement of point charges and the dipole.
Force at the point P,

FP = EA + EB + EO
Q Q
EA = =
4πε 0 ( AP) 2
4πε 0 a 2
ELECTROSTATICS I 81
and its direction is along AP, i.e. parallel to +z-axis.

Q Q
EB = =
4πε 0 ( BP) 2
4πε 0 a 2
and its direction is along BP, i.e. parallel to +x-axis.
EOthe field due to the dipole at the originwill have two components: Er along OP and Eq
at right angles to OP.
Note: OP makes an angle of 45° with the z-axis.
Hence, E O = E r + Eq
2(2 2 Qa ) 2 2 Qa
Er = cos q, Eq = sin q,
4πε 0 (OP)3 4πε 0 (OP)3
1
where OP = a 2 and cos q = cos 45° = = sin 45° = sin q.
2
2Q Q
\ Er = , Eq =
4πε 0 a 2 2 4πε 0 a 2 2
Q 2
E A + EB =
4πε 0 a 2
and is directed along OP, which is same as the r-component of EO, i.e. Er.
Q 2 2Q
\ E A + E B + Er = +
4πε 0 a 2 4πε 0 a 2 2
Q 4Q
= (2 + 2) = (its direction being along OP)
4πε 0 a 2 2 4πε 0 a 2 2
Q
Eq = (its direction being at right angles to OP)
4πε 0 a 2 2
1/ 2
= ⎡⎣{ E A + E B + E r } + { Eθ } ⎤⎦
2 2
\ EP
Q 17 Q
= (42 + 12 )1/ 2 =
4πε 0 a 2
2 2 4πε 0 a 2
1.15 A fixed circle of radius a has been drawn, and a charge Q is placed on the axis through the
centre of the circle (normal to the plane of the circle) at a distance 3a/4 from the centre
(Fig. 1.17). Find the flux of E through this circle. If a second charge Q ¢ is placed at a distance
5a/12 on the same axis but on the opposite side of the circle, such that there is no net flux
13Q
through the circle, then prove that Q ¢ = .
20
Fig. 1.17 Point charges and the circle.
OA 3a/4 3a/4
Sol. cos a = = =
AC a + 9a /16
2 2 5a/4
3
=
5
OB 5a/12 5a/12
and cos a ¢ = = =
BC a + 25a /144
2 2 13a/12
5
=
13
Total flux of E through the circle, due to the charge Q at A is
Q
= (solid angle subtended by Q at A on this circle)
4πε 0
(Ref: ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, p. 49.)
=
Q
2π (1 − cos α ) =
2Q ⎛1 − 3 ⎞ = 4Q
⎜ ⎟
4πε 0 4ε 0 ⎝ 5⎠ 20ε 0
Also, the total flux of E through the circle, due to the charge Q ¢ at B is
Q′ 2Q ′ ⎛ 5 ⎞ 16Q ′
= 2π (1 − cos α ′) = ⎜1 − ⎟ =
4πε 0 4ε 0 ⎝ 13 ⎠ 52ε 0
If the total flux of E through the circle due to the charge Q at A is equal to that due to the charge
Q ¢ at B, then
16Q ′ 4Q
=
52ε 0 20ε 0
Q ¢ = Q ⎛⎜
4 52 ⎞ 13Q
\ × ⎟ =
⎝ 20 16 ⎠ 20
ELECTROSTATICS I 83
1.16 Starting from Gauss theorem, deduce that the tubes of force can only begin or end on charges.
Also prove that the strength of a tube of force is constant along its length.
Sol. Suppose that a tube of force begins at a point A.
If, now, the point A is surrounded by a closed surface, then there will be more tubes leaving
this surface outwards than those entering it inwards. Hence, there is a net flux of E out of this
closed surface.
Now, Gauss theorem states that for a closed surface S enclosing total charge Q,
Q
w
ÔÔ6E ¹ dS
F0
1
or flux of E out of S = × enclosed charge
ε0
\ Tubes of force can begin only on charges; and by similar arguments, they also must end on
charges.
Next, let us consider a tube of force with two normal sections dS1 and dS2 which are
represented vectorially by dS1 and dS2, respectively, across which the fields are E1 and E2,
respectively.
Since the tube does not either begin or end between dS1 and dS2, there is no charge enclosed
by the closed surface formed by dS1 and dS2 and the lines of force which form the generators
of the tube.
\ There is no net flux of E out of this surface.
Thus, no tube can cross the curved boundary, since this surface is the boundary of a tube.
\ The flux across dS1 = the flux across dS2, i.e. E1 × dS1 = E2 × dS2.
But, by definition, E × dS is the strength of a tube.
\ The strength of a tube remains constant along its length.
1.17 Prove that when the net charge in an arbitrary charge distribution is zero, then the dipole
moment of the distribution is independent of the choice of the origin of the coordinate
system.
Sol. Let an arbitrary charge distribution of density r (x¢, y¢, z¢) occupy a volume v¢ and extend
to a maximum distance rmax ′ from O, the origin of the coordinate system, as shown in
Fig. 1.18. The origin O is either inside v¢ or close to it.
′ .
We start by finding the electric potential V at an external point P(x, y, z) such that r > rmax
This is
ρ dv′
V = ∫∫∫
v′
4πε 0 r ″
,
where r² is the distance between the observation point P and an element of charge rÿ dv¢ at the
point P¢(x¢, y¢, z¢) inside the charge distribution, so that
r² = {(x x¢)2 + ( y y¢)2 + (z z¢)2}1/2
Fig. 1.18 Arbitrary charge distribution of density r within a volume v¢.
Since r² = r²(x¢, y¢, z¢), 1/r² can be expanded by Taylor series near the origin as
2
1 1 ⎧ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎫ ⎛1⎞ 1 ⎧ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎫ ⎛1⎞
= + ⎨ x′ + y′ + z′ ⎬ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎨ x′ + y′ + z′ ⎬ ⎜ ⎟ +"
r″ r ⎩ ∂x′ ∂y′ ∂z′ ⎭O ⎝ r ″ ⎠ 2! ⎩ ∂x′ ∂y′ ∂z′ ⎭O ⎝ r ″ ⎠
where the subscripts O indicate that the derivatives have been evaluated at the origin. For the
second bracket, while squaring, the factors x¢, y¢, z¢ are taken as constants and the same rules
apply to subsequent terms.
∂ ⎛1⎞ 1 ∂r ″ x − x′
Now, ⎜ ⎟ = − 2 =
∂x′ ⎝ r ″ ⎠ r ″ ∂x′ r ″3
and at the origin { ∂ ⎛1⎞

⎜ ⎟
∂x′ ⎝ r ″ ⎠ }O
=
r
x
3
=
cos θ x
r 2
= 2
r
l
x
where l = = cos qx is the cosine of the angle between the vector r and the x-axis. The other
r
first derivatives similarly become
⎧ ∂ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎫
⎨
⎩ ∂y ′
⎜ ⎟⎬ =
⎝ r ″ ⎠ ⎭O
cos θ y
r 2
m
= 2 and
r ∂
∂ ⎛1⎞
z ′
⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ r ″ ⎠ O
{
cos θ z
r 2
= 2
r
n
}
Similarly, the second derivatives of the third term can be evaluated.
1 ρ dv′ 1 ρ dv′
\ V= ∫∫∫ v′
r 4πε 0
+ ∫∫∫ v′
r 2
(lx′ + my′ + nz′)
4πε 0
1 ⎧
+ ∫∫∫ v′
r3
⎨(3mny′ z′ + 3nlz′ x′ + 3lmx′ y′ )
⎩
1 2
2
+
1 1
(3l − 1) x′2 + (3m2 − 1) y′2 + (3n 2 − 1) z′2
2 2
ρ dv′
4πε 0
+" }
where l, m, n are the direction cosines of the line joining the origin to the point P.
ELECTROSTATICS I 85
The first term in this equation is that electric potential which would be at P if the whole charge
(Q, say) was concentrated at the origin. It is called the monopole term and would be zero,
only if the total net charge is zero. If all the charges are of the same sign, then it is the most
important term in the series expression, since it decreases only as 1/r.
The second term varies as 1/r2, similar to the potential of a dipole. Let us consider the case
when the net charge is simply a dipole located at the origin. So, then, there are two charges +Q
and Q situated at x¢ = 0, y¢ = 0, z¢ = +d/2 and x¢ = 0, y¢ = 0 and z¢ = d/2, respectively. The
second term V2 of the above equation then becomes
Qd m p ⋅ r1
V2 = cos θ z =
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2
where r1 is the unit vector in the direction of r, and mp is the dipole moment of the dipole which
in the present case constitutes the charge distribution. Also the point to be noted is that the total
net charge of the distribution for the present case is zero. So, the dipole moment can be written as
mp = ∫∫∫ ( x′ i
v′
x + y′ i y + z′ i z ) ρ dv′
=
∫∫∫ r′ ρ dv′ (in the general case)
For the single dipole, it should be noted that the dipole moment is independent of the location
of the origin.
In an arbitrary charge distribution, if the total charge Qw is zero, it can be considered to be made
up of aggregate of integer number of dipoles. The above analysis applies to each dipole of the
aggregate. So, when Qw = 0, the dipole moment of the distribution is independent of the choice
of the coordinate system.
1.18 There is an electric charge distribution of constant density s on the surface of a disc of radius
a. Show that the potential at a distance z away from the disc along the axis of symmetry is
σ
2ε 0
( )
z 2 + a 2 − z . Find the value of the electric field, and then by making a tend to infinity,
find the field due to an infinite layer of charge.
Sol. Consider the charged disc to be made up of elemental concentric rings as shown in
Fig. 1.19. Such an elemental ring at the radius r can be considered to be made up of elements
dr ds (shown by the cross-hatched portion in the figure). The electric field at the point r on the
axis of the disc (z-axis), due to the element dr ds is
σ dr ds
| dE | = ,
4πε 0 l 2
where l = PR = r2 + z2 .
The component of this field due to the complete elemental ring, in the axial direction (since
the orthogonal components will cancel out each other) is given by
σ 2π r dr
ÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿdEax = dEz = cos q
4πε 0l 2
Fig. 1.19 Charged disc of radius a and its field calculation.
σ 2π z r dr ⎛ z ⎞
= ⋅ ⎜' cos θ = ⎟
4πε 0 ( z 2 + r 2 )3/ 2 ⎜ z 2 + r 2 ⎟⎠
⎝
\ The E field due to all such rings up to the radius a is given by
⎧r = a ⎫ σz
⎪ r dr ⎪
E = Eax = Ez = i z ⎨ ∫ 2 3/ 2 ⎬
⎪⎩ r = 0 ( z + r ) ⎪⎭ 2ε 0
2
a
σ z ⎧ ( z 2 + r 2 ) −(3/ 2) +1 1 ⎫
= iz ⎨ ⋅ ⎬
2ε 0 ⎩ − (3/2) + 1 2 ⎭r = 0
σz ⎧⎪ 1 1 ⎫⎪
= − iz ⎨ 2 − ⎬
2ε 0 ⎪⎩ z + a 2 z ⎪⎭
σ ⎧⎪ z ⎪⎫
= − iz ⎨ 2 − 1⎬
2ε 0 ⎩⎪ z + a 2 ⎪⎭
= grad V
σ ⎧⎪ z ⎫⎪
\ V=
2ε 0 ∫ ⎨ 2
⎩⎪ z + a
2
− 1⎬ dz
⎪⎭
σ
= ( z 2 + a2 − z )
2ε 0
ELECTROSTATICS I 87
As a ® ¥,
σ ⎧⎪ z ⎫⎪
Eax = Ez = − lim ⎨ 2 − 1⎬
a →∞ 2ε 0 ⎪⎩ z + a 2 ⎪⎭
σ ⎛1 ⎞ σ
= − ⎜ − 1⎟ =
2ε 0 ⎝ ∞ ⎠ 2ε 0
1.19 A spherical charge distribution has been expressed as
⎧ ⎛ r2 ⎞
⎪ ρ 0 ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ for r ≤ a
ρ = ⎨ ⎝ a ⎠
⎪0 for r > a
⎩
Evaluate the total charge Q. Find the electric field intensity E and the potential V, both outside
and inside the charge distribution.
r =a a
⎧ r2 ⎫ ⎧ r4 ⎫
Sol. Q=
r =0
∫
ρ 0 ⎨1 − 2 ⎬ 4π r 2 dr =
⎩ a ⎭
∫
0
4πρ 0 ⎨ r 2 − 2 ⎬ dr
⎩ a ⎭
a
⎧ r3 r5 ⎫ ⎧ a3 a3 ⎫
= 4πρ0 ⎨ − 2 ⎬ = 4πρ0 ⎨ − ⎬
⎩ 3 5a ⎭0 ⎩3 5⎭
a3
= 8πρ 0
15
Note: The only variation is in the r-direction and there are no variations in f and q directions.
(i) Outside the charge distribution
Since there is spherical symmetry at any radius r (> a), we get by Gauss theorem
Q 8 a3
4p r2 × Er = = πρ 0
ε0 15 ε0
2 ρ0 a 3
\ Er =
15ε 0 r 2
2 ρ0 a 3
and V= − ∫ E dr =
15ε 0 r
(ii) Once again by considering a spherical shell at a radius r (r < a), we get by Gauss
theorem
r
1 ⎧ r2 ⎫
2
4p r Er =
ε0 ∫
0
ρ0 ⎨1 − 2 ⎬ ⋅ 4π r 2 dr
⎩ a ⎭
r
4πρ0 ⎧ 2 r4 ⎫
or 2
4p r Er =
ε0 ∫0
⎨r − 2 ⎬ dr
⎩ a ⎭
r
4πρ0 ⎧ r 3 r5 ⎫ 4πρ0 ⎧ r 3 r5 ⎫
= ⎨ − 2⎬ = ⎨ − 2⎬
ε 0 ⎩ 3 5a ⎭0 ε 0 ⎩ 3 5a ⎭
ρ0 ⎧ r r3 ⎫
\ Er = ⎨ − 2 ⎬ (= − grad V )
ε 0 ⎩ 3 5a ⎭
ρ0 ⎧ r r3 ⎫
\ V= − ∫ ⎨ − 2 ⎬ dr + C
ε 0 ⎩ 3 5a ⎭
ρ0 ⎧ r2 r4 ⎫
= ⎨ − + 2⎬
+C
ε0 ⎩ 6 20a ⎭
To evaluate the constant of integration, we use the value of V on the outer surface of the charge
distribution, i.e. at r = a.
ρ0 ⎧ a2 a2 ⎫ 2 ρ0 a 2
⎨ − + ⎬ + C =
ε0 ⎩ 6 20 ⎭ 15ε 0
\ C=
ρ0 a 2 2 1 1
+ −
ε 0 15 6 20 {
=
ε0 60 }
ρ0 a 2 8 + 10 − 3
{ }
ρ0 a 2
=
4ε 0
S0 Î a 2 r 2 r4 Þ
\ V= Ï ß
F0 Ð 4 6 20a 2 à
This is the simplest method of solving this problem. This problem can also be solved by other
methods, such as, by Coulombs law or Laplaces equation or using potential. These are left as
exercises for the readers.
dEr
The maximum value of E would be located at a point where = 0, that is
dr
d ⎡ ρ0 ⎧ r r 3 ⎫⎤
⎢ ⎨ − 2 ⎬⎥ = 0
dr ⎣ ε 0 ⎩ 3 5a ⎭ ⎦
1 3r 2
or − = 0
3 5a 2
ELECTROSTATICS I 89
r2 5
\ 2
=
a 9
r 5 2.23607
Hence, = =
a 3 3
= 0.745...
1.20 What maximum charge can be put on a sphere of radius 1 m, if the breakdown of air is to be
avoided? For breakdown of air, | E | = 3 × 106 V/m.
Sol. By Gauss theorem, at any radius r
Q
D=
4π r 2
Q
\ E=
4πε 0 r 2
On the surface of the sphere, E is the maximum and
Q
Emax =
4πε 0 ⋅ 12
For breakdown of air, E = 3 × 106 V/m.
10 −9
\ Q = 4p × × 3 × 106 l 3.3 × 10 4 coulombs
36π
1.21 Two equal point charges, each of magnitude +Q coulombs, are located at the points A and B
whose coordinates are (±a, 0, 0). A third point charge of magnitude Q coulombs and of mass m
revolves around the x-axis under the influence of attraction to points A and B. Show that if this
particle describes a circle of radius r, then its velocity v is given by
2Q 2 r 2
mv2 = .
4πε 0 (r 2 + a 2 )3/ 2
Fig. 1.20 Locus of the moving point charge Q.

Sol. See Fig. 1.20. Since the locus of the moving point charge Q is to be a circle of
radius r, it must lie in the yz-plane (i.e. x = 0), because it is only in this plane that the resultant
x-component of the forces due to the two charges at A and B will be zero, that is
Q2
force due to the charge +Q at A =
4πε 0 AP 2
Q2
and force due to the charge at +Q at B =
4πε 0 BP 2
Now, AP = BP only when P lies in yz-plane. In this plane, AP = BP = (r2 + a2)1/2, and hence the
radial components along OP add up while the normal components along the x-axis cancel out.
2Q 2
\ The resultant radial component of force, FR = cos ÐAPO
4πε 0 AP 2
2Q 2 r OP r
Hence, FR = 2 3/ 2 , since cos ÐAPO =
= 2 = cos ÐBPO
4πε 0 ( r + a )
2
AP (r + a 2 )1/ 2
dv
= mass × acceleration = m ×
dt
Since the locus of the particle is to be a circle of radius r,
dθ
v = r⋅ ,
dt
where q = ÐPOZ.
Since the resultant force is in the radial direction, i.e. along OP, the acceleration in this direction
⎛ dθ ⎞ .
2
d 2r
is − r ⎜ ⎟
dt 2 ⎝ dt ⎠
d 2r
But, since r is constant, = 0.
dt 2
dθ ⎞2 v 2
\ Acceleration = r ⎛⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ dt ⎠ r
v2 2Q 2 r
\ m× =
r 4πε 0 ( r 2 + a 2 )3/ 2
2Q 2 r 2
Hence, mv2 = ,
4πε 0 ( r 2 + a 2 )3/ 2
is the required relation for the velocity of the particle.
1.22 Show, by using Gauss theorem (flux theorem), that there is a charge of rS/e0 in the normal
component of E while crossing a layer of charge of surface density rS. Hence, prove that when
a line of force crosses a positive layer of charge, it is always refracted towards the normal to
the plane of the layer.
ELECTROSTATICS I 91
Note: The first part is bookwork. Refer to ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications,

qS (on the yz-plane, x = 0)

y
E = qS /2e0 E = qS / 2e0
dS
x
O
Fig. 1.21 Gaussian surface across the layer of charge in the yz-plane.
Sol. See Fig. 1.21. Initially, we consider a line of force crossing the yz-plane, when there is
no positive charge layer, at an arbitrary angle (say a ) without any refraction, since there is no
discontinuity at this stage on this plane [see Fig. 1.22(a)].
And, as before, when there is a layer of positive charge +rS on the yz-plane [see Fig. 1.22(b)],
then the E fields on the two sides of the layer are ES(= rS/2e0), directed in the ±x-directions on
the two sides of the layer.
Fig. 1.22 A line of force across the yz-plane.
When these two fields are superimposed [Fig. 1.22(c)], then on the incident side of the
layer,
ρS
the normal component of E-field = E cos a
2ε 0
and the tangential component of E-field = E sin a
E sin α
\ Angle of incidence at yz-plane, ai = tan1
ρS
E cos α −
2ε 0
For the transmitted wave, after refraction at the charge layer,

ρS
the normal component of the transmitted E-field = E cos a +
2ε 0
and the tangential component of the transmitted E-field = E sin a
E sin α
\ Angle of refraction at yz-plane, ar = tan1
ρS
E cos α +
2ε 0
\ ÿar is always < ai, so long as rS is positive.
\ The line of force {E} will always refract towards the normal, on crossing a positive layer of
charge.
1.23 Show that the maximum and the minimum values of the electrostatic potentials exist only at
points which are occupied by positive and negative charges, respectively.
Sol. Let us assume that at a point P, the potential has the maximum value with respect to all
the neighbouring points. Then, according to the equation
∂V
E = −
∂l
the electric field intensity E at all points on the surface of a small sphere S (say) enclosing the
point P under consideration, must be directed outward.
\ The flux of E through S must be positive.
But, by Gauss theorem, this means that S must enclose some positive charge, whatever be the
size of S (the closed surface).
\ There must be a positive charge at P, such that this charge is > 0 (and also ¹ 0).
Similar argument holds for the existence of a negative charge (¹ 0) at P when the potential at
that point has to be the minimum.
1.24 One side of a circular disc of radius R has an electric double layer of uniform strength mp,
spread over it. Prove that, along the line of symmetry which is normal to the plane of the disc
(and hence passing through the centre of the circle), the electric field at a distance x from the
layer is given by
m pπ a 2
2πε 0 ( a 2 + x 2 )3/ 2
Sol. (a) A note on electric double layer:
The charge double layer (as mentioned in the problem) occurs in many biological as well as
colloid problems in chemistry. On such surfaces, there are two layers of charge of opposite
polarity, the one just outside the other. The surface, either wholly or partly covered by these
layers, is called an electric double layer.
The strength mp of the layer = charge per unit area (= rS) × distance between
the layers (= t) (see Fig. 1.23)
= r St
ELECTROSTATICS I 93
Fig. 1.23 Electric double layer.
\ From Fig. 1.23, the two elemental charges ±rS dS over the surface elements dS of the layers,
together are equivalent to a dipole, whose moment
= rStdS = mp dS
So, instead of considering separate layers of positive and negative charge, we can consider a
layer of dipoles, all of which are normal to the surface (similar to the bristles of a hairbrush)
such that the dipole moment per unit area is mp.
The potential at a point P due to an electric double layer of strength mp can be calculated as
follows.
Since the element dS in Fig. 1.23 behaves like a dipole of moment mp dS, the potential at the
point P, due to this element is
m p dS cos θ
dV = (Refer to ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition,
4πε 0 r 2
PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, p. 64.)
dS cos θ
= dw, being the solid angle subtended by dS to the point P, and q is the angle between
r2
the direction of the normal to dS and r (the direction to P).
\ The potential at P, VP =
∫ m dω
p (due to the total layer)
(b) Solution to the problem:

The potential at P (distant x from the disc, along its normal through the centre), due to the
double layer, is
VP = ∫m p dω
Since, the double layer is of uniform strength, we get
VP = m p ∫ dω = m ω p
where w is the solid angle subtended at P by the boundary curve of the double layer, which in
this case is the circle of radius a. See Fig. 1.24.
Fig. 1.24 Circular disc with electric double layer.
π a2
\ w=
r2
m pπ a 2
Hence, VP =
4πε 0 r 2
∂VP 2m pπ a 2 2 m pπ a 2
\ E = − = =
∂r 4πε 0 r 3 4πε 0 ( a 2 + x 2 )3/ 2
m pπ a 2
=
2πε 0 ( a 2 + x 2 )3/ 2
1.25 Prove that the potential at all external points of a sphere of any radius, covered with an electric
double layer of uniform strength mp, is zero, and has the value mp /e0 at all internal points.
Hint: Consider the enveloping cone, touching the sphere, with its vertex at the point under
consideration.
1.26 Prove that there is a potential change of mp /e0 on crossing an electric double layer of strength
mp .
Hint: Refer to ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New
Delhi, 2009, pp. 6263.
1.27 A volume distribution of charges is bounded by a spherical surface of radius a. The charge
density inside the sphere is r (r) = r0(1 r/a), where r is the radial distance from the centre of
the sphere. Using the (Maxwells equation) Ñ × D = rC, evaluate the electric field intensity E,
both inside and outside the sphere (the permittivity is assumed to be constant at e0 throughout
the space).
Sol. We consider a spherical shell concentric with the spherical surface, both inside as well
as outside it.
ELECTROSTATICS I 95
(i) Inside the sphere:

r
1 ⎛1 − r ⎞ 4π r 2 dr
2
4p r Er =
ε0 ∫ρ
0
0 ⎜
⎝ a⎠
⎟
r
4πρ0 ⎧ 2 r3 ⎫
=
ε0 ∫
0
⎨r − ⎬ dr
⎩ a⎭
4πρ0 ⎧ r 3 r 4 ⎫
= ⎨ − ⎬
ε 0 ⎩ 3 4a ⎭
ρ0 ⎧ r r 2 ⎫
\ Er = ⎨ − ⎬
ε 0 ⎩ 3 4a ⎭
(ii) Outside the sphere:
a
1 ⎛1 − r ⎞ 4π r 2 dr
2
4p r Er =
ε0 ∫ρ
0
0 ⎜
⎝ a⎠
⎟
4πρ 0 ⎧ a 3 a 4 ⎫ 4πρ0 a3
= ⎨ − ⎬ = ⋅
ε 0 ⎩ 3 4a ⎭ ε 0 12
ρ 0 a3
\ Er =
12ε 0 r 2
Note: In spherical polar coordinates, because of spherical symmetry, only the r-variation
occurs, and the integral form of the Maxwells equation has been used.
1.28 The space between two very large, parallel copper plates contains a weakly ionized gas which
can be assumed to have a uniform space charge of volume density r coulombs/m3 and
permittivity e0. Using the Maxwells equation div D = r, derive an expression for the electric
field strength E at a distance x (measured normally from one of the parallel plates) from one
of the plates, when both the plates are connected together and earthed. Hence, prove that the
potential at any point in the mid-plane between the plates is given by
ρd 2
V= ,
8ε 0
where d is the distance between the plates, neglecting all edge effects. Verify the answer by
obtaining a direct solution of the Poissons equation for the electrostatic potential.
Sol. The problem looks like a parallel plate capacitor one, but it should be noted that there is
a space charge distribution in the space between the conductor plates.
The variations in D, E and V are only in the x-direction as all edge effects are neglected.
\ From div D = r
∂D
we get = r
∂x
∂E ρ
or =
∂x ε0
ρx
\ E= +A
ε0
To evaluate the constant of integration A, we use the given boundary condition, which states
that both the plates, i.e. at x = 0 and x = d, are connected together and earthed. Hence, at both
x = 0 and x = d, V = 0.
∂V
Since E = grad V, so E = − .
∂x
⎧⎪ ⎛ ρ x ⎞ ⎫⎪
\ V = −⎨ ⎜ ∫
⎩⎪ ⎝ ε 0
+ A ⎟ dx ⎬ + B
⎠ ⎭⎪
ρ x2
= − − Ax + B
2ε 0
x = 0, V = 0 gives B = 0.
ρd 2
x = d, V = 0 gives V = − − Ad = 0
2ε 0
ρd
\ A= −
2ε 0
ρx
Hence, V= (d − x)
2ε 0
ρ ⎛d ⎞
and E= − ⎜ − x⎟
ε0 ⎝ 2 ⎠
d
Now, at x = , we get
2
d
ρ
2 ⎛ d ⎞ ρd 2
V= ⎜ d − = (at mid-plane)
2ε 0 ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 8ε 0
For direct solution of the Poissons equation, in this case, the Poissons equation reduces to
d 2V ρ
= ,
dx 2
ε0
which when solved gives the same result.
1.29 Show that the equations of lines of force are given by
EY EZ E[
&Y &Z &[
with corresponding expressions in the other coordinate systems.
ELECTROSTATICS I 97
Sol. Note: A line of force is defined as a directed curve (in an electric field) such that the
forward drawn tangent at any point on the curve has the direction of the E vector at that point.
So, we start with a given E field in which there is a curve such that on it at any point there is
an element of length d s at the centre of which the field has the value E which satisfies the given
condition above, i.e.
EY EZ E[
&Y & Z &[ (i)
where k ds = ix dx + iy dy + iz dz and E = ix Ex + iy Ey + iz Ez (ii)

(using the Cartesian coordinate system)
Let the ratios of Eq. (i) be equal to ka scalar quantity.
Then
ds = ix dx + iy dy + iz dz = k (ix Ex + iy Ey + iz Ez) = kE
i.e. at any point on the given curve, the elemental length ds is proportional to the E field on
that element and the constant of proportionality is same (= k) at all points.
In the limit, the elemental chord ds tends to tangent to the curve at that point and, hence, the
tangent to the curve is the direction of E at that point.
Hence the relationship (i) gives the equation to the line of force of the given field. We have chosen
Cartesian coordinate for simplicity here. The same argument will hold for all systems.
1.30 Two infinite parallel lines of charge, of densities + l and l per unit length, have negligible
cross-section. The distance between the two lines is d. Find the equations for the equipotentials
in a plane perpendicular to the lines.
Sol. Figure 1.25 shows the arrangement of the two line charges.
From Fig. 1.25(a), the potential at a point P, due to the two line charges at O and O¢ (O being
the origin of the polar coordinate system)
M ÈSØ
71 (i)
QF
MO
ÉÊ S ÙÚ

(Refer to Sections 1.7.4 and 1.7.5 of Electromagnetism: Theory and Applications, 2nd Edition,
PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009.)
\ The equipotentials are given by
S
DPOTUBOU L (ii)
S
But
S = r2 2rd cos q + d 2 (iii)
Substituting from Eq. (ii),
r2 (1 k2) 2rd cos q + d 2 = 0 (iv)
Next, we transform this equation into Cartesian coordinates with the charge on the left as the
origin, and the line joining these two charges (= d) as the x-axis.
Since x = r cos q, Eq. (iv) becomes

ÎÑ E ÞÑ L E
ÏY ß Z (v)
ÐÑ L
à
Ñ L

y
k=1
Line
r r1 charges
O q
O¢ x
d
q=0
Line charges
Origin of the coord. system
Origin
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.25 Two parallel line charges + l and l per unit length at a distance d from each other.
ÎÑ E ÞÑ
This is the equation for a set of co-axial circles with centres at Ï ß and radii
ÐÑ L àÑ
LE
for both +ve and ve values of k.
L
Note that these equipotentials form a set of co-axial circles of the non-intersecting type
(shown by full lines in Fig. 1.25(b)) and have poles at (± d/2, 0) i.e. O and O¢.
The lines of E are the orthogonal set of co-axial circles with their centres on the line k = 1, and
they all pass through the points O and O¢. (These are shown by the dotted lines in the same figure).
The equipotentials and E lines shown are on a plane section normal to the plane of the parallel
line charges. Hence equipotential surfaces will all be circular cylinders with their axes parallel
to the line charges and the E surfaces will also be a set of orthogonal intersecting cylinders.
1.31 When and under what conditions can a moving charge problem be treated as an electrostatic
problem? Explain all the physical aspects of such a situation.
A rudimentary (and elementary) model of a diode can be considered to be made up of two
parallel plates of a conducting material (Fig. 1.26).
The heated plate (or the electrode, i.e. the cathode) located at x = 0 emits electrons which are
attracted to the other plate at x = l maintained at a constant higher potential f = Vb (by means
of a battery). This produces a steady time-independent current in the external circuit. (a) The
quantities to be determined are the distribution of the electrons (i.e. the charges) and the
potential in the interspace between the electrode plates. (b) Find also the relationship between
the current density (= J) and the plate voltage (= Vb).
ELECTROSTATICS I 99
f=0 f = Vb
Heated f = potential difference

plate
x
l
Fig. 1.26 Two conducting parallel plates.
For simplicity, treat the problem as one-dimensional with the variable x only, and neglect the
effects of the other dimension. Explain the physical implications of these simplification. Derive
the one-dimensional Poissons equation in terms of the potential function f (x) and the volume
charge density of the moving charges r (x)this being non-uniform in the interspace between
the electrode plates. Find the kinetic energy of the electron (of charge e and mass me) moving
with the velocity v(x) in terms of the potential of the electric field.
Show that the p.d. f satisfying the Poissons equation has the final form
E G Y

ÎÑ + È N Ø
ÞÑ
ß \G Y
^

Ï É F Ù
EY Ê F Ú
ÐÑ F

àÑ
It is not necessary to solve this equation, but state the necessary boundary conditions at x = 0
and x = l including the imposed assumption that the electrons barely get out of the cathode.
Sol. (a) In general, when in a region there are moving charges, it is not a static problem, i.e.
when electric charges are moving in a specified volume, the field is not an electrostatic field.
But consider a situation where the electric current coming out from the region (e.g. the current,
drawn from one of the electrode plates of a parallel plate diode), is time-independent, which
means that the magnitude of the current (= one-directional moving charges under the influence
of an electric field) does not vary with time. In this case, in the intervening space between the
plates, the charges arriving on the plate per unit time would equal to the amount of charges
leaving the electrode plate (in the form of electric current). Hence the amount of charge at any
point in the intervening space remains constant (i.e. independent of time). Thus, even though
the identity of the charges in a volume element d v keeps changing continually, the amount of
charge (=ÿr d v, r being the volume density of the charge in the volume elements d v) does not
change. r may be a function of spacethe charge density does not have to be uniformbut
not a function of time, i.e. time-independent.
Hence such a problem can be effectively considered a static problem in a macroscopic sense.
The electric potential (= f) would then satisfy the condition E = grad f, and using the Gauss
divergence equation of D vector, we get the Poissons equation for the potential as

³G S
F
where r is a function of space and not necessarily a constant.

SD
i.e. ³¹% SD ³¹ & (i)
F
(b) In this problem, since the cross-sectional dimensions of the plate electrodes are much larger
than the gap between the plates (i.e. x = l ), the variations in the y- and z-directions are
justifiably neglected. This means that E field has only the x-component and does not vary in
the y- and z-directions. Hence the Poissons equation for the potential f simplifies to
E G

S Y
(ii)
EY F
The K.E. of the moving charges with velocity v(x) at a distance x from the heated plate is

NF W F G Y
(iii)

Next, consider the charge in a tube of cross-section dA and axis in the x-direction and of length
vd t, d t being an element of time t.
Charge in such a tube = rvdAd t
This charge will pass through this tube in the time d t
Then the current density J is really charge/s passing a cross-section
S W E"E U
\ +E" (iv)
EU
Expressing the current-density in A/m2,
J = rv (v)
Combining Eqs. (ii), (iii) and (v), we get
E G ÎÑ +
Ï
NF ÞÑ G Y

ß
EY F Ñ
ÐÑ F à
The boundary conditions required to solve the above equation completely are:
1. at x = 0, f = 0
2. at x = l, f = Vb
EG
3. at Y
EY
1.32 In a specified volume of spherical shape, an electrostatic potential has been given as
7 $ TJO R TJO G XIFSF $ JT B DPOTUBOU

S
(taking the centre of the spherical region as the origin of the spherical polar coordinate system)
Show that there is no electric charge in the specified region, and find the electric field intensity
E in the region.
ELECTROSTATICS I 101
Sol. Hint: In spherical polar coordinates,

7 7 7
grad V = JS JR JG
S S R S TJO R G
"S "S "R DPU R "G
and div A = "R
S S S R S S TJO R G
The electric field intensity ( = E) is obtained by taking the gradient of the E.S. potential (= V)
and the charge in the specified region by using the Gauss theorem.
\ E = ÑV
$ TJO R TJO G É
È Ø $ DPT R TJO G $ DPT G
= JS Ù
JR
JG (i)
Ê S Ú S S
To find the charge density in the region,
s = div D = e0 div E = e0 div ( grad V)
ÎÑ $ TJO R TJO G ÞÑ ÎÑ È Ø ÞÑ
= Ï ß Ï $ TJO R TJO G É Ùß
S ÐÑ S àÑ ÑÐ Ê S Ú Ñà
ÑÎ $ TJO G ÑÞ DPU R ÑÎ $ Þ
DPT R TJO G Ñ
Ï TJO R
ß Ï ß

S ÑÐ S Ñà S ÑÐ S Ñà
ÎÑ $ ÞÑ
Ï TJO G
ß
S TJO R ÐÑ S àÑ
$ TJO R TJO G \ ^ $ ÎÑ DPT R TJO G TJO G ÞÑ
= Ï ß
S S ÐÑ TJO R àÑ
=0
\ No charge density in the specified region.
1.33 Two spherical metal shells of radii a and b are given electric charges Qa and Qb respectively.
If these two shells are then connected by a wire, in which direction will the current flow?
Qb
Qa
a
b
r
Fig. 1.27 Two spherical charged metal shells of radii a and b, at a distance r such that r >> a and r >> b.
(Figure not to scale. The spherical shells have been enlarged much compared to the distance
between them for clarity of understanding.)
Sol. See Fig. 1.27. As a simplification, let r be >> a and >> b, so that the spheres can be
considered in isolation.
\ For the sphere of radius a, the E field and the potential V on its surface are
&B 2B 7B 2B
QF B QF B

Similarly, for the sphere of radius b,
&C 2C 7C 2C
QF C QF C

when the spheres are connected by a conducting wire, the current will flow from a higher
potential to a lower potential, i.e. the direction of the current will be from a to b if
2B !
2C
B C

and the direction of the current will be from b to a, if

2C !
2B
C B
Electrostatics IIDielectrics,
2
Conductors and Capacitance
2.1 INTRODUCTION
So far we have considered the electrostatic field in free space. Next, we consider the effect of presence
of insulators and conductors in the static fields. The behaviour of conductors and insulators has been
discussed in detail in ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning,
New Delhi, 2009 (in Chapters 2 and 3), which also explained the concept of capacitance of a system.
2.2 CAPACITANCE
For convenience, we merely recapitulate the following two methods of evaluating the capacitance.
Method A
Assume charges ±Q on the two electrodes of the capacitor. By using the Gauss theorem, find D and
hence E.
Find the potential difference (p.d.) between the two electrodes, which is given by ∫ E ⋅ dl. Hence,
Q
Capacitance, C =
p.d.
Method B
Assume a potential difference (p.d.) between the electrodes and hence the potential distribution. Find
E from the equation E = grad V, and hence D.
By using the Gauss theorem, find Qthe enclosed charge on one of the electrodes. Hence,
charge
C=
p.d.
The above methods enable us to evaluate the capacitance of systems with single as well as
mixed dielectrics of various shapes, sizes and different arrangements. However, it should be noted that
these are not the only two methods for evaluation of capacitance. Since most of these field problems
(in electrosatics) are Laplacian (or sometimes Poissonian) in nature, solving them implies the solving
of Laplaces (or Poissons) equation in the requisite coordinate system. These equations can be
solved in more than one way and hence the method selected is usually the most convenient one for
the particular problem.
103
2.3 FIELD VECTORS

Another important point to be noted is that since the electric flux density vector D (or the electric
displacement vector, as Maxwell called it), is linearly related to the E vector (in most of the cases), the
line of flow of D would satisfy the similar differential equation as that of E, i.e.
dx dy dz
= =
Dx Dy Dz
2.4 ENERGY OF THE SYSTEM

Next, considering the energy of an electrostatic system, we obtained the energy in terms of the charge
Q on the conductors and the capacitance C of the system, i.e.
Q2
We =
2C
The electrostatic energy can also be expressed in terms of the field vectors, i.e. D, E, and in
terms of the characteristic of the medium, i.e. permittivity e (= e0er). Hence
1
We =
2 ∫∫∫ V ρ
v
C dv,
where V is the final potential of the element considered and rC is the charge density, v being the
volume enclosing all the free charges of the system. In terms of the field vectors, we have
1
We =
2 ∫∫∫ D E dv
v
2.5 FORCES ON THE SYSTEM

Next, to calculate the forces and torques in the system, we must remember that both the forces and
the torques are associated with the energy transfer. Since the energy W is the assembly work, the
force in a given direction (say x) is given by
∂W
Fx = − ,
∂x
i.e. by the rate of change of energy in the x-direction (and NOT by the time-rate of change of energy).
In vector form, F = grad W
The next important point to be noted is that the evaluation of forces on conductors is easier
than to calculate forces on dielectrics, because the conductors have only the free charges on them,
whereas for the insulators, there are additional forces due to polarization effects. These points have
been discussed in detail in Sections 3.53.7 in ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications,
2.6 PROBLEMS
2.1 A capacitor is formed of tinfoil sheets applied to the two faces of a glass plate of thickness
0.4 cm and relative permittivity 6. Very thin layers of air are trapped between the foil and the
ELECTROSTATICS IIDIELECTRICS, CONDUCTORS AND CAPACITANCE 105
glass. Given that the air becomes ionized when E = 3 × 106 V/m, find approximately the potential
difference at which the ionization will start in the capacitor.
2.2 Show that a wire carrying a charge Q per unit length and held parallel to a conducting plane at
a distance h from it, attracts the plane with a force of Q2/(4pe0h) per unit length.
2.3 Two wires, each of radius a, are held at a distance d apart and each is at a distance h from a
conducting plane. Prove that the capacitance between the two wires, connected in parallel, and
the plane is
4πε 0
,
ln (2hd ′/ad )
where d ¢2 = d 2 + 4h2 and a << d and h.
2.4 Two long wires, each of radius a, are held at a height h above an earthed conducting plane,
parallel to each other and at a distance b apart. One wire is raised to potential V1, with respect
to the plane, the other being insulated. Prove that the potential taken up by the insulated wire
will be
ln (2h′/b)
V1 ,
ln (2h/a )
where h¢2 = h2 + b2/4 and a << h and b.
2.5 Three wires, each of radius a, are held parallel in the same plane, the outer ones being at equal
distances b from the central wire. Obtain an expression for the potential at any point when there
is a charge Q per unit length on the central wire and (Q/2) per unit length on the outer wires,
and hence, prove that the capacitance per unit length between the central wire on one hand and
the outer wires connected together on the other, is given by
4πε 0
.
ln (b3 /2 a3 )
2.6 A capacitor of capacitance C is charged to a voltage V. At a particular time, this capacitor is
connected to a second capacitor also of value C, but containing no charge. What will be the
final voltage (say, Vf )? Discuss the result.
2.7 Two capacitors C1 and C2 have charges Q1 and Q2, respectively. What happens when they are
connected in parallel? Explain the phenomenon in terms of the energy of the system.
2.8 Eight identical spherical drops of mercury, charged to 12 volts above the earth potential, are
made to coalesce into a single spherical drop. What is the new potential and how has the
internal energy of the system changed?
2.9 Each of the two dielectrics (of relative permittivities er1 and er2, respectively) occupies one-half
the volume of the annular space between the electrodes of a cylindrical capacitor, such that the
interface plane between the dielectrics is a rz-plane. Show that the two dielectrics act like a
single dielectric having the average relative permittivity.
2.10 A parallel plate capacitor with free space between the electrodes is connected to a constant
voltage source. If the plates are moved apart from the separation d to 2d, keeping the
potential difference between them unchanged, what will be the change in D? On the other hand,
if the plates are brought closer together from d to d/2 with a dielectric of relative permittivity
er = 3, while maintaining the charges on the plates at the same value, what will be the changes
in the potential difference?
2.11 A parallel plate capacitor has a slab of dielectric (of width b) in its gap such that the slab is not
in contact with either of the electrodes and has air-gaps of widths a and c on either side of it.
If the area of either plate is A, show that the capacitance of the system is given by
ε0 A
C= .
b
a+ +c
εr
2.12 A spherical capacitor consists of two concentric spheres of radii a and d (d > a). A spherical
shell of dielectric, of permittivity e0er bounded by the spheres r = b and r = c, where a < b < c
< d, is concentric with the electrode spheres. Show that the capacitance of this capacitor is
given by
1 1 ⎧⎪ 1 1 1 − ε r ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎫⎪
= ⎨ − + ⎜ b − c ⎟⎬ .
C 4πε 0 ⎩⎪ a d εr ⎝ ⎠ ⎭⎪
2.13 A capacitor is made up of two concentric spheres of radii r = a and r = b (b > a) with uniform
dielectric of permittivity e0er in the annular space. The dielectric strength of the medium (i.e.
maximum permissible field strength before it breaks down and the medium starts conducting) is
E0. Hence show that the greatest potential difference between the two electrodes, so that the
field nowhere exceeds the critical value, is given by
E0 a (b a )
.
b
2.14 Show that in an electrostatic problem, in which the potential is dependent only on the radial
distance r, the differential equation for V is
1 d ⎛ 2 dV ⎞
⎜ r ε dr ⎟ = − ρC ,
r 2 dr ⎝ ⎠
the permittivity e also being a function of r.
2.15 Three hollow conducting spheres of radii a, b and c, respectively (a < b < c) are placed
concentrically and the innermost and outermost spheres are connected together by a fine wire,
thus forming one electrode of a capacitor, the other electrode being the middle sphere. By
considering the system as two separate capacitors in parallel, or otherwise, prove that the
capacitance of the system is 4pe0b2(c a)/{(b a)(c b)}. (Refer to ElectromagnetismTheory
and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning , New Delhi, 2009, pp. 9092.)
2.16 The interface surface, separating two dielectric media of permittivities e1 and e2, has a surface
charge rS per unit area. The electric field intensities on two sides of the interface are E1 and E2,
respectively making angles q1 and q2, respectively with the common normal. Show how to
determine E2 and prove that
⎛ ρS ⎞
ε r 2 cot θ 2 = ε r1 cot θ1 ⎜1 − ⎟.
⎝ ε 0ε r1 E1 cos θ1 ⎠
2.17 A capacitor consists of two conducting spheres of radii a and b (a < b) placed concentrically
and the annular space containing a heterogeneous dielectric of relative permittivity
er = f (q, f). Show that its capacitance is given by
ε ab
C= 0
b−a ∫∫f (θ , φ ) sin θ dθ dφ .
2.18 A spherical capacitor consists of a spherical conductor of radius a surrounded concentrically

by a spherical conducting shell of internal radius b, the intervening space between them being
filled by a dielectric whose relative permittivity is (c + r)/r at a distance r from the centre of the
system (c being a constant). The inner sphere is insulated and has a charge Q on it, whereas
the shell is connected to the earth. Show that the potential in the dielectric at a distance r from
the centre is given by
Q ⎧ b (c + r ) ⎫
ln ⎨ · ⎬.
4πε 0 c ⎩ r (c + b) ⎭
2.19 If in Problem 2.18, the dielectric in the annulus of the capacitor has the relative permittivity
er = µ exp(1/p2) . p3, where p = r/a, r being the distance from the centre of the system and µ a
constant, show that the capacitance C of the system is given by
8π aε 0 µ
C= .
exp(b / a 2 ) − exp(1)
2
2.20 In a spherical capacitor made of two concentric spheres, one-half the annular space between
the spheres is filled with one dielectric of relative permittivity er1 and the remaining half with
another dielectric of relative permittivity er2, the dividing surface between the two dielectrics
being a plane through the centre of the spheres. Show that the capacitance will be the same as
though the dielectric in the whole annular space has a uniform average relative permittivity,
i.e. (er1 + er2)/2.
voltage source. If the plates are moved apart from their separation d to 2d, keeping the potential
difference between them unchanged, what will be the change in D?
On the other hand, if the plates are brought together closer from d to d/2, with a dielectric of
relative permittivity er = 3, while maintaining the charges on the plates at the same value, what
will be the change in potential difference?
2.22 Two thin metal tubes of the same length and of radii a and b (b > a) are mounted concentrically,
and the inner one can slide axially within the outer one on smooth rails. Initially the inner tube
is partially within the outer; when a potential difference V is applied between the tubes, it is
drawn further in. Estimate the force which causes this movement, drawing attention to any
assumptions required.
2.23 The end of a coaxial cable is closed by a dielectric piston of permittivity e. The radii of the cable
conductors are a and b, and the dielectric in the other part of the cable is air. What is the
magnitude and the direction of the axial force, acting on the dielectric piston, if the potential
difference between the conductors is V ?
2.24 One end of an open coaxial cable is immersed vertically in a liquid dielectric of unknown
permittivity. The cable is connected to a source of potential difference V. The electrostatic
forces draw the liquid dielectric into the annular space of the cable for a height h above the level
of the dielectric outside the cable. The radius of the inner conductor is a, that of the outer
conductor is b (b > a), and the mass density of the liquid is rm . Determine the relative
permittivity of the liquid dielectric.
If V = 1000 V, h = 3.29 cm, a = 0.5 mm, b = 1.5 mm, rm = 1 g/cm3, find er.
(assume g = 9.81 m/s2)
2.25 The ends of a parallel plate capacitor are immersed vertically in a liquid dielectric of permittivity
e and mass density rm. The distance between the electrodes is d and the dielectric above the
liquid is air. Find h, the rise in the level of the liquid dielectric between the plates when these
are connected to a source of potential difference V. Ignore the fringing and other side effects.
2.26 One of the electrodes of a parallel plate capacitor is immersed in a liquid dielectric of unknown
permittivity and mass density rm, and the other plate of the capacitor is in the air above the
surface of the dielectric. The distance between the plates is d, and the depth of the dielectric
above the immersed plate is a. When the capacitor is connected to a source of potential
difference V, the level of the liquid between the plates is h higher than the level outside the
capacitor. Find the permittivity of the dielectric liquid, neglecting the fringing and other side
effects.
2.27 Two square conducting plates, each of length a on each side, are placed parallel to each other
at a distance t apart. A potential difference of V is established between the plates, and this
difference is maintained during the following procedure: A slab of material having permittivity
e0er, which is also of length a on each side and of thickness t, is inserted parallel to the edge
of the plate. Neglecting the edge effects, show that the force acting to pull the slab into the
space between the plates is given by
V 2ε 0 a (ε r − 1)
F= .
2t
2.28 If the dielectric slab of Problem 2.27 is only d wide (d < t), then prove that the force required to
pull the slab between the plates is
V 2ε 0 (ε r − 1) ad
F= .
2t{d + ε r (t − d )}
2.29 Two thin long conducting strips, each of width 2a (length >> 2a) with their flat surfaces facing
each other, are separated by a distance x. Find the capacitance per unit length on the extreme
assumption of uniform distribution of charge and then on the extreme assumption of
distribution only along the edges. Hence, on the basis of this problem, find whether the edge
effects increase or decrease the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor from its ideal value.
2.30 A simple parallel plate capacitor consists of two rectangular, parallel, highly conducting plates,
each of area A. Between the plates is a rectangular slab of dielectric of constant permittivity
e (D = eE ). The lower plate and the dielectric are fixed, and the upper plate can move (up and
down) and has instantaneous position x w.r.t. the top surface of the dielectric. The transverse
dimensions are large compared to the plate separation, i.e. the fringing field can be neglected.
The terminal voltage V(t) is supplied from a source, which is a function of time. Find the
instantaneous charge and current to the upper plate.
2.31 Show that the potential V between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric of
constant permittivity e0er satisfies the Laplaces equation. How would this equation be
modified, if the permittivity of the medium varies linearly from one plate to the other?
The plates of a parallel plate capacitor are h metres apart, and the lower plate is at zero potential.
The intervening space has a dielectric whose permittivity increases linearly from the lower plate
to the upper. Show that the capacitance per unit area is given by
ε 0 (ε r 2 − ε r1 )
,
h ln (ε r 2 /ε r1 )
where e0er1 and e0er2 are the permittivities of the dielectric at the lower and the upper plates,
respectively. Neglect the edge effects.
2.32 If the inner sphere of a spherical capacitor is earthed instead of the outer, show that the total
capacitance is 4pe0b2/(b a), where a < b. If a charge is given to the outer sphere from the
surrounding earth potential, what proportions reside on the outer and inner surfaces of the
outer sphere?
2.33 In a concentric spherical capacitor (of radii a, b, a < b), the inner sphere has a constant charge
Q on it and the outer conductor is maintained at zero potential. The outer conducting sphere
contracts from radius b to b1 (b1 < b) under the effect of the electric forces. Show that the work
done by the electric forces is Q2(b b1)/(8pe0bb1).
Note: Since constant charge is maintained in the system, we use the energy expressions (of the
capacitor) involving the charges.
2.34 If in the system of Problem 2.33, the inner conducting sphere is maintained at constant potential
V while allowing the charge to vary, show that the work done is
2πε 0V 2 a 2 (b − b1 )
.
(b1 − a )(b − a )
Investigate the quantity of energy supplied by the battery.
2.35 A parallel plate capacitor is made up of two rectangular conducting plates of breadth b and
area A placed at a distance d from each other. A parallel slab of dielectric of same area A and
thickness t (t < d ) is between the plates (i.e. a mixed dielectric capacitor with two dielectrics
air and dielectric of relative permittivity er ). The dielectric slab is pulled along its length from
between the plates so that only a length x is between the plates. Prove that the electric force
pulling the slab back into its original place is given by
Q 2 dbt ′( d − t ′)
,
2ε 0 { A( d − t ′) + bxt ′}2
where t ′ = t (ε r − 1)/ε r , ε r is the relative permittivity of the slab and Q is the charge. All
disturbances caused by the fringing effects at the edges are neglected.
2.36 Find the mechanical work needed to double the separation of the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor in vacuum, if a battery maintains them at a constant potential difference V, and the area
of the plate and the original separation are A and x, respectively.
2.37 Two conductors have capacitances C1 and C2 when they are in isolation in the field. When they
are both placed in an electrostatic field, their potentials are V1 and V2, respectively, the distance
between them being r, which is much greater than their linear dimensions. Show that the
repulsive force between these two conductors is given by
4πε C1C2 (4πε rV1 − C2V2 ) (4πε rV2 − C1V1 )
.
(16π 2ε 2 r 2 − C1C2 ) 2
2.38 Three identical spheres, each of radius a, are so positioned that their centres are collinear, and
the intervals between the centres of spheres 1 and 2 and between those of spheres 2 and 3 are
r1 and r2, respectively. Initially a charge Q is given to the sphere 2 only, the other two being
uncharged. Then the sphere 2 is connected with the sphere 1, by a wire of zero resistance. This
connection is broken and the sphere 2 is then connected with the sphere 3. If the intervals r1
and r2 are much larger than a, show that the final charge on the sphere 3 is given by
Q ⎧⎪ ar22 ⎫⎪
⎨ + 1⎬ .
4 ⎪⎩ r1 ( r1 + r2 )( r2 − a ) ⎪⎭
2.39 Four identical conducting spheres in uncharged state are positioned at the corners of a square
of sides r which is much greater than the radius a of the spheres, and numbered in sequence
as 1, 2, 3 and 4. A charge Q is now given to the sphere 1, which is then connected for an instant
by a wire of zero resistance to the spheres 2, 3 and 4 in time sequence. Show that at the end
(finally)
Q p11 − p24 Q p11 − 2 p14 + p24
Q4 f = and Q1 f = .
8 p11 − p14 8 p11 − p14
and are numbered in rotating sequence. The length of the arms of the square is r and the radius
of the spheres is a, such that a << r. Initially, the charges on the spheres 1 and 2 are +Q and
Q, respectively. The sphere 1 is connected instantly to the sphere 3 and then to the sphere 4.
Show that finally the charge on the sphere 4 is approximately given by
Q
2 5 {
r 2− ( 2 − 3)a}
5
Q4 f = .
r−a
2.41 Three identical conducting spheres, each of radius a, are located at the corners of an equilateral
triangle of sides r, such that r >> a. Initially, each sphere has a charge Q on it. Each sphere is
then initially earthed for an instant and then insulated. Show that the final charge on the
sphere 3 is given by
a2 ⎛ 2a ⎞
2 ⎜
3− Q.
r ⎝ r ⎟⎠
2.42 An alternative way of defining the equations for a system of N conductors is by using
potential ratios (defined by Pij) as distinct from the coefficients of potentials (pij) and the
coefficients of capacitance (cii) and the coefficients of induction (cij), also called mutual
capacitance.
These equations are:

−1
V1 = c11 Q1 + P12V2 + P13V3 + " + P1N VN
−1
V2 = P21V1 + c22 Q2 + P23V3 + " + P2 N VN
−1
V3 = P31V1 + P32V2 + c33 Q3 + " + P3N VN
# #
−1
Vn = Pn1V1 + Pn 2V2 + Pn 3V3 + … + cnn Qn
Hence, show that in terms of capacitances,
cij
Pij =
cii
2.43 Four identical conductors have been arranged at the corners of a regular tetrahedron in a mutual
perfectly symmetrical manner. All the four conductors are initially uncharged. One of the four
conductors is first given a charge Q by using a battery which is maintained at a voltage V, and
then this conductor is insulated. This conductor is then successively connected for an instant
to each of the other three conductors in turn and then finally connected to earth. Its charge is
now Q0. Show that all the coefficients of induction cij (i ¹ j) are
56Q 2 Q0
.
V (24Q0 + 7Q )(8Q0 − 7Q)
2.44 Three similar conductors in insulated state are arranged at the corners of an equilateral triangle,
so that each is perfectly symmetrical with respect to the other two. A wire from a battery of
unknown voltage V is touched to each in turn. If the charges on the first two are found to be
Q1 and Q2, respectively, what will be the charge on the third?
2.45 Four identical uncharged conductors in insulated state are placed symmetrically at the corners
of a regular tetrahedron. A moving spherical conductor touches them in turn at the points
nearest to the centre of the tetrahedron, thereby transferring charges Q10, Q20, Q30 and Q40 to
them, respectively. Show that the charges are in geometrical progression.
2.46 Four identical uncharged conductors in insulated state are placed at the corners of a square and
are touched in turn by a moving spherical conductor at the points nearest to the centre of the
square, thereby receiving the charges Q10, Q20, Q30 and Q40, respectively. Show that
(Q10 − Q20 )(Q10Q30 − Q20
2
) = Q10 (Q20Q30 − Q10 Q40 ).
2.47 In a capacitor made up of two concentric spheres of radii a and b (a < b), maintained at
potentials A and B, respectively, the annular space is filled with a heterogeneous dielectric
whose relative permittivity varies as the nth power of the distance from the common centre of
the spheres. Show that the potential at any point between the spheres is given by
⎛ Aa n + 1 − Bb n + 1 ⎞ ⎛ ab ⎞n + 1 A−B
⎜⎜ n + 1 n +1 ⎟ ⎜
⎟− ⎟ n +1
.
⎝ a −b ⎠ ⎝ r ⎠ a − bn + 1
2.48 The present-day thermal power stations have, in their auxiliary power circuits, large ac motors
in the range of 1000 hp and above (i.e. pressurized air fan motors, induced draft fan motors,
boiler feed pump motors, and so on). The shafts of these motors are mounted with roller
bearings, which consist of a large set of cylindrical rollers positioned and equally spaced
between the inner and the outer races of the bearings. There are possibilities of unwanted shaft
currents (arising out of the magnetic dissymmetry in these machines). To design the preventive
devices for these currents, it is necessary to calculate the capacitance between the rollers and
both the races of the bearings. Given that the radii of the inner and the outer races are Ri and
Ro respectively and the roller radius being Rr (where Rr < Ri < Ro), find these capacitances when
the axial length of the bearing is LB.
2.49 Show that the capacitance of a spherical conductor of radius a is increased in the ratio
εr − 1 . a
1:1 + by the presence of a large mass of dielectric of permittivity e0er, with a plane
ε r + 1 2b
face at a distance b from the centre of the sphere, if a/b is so small that its square and higher
degree terms may be neglected.
2.50 In a parallel plate capacitor, the two plate electrodes have coefficients of capacitance c11 and c22
respectively and the coefficient of induction c12. Find its capacitance.
2.51 Two electric fields E1 and E2 at a point combine to produce a resultant field E1 + E2, by the
principle of superposition. What is the total energy density at that point, i.e.
È Ø
ÉÊ F & F & ÙÚ F & &

PS

2.52 What does Poissons equation become for non-LIH dielectrics?
2.53 An isotropic dielectric medium is non-uniform, so that the permittivity e is a function of

position. Show that E satisfies the equation
È ³F Ø
³ & L & ³É& ¹ Ù
Ê F Ú
where L X N F X D
2.54 A LIH dielectric sphere of radius a and relative permittivity er has a uniform electric charge
distribution in it, the volume distribution of the charge being r. Find the electric potential V and
polarization as function of the radial distance from the centre of the sphere. Show also that the
È Ø
polarization charge in it has a volume density of S É Ù
F
Ê S Ú
2.55 Use an energy argument to show that the charge on a conductor resides on its outer surface.
2.56 Two particles of equal mass m, and carrying equal charges Q, are suspended from a common
point O by light strings (ideally weightless) of equal length L. What is the angle of separation
(= 2q) of the two strings in stable positions of the charged particles?
Hence, show that for equilibrium, the separation (= x) between the charged particles for
sufficiently small values of q is approximately given by

YÉ 2 - Ù
È Ø
Ê QF NH Ú

What are the approximating simplifications implicit in the above expression?
2.57 A metal sphere of radius r is positioned concentrically inside a hollow metal sphere where the
inner radius is R (R > r). The spheres are charged to a potential difference of V. Prove that the
potential gradient in the dielectric in the annular space between the spheres has a maximum
value at the surface of the inner sphere, which is
73P
&NBY
SJ 3P SJ
Also, show that this Emax, for a constant p.d. (= V) will be a minimum when r = R/2 for variable
r and fixed R.
2.7 SOLUTIONS
2.1 A capacitor is formed of tinfoil sheets applied to the two faces of a glass plate of thickness
0.4 cm and relative permittivity 6. Very thin layers of air are trapped between the foil and the
glass. Given that the air becomes ionized when E = 3 × 106 V/m, find approximately the potential
difference at which the ionization will start in the capacitor.
Sol. Suppose the potential difference between the tinfoils = V (Fig. 2.1). Then
V V
E = V/m
d 0.4 × 10 −2
(assuming the field to be uniform and neglecting the end effects)
Tin foil Air-gap
Glass Eer = 6 d = 0.4 cm V
Air-gap
Tin foil
Fig. 2.1 A parallel plate capacitor with glass and very thin air layers.
6ε 0V
\ D = ε 0ε r E =
4 × 10 −3
D 6V
Now, Eair-gap = = = 3 × 106, for breakdown.
ε0 4 × 10 −3
3 × 106
\ V for breakdown = × 4 × 103 = 2000 V
6
Note the approximation made. While accepting the presence of the air-gaps between the foil and
the glass, the thickness of the air-gaps for calculating d is neglected.
2.2 Show that a wire carrying a charge Q per unit length and held parallel to a conducting plane at
a distance h from it, attracts the plane with a force of Q2/(4pe0h) per unit length.
Sol. To simplify the problem, we use the method of images and hence we calculate the force
between the charged wire and its image in the conducting plane. See Fig. 2.2.
Fig. 2.2 Wire and conducting plane (also showing the image of the wire in the plane).
Since the conducting plane is an equipotential surface, the image of + Q will be Q per metre
located at a distance h on the opposite side of the original charge.
\ E at the source wire due to its image
Q Q
= = .
2πε 0 (2h) 4πε 0 h
Now, there are Q coulombs of charge per metre length of this wire.
Q Q2
\ Force F per metre length of the wire QE = Q ⋅ = .
4πε 0 h 4πε 0 h
2.3 Two wires, each of radius a, are held at a distance d apart and each is at a distance h from a
conducting plane. Prove that the capacitance between the two wires, connected in parallel, and
the plane is
4πε 0
,
ln (2hd ′/ad )
where d ¢2 = d2 + 4h2 and a << d and h.
Sol. Once again, we use the method of images to solve the problem. See Fig. 2.3.
Fig. 2.3 Pair of charged wires and conducting plane (also showing the images of wires in the plane).
We know that the potential VP at an arbitrary point P in the region, distant r from an isolated
charged line (say Q coulombs/metre) conductor is
Q
V =− ln r
2πε 0
(Refer to ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi,
2009, p. 61.)
So, considering the contributions to the resultant potential at P, due to the two line charges and
their images in the plane, the potential VP due to the whole system is
Q Q Q Q
VP ln r ln r ln r1 ln r1 ,
2QF 0 2QF 0 2QF 0 2QF 0
where r , r ′, r1 , r1′ are the respective distances of P from the centres of the conductors A, B, A¢,
and B¢.
Next, moving the point P to the surface of the conductor A,
Q Q Q Q
VA ≈ − ln a − ln d + ln(2 h ) + ln d ′
2πε 0 2πε 0 2πε 0 2πε 0
Q 2 hd ′
= ln
2πε 0 ad
Similarly,
Q Q Q Q
VA′ ≈ − ln (2h) − ln d ′ + ln a + ln d
2πε 0 2πε 0 2πε 0 2πε 0
Q 2hd ′
=− ln
2πε 0 ad
Q 2hd ′
\ Potential difference (p.d.) = VA − VA′ = ln
πε 0 ad
2 QF
Hence, capacitance, $
QE MO IE BE
\ For the system, capacitance = 2C.

2.4 Two long wires, each of radius a, are held at a height h above an earthed conducting plane,
parallel to each other and at a distance b apart. One wire is raised to potential V1, with respect
to the plane, the other being insulated. Prove that the potential taken up by the insulated wire
will be
ln (2 h′/b )
V1 , where h¢2 = h2 + b2/4 and a << h and b.
ln (2 h/a )
Sol. We use the method of images in this problem as well. See Fig. 2.4.
Insulated conductor b Charged conductor

(no charge on it)
a a
+Q
h V1
Earthed
2h ¢ conducting plane
h – V1
a
Image
Fig. 2.4 Conductors and earthed conducting plane (with the image of the charged conductor as well).
Let us say, V1 is the potential difference between one line and the earthed conducting plane,
produced by a charge Q1 coulombs/m on that line, the other one being insulated (and hence no
charge on it).
\ By considering the image of the charged line, its potential is
Q Q Q 2h
V1 ≈ − ln a + 2h = ln
2πε 0 2πε 0 2πε 0 a
2πε 0
Q = V1
\ ⎛ 2h ⎞
ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ a ⎠
Hence, voltage on the insulated line is
Q Q Q ⎛ 2h′ ⎞
V =− ln b + ln 2 h′ = ln
2πε 0 2πε 0 2πε 0 ⎜⎝ b ⎟⎠
Substituting for Q in terms of V1, we get

QF
2 È I Ø MO I B
È I Ø MO I C
7 MO É Ù 7 MO É 7
QF Ê C Ú QF Ê C ÙÚ MO I B
2.5 Three wires, each of radius a, are held parallel in the same plane, the outer ones being at equal
distances b from the central wire. Obtain an expression for the potential at any point when there
is a charge Q per unit length on the central wire and (Q/2) per unit length on the outer wires,
and hence, prove that the capacitance per unit length between the central wire on one hand and
the outer wires connected together on the other is given by
4πε 0
.
ln (b 3 /2 a 3 )
Sol. At any arbitrary point P, the potential VP is given by
Q Q/2 Q/2
VP = − ln rO + ln rA + ln rB ,
2πε 0 2πε 0 2πε 0
where rO, rA and rB are the distances of the point P from the conductors O, A and B,
respectively. See Fig. 2.5.
Fig. 2.5 Three parallel charged conductors.
Q Q Q
VO − ln a + ln b + ln b
2πε 0 4πε 0 4πε 0
\ Q ⎛b⎞
= ln
2πε 0 ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠
Q Q/2 Q/2 Q ⎛ 2ab ⎞

VA = − ln b + ln a + ln 2b = ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
2πε 0 2πε 0 2πε 0 4πε 0 ⎝ b ⎠
Q ⎛ 2a ⎞
= ln ⎜
4πε 0 ⎝ b ⎟⎠
Q ÑÎ È b Ø È 2 a Ø ÑÞ È b3 Ø
2
Q
\ Potential difference (p.d.) = VO VA Ïln É Ù ln É Ù ß ln É 3 Ù
4QF 0 Ñ Ê a Ú Ê b ÚÑ 4QF 0 Ê 2a Ú
Ð à
Q 4πε 0
Hence, C= =
p.d. ln (b 3 /2a 3 )
2.6 A capacitor of capacitance C is charged to a voltage V. At a particular time, this capacitor is

connected to a second capacitor also of value C, but containing no charge. What will be the
final voltage (say, Vf )? Discuss the result.
Sol. We have C1 = C2 = C ; V1 = V ; and V2 = 0 (initially). See Fig. 2.6.
Fig. 2.6 Capacitors of capacitances C connected in parallel.
Initial charge = Q1 + 0 = Q1
2
1 Q1
Initial energy =
2 C
By the principle of conservation of charge,
the final charge on the two capacitors = q1 + q2 = Q1
Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1
\ q1 = C ⋅ = and q2 = C ⋅ = .
2C 2 2C 2
Q12 Q2
So, Final energy = = 1
2(C + C ) 4C
Hence on connection, there has been a loss of energy, which is given by
Q12 Q12 Q12
Loss of energy = − = (= Initial energy Final energy)
2C 4C 4C
Q1 V
\ =
Final voltage, Vf = (i)
2C 2
On the other hand, applying the principle of conservation of energy, i.e. assuming the energy
to remain constant, we have
Q12 Q 2 CV 2 V22C V22 C

Initial energy = +0= 1 = 1 and final energy = + = CV22
2C 2C 2 2 2
2 CV12
If the energy has remained constant, then CV2 =
2
V1
\ V2 =
2
CV1 CV1 2
Final charge = CV2 + CV2 = + = CV1 = 2CV1 ( > Q1 )
2 2 2
Since both the principles, i.e. the principle of conservation of charge as well as the principle of
conservation of energy are applicable, the question arises which is the correct answer ? The
problem becomes more complicated if one capacitor is charged to +V and the other to V. Then,
the net charge is zero. And the use of first method leads to a final voltage of zero, whereas the
second method gives a finite voltage of indeterminate sign.
Some authors have offered a solution by saying that every capacitor has a finite resistance and
inductance (due to leads etc.) in it and so the correct circuit to be analysed would be as shown
in Fig. 2.7.
Fig. 2.7 Circuit representation.
In this case, the voltage across the two capacitors would be a function of time, and for
simplicity if we consider the case when R = 0, the circuit would be a resonant one at a frequency
given by w 2LC/2 = 1, and the voltages across the two capacitors would be oscillating between
0 and V1, the mean value being V/2.
However, there are some very serious objections to this explanation, because if we were to
consider, say, a circuit with C1 = C2 = 5000 µF, connected to a voltage of 10 V, then the energy
stored in the capacitor will be
1
E= CV 2 = 0.25 J
2
If the inductor in the circuit of very short leads has a value of, say, 1 µH, then
1
0.125 J = × 106 × I2,
2
which gives I = 500 A, an absurd value.
So, an explanation has to be sought for the RC circuit considered earlier.
Since no external charge source had been provided to the circuit, the final charge cannot exceed
the original charge, and hence the final voltage is V/2, and there is a dissipation of energy to
the extent Q12 /4C , which is caused by bringing the state 1 (one capacitor charged and the
second one uncharged) to state 2 (both capacitors to same voltage). It should be remembered
(as mentioned in Section 11.1.1 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition,
PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009) that when a static system is being transferred from one static
state to another, the process has to be a transient, non-static one. Also, there is an energy
consumption during this process which accounts for the present energy loss. It should be
further noted that the transition from the initial state 1 to the static state 2 is an irreversible one,
in the sense that we can come to state 2 from state 1 directly but to go from state 2 to state 1,
we need the help of some external energy sources and auxiliary devices.
Next, in Problem 2.7, we shall analyse a generalized system for better understanding of the
states and also the constraints and peculiarities of the transition system.
2.7 Two capacitors C1 and C2 have charges Q1 and Q2, respectively. What happens when they are
connected in parallel? Explain the phenomenon in terms of the energy of the system.
Sol. Let the initial voltages of the two capacitors be V1 and V2, respectively. See Fig. 2.8.
1 ⎛ Q12 ⎞ 1 ⎛ Q22 ⎞
\ The initial stored energy = ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎜⎝ C1 ⎟ 2 ⎜ C2 ⎟
⎠ ⎝ ⎠
A B
V1 C1 C2 V2
Fig. 2.8 Charged capacitors.
After the capacitors are connected in parallel, the total charge in the system (Q1 + Q2) remains
unchanged, but they are now redistributed so that the voltage across both the capacitors will
become the same.
Let the final charges on the two capacitors C1 and C2 be q1 and q2, respectively.
\ q1 + q2 = Q1 + Q2
q1 q
and = VA = V = VB = 2
C1 C2
q1 C1 C1
Hence, = and q1 = q2
q2 C2 C2
C1
and q2 + q2 = Q1 + Q2
C2
C2 (Q1 + Q2 )
\ q2 =
C1 + C2
1 q12 1 q22
Hence, energy in the system = +
2 C1 2 C2
⎧ 2 C12 ⎫
⎪ q2 2 2 ⎪
1 ⎨ C2 q ⎬
= ⎪ + 2⎪
2 ⎩ C1 C2 ⎭
q22 ⎛ C1 1 ⎞
= ⎜ 2 + ⎟
2 ⎜C ⎟
⎝ 2 C2 ⎠
C22 (Q1 + Q2 ) 2 (C1 + C2 )

= .
2(C1 + C2 ) 2 C22
(Q1 + Q2 ) 2
=
2(C1 + C2 )
\ Loss of energy in the system
1 ⎛ Q1 Q22 ⎞ (Q1 + Q2 ) 2
2
= ⎜⎜ + ⎟−
2 ⎝ C1 C2 ⎟⎠ 2(C1 + C2 )
1
= {Q12 C2 (C1 + C2 ) + Q22 C1 (C1 + C2 ) − C1C2 (Q12 + Q22 + 2Q1Q2 )}
2C1C2 (C1 + C2 )
1
= (Q12 C22 + Q22 C12 − 2Q1Q2 C1C2 )
2C1C2 (C1 + C2 )
(Q1C2 − Q2C1 ) 2
=
2C1C2 (C1 + C2 )
The system discussed here as an electrostatic system is an incomplete one, in as much the
charge transfer that is taking place through the connecting wires is not a static state but is
a non-static, transient process. Also the E.S. energies at the beginning and the end of this non-
static process do not balance because this process has consumed certain amount of energy.
If, now, the resistance of the connecting wires were to be zero, than an infinite current would
pass through them.
If, however, the connecting wires were to have a finite resistance (we are still talking of ideal
capacitors, with zero resistance), say, of an arbitrary value R, then the circuit would be as shown
in Fig. 2.9.
Fig. 2.9 Discharging circuit with finite wire resistance R.
At the instant of time t = 0, when the discharging circuit is formed by closing the switch,
VA = V1 and VB = V2
V1 − V2
\ iat t = 0 =
R
Note: In an RC discharging circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.10, the current i is given by
Fig. 2.10 The RC discharging circuit.
Q0 ⎛ −t ⎞ V0 ⎛ −t ⎞
i= exp ⎜ ⎟ = R exp ⎜ CR ⎟ ,
RC ⎝ CR ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
where Q0 is the charge on the capacitor C producing an initial potential V0 at the instant t = 0.
In the present problem,
Q1 Q2 1 1 1 C1C2
at t = 0, V0 = V1 V2 = − and C is given by = + , i.e. C = .
C1 C2 C C1 C2 C1 + C2
1 ⎪⎧ Q1 Q2 ⎪⎫ ⎧⎪ (C1 + C2 )t ⎪⎫
Hence, i = ⎨ − ⎬ exp ⎨ − ⎬
R ⎩⎪ C1 C2 ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪ RC1C2 ⎭⎪
2
1 ⎧⎪ Q1 Q2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ 2(C1 + C2 ) t ⎫⎪
Hence, power loss = i2R = ⎨ − ⎬ exp ⎨ − ⎬
R ⎩⎪ C1 C2 ⎪⎭ ⎩⎪ RC1C2 ⎭⎪
t →∞
\ Total energy loss = ∫

t=0
i 2 R dt
t →∞
(Q C − Q C ) 2 ⎡ exp{−2(C1 + C2 )t /( RC1C2 )} ⎤
= 1 2 2 22 1 ⎢ ⎥
RC1 C2 ⎣ −2(C1 + C2 ) /( RC1C2 ) ⎦ t = 0
(Q1C2 − Q2C1 ) 2 RC1C2

= − ⋅ (0 − 1)
RC12C22 2(C1 + C2 )
(Q1C2 − Q2C1 )2
=
2C1C2 (C1 + C2 )
Thus, it is seen that the energy loss in this process is independent of the resistance of the
connecting wires.
2.8 Eight identical spherical drops of mercury, charged to 12 V above the earth potential, are made
to coalesce into a single spherical drop. What is the new potential and how has the internal
energy of the system changed?
Sol. Let the radius of each sphere be R, and the charge on it be Q.
4
\ Volume of each sphere = π R3
3
So, after the eight spheres have been coalesced into one,
4 4
the volume of the final sphere = 8 . π R 3 = π (2 R ) ,
3
3 3
i.e. this is a sphere of radius twice that of the initial spheres. If each sphere is raised to a
potential V (= 12 V) due to the charge Q, then by Gauss theorem, the potential on its surface is
Q
V= (= 12 V)
4πε 0 R
Q
\ Capacitance of each initial sphere = = 4pe0R
Q/4πε 0 R
Hence, capacitance of the final coalesced sphere = 4pe0(2R).
Also, the total charge on this final sphere = 8Q.
QF 8Q Q
\ The potential of this final sphere = = = 4⋅ = 4V = 4 × 12 = 48 V
CF 4πε 0 (2 R ) 4πε 0 R
1
Initial energy of each sphere = QV .
2
1
\ Total initial energy of the system = 8 × QV = 4QV = W1
2
and the energy of the coalesced sphere,
1
WF = (8Q)(4V ) = 16QV = 4W1 ,
2
i.e. 4 times the original energy.
2.9 Each of the two dielectrics (of relative permittivities er1 and er2, respectively) occupies one-half
the volume of the annular space between the electrodes of a cylindrical capacitor, such that the
interface plane between the dielectrics is a rz-plane. Show that the two dielectrics act like a
single dielectric having the average relative permittivity.
Sol. The basic problem of the concentric cylindrical capacitor with a single dielectric is solved
in Section 2.8.2, pp. 8081 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI
Learning, New Delhi, 2009. The capacitance per unit length of such a system is
2πε
C= F/m,
ln (b/a )
where b and a are the radii of the outer and inner electrodes, respectively, and e is the
permittivity of the dielectric occupying the whole annular space.
Since in the present problem (Fig. 2.11), each dielectric occupies half the space, we have
πε 0ε r1 πε 0ε r 2
C1 = and C2 =
ln (b/a ) ln (b/a )
Fig. 2.11 Cylindrical capacitor.
Since the two capacitors C1 and C2 are in parallel, we have

2πε 0 {(ε r1 + ε r 2 ) / 2} 2πε 0ε r(av.)
C = C 1 + C2 = = F/m
ln (b/a ) ln (b/a )
This indicates that the two dielectrics behave like a single dielectric of average relative
permittivity.
voltage source. If the plates are moved apart from the separation d to 2d, keeping the potential
difference between them unchanged, what will be the change in D? On the other hand, if the
plates are brought closer together from d to d/2 with a dielectric of relative permittivity
er = 3, while maintaining the charges on the plates at the same value, what will be the changes
in the potential difference?
Sol. In both the cases, fringing due to end effects has been neglected (refer to Section 2.8.1,
p. 78 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi,
2009).
Part 1. Potential difference between the electrodes of the parallel plate capacitor = V, a constant.
εA
C= , where A = area of the plates and d = separation between the plates.
d
Qd Q εV
The potential difference between the plates: V = and | D | = = .
εA A d
Since d is increased to 2d, keeping V constant,
εV |D|
| D2 | =
=
2d 2
Part 2. Now, d is reduced to d/2, while Q is kept constant.
Qd Qd Q ⋅ d/2 Qd V
\ V1 = = and V2 = = = 1
ε 0ε r A ε0 A ε0 ⋅ 3 ⋅ A 6ε 0 A 6
2.11 A parallel plate capacitor has a slab of dielectric (of width b) in its gap such that the slab is not
in contact with either of the electrodes and has air-gaps of widths a and c on either side of it.
If the area of either plate is A, show that the capacitance of the system is given by
ε0 A
C= .
b
a+ +c
εr
Sol. We neglect the end and the edge effects. Let the potentials of the electrode surfaces
and the two surfaces of the dielectric layer be VA , VB, VC, and VD in the sequence as shown in
Fig. 2.12.
Fig. 2.12 Parallel plate capacitor with composite dielectrics.

Then, from E = grad V, the E fields in the three regions are

VA − VB V − VC V − VD
E1 = , E2 = B , E3 = C ,
a b c
and all these fields are directed normal to the plane surfaces of the electrodes and dielectrics.
Also, D1 = e0E1, D2 = e0erE2, and D3 = e0E3, since the regions 1 and 2 are free spaces and the
region 2 is dielectric of relative permittivity er.
The boundary conditions or interface continuity conditions on the planes x = a and
x = a + b are Dn continuous, since only the normal components of E and D, i.e. Ex and Dx, exist
in the present problem.
\ D1 = D2 and D2 = D3
VA − VB V − VC VB − VC VC − VD
or = εr B and ε r =
a b b c
or bVA − (b + ε r a )VB + ε r aVC = 0 and ε r cVB − (ε r c + b)VC + bVD = 0
\ D1 = D2 = D3 = a (say)
α α
Hence, E1 = E2 = and E2 =
ε0 ε 0ε r
α ⎛ b ⎞
\ VA VD = aE1 + bE2 + cE3 = ⎜a + + c⎟
ε0 ⎝ εr ⎠
Since the area of the electrode plate is A, we have
Q = D1A = aA
Q ε0 A
\ Capacitance of the system = =
p.d. b
a+ +c
εr
2.12 A spherical capacitor consists of two concentric spheres of radii a and d (d > a). A spherical
shell of dielectric of permittivity e0er bounded by the spheres r = b and r = c, where
a < b < c < d, is concentric with the electrode spheres. Show that the capacitance of this
capacitor is given by
1 1 ⎧⎪ 1 1 1 − ε r ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎪⎫
= ⎨ − + − ⎬.
C 4πε 0 ⎩⎪ a d ε r ⎜⎝ b c ⎟⎠ ⎭⎪
Sol. This is a mixed dielectric problem for a spherical capacitor (Fig. 2.13). Such problems have
been solved in ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New
Delhi, 2009, Sections 2.10.3 and 2.10.4, pp. 9094.
Such a problem in spherical polar coordinates has been solved by solving the Laplaces
equation in this coordinate system, for the potential distribution. Because of symmetry of the
problem, there is variation only in the r-direction.
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂V ⎞
Hence, the equation for V simplifies to ⎜ r ∂r ⎟ = 0 in all the three regions.
r 2 ∂r ⎝ ⎠
e0
e0er
e0
c
d
Fig. 2.13 Concentric spheres with three-region gap.
\ The potential distributions in the three regions are:

A1
V1 = + B1 for b > r > a
r
A
V2 = 2 + B2 for c > r > b
r
A
V3 = 3 + B3 for d > r > c
r
∂V
Now, E = grad V = i r .
∂r
A1 A A
\ E1 2

, E2 22 , E3 23 ,
r r r
F A F F A F A
and D1 0 2 1 , D2 0 r2 2 , D3 02 3
r r r
There are six unknowns and hence the boundary conditions give:
A1
On r = a, V1 = Va = + B1
a
A
On r = d, V3 = Vd = 3 + B3
d
A A
On r = b, V1 = V2 = 1 + B1 = 2 + B2
b b
A1 A2
and Dn is continuous, i.e. D1 = D2 or ε0 2
= ε0ε r
b b2
A2 A
On r = c, V2 = V3 Þ + B2 = 3 + B 3 ,
c c
A2 A3
and Dn is continuous, i.e. D2 = D3 or ε0ε r 2
= ε0
c c2
Using these equations, the unknowns can be evaluated.

Charge
Then, the capacitance, C=
Va − Vd
where the charge, Q = area of the electrode ´ charge density.
or w
ÔÔ inner electrode
Da . dS Q, by Gauss theorem
Hence, C can be evaluated.

Note: Algebraic manipulations are left as an exercise for the students.
2.13 A capacitor is made up of two concentric spheres of radii r = a and r = b (b > a) with a uniform
dielectric of permittivity e0er in the annular space. The dielectric strength of the medium (i.e.
maximum permissible field strength before it breaks down and the medium starts conducting) is
E0. Hence show that the greatest potential difference between the two electrodes, so that the
field nowhere exceeds the critical value, is given by
E0 a (b a )
.
b
Sol. The basic equation for the potential distribution V of this capacitor (Fig. 2.14) satisfies
the requirements of Laplacian field.
Fig. 2.14 Capacitor of two concentric spheres.
Hence, for the annulus of the spherical capacitor, the Laplaces equation in spherical
coordinates is
1 ⎧ ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂V ⎞ ⎫ 1 ⎧ ∂ ⎛ ∂V ⎞ ⎫ 1 ⎧⎪ ∂ 2V ⎫⎪
∇ 2V = 2 ⎨ ⎜ r ⎟ ⎬+ 2 ⎨ ⎜ sin θ ⎟ ⎬+ 2 2 ⎨ 2 ⎬ = 0,
θ
r ⎩ ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ⎭ r sin θ ⎩ ∂ ⎝ θ
∂ ⎠ ⎭ r sin θ ⎩⎪ ∂φ ⎭⎪
where V is the potential distribution in the dielectric.
Since there is both q and f symmetry, the equation simplifies to
1 ⎧ ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂V ⎞ ⎫ ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂V ⎞
⎨ ⎜r ⎟ ⎬ = 0 or r
∂r ⎜⎝ ∂r ⎟⎠
= 0.
r 2 ⎩ ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ⎭
Integrating, we get
∂V
r2 = A (A being the constant of integration)
∂r
Integrating again, we obtain
dr A
V=A
r∫ 2
+B=−
r
+B
To evaluate the constants of integration A and B, the following boundary conditions are used:
A A
At r = a, V = Va = − + B and at r = b, V = Vb = − + B
a b
These boundary conditions give
ab(Vb − Va ) bVb − aVa
A= , B=
b−a b−a
ab(Vb − Va ) 1 bVb − aVa

and hence V= · +
b−a r b−a
The field strength, i.e. the electric field intensity E (it has only the r-component due to its
symmetry) is obtained as
∂V ab(Vb − Va ) 1
E = grad V = i r = ir · 2
∂r b−a r
Its maximum value will be at the point where the denominator is minimum, i.e. r = a.
ab(Vb − Va ) 1 b(Vb − Va )
\ Emax = | Er | = · 2 = = E0
b−a a a (b − a )
where E0 is the greatest permitted field strength.
Hence, the greatest permitted potential difference is
E0 a (b − a )
V b Va =
b
2.14 Show that in an electrostatic problem, in which the potential is dependent only on the radial
distance r, the differential equation for V is
1 d È 2 dV Ø
É r F dr ÙÚ SC ,
r 2 dr Ê
the permittivity e also being a function of r.
Sol. By Gauss theorem, Ñ . D = rC (charge in the region),
and E = grad V = ÑV,
V being the potential distribution.
Also, D = eE, where e = e0er, er being a function of r now.
\ Ñ . D = Ñ . (e E)
= {(grad e) . E + eÿ(div E)}

= {(Ñe) . E + e (Ñ . E)}
= { (grad e)(grad V ) e (div grad V )}
= {(Ñe) . (ÑV ) + e (Ñ2V )}
Since e and V are both functions of r only, the above expression becomes
⎧ ∂ε ∂V 1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂V ⎞ ⎫
Ñ . D = −⎨ +ε 2 ⎜r ⎟⎬
⎩ ∂r ∂r r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ⎭
1 d ⎛ 2 dV ⎞ d ε r 2 dV ε dV r 2ε d 2V
Now, ⎜ r ε = · · + 2 r + 2
r 2 dr ⎝ dr ⎟⎠ dr r 2 dr r 2 dr r dr 2
d ε dV 1 d ⎛ 2 dV ⎞
= · +ε · 2 ⎜ r · dr ⎟
dr dr r dr ⎝ ⎠
1 d ⎛ 2 dV ⎞
\ Ñ.D = · r ε· = rC
r 2
dr ⎜⎝ dr ⎟⎠
2.15 Three hollow conducting spheres of radii a, b and c, respectively (a < b < c) are placed
concentrically and the innermost and the outermost spheres are connected together by a fine
wire, thus forming one electrode of a capacitor, the other electrode being the middle sphere. By
considering the system as two separate capacitors in parallel, or otherwise, prove that the
capacitance of the system is 4pe0b2(c a)/{(b a)(c b)}. (Refer to ElectromagnetismTheory
and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, pp. 9092.)
Sol. The capacitance of the capacitor of the inner spherical shells is given by
4πε 0 4πε 0 ab
C1 = =
1 1 b−a
−
a b
The capacitance of the capacitor of the outer shells is given by
4πε 0bc
C2 =
c−b
Since they are connected in parallel,
⎛ ab bc ⎞ 4πε 0 b 2 (c − a )
C = C1 + C2 = 4πε 0 ⎜ + ⎟ =
⎝b−a c−b⎠ (b − a )(c − b)
2.16 The interface surface, separating two dielectric media of permittivities e1 and e2, has a surface
charge rS per unit area. The electric field intensities on two sides of the interface are E1 and E2,
respectively making angles q1 and q2, respectively with the common normal. Show how to
determine E2 and prove that
⎛ ρS ⎞
ε r 2 cot θ 2 = ε r1 cot θ1 ⎜1 − ⎟.
⎝ ε 0ε r1 E1 cos θ1 ⎠
Sol. Since the interface has a surface charge rS on it, from Fig. 2.15, we get
Fig. 2.15 Interface with surface charge q S.
Et1 = Et 2
and Dn1 = Dn 2 + ρS
Also Et1 = E1 sin θ1
Et 2 = E2 sin θ 2
Dn1 = D1 cos θ1 = ε1 E1 cos θ1
Dn 2 = D2 cos θ 2 = ε 2 E2 cos θ 2
and ε1 = ε 0ε r1 , ε 2 = ε 0ε r 2
\ Dn1 = Dn 2 + ρS
or D1 cos θ1 = D2 cos θ 2 + ρS
or ε1 E1 cos θ1 = ε 2 E2 cos θ 2 + ρS
sin θ1
= ε 2 E1 · cos θ 2 + ρS
sin θ 2
ρS
or ε1 E1 cot θ1 = ε 2 E1 cot θ 2 +
sin θ1
ρS
or ε 0 E1 (ε r1 cot θ1 − ε r 2 cot θ 2 ) =
sin θ1
ρS ρS cos θ1 ρ cot θ1
or ε r 2 cot θ 2 − ε r1 cot θ1 = − =− =− S
ε 0 E1 sin θ1 ε 0 E1 sin θ1 cos θ1 ε 0 E1 cos θ1
⎛ ρS ⎞
\ ε r 2 cot θ 2 = ε r1 cot θ1 ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ ε 0ε r1 E1 cos θ1 ⎠
(Evaluation of E2 is left as an exercise for the students.)

2.17 A capacitor consists of two conducting spheres of radii a and b (a < b) placed concentrically
and the annular space containing a heterogeneous dielectric of relative permittivity
er = f (q, f). Show that its capacitance is given by
ε 0 ab
C=
b−a ∫∫ f (θ , φ ) sin θ dθ dφ.
Sol. In this problem (as also in Problem 2.14), the potential distribution cannot be directly
assumed to be Laplacian with constant relative permittivity. So we start, as before, from Gauss
theorem as applied to the electric displacement vector D, i.e.
div D = Ñ . D = Ñ . (e0erE), where er is not a constant, but er = f (q, f)
= e0{Ñ . (er E)}, E = grad V = ÑV
= - e0 {(grad er) . (grad V ) + er (div grad V )}
= e0 {(Ñer ) . (ÑV ) + er (Ñ2V )}
It should be noted that, while V is function of r only, er is independent of r and is a function of
q and f (using the spherical polar coordinate system).
⎡ ⎧ 1 ∂ε r 1 ∂ε r ⎫ ⎧ ∂V ⎫ 2 ⎤
\ Ñ × D = ε 0 ⎢ ⎨iθ + iφ ⎬ ⋅ ⎨i r ⎬ + εr∇ V ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎩ r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ ⎭ ⎩ ∂r ⎭ ⎦⎥
Since ir . iq = 0 and ir . if = 0, the above expression simplifies to
1 È 2 V Ø
Ñ . D = e 0 er . Ñ 2 V = F 0 F r ¹ Ér Ù =0
r 2 r Ê r Ú
as there is no charge in the dielectric medium.
Integrating, we get
A
V= +B
r
Using the boundary conditions, we have
(i) at r = a, V = Va and (ii) at r = b, V = Vb.
The potential distribution comes out to be
ab(Vb − Va ) 1 bVb − aVa

V =− · +
b−a r b−a
∂V ab(Vb − Va ) 1
\ E = − ir = − ir · 2
∂r b−a r
ε 0ε r ⋅ ab(Vb − Va ) 1
Hence, D = eE = − i r · 2
b−a r
ε 0ε r ⋅ ab(Vb − Va ) 1
\ On r = a, Da = · 2
b−a a
The total charge on the spherical electrode cannot be obtained just by multiplying Da by the
surface area (4pa2 ) of the spherical electrode, as the dielectric on the surface is heterogeneous,
i.e.
er = f (q, f )
So, we have to integrate over the whole spherical surface r = a. For this purpose, the surface
element for surface integration is
r2 × sinqÿ dqÿ df at r = a.
ε 0 ab(Vb − Va ) 1
∫∫ f (θ , φ )a sin θ ⋅ dθ dφ
2
\ Total charge Q = · 2
b−a a
ε 0 ab(Vb − Va ) 1
=
b−a a2
· a2 ∫∫ f (θ , φ ) sin θ ⋅ dθ dφ
Q ε ab
\ Capacitance =
Vb − Va
= 0
b−a ∫∫ f (θ , φ ) sin θ ⋅ dθ dφ
2.18 A spherical capacitor consists of a spherical conductor of radius a surrounded concentrically
by a spherical conducting shell of internal radius b, the intervening space between them being
filled by a dielectric whose relative permittivity is (c + r)/r at a distance r from the centre of the
system (c being a constant). The inner sphere is insulated and has a charge Q on it, whereas
the shell is connected to the earth. Show that the potential in the dielectric at a distance r from
the centre is given by
Q ⎧ b (c + r ) ⎫
ln ⎨ · ⎬.
4πε 0 c ⎩ r (c + b) ⎭
Sol. Since the relative permittivity er is not a constant, but a function of r, i.e.
cr c
Fr 1 ,
r r
the operating equation for the potential distribution V will be the one as derived in
Problem 2.14. So, without repeating that derivation, the equation is
1 d ⎛ 2 dV ⎞
∇⋅D = − 2 ⎜ r ε 0 ε r · dr ⎟ = ρ C
r dr ⎝ ⎠
Since there is no charge in the dielectric medium, for this region
1 d ⎛ 2 dV ⎞
⎜ r ε 0ε r =0
2
r dr ⎝ dr ⎟⎠
(spherical polar coordinate system being used)
d ⎛ 2 dV ⎞
or r εr =0
dr ⎜⎝ dr ⎟⎠
d ⎪⎧ r 2 (c + r ) dV ⎪⎫
or ⎨ ⎬=0
dr ⎩⎪ r dr ⎭⎪
dV
\ r (c + r ) =A (A being the constant of integration)
dr
dV A
or =
dr r (c + r )
A⎛1 1 ⎞
or dV = ⎜ − ⎟ dr
c ⎝r c+r⎠
Integrating again,
A r
V= ln +B
c c+r
Evaluation of the constants A and B:
(i) At r = b (inner radius of the conducting shell), V = 0
A b A b
\ ln + B = 0 ⇒ B = − ln
c c+b c c+b
A ⎛1 1 ⎞ A c A
Next, E = − grad V = − ⎜ − ⎟=− =− ,
c ⎝r r+c⎠ c r (r + c) r (c + r )
ε 0ε r A
and D = eE =
r (c + r )
ε 0ε r A
(ii) On r = a, Da =
a (c + a )
\ Total charge on the inner sphere,
4π a 2 ⋅ ε 0 {(c + a )/a}A
Q= ( on r = a, er = (c + a)/a)
a (c + a )
Q
\ Q = 4pe0A or A =
4πε 0
Q b
Hence, B= ln
4πε 0 c c + b
Hence the potential distribution as a function of r (i.e. the distance from the centre) is given by
Q r Q b Q ⎧ b (c + r ) ⎫
V =− ln + ln = ln ⎨ ⋅ ⎬
4πε 0 c c + r 4πε 0 c c + b 4πε 0 c ⎩ r (c + b) ⎭
2.19 If in Problem 2.18, the dielectric in the annulus of the capacitor has the relative permittivity
er = µ exp(1/p2) . p3, where p = r/a, r being the distance from the centre of the system and µ a
constant, show that the capacitance C of the system is given by
8π aε 0 µ
C= .
exp(b /a 2 ) − exp(1)
2
Sol. In this problem,

⎛ 1 ⎞ r
ε r = µ exp ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ p −3 , where p =
⎝p ⎠ a
⎛ a2 ⎞ a3
= µ exp ⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ 3
⎜r
⎝ ⎠r
So, we use the same operational equation for V as in Problems 2.14 and 2.18. So, writing the
equation directly, we have
d ⎛ 2 dV ⎞
⎜ r ε r · dr ⎟ = 0
dr ⎝ ⎠
a3 ⎛ a2 ⎞ dV
or r2µ exp ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = A (by integrating w.r.t. r)
r3 ⎝r ⎠ dr
dV ⎛ r2 ⎞
or a3 µ = Ar ⋅ exp ⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
dr ⎜a
⎝ ⎠
⎛ r2 ⎞
or μ a 3 dV = Ar ⋅ exp ⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ⋅ dr
⎜a
⎝ ⎠
Integrating again, we get
A ⎞ ⎛ r2
V= ⋅ exp ⎜ 2
⎟⎟ + B
2 ⎜a
⎠ ⎝
Evaluation of the constants A and B using the boundary conditions:
(i) At r = b (inner radius of the conducting shell which is earthed)
A ⎛ b2 ⎞
V =0= exp ⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + B
2 ⎜a
⎝ ⎠
A ⎛ b2 ⎞
\ B=− exp ⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
2 ⎜a
⎝ ⎠
A ⎛ r2 ⎞ 2r Ar ⎛ r2 ⎞
Next, E = grad V = exp ⎜ 2
⎜a ⎟⎟ · 2 = − 2 exp ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
2 ⎝ ⎠ a a ⎝a ⎠
⎛ a2 ⎞ a 3 rA ⎛ r2 ⎞
ε
D = eE = 0 µ exp ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ 3
· · 2
exp ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝r ⎠ r a ⎝a ⎠
aA
= - ε0 µ
r2
ε 0 µA
(ii) On r = a, Da =
a
The total charge on the inner sphere,
4π a 2ε 0 µA
Q=
a
Q
\ A =
4π aε 0 µ
A ⎛ b2 ⎞ Q ⎛ b2 ⎞
and B=− exp ⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = exp ⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎜a ⎜a
2 ⎝ ⎠ 8π aε 0 µ ⎝ ⎠
Q ⎧⎪ ⎛ r2 ⎞ ⎛ b2 ⎞ ⎪⎫
\ V = ⎨− exp ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + exp ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ⎬
8π aε 0 µ ⎩⎪ ⎝a ⎠ ⎝a ⎠ ⎭⎪
Q ⎧⎪ ⎛ b2 ⎞ ⎫⎪
Hence, Va = ⎨exp ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ − exp (1) ⎬ at r = a
8π aµ ε 0 ⎩⎪ ⎝a ⎠ ⎭⎪
Q 8π aµ ε 0
\ Capacitance, C= =
Va − 0 exp (b /a ) − exp (1)
2 2
2.20 In a spherical capacitor made of two concentric spheres, one-half the annular space between
the spheres is filled with one dielectric of relative permittivity er1 and the remaining half with
another dielectric of relative permittivity er2, the dividing surface between the two dielectrics
being a plane through the centre of the spheres. Show that the capacitance will be the same as
though the dielectric in the whole annular space has a uniform average relative permittivity,
i.e. (er1 + er2)/2.
Sol. In this case, the dielectric interface is parallel to the vectors D and E. Hence, the
arrangement can be considered as two capacitors in parallel. Since each capacitor carries half
the charge that would be carried by a complete spherical capacitor, the capacitances of the two
parts will be
2πε 0ε r1 2πε 0ε r 2
and
1 1 1 1
− −
a b a b
2009, pp. 9092.)
⎛ ε + εr 2 ⎞
4πε 0 ⎜ r1 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
\ The total capacitance, C = C1 + C2 =
1 1
−
a b
ε r1 + ε r 2
Thus, is the average relative permittivity.
2
voltage source. If the plates are moved apart from their separation d to 2d, keeping the potential
difference between them unchanged, what will be the change in D?
On the other hand, if the plates are brought together closer from d to d/2, with a dielectric of
relative permittivity er = 3, while maintaining the charges on the plates at the same value, what
will be the change in potential difference?
Sol. (a) D1 = s by Gauss theorem for a parallel plate capacitor, and the
σd
potential difference between the plates = , being an air-spaced capacitor.
ε0
Now, d2 = 2d, keeping the potential difference constant.
σd σ ⋅ 2d
\ = 2
ε0 ε0
σ
or σ2 =
2
σ D1
\ D2 = =
2 2
(b) In this case, d2 = d/2, and e2 = e0er = 3e0.
σd
Initial potential difference, V1 =
ε0
Now, the charge is maintained at the same value.
d
σ V
\ Final potential difference, V2 = 2 = 1
3ε 0 6
2.22 Two thin metal tubes of the same length and of radii a, b (b > a) are mounted concentrically, and
the inner one can slide axially within the outer one on smooth rails. Initially the inner tube is
partially within the outer; when a potential difference V is applied between the tubes, it is drawn
further in. Estimate the force which causes this movement, drawing attention to any
assumptions required.
Sol. The capacitance of a coaxial cylindrical capacitor (Fig. 2.16) per unit axial length is
2πε 0
C= F/m
ln (b/a )
Fig. 2.16 Cylindrical capacitor with the inner cylinder displaced.
The capacitance for a length x of the coaxial line is

2πε 0
Cx = x F
ln (b/a )
If the force F displaces the inner line (cylinder) by a length Dx, then the work done (i.e. energy)
is
1 2πε 0 Δx 2
F Δx = ΔWe = ·V
2 ln (b/a )
⎛ 1 2⎞
⎜' Stored electrical energy in a capacitor = 2 CV ⎟
⎝ ⎠
πε 0V 2
\ The force F, acting axially = N
ln (b/a )
Note: Fringing effects at the ends are neglected.
2.23 The end of a coaxial cable is closed by a dielectric piston of permittivity e. The radii of the cable
conductors are a and b, and the dielectric in the other part of the cable is air. What is the
magnitude and the direction of the axial force, acting on the dielectric piston, if the potential
difference between the conductors is V ?
Sol. Let the total length of the cable be L, and the length of the piston overlapping the cable
end be l (Fig. 2.17).
\ The energy stored in the cable with the piston at the end,
1 1 2πε 0 1 2πε
We = CV 2 = ( L − l )V 2 + lV 2
2 2 ln (b/a ) 2 ln (b/a )
Fig. 2.17 End of the coaxial cable with dielectric piston.
δ We πV 2
\ F= = (ε − ε 0 ), acting inwards.
δl ln (b/a )
2.24 One end of an open coaxial cable is immersed vertically in a liquid dielectric of unknown
permittivity. The cable is connected to a source of potential difference V. The electrostatic
forces draw the liquid dielectric into the annular space of the cable for a height h above the level
of the dielectric outside the cable. The radius of the inner conductor is a, that of the outer
conductor is b (b > a), and the mass density of the liquid is rm . Determine the relative
permittivity of the liquid dielectric.
If V = 1000 V, h = 3.29 cm, a = 0.5 mm, b = 1.5 mm, rm = 1 g/cm3, find er.
(assume g = 9.81 m/s2)
Sol. This problem is very similar to Problem 2.23, the only differences being that the cable is
held vertically and the dielectric piston is replaced by the raised column of the liquid dielectric,
whose weight would be acting downwards. See Fig. 2.18.
Fig. 2.18 Coaxial cable immersed in a liquid dielectric.

\ Following the arguments of Problem 2.23, the upward force is given by

π V 2 (ε − ε 0 )
F=
ln (b/a )
This force is counterbalanced by the weight of the dielectric column in the cable, i.e.
Fg Sm h Q (b2 a 2 ) g
These two forces are equal in magnitude, i.e.
Q V 2 (F F 0 )
Sm h Q (b2 a 2 ) g
ln (b/a )
ρ m hg ⎛b⎞
or eÿ-ÿe0 = 2
(b 2 − a 2 ) ln ⎜ ⎟
V ⎝a⎠
For the numerical problem,
1 g/cm3 × 3.29 cm × 9.81 cm/ s 2 1.5

eÿ-ÿe0 = 2
{(1.52 − 0.52 ) × 10 −2 cm 2 } ln
1000 0.5
10 −3 × 3.29 × 9.81 × 2 × 10−2 × ln 3 kg-cm

=
106 V-s 2
or e0(er 1) = 7100.48 × 1011 × 102

cm converted to m
7100.48 × 10 –13
\ er 1 = = 802 ´ 101 = 80.2
8.854 × 10−12
\ er l 81
2.25 The ends of a parallel plate capacitor are immersed vertically in a liquid dielectric of permittivity
e and mass density rm. The distance between the electrodes is d and the dielectric above the
liquid is air. Find h, the rise in the level of the liquid dielectric between the plates when these
are connected to a source of potential difference V. Ignore the fringing and other side effects.
Sol. In the given parallel plate capacitor, E is same in air and in the dielectric (Fig. 2.19),
i.e. E = V/d and is parallel to the interface.
1 1 1 V2
\ Pressure, p = (ε − ε 0 ) Et2 = (ε − ε 0 ) E 2 = (ε − ε 0 ) 2
2 2 2 d
2009, pp. 105108.)
\ The total force on the dielectric surface,
1 aV 2
F = p.ad = (ε − ε 0 )
2 d
Fig. 2.19 Parallel plate capacitor partially dipped in a liquid dielectric.
This force is counterbalanced by the weight Fg of the dielectric column in the capacitor
which is above the outer level of the liquid, i.e.
Fg = rm h a d g, where g = gravitational constant = 9.81 m/s2
1 aV 2
\ rm h a d g = (ε − ε 0 )
2 d
(ε − ε 0 )V 2
\ h=
2d 2 ρ m g
2.26 One of the electrodes of a parallel plate capacitor is immersed in a liquid dielectric of unknown
permittivity and mass density rm, and the other plate of the capacitor is in the air above the
surface of the dielectric. The distance between the plates is d, and the depth of the dielectric
above the immersed plate is a. When the capacitor is connected to a source of potential
difference V, the level of the liquid between the plates is h higher than the level outside the
capacitor. Find the permittivity of the dielectric liquid, neglecting the fringing and other side
effects.
Sol. On connecting the plates to a source of potential difference V, the liquid is subjected to
an upward pressure (case of E normal to the interface; refer to ElectromagnetismTheory and
Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, pp. 106107). See Fig. 2.20.
Let S be the surface area of the plates.
e0
d h
a
e
Fig. 2.20 Parallel plate capacitor, partially dipped in a liquid dielectric.

1⎛ 1 1⎞ 2 1 D2 1 ε
\ Pressure, p = ⎜ − ⎟ n
D = (ε − ε 0 ) = (ε − ε 0 ) 0 E 2
2 ⎝ ε0 ε ⎠ 2 εε 0 2 ε
where E is the electric field intensity in the air.

The level of the dielectric is pushed upwards till this force is counterbalanced by the weight of
this higher column of the liquid.
1 ε E2
\ (ε − ε 0 ) 0 S = ρ m Shg
2 ε
1 ε E2
or (ε − ε 0 ) 0 = ρ m hg
2 ε
This equation for e contains the term for the electric field intensity E, which has to be
determined first. Now,
V = E(d a h) + E¢(a + h)
since the two dielectrics (air and liquid) are in series.
Note: E is the field intensity in the air and E¢ the electric field intensity in the liquid dielectric.
On the interface between these two dielectrics, there is continuity of Dn, i.e. eE¢ = e0E.
εV
\ E=
ε (d − a − h) + ε 0 (a + h)
Substituting in the equation for e,
1 ε ε 2V 2
(ε − ε 0 ) 0 = ρ m hg
2 ε {ε ( d − a − h) + ε 0 ( a + h)}2
This is a quadratic in e, which we solve now by rearranging its terms, i.e.
εε 0V 2 (ε − ε 0 ) = 2 ρ m hg{ε 2 ( d − a − h) 2 + 2εε 0 ( d − a − h)( a + h) + ε 02 ( a + h) 2 }
or ε 2 {ε 0V 2 − 2 ρ m hg ( d − a − h) 2 } + ε {−ε 02V 2 − 4 ρ m hgε 0 ( d − a − h)( a + h)}
2 ρ m hgε 0 2 ( a + h) 2 = 0
This can be solved directly by considering the form
ax2 + bx + c = 0
2.27 Two square conducting plates, each of length a on each side, are placed parallel to each other
at a distance t apart. A potential difference of V is established between the plates, and this
difference is maintained during the following procedure: A slab of material having permittivity
e0er, which is also of length a on each side and of thickness t, is inserted parallel to the edge
of the plate. Neglecting the edge effects, show that the force acting to pull the slab into the
space between the plates is given by
V 2ε 0 a (ε r − 1)
F= .
2t
Sol. Note that for the force F pulling the dielectric block into the gap of the capacitor
(Fig. 2.21),
F × dx = dW (element of work done)
∂W
\ F= (W is work done or energy)
∂x
Fig. 2.21 Parallel plate capacitor with partly introduced dielectric slab.
ε 0ε r A
Note: Capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor = = C, where A is the area of the plates.
t
In this case, the area of the part of the plates under which the dielectric block is staying is given
by (a ´ x) = xa.
ε 0ε r xa
\ C=
t
1 ε ε xa
Hence, stored energy = CV 2 = 0 r V 2
2 2t
If the slab is pushed in by an extra length element dx, then the increase in the stored energy of
ε 0ε r aV 2δ x
the slab = = Work done by the force = F dx.
2t
1 ε a(a − x) 2
Energy in the air-space part of the capacitor = CV 2 = 0 V ,
2 2t
and the corresponding decrease in energy of this part, due to a movement dx of the dielectric
ε 0 aδ xV 2
block into the air-gap of the capacitor =
2t
ε 0ε r aδ xV 2 ε 0 aδ xV 2
\ Change in stored energy = −
2t 2t
= Work done by the force pushing in the slab
= F dx
ε 0 a (ε r − 1)V 2
Hence, F=
2t
This force can also be evaluated by considering the pressure at the boundary interface between
the two dielectrics of different permittivities. This pressure is attempting to draw the dielectric
of higher permittivity into the dielectric of lower permittivity, remembering the general expression
for pressure as
1 1⎛ 1 1⎞
p = (ε1 − ε 2 ) Et + ⎜ − ⎟ Dn2 , ε1 > ε 2 .
2
2 2 ⎝ ε 2 ε1 ⎠
In this case
1 1 V2
p = (ε1 − ε 2 ) Et = (ε 0ε r − ε 0 ) 2
2
2 2 t
1 V2
\ F = ε 0 (ε r − 1) 2 × Area (= at )
2 t
1 aV 2
= ε 0 (ε r − 1)
2 t
2.28 If the dielectric slab of Problem 2.27 is only d wide (d < t), then prove that the force required to
pull the slab between the plates is
V 2ε 0 (ε r − 1) ad
F= .
2t{d + ε r (t − d )}
ε0 A
Sol: Capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor =
d
ε 0ε r A
Capacitance of a parallel plate dielectric capacitor =
d
ε0 A
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with mixed dielectrics = ,
d1 d
+ 2
ε r1 ε r 2
where A is the area of the plates, and d, d1, d2 are the widths of respective dielectrics.
\ In the present problem (Fig. 2.22),
ε 0 (a − x)a 1 ε 0 ( a − x) a 2
Capacitance of the air-part = ; its stored energy = V .
t 2 t
Fig. 2.22 Parallel plate capacitor with partly introduced thin dielectric slab.
ε 0 ax ⎛ 1 ⎞ ε 0 ax
Capacitance of the mixed part = ; its stored energy = ⎜ ⎟ V 2.
t−d d ⎝ ⎠
2 t − d d
+ +
1 εr 1 εr
If the dielectric slab is moved forward by a distance dx, then:
⎛ 1 ⎞ ε 0 aδ x
Increase in the energy of the mixed-part = ⎜ ⎟ V2
⎝ ⎠
2 t − d d
+
1 εr
1 ε 0 aδ x 2
Decrease in the energy of the air-part = V
2 t
ε 0 aδ xV 2 ε 0 aδ xV 2
\ Change in the energy of the system = −
⎪⎧ d ⎪⎫ 2t
2 ⎨(t − d ) + ⎬
⎩⎪ ε r ⎪⎭
V 2ε 0 a ⎧⎪ d ⎫⎪
= ⎨t − (t − d ) − ⎬ δ x
⎧⎪ d ⎫⎪ ⎪ ε r ⎭⎪
2t ⎨(t − d) + ⎬ ⎩
⎩⎪ ε r ⎭⎪
V 2ε 0 a
= d (ε r − 1)δ x
2t {(t − d )ε r + d }
= Work done by the force F
= F . dx
V 2ε 0 ad (ε r − 1)
\ F=
2t {(t − d )ε r + d }
2.29 Two thin long conducting strips, each of width 2a (length >> 2a), with their flat surfaces facing
each other, are separated by a distance x. Find the capacitance per unit length on the extreme
assumption of uniform distribution of charge and then on the extreme assumption of
distribution only along the edges. Hence, on the basis of this problem, find whether the edge
effects increase or decrease the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor from its ideal value.
Sol. See Fig. 2.23.
Fig. 2.23 Two long conducting strips forming a capacitor.

(a) Let us first consider the case of uniform distribution of charge, i.e. Q coulombs/unit length
of the strips.
Q
\ Charge density, σ =
2a
By Gauss theorem, D=s
D σ
and E= =
ε0 ε0
σ Q
Potential difference between the plates = E ´ length = x = x
ε0 2 aε 0
Q 2aε 0
\ Capacitance = Cu/unit length = = /unit length
p.d. x
(b) Let us now consider the limiting case of all charge concentrated along the edges of the
plates, i.e. Q/2 along each edge.
Note: Due to a line charge of Q coulombs/m,
Q
potential at a point = ln r
2πε 0
2009, p. 61.)
\ Potential at the centre of the top plate
Q/2 Q/2 Q/2 Q/2
= − ln a − ln a + ln x2 + a2 + ln x2 + a2
2πε 0 2πε 0 2πε 0 2πε 0
Q x2 + a2
= ln
2πε 0 a
Potential at the centre of the bottom plate
Q/2 Q/2 Q/2 Q/2
= − ln x2 + a2 − ln x2 + a2 + ln a + ln a
2πε 0 2πε 0 2πε 0 2πε 0
Q x2 + a2
= − ln
2πε 0 a
Q x2 + a2
\ Potential difference between the top and the bottom plates = ln
πε 0 x
Q ⎛ x2 ⎞
= ln ⎜1 + 2 ⎟
2πε 0 ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠
Q 2πε 0
\ Capacitance = Ce/unit length = = /unit length
p.d. ln (1 + x 2 /a 2 )
In a parallel plate capacitor, the ratio of these two limiting values is
Cu 2aε 0 /x a ⎛ x2 ⎞
= = ln ⎜ 1 + ⎟
Ce 2πε 0 / ln (1 + x 2 /a 2 ) π x ⎜⎝ a 2 ⎟⎠
Let x/a = p
Cu 1
\ = ln (1 + p 2 )
Ce π p
This is < 1 for all p.
2.30 A simple parallel plate capacitor consists of two rectangular, parallel, highly conducting plates,
each of area A. Between the plates is a rectangular slab of dielectric of constant permittivity
e (D = eE ). The lower plate and the dielectric are fixed, and the upper plate can (move up and
down) and has instantaneous position x w.r.t. the top surface of the dielectric. The transverse
dimensions are large compared to the plate separation, i.e. the fringing field can be neglected.
The terminal voltage V(t) is supplied from a source, which is a function of time. Find the
instantaneous charge and current to the upper plate.
Sol. With time-dependent potential V(t) applied to the system shown in Fig. 2.24 (refer to
ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009,
Chapter 6, pp. 196210),
Fig. 2.24 Parallel plate capacitor with fixed lower plate and movable upper plate.
u
V= ∫ E dl
l
E and D have only the vertical (i.e. x) component, neglecting fringing.

In vacuum (i.e. free space), Dv = e 0 E v
In dielectric, D d = e Ed
Assuming that there is no charge on the dielectric, by Gauss theorem, on the interface between
the dielectric and free space,
Dnv = Dnd , i.e. e0Ev = eEd
d d+x
ε
\
ε ∫
V = − 0 Ev dl −
0
∫
d
Ev dl (Note dl = dx)
ε0d
= − E − xEv
ε v
V
\ Ev =
x + d ε 0 /ε
\ Charge on the upper plate,
ε 0 AV
q=
∫∫ D n ⋅ dS = Eve0A =
x + d ε 0 /ε
Also q = V . C(x)
ε0 A
\ C=
x + d ε 0 /ε
dq ε 0 A dV ε 0 AV dx
and current = i(t) = = +
dt x + d ε 0 /ε dt ( x + d ε 0 /ε ) dt
2

Due to variation Due to movement

of supply voltage of the upper plate
2.31 Show that the potential V between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric of
constant permittivity e0er satisfies the Laplaces equation. How would this equation be
modified, if the permittivity of the medium varies linearly from one plate to the other?
The plates of a parallel plate capacitor are h metres apart, and the lower plate is at zero potential.
The intervening space has a dielectric whose permittivity increases linearly from the lower plate
to the upper. Show that the capacitance per unit area is given by
ε 0 (ε r 2 − ε r1 )
,
h ln (ε r 2 /ε r1 )
where e0er1 and e0er2 are the permittivities of the dielectric at the lower and the upper plates,
respectively. Neglect the edge effects.
Sol. To derive the operating equation (instead of deriving the formal vector equation, as has
been done in previous problems such as Problems 2.14, 2.17 and 2.18), we start simplifying from
the first step by using the available coordinate system simplifications. Though it must be noted
that both the techniques lead to the same equation at the end which is a modification and
variation from Laplaces equation.
Fig. 2.25 Parallel plate capacitor with dielectric whose permittivity increases linearly with z.
E = ÑV
D = eE = e0erE = e0er (ÑV )
(Note that er is no longer a constant here.)
In this problem (Fig. 2.25), the only variation is in the z-direction, i.e.
∂V ∂
∇V = and ∇ ≡
∂z ∂z
∂ ⎛ ∂V ⎞
\ The Ñ . D equation becomes εr =0
∂z ⎜⎝ ∂z ⎟⎠
Integrating, we get
∂V
εr =A
∂z
Integrating again, we obtain
A dz
V= ∫ εr
+B
Now, at z = 0, ε r = ε r1 and at z = h, ε r = ε r 2.
ε r 2 − ε r1
\ ε r = ε r1 + z
h
A dz
\ V= ∫
ε r 2 − ε r1
z + ε r1
+B
h
Ah ⎛ ε − ε r1 ⎞
= ln ⎜ r 2 z + ε r1 ⎟ + B
ε r 2 − ε r1 ⎝ h ⎠
Ah
At z = 0, V = V0 = 0 = ln ε r1 + B
ε r 2 − ε r1
Ah
At z = h, V = Vm = ln ε r 2 + B
ε r 2 − ε r1
Ah ε
\ Potential difference between the plates = Vm 0 = ln r 2
ε r 2 − ε r1 ε r1
∂V ∂ ⎡ Ah ⎧ ε − ε r1 ⎫ ⎤
E = − grad V = − i z = − iz ⎢ ln ⎨ r 2 z + ε r1 ⎬ + B ⎥
∂z ∂z ⎣ ε r 2 − ε r1 ⎩ h ⎭ ⎦
ε r 2 − ε r1
Ah h
= − iz
ε r 2 − ε r1 ε r 2 − ε r1
z + ε r1
h
A
= − iz
ε r 2 − ε r1
z + ε r1
h
At the surface of the upper plate,

A
D = ε E = ε 0ε r E = ε 0ε r 2 E = − i z ε 0ε r 2 = − i zε0 A
ε r 2 − ε r1
h + ε r1
h
\ D = ε 0 A = charge/unit area, by Gauss theorem
Charge
Hence, capacitance/unit area =
p.d.
ε0 A
=
Ah ε
ln r 2
ε r 2 − ε r1 ε r1
ε 0 (ε r 2 − ε r1 )
=
⎛ε ⎞
h ln ⎜ r 2 ⎟
⎝ ε r1 ⎠
2.32 If the inner sphere of a spherical capacitor is earthed instead of the outer, show that the total
capacitance is 4pe0b2/(b a), where a < b. If a charge is given to the outer sphere from the
surrounding earth potential, what proportions reside on the outer and the inner surfaces of the
outer sphere?
Sol. We first consider an isolated charged sphere of radius a [Fig. 2.26(a)].
Fig. 2.26 (a) Isolated charged sphere of radius a. (b) Concentric spheres with opposite charges.
By Gauss theorem, w
ÔÔ D ¹ dS = enclosed charge Q.
Q
\ Dr = for r > a
4π r 2
=0 for r < a
r r
Q dr Q
V = ∫
∞
E ⋅ dl =
4πε 0 ∫
∞
r 2
=
4πε 0 r
Next, for concentric spheres with opposite charges [Fig. 2.26(b)],

Q
Dr = for a < r b
Dr Q
Er = = for a < r < b
ε 4πε 0 r 2
2 b
Q Q ⎛1 1⎞ Q b−a
Hence, V21 = ∫ E ⋅ dr = ∫
1 a
4πε 0 r 2
dr = ⎜ − ⎟=
4πε 0 ⎝ a b ⎠ 4πε 0 ab
Q
\ Capacitance of the isolated sphere, C = = 4πε 0 a
V
Q 4πε 0 ab
and capacitance of the concentric spheres, C = = , b > a.
V21 b−a
When the inner sphere is earthed, the charge on the outer sphere will distribute both on the
inner surface as well as the outer surface, so that the capacitor can be considered to be made
up of two capacitors connected in parallel, as shown in Fig. 2.27.
Fig. 2.27 Concentric spheres with inner sphere earthed.
4πε 0 ab b2
\ C = C1 + C2 = + 4πε 0b = 4πε 0
b−a b−a
When both the resolved capacitors are at the same potential,
4πε 0 ab
b−a a
the ratio of the charge inside to the charge outside = =
4πε 0b b−a
2.33 In a concentric spherical capacitor (of radii a, b, a < b), the inner sphere has a constant charge
Q on it and the outer conductor is maintained at zero potential. The outer conducting sphere
contracts from radius b to b1 (b1 < b) under the effect of the electric forces. Show that the work
done by the electric forces is Q2(b b1)/(8pe0bb1).
Note: Since constant charge is maintained in the system, we use the energy expressions (of the
capacitor) involving the charges.
Sol. The work done by the electric forces would be the loss of energy in the capacitor, after
the contraction of the outer sphere has taken place.
\ Capacitance of the spherical capacitor in the initial state,
4πε 0 ab
Ci =
b−a
2009, pp. 9092.)
Stored energy in the capacitor in the initial state for a constant charge Q on its inner sphere,
Q2
Wi = (Ref. ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning,
2Ci
New Delhi, 2009, p. 98.)
Q 2 (b − a )
\ Wi =
8πε 0 ab
Capacitance of the capacitor in the final state (after contraction),
4πε 0 ab1
Cf =
b1 − a
Stored energy in the final state,
Q 2 (b1 − a )
Wf =
8πε 0 ab1
\ Loss of energy due to contraction = Wi Wf
Q2 ⎛ b − a b1 − a ⎞
= ⎜ − ⎟
8πε 0 a ⎝ b b1 ⎠
Q 2 (b − b1 )
=
8πε 0 bb1
= Work done by the electric forces
2.34 If in the system of Problem 2.33, the inner conducting sphere is maintained at a constant
potential V while allowing the charge to vary, show that the work done is
2πε 0V 2 a 2 (b − b1 )
.
(b − a )(b1 − a )
Investigate the quantity of energy supplied by the battery.
Sol. In this problem, the potential is maintained at a constant value, allowing the charge to
1 2
vary. So, the energy expressions to be used is CV .
2
For this new process,

Initial energy at the start of the process,
1 4πε 0 ab 2 2πε 0V ab
2
Wi = · ·V =
2 b−a b−a
Final energy at the end of the process,
1 4πε 0 ab1 2 2πε 0V ab1
2
Wf = V =
2 b1 − a b1 − a
\ Change in the energy = Wi Wf
2 ⎛ b b ⎞
= 2πε 0V a ⎜ − 1 ⎟
⎝ b − a b1 − a ⎠
2πε 0V 2 a 2 (b − b1 )
=
(b − a )(b1 − a )
The negative sign means that the final energy is more than the initial energy and the excess
energy is the energy supplied by the battery to complete the process. Here an external source
is supplying the energy to the system to bring it to a new state.
2.35 A parallel plate capacitor is made up of two rectangular conducting plates of breadth b and
area A placed at a distance d from each other. A parallel slab of dielectric of same area A and
thickness t (t < d ) is between the plates (i.e. a mixed dielectric capacitor with two dielectrics
air and dielectric of relative permittivity er ). The dielectric slab is pulled along its length from
between the plates so that only a length x is between the plates. Prove that the electric force
pulling the slab back into its original place is given by
Q 2 dbt ′( d − t ′)
,
2ε 0 { A( d − t ′) + bxt ′}2
where t ′ = t (ε r − 1)/ε r , ε r is the relative permittivity of the slab and Q is the charge. All
disturbances caused by the fringing effects at the edges are neglected.
Sol. This problem (Fig. 2.28) has similarity with Problems 2.27 and 2.28, in particular with
Problem 2.28. But there are some subtle differences which make it quite interesting. The force
is expressed in terms of total charge on the electrodes, and the electrodes are to be treated as
those of two capacitors connected in parallel (as before) at the same potential difference but the
charge distribution for either would not be equal. So we start by assuming the same p.d. (say,
V ) and then calculate the total charge in the system. As before, there are two capacitors, i.e. the
air-capacitor and the capacitor with mixed dielectric, and their capacitances are obtained as
ε 0 (l − x ) b ε ( A/b − x )b ε ( A − bx )
Ca = = 0 = 0
d d d
ε 0bx ε 0bx ε bx
and Cm = = = 0
t d −t ⎛ 1⎞ d − t′
+ d − t ⎜1 − ⎟
εr 1 εr ⎠
⎝
Fig. 2.28 Parallel plate capacitor with the dielectric slab partially pulled out.
The charges in these two capacitors are (say) Qa and Qm, respectively.
ε 0 ( A − bx) ε bx
Qa = CaV = V and Qm = CmV = 0 V
d d − t′
⎛ A − bx bx ⎞
\ Total charge, Q = Qa + Qm = ε 0V ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ d d − t′ ⎠
ε 0V
= { A( d − t ′) − bx ( d − t ′) + dbx}
d ( d − t ′)
ε 0V
= { A( d − t ′) + bxt ′}
d ( d − t ′)
Qd ( d − t ′) ⎧It is the p.d. for both the capacitors ⎫
\ V= ⎨which can be considered to be in parallel.⎬
ε 0 { A( d − t ′) + bxt ′} ⎩ ⎭
Wa = Energy stored in the air-capacitor
CaV 2 ε ( A − bx ) Q 2 d 2 ( d − t ′) 2
= = 0
2 2d ε 02 { A( d − t ′) + bxt ′}2
Q 2 ( A − bx) d ( d − t ′) 2
=
2ε 0 { A( d − t ′) + bxt ′}2
Wm = Energy stored in the mixed-dielectric capacitor
CmV 2 ε 0bx Q 2 d 2 ( d − t ′) 2
= =
2 2( d − t ′) ε 02 { A( d − t ′) + bxt ′}2
Q 2bxd 2 ( d − t ′)
=
2ε 0 { A( d − t ′) + bxt ′}2
If the dielectric block is moved out by a distance dx, then
Q 2bd ( d − t ′) 2 δ x
increase in energy of the air-capacitor =
2ε 0 { A( d − t ′) + bxt ′}2
Q 2bd 2 ( d − t ′)δ x
and decrease in energy of the mixed-dielectric capacitor = .
2ε 0 { A( d − t ′) + bxt ′}2
\ Change in energy of the system due to the displacement dx

Q 2 bd ( d − t ′)δ x
= (d − t ′ − d )
2ε 0 { A( d − t ′) + bxt ′}2
Q 2bdt ′( d − t ′)δ x
=
2ε 0 { A( d − t ′) + bxt ′}2
= Work done by the electric force F to pull in the block
= F . dx
Q 2bdt ′( d − t ′)
\ F=
2ε 0 { A( d − t ′) + bxt ′}2
2.36 Find the mechanical work needed to double the separation of the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor in vacuum, if a battery maintains them at a constant potential difference V, and the area
of the plate and the original separation are A and x, respectively.
ε0 A
Sol. See Fig. 2.29. Capacitance (initial) of the capacitor, C =
x
1 ε AV 2
and the initial stored energy, We = CV 2 = 0 .
2 2x
ε0 A
When the gap is doubled, the capacitance, C ′ =
2x
Fig. 2.29 Parallel plate capacitor connected to a battery at constant voltage.

and the stored energy in the capacitor with the doubled gap,
1 ε AV 2
We′ = C ′V 2 = 0
2 4x
\ Mechanical work required = Initial energy Final energy
ε 0 AV 2 ε AV 2 ε AV 2
= We − We′ = − 0 = 0
2x 4x 4x
Alternative method
∂ ⎛ ε 0 AV ⎞ ε 0 AV ∂ −1 ε AV 2
2 2
∂
Force on the plate, Fx = + (We ) = ⎜ ⎟ = x = − 0 2
∂x ∂x ⎜⎝ 2 x ⎟⎠ 2 ∂x 2x
ε AV 2
\ Fx dx = − 0 2 dx
2x
\ Work done (in doubling the gap)
x = 2x 2x
ε 0 AV 2 dx ε AV 2 x − 2 + 1 ⎤
= −
∫
x=x
2
· 2 = − 0
x 2 − 2 + 1 ⎥⎦
⎥
x
ε 0 AV 2 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ε 0 AV 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ε 0 AV
2
= − − = − − =
2 ⎜⎝ 2 x x ⎟⎠ 2 ⎜ 2x ⎟
⎝ ⎠ 4x
2.37 Two conductors have capacitances C1 and C2 when they are in isolation in the field. When they
are both placed in an electrostatic field, their potentials are V1 and V2, respectively, the distance
between them being r, which is much greater than their linear dimensions. Show that the
repulsive force between these two conductors is given by
4πε C1C2 (4πε rV1 − C2V2 )(4πε rV2 − C1V1 )
.
(16π 2ε 2 r 2 − C1C2 ) 2
Sol. This is an example of Greens reciprocation theorem as applied to a system of N

conductors, where N = 2. (Refer to ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications,
2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, Section 2.10.5, pp. 9495.)
Since the potentials in the field are given, we have to evaluate first the charges on the
conductors in terms of potentials. The relevant equations, in this case, reduce to
V1 = p11Q1 + p12Q2,
V2 = p21Q1 + p22Q2,
and Q1 = c11V1 + c12V2,
Q2 = c21V1 + c22V2,
where pij and cij are coefficients of potential and coefficients of capacitance, respectively.
cii (coefficient of capacitance) is the charge on the conductor i, when it is raised to potential of
1 V, and when all other conductors are present but earthed, i.e. charge to potential ratio of the
ith conductor, when all other conductors are earthed. Since the potential has the same sign as
the charge, cii is always positive.
cij, i ¹ j (coefficient of induction) is the charge induced on the conductor i when the conductor
j is raised to potential 1 V, and all other conductors are earthed, i.e. the ratio of induced charge
on the ith conductor to the potential of the jth conductor when all other conductors are
grounded. The induced charge is always opposite in sign to the inducing charge and so cij is
always negative (or zero).
pij, i ¹ j (coefficient of potential) is the potential to which the conductor i is raised when a unit
charge is transferred from earth to the conductor j, and when all other conductors are present
but uncharged (or the ratio of the rise in potential Vi of the ith conductor to the charge Qj placed
on the jth conductor to produce this raise, all other conductors being uncharged). Since putting
a positive charge on a conductor always raises the potential of neighbouring insulated
conductors, so pij is always positive.
pii is the potential to which the ith conductor is raised when a unit charge is transferred from
earth to that (i.e. ith) conductor, all other conductors being uncharged. pii is also always
positive.
It should be noted that pij and cij are not all different, but equal in pairs (from Greens
reciprocation theorem) i.e.
cij = cji and pij = pji.
Now, we consider the present problem.
Given two conductors having capacitances C1 and C2, when each is alone. Since, in the field,
these two conductors acquire the potentials V1 and V2, respectively, the distance between them
being r (which is much greater than the linear dimensions, say a, of each), we have to evaluate
their charges (say Q1 and Q2) in terms of V1 and V2. So, we have to find the coefficients of
potentials p11, p22 and p12 or p21.
So, keeping the capacitor 1 uncharged, let the capacitor 2, which is at a distance r from the
capacitor 1, be given a charge Q2.
Since r is much larger than all linear dimensions of the capacitors (say a), then the potential to
which the capacitor 1 gets raised is
Q2

4πε r
This neglects the variation of the potential over the region occupied by the capacitor 1, its order
a
of magnitude being (i.e. it is being considered as point charge.)
4πε r 2
1
\ p12 = (= p21)
4πε r
Next, due to the charge Q2 on the capacitor 2, a charge of opposite sign to Q2 and of order of
Q2 a
magnitude will be induced on nearer parts of the capacitor 1 and an equal charge of the
4πε r
same sign on its more remote parts. Thus, it can be considered as if there exists equal and
opposite charges separated by a distance smaller than a which itself is small compared with r.
So, the field at a distance r can be considered to be a dipole field.
\ The potential at the capacitor 2 due to uncharged capacitor 1 is at most of the order of
Q2 a 2
, and hence its effect on the potential at the capacitor 2 can be neglected.
4πε r 3
So, for the equation for V2, we have
V2 1
p22 = =
Q2 C2
1
By similar arguments p11 =
C1
Hence, now we have the equations:
Q1 Q
V1 = p11Q1 + p12Q2 = + 2
C1 4πε r
Q1 Q
V2 = p21Q1 + p22Q2 = + 2
4πε r C2
or 4πε rC1V1 = 4πε rQ1 + C1Q2 (i)
and 4πε rC2V2 = C2Q1 + 4πε rQ2 (ii)
\ (i) × 4per (ii) × C1 gives
(16π 2ε 2 r 2 − C1C2 )Q1 = 4πε rC1 (4πε rV1 − C2V2 ) (iii)

and (i) × C2 (ii) × 4per gives
(16π 2ε 2 r 2 − C1C2 )Q2 = 4πε rC2 (4πε rV2 − C1V1 ) (iv)

\ The repulsive force between the two charges
Q1Q2
=
4πε r 2
4πε rC1 (4πε rV1 − C2V2 ) 4πε rC2 (4πε rV2 − C1V1 ) 1
= ·
(16π ε r − C1C2 )
2 2 2
(16π ε r − C1C2 )
2 2 2
4πε r 2
4πε C1C2 (4πε rV1 − C2V2 )(4πε rV2 − C1V1 )

=
(16π 2ε 2 r 2 − C1C2 ) 2
Note: Up to what power of 1/r is this result accurate? Discuss.

2.38 Three identical spheres, each of radius a, are so positioned that their centres are collinear, and
the intervals between the centres of spheres 1 and 2 and between those of spheres 2 and 3 are
r1 and r2, respectively. Initially a charge Q is given to the sphere 2 only, the other two being
uncharged. Then the sphere 2 is connected with the sphere 1 by a wire of zero resistance. This
connection is broken and the sphere 2 is then connected with the sphere 3. If the intervals r1
and r2 are much larger than a, show that the final charge on the sphere 3 is given by
Q ⎪⎧ ar22 ⎪⎫
⎨ + 1⎬ .
4 ⎩⎪ r1 (r1 + r2 )( r2 − a ) ⎪⎭
Sol. This is again a problem of application of Greens reciprocation theorem as applied to N
conductors, where N = 3.
So, as shown in Fig. 2.30, we have (in general)
V1 = p11Q1 + p12Q2 + p13Q3 ,
V2 = p21Q1 + p22Q2 + p23Q3
and V3 = p31Q1 + p32Q2 + p33Q3 .
Fig. 2.30 Three conducting collinear spheres of radius a (<< r1, r 2)
Initially (stage 1), Q2 = Q, Q1 = 0, Q3 = 0.

\ V1 = p12Q
V2 = p22Q
and V3 = p32Q
1 1 1
and p12 = ( = p21 ), p22 = , p32 =
4πε 0 r1 4πε 0 a 4πε 0 r2
It should be noted that, since the spheres are identical, p11 = p33 = p22.
In stage 2, the sphere 2 is in contact with the sphere 1, i.e. V2′ = V1′ and now Q3′ = 0.
\ V1′ = p11Q1′ + p12Q2′
V2′ = p21Q1′ + p22Q2′

V3′ = p31Q1′ + p32Q2′
and Q1′ + Q2′ = Q

Substituting from the coefficients (pijs),
1 1 1 1
V2′ = Q1′ + Q2′ = Q1′ + Q2′ = V1′
4πε 0 a 4πε 0 r1 4πε 0 r1 4πε 0 a
⎧⎪ 1 1 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ 1 1 ⎫⎪
or ⎨ − ⎬ Q1′ = ⎨ − ⎬ Q2′
⎪⎩ a r1 ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ a r1 ⎪⎭
Q
\ Q1′ = Q2′ =
2
In stage 3, the sphere 2 is disconnected from the sphere 1 and connected with the sphere 3.
\ V1 p11Q1 p12Q2 p13Q3,
V2 p21Q1 p22Q2 p23Q3
and V3 p31Q1 p32 Q2 p33Q3

Q Q 1
Now, V2 V3, Q1 , Q2 Q3 and p13 p31
2 2 4QF 0 (r1 r2 )
\ V2
1 È Q Ø 1 Q 1 Q
4QF 0 r1 Ê 2 Ú 4QF 0 a 4QF 0 r2
2 3
1 È Q Ø 1 Q 1 Q
4QF 0 ( r1 r2 ) 2 Ú 4QF 0 r2
Ê 4QF 0 a
2 3
V3
QÈ1 1 Ø È1 1Ø È1 1Ø
or É Ù Q2É Ù Q3É Ù 0
2 Ê r1 r1 r2 Ú Ê a r2 Ú Ê a r2 Ú
r a r a
È Q3Ø 2
Q r2 Q
or · Q3 2 0
2 r1 (r1 r2 ) Ê 2 Ú ar2 ar2
Rearranging, we get
QÎ r2 r aÞ r2 a
Ï 2 ß 2Q3
2 Ð r1 (r1 r2 ) ar2 à ar2
Q Î ar22 ( r2 a )r1 (r1 r2 ) Þ ar2

\ Q3 Ï ß·
4Ð ar2 r1 ( r1 r2 ) à (r2 a)
Q ⎧⎪ ar22 ⎫⎪
= ⎨ + 1⎬
4 ⎪⎩ r1 (r1 + r2 )(r2 − a ) ⎪⎭
= Final charge on the sphere 3

of sides r which is much greater than the radius a of the spheres, and numbered in sequence
as 1, 2, 3 and 4. A charge Q is now given to the sphere 1, which is then connected for an instant
by a wire of zero resistance to the spheres 2, 3 and 4 in time sequence. Show that at the end
(finally)
Q p11 − p24 Q p11 − 2 p14 + p24
Q4 f = and Q1 f = .
8 p11 − p14 8 p11 − p14
Sol. This is a problem of N conductors with N = 4. So, the relevant equations are:
V1 = p11Q1 + p12Q2 + p13Q3 + p14 Q4
V2 = p21Q1 + p22Q2 + p23Q3 + p24Q4
V3 = p31Q1 + p32Q2 + p33Q3 + p34Q4
V4 = p41Q1 + p42Q2 + p43Q3 + p44Q4 ,
where p12 = p21 , p13 = p31 , p14 = p41 , p23 = p32 , p24 = p42 and p34 = p43 .
In this case,
p11 = p22 = p33 = p44
Initially, in stage 1, Q1 = Q, Q2 = 0, Q3 = 0, Q4 = 0.
\ V1i = p11Q
V2i = p21Q
V3i = p31Q
V4i = p41Q
In stage 2, the spheres 1 and 2 are in contact.
\ Q1′ + Q2′ = Q , Q3′ = 0, Q4′ = 0 and V1′ = V2′
Hence V1′ = p11Q1′ + p12Q2′
V2′ = p21Q1′ + p22Q2′
V3′ = p31Q1′ + p32Q2′
V4′ = p41Q1′ + p42Q2′
V1′ = V2′ ⇒ p11Q1′ + p12Q2′ = p21Q1′ + p22Q2′
Since p12 = p21 and p11 = p22, we get ( p11 − p12 )Q1′ = ( p22 − p12 )Q2′
Q
or Q1′ = Q2′ =
2
Furthermore, as per the arrangement of the conductors, shown in Fig. 2.31, it is obvious that
p13 = p24 = p42 = p31
and p12 = p23 = p34 = p41
= p21 = p32 = p43 = p14
1 2
\ The four equations become
Q Q
V1′ = ( p11 + p12 ) = ( p21 + p22 ) = V2′
2 2
Q Q
and V3′ = ( p31 + p32 ) = ( p24 + p14 ) 4 3
2 2
Q Fig. 2.31 Four conducting spheres
V4′ = ( p14 + p24 ) ( = V3′) arranged at the corners
2 of a square.
Next, in stage 3, the spheres 1 and 3 are in contact.

Q Q
\ Q4 0, Q2 Q2 , Q1 Q3 Q1 and V1 V3
2 2
and the equations for this stage are:
V1 p11Q1 p12Q2 p13Q3
V2 p21Q1 p22Q2 p23Q3
V3 p31Q1 p32Q2 p33Q3
V4 p41Q1 p42Q2 p43Q3
\ V1 p11Q1 p12 Q2 p13Q3 p31Q1 p32 Q2 p33Q3
or ( p11 p31 )Q1 ( p13 p33 )Q3 ( p32 p12 )Q2
( p11 p31 ) È Q1 Q1Ø 0

Q
or
Ê 2 Ú
Q Q
\ Q1 and Q3
4 4
Next, at the final stage, the spheres 1 and 4 are in contact.
Q Q Q
\ Q1 f Q4 f Q1
, Q2 f Q2 , Q3 f Q3 and V1 f V4 f ,
4 2 4
and the equations for the final stage are:
V1 f = p11Q1 f + p12 Q2 f + p13Q3 f + p14 Q4 f
V2 f = p21Q1 f + p22Q2 f + p23Q3 f + p24Q4 f
V3 f = p31Q1 f + p32Q2 f + p33Q3 f + p34 Q4 f
V4 f = p41Q1 f + p42Q2 f + p43Q3 f + p44Q4 f
Now, V1 f = V4 f gives
p11Q1 f + p12Q2 f + p13Q3 f + p14Q4 f = p41Q1 f + p42Q2 f + p43Q3 f + p44 Q4 f
or ( p11 − p41 )Q1 f + ( p14 − p44 )Q4 f = ( p42 − p12 )Q2 f + ( p43 − p13 )Q3 f
⎛Q ⎞ ⎛Q Q⎞ Q
or ( p11 − p14 ) ⎜ − Q4 f ⎟ + ( p14 − p11 )Q4 f = ( p24 − p12 ) ⎜ − ⎟ = ( p24 − p12 )
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 2 4 ⎠ 4
Q
or ( p11 − p14 )( − Q4 f − Q4 f ) = {( p24 − p12 ) − ( p11 − p14 )}
4
Q
or −2( p11 − p14 )Q4 f = ( p24 − p11 )
4
Q p11 − p24
\ Q4 f = = Final charge on sphere 4
8 p11 − p14
Q Q 2 p11 − 2 p14 − p11 + p24 Q p11 − 2 p14 + p24
\ Q1 f = − Q4 f = =
4 8 p11 − p14 8 p11 − p14
and are numbered in rotating sequence. The length of the arms of the square is r and the radius
of the spheres is a, such that a << r. Initially, the charges on the spheres 1 and 2 are +Q and
Q, respectively. The sphere 1 is connected instantly to the sphere 3 and then to the sphere 4.
Show that finally the charge on the sphere 4 is approximately given by
Q
2 5 {
r 2− ( 2 − 3)a}
5
Q4 f = .
r−a
Sol. As in Problem 2.39,

V1 = p11Q1 + p12Q2 + p13Q3 + p14 Q4
V2 = p21Q1 + p22Q2 + p23Q3 + p24 Q4 Fig. 2.32 Four spheres of radii a
arranged at the corners
V3 = p31Q1 + p32 Q2 + p33Q3 + p34Q4 of a square of side r.
V4 = p41Q1 + p42Q2 + p43Q3 + p44 Q4

In this case,
1
p 11 = p22 = p33 = p44 =
4πε 0 a
p 12 = p23 = p34 = p41
1
= p14 = p43 = p32 = p21 =
4πε 0 r
1
and p 13 = p24 = p42 = p31 =
4 2πε 0 r
Initially, at stage 1, Q1 = Q, Q2 = Q, Q3 = 0, Q4 = 0
Q ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ Q(r − a )
V1i = ( p11 − p12 )Q = ⎜ a − r ⎟ = 4πε ar
4πε 0 ⎝ ⎠ 0
Q ⎛1 1⎞ Q (r − a)
V2i = ( p21 − p22 )Q = ⎜ − ⎟=−
4πε 0 ⎝ r a ⎠ 4πε 0 ar
Q ⎛ 1 1⎞ Q ( 2 − 1)
V3i = ( p31 − p32 )Q = ⎜ − ⎟=−
4πε 0 ⎝ r 2 r ⎠ 4πε 0 r 2
Q ⎛1 1 ⎞ Q ( 2 − 1)
V4i = ( p41 − p42 )Q = ⎜ − ⎟=
4πε 0 ⎝ r r 2 ⎠ 4πε 0 r 2
\ V1i = − V2i and V3i = − V4i
Next, in stage 2, the sphere 1 is in contact with the sphere 3,
\ V1′ = V3′, Q1′ + Q3′ = Q1i = Q, Q2′ = Q2i = − Q, Q4′ = 0

V1′ = p11Q1′ + p12Q2′ + p13Q3′
V2′ = p21Q1′ + p22Q2′ + p23Q3′
V3′ = p31Q1′ + p32 Q2′ + p33Q3′
V4′ = p41Q1′ + p42Q2′ + p43Q3′ ,
and V1′ = p11Q1′ + p12Q2′ + p13Q3′ = p31Q1′ + p32Q2′ + p33Q3′ = V3′
or ( p11 − p31 )Q1′ + ( p13 − p33 )Q3′ = ( p32 − p12 )Q2′
1 ⎛1 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 1⎞ 1 ⎛1 1⎞
or ⎜ − ⎟ Q1′ + ⎜ − ⎟ (Q1i − Q1′) = − (− Q) = 0
4πε 0 ⎝a r 2⎠ 4πε 0 ⎝r 2 a⎠ 4πε 0 ⎜⎝ r r ⎟⎠
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛1 1 ⎞ Q1i Q
or 2⎜ − ⎟ Q1′ = ⎜ − ⎟ Q1i → Q1′ = =
⎝ a r 2 ⎠ ⎝ a r 2 ⎠ 2 2
Q
\ Q3′ = Q − Q1′ =
2
Next, in the final stage when the sphere 1 makes contact with the sphere 4, we have
Q Q
V1 f = V4 f , Q1 f + Q4 f = Q1′ = , Q2 f = Q2′ = − Q and Q3 f = Q3′ =
2 2
V1f = p11Q1 f + p12 Q2 f + p13Q3 f + p14 Q4 f
V2f = p21Q1 f + p22Q2 f + p23Q3 f + p24 Q4 f
V3f = p31Q1 f + p32Q2 f + p33Q3 f + p34Q4 f
V4f = p41Q1 f + p42Q2 f + p43Q3 f + p44 Q4 f
Now, V1 f = p11Q1 f + p12 Q2 f + p13Q3 f + p14 Q4 f

= p41Q1 f + p42 Q2 f + p43Q3 f + p44 Q4 f = V4 f
or ( p11 − p41 )Q1 f + ( p14 − p44 )Q4 f = ( p42 − p12 )Q2 f + ( p43 − p13 )Q3 f
1 ⎧⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎛ Q ⎞ ⎛1 1⎞ ⎫ 1 ⎧⎪⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛1 1 ⎞ Q ⎪⎫
or ⎨⎜ − ⎟⎜ − Q4 f ⎟ + ⎜ − ⎟ Q4 f ⎬ = ⎨⎜ − ⎟ ( −Q ) + ⎜ − ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 ⎩⎝ a r ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝r a⎠ ⎭ 4πε 0 ⎪⎩⎝ r 2 r ⎠ ⎝ r r 2 ⎠ 2 ⎭⎪
⎛1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎛ Q⎞ ⎛1 1⎞Q
or 2 ⎜ − ⎟ Q4 f = ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ −Q − ⎟ − ⎜ − ⎟
⎝r a⎠ ⎝ r 2 r ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝a r⎠ 2
(a − r ) 1 − 2 3Q ( r − a ) Q
or 2 Q4 f = − · − ·
ar r 2 2 ar 2
Q⎧ a (r − a) ⎫
\ Q4 f = ⎨ −3(1 − 2 ) − ⎬ (a − r )
2⎩ 2 2 2 ⎭
=
Q
4 2
{
−3(1 − 2 )a − r 2 + a 2 (a − r ) }
=
Q
{−3a + 4 2a − r 2 } (a − r )
25
=
Q
25 {
r 2− ( 2 − 3)a} (r − a)
5
= Final charge on the sphere 4

Q
Q1 f = − Q4 f
2
=
Q
2
−
Q
25
r 2− { ( 2 − 3)a} (r − a)
5
Q ⎧⎪ r − a r 2 ⎛⎜ 25 − 3 ⎞⎟ ⎫⎪
= ⎨ − + a⎬
(r − a) ⎪ 2 25 ⎜ 25 ⎟ ⎪
⎩ ⎝ ⎠ ⎭
Q ⎧⎪ r a r ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎫⎪
= ⎨ − − + ⎜⎜1 − ⎟a
(r − a) ⎪ 2 2 4 ⎝ ⎟ ⎬
⎩ 25 ⎠ ⎪⎭
Q ⎧⎪ r ⎛ 1 3 ⎞ ⎫⎪
= ⎨ + ⎜⎜ − ⎟ a⎬
(r − a) ⎪ 4 ⎝ 2 5 ⎟
⎩ 2 ⎠ ⎪⎭
=
Q
25 {
r 2+ ( 2 − 3)a} (r − a)
3
Q
Q3 f =
2
2.41 Three identical conducting spheres, each of radius a, are located at the corners of an equilateral
triangle of sides r, such that r >> a. Initially, each sphere has a charge Q on it. Each sphere
is then initially earthed for an instant and then insulated. Show that the final charge on the
sphere 3 is given by
a2 ⎛ 2a ⎞
2 ⎜
3− Q.
r ⎝ r ⎟⎠
Sol. Since each sphere is symmetrical with respect to the other two, starting from the relevant
equations, we have
V1 = p11Q1 + p12Q2 + p13Q3
V2 = p21Q1 + p22Q2 + p23Q3

V3 = p31Q1 + p32 Q2 + p33Q3
At the initial stage, Q1i = Q2i = Q3i = Q
and the coefficients of potential are
1
p11 = p22 = p33 =
4πε a
1
and p12 = p23 = p31 = p13 = p32 = p21 = ( r >> a )
4πε r
1 ⎛1 1 1⎞ 1 ⎛1 2⎞
\ V1i = ⎜ + + ⎟Q = + Q
4πε ⎝ a r r ⎠ 4πε ⎜⎝ a r ⎟⎠
1 ⎛1 1 1⎞ 1 ⎛1 2⎞
V2i = ⎜ + + ⎟Q = + Q
4πε ⎝ r a r ⎠ 4πε ⎜⎝ a r ⎟⎠
1 ⎛1 1 1⎞ 1 ⎛1 2⎞
V3i = ⎜ + + ⎟Q = + Q
4πε ⎝ r r a ⎠ 4πε ⎜⎝ a r ⎟⎠
\ V1i = V2i = V3i
Next V1i is earthed, i.e. V1i 0 V1
1 È Q1 Q Q Ø 1 È Q1 2Q Ø
\ V1 0 É Ù É Ù
4QF Ê a r rÚ 4QF Ê a r Ú
1 È Q1 Q Q Ø
V2 É Ù
4QF Ê r a rÚ
1 È Q1 Q Q Ø
V3 É Ù
4QF Ê r r aÚ
Q1 2Q
Hence from the first equation above, 0
a r
2Qa
or Q1
r
During the next stage, the sphere 2 is earthed,
i.e. V2 = 0 and hence Q
2 will change.
2Qa
Now, Q1 Q1 , Q3 Q3 Q
r
1 È Q1 Q2 Q Ø
\ V1 É Ù
4QF Ê a r rÚ
1 È Q1 Q2 Q Ø
V2 É Ù 0
4QF Ê r a rÚ
1 È Q1 Q2 Q Ø
V3 É Ù
4QF Ê r r aÚ
\ From the second equation above, we get
Q2 Q 2Qa
2
a r r
Qa
\ Q2 (2a r )
r2
The subsequent stage is when the third sphere, i.e. sphere 3, is earthed,
i.e. V3 0
2Qa Qa
Now, Q1 Q1 , Q2 Q2 (2a r )
r r2
So, the relevant equation is
1 È Q1 Q2 Q3Ø
V3 0 É Ù
4QF Ê r r a Ú
\ Q3 ^
a
2Qa Qa
r2
3 (2a r )
r `
Qa 2 Qa 2
= (2 r − 2 a + r ) = (3r − 2 a )
r3 r3
B È B Ø
É
Ù 2
S Ê S Ú
= Charge on the sphere 3
2.42 An alternative way of defining the equations for a system of N conductors is by using
potential ratios (defined by Pij) as distinct from the coefficients of potentials (pij) and the
coefficients of capacitance (cii) and the coefficients of induction (cij), also called mutual
capacitance. These equations are:
−1
V1 = c11 Q1 + P12V2 + P13V3 + " + P1N VN
−1
V2 = P21V1 + c22 Q2 + P23V3 + " + P2 N VN
−1
V3 = P31V1 + P32V2 + c33 Q3 + " + P3N VN
# #
−1
Vn = Pn1V1 + Pn 2V2 + Pn 3V3 + " + cnn Qn
Hence, show that in terms of capacitances
cij
Pij = − .
cii
Sol. According to this style of definition

Vi = Pi1V1 + Pi 2V2 + " + cii−1Qi + " + PijV j + " + PinVn
and using the mutual capacitances
Qi = ci1V1 + ci 2V2 + " + ciiVi + " + cijV j + " + cinVn
Equating the coefficients of Vj from these two expressions (after shifting Qi to the L.H.S. in the
first expression), we get
Pijcii = cij
cij
\ Pij = −
cii
2.43 Four identical conductors have been arranged at the corners of a regular tetrahedron in a mutual
perfectly symmetrical manner. All the four conductors are initially uncharged. One of the four
conductors is first given a charge Q by using a battery which is maintained at a voltage V, and
then this conductor is insulated. This conductor is then successively connected for an instant
to each of the other three conductors in turn and then finally connected to earth. Its charge is
now Q0. Show that all the coefficients of induction cij (i ¹ j) are
56Q 2 Q0
.
V (24Q0 + 7Q )(8Q0 − 7Q)
Sol. It should be noted that from Eqs. (2.79) and (2.80) of ElectromagnetismTheory and
Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, pp. 9495, by considering the
determinants of these equations solved in matrix form, we get
p22 p32 … pn 2
1 p23 p33 … pn 3
c11 =
Δ # # #
p2 n p3n … pnn
p21 p31 … pn1

1 p23 p33 … pn 3
c12 = c21 =−
Δ # # #
p2 n p3n … pnn
p11 p21 … pn1

p12 p22 … pn 2
and Δ=
# # #
p1n p2 n … pnn
i.e. cij is (the cofactor of pij in D) divided by D.

Now, coming to the actual problem (Fig. 2.33), it is assumed that

the sides of the tetrahedron (regular) are much larger than the
dimensions of the conductors.
Also, it should be noted that each conductor is symmetrical
with respect to the other three. Hence, all the coefficients of
potential will be equal, i.e. pij are all equal (i ¹ j), as will be piis;
but not pii and pij, i.e. pii ¹ pij.
Hence, initially when no conductor is charged.
V1 = p11Q1 + p12Q2 + p13Q3 + p14Q4
V2 = p21Q1 + p22Q2 + p23Q3 + p24Q4
Fig. 2.33 Four conductors at the
V3 = p31Q1 + p32Q2 + p33Q3 + p34Q4 corners of a tetrahedron.
V4 = p41Q1 + p42Q2 + p43Q3 + p44Q4

Now, p11 = p22 = p33 = p44
and p12 = p23 = p34 = p41 = p14 = p43 = p32 = p21 = p31 = p13 = p24 = p42 = p (say).
Initially, Q1 is made Q at the voltage V, and Q2 = Q3 = Q4 = 0.

V
\ V1i = p11Q = V or p11 =
Q
V2i = p21Q = pQ and V2i = V3i = V4i
V3i = p31Q = pQ
V4i = p41Q = pQ
Next, the conductor 1 is brought in contact with the conductor 2.
\ Q1 Q2 Q and Q3 0, Q4 0 and V1 V2
Hence, the equations become
V1 p11Q1 p12Q2 p11Q1 pQ2
V2 p21Q1 p22Q2 pQ1 p11Q2
V3 p31Q1 p32 Q2 pQ1 pQ2
V4 p41Q1 p42Q2 pQ1 pQ2
Since V1 V2, we get from the first two equations above
Q
( p11 p)Q1 ( p11 p)Q2 À Q1 Q2
2
and V3 V4 pQ
Next, the conductor 1 is brought into contact with the conductor 3.
Q Q
\ Q1 Q3
, Q2 Q2 , Q4 0 and V1 V3
2 2
Hence, the relevant equations are:
V1 p11Q1 pQ2 pQ3
V2 pQ1 p11Q2 pQ3
V3 pQ1 pQ2 p11Q3
V4 pQ1 pQ2 pQ3

Since V1 V3, ( p11 p )Q1 ( p p11 )Q3 ( p p)Q2 0.
Q1 È Q1Ø
Q
\ 0
Ê2 Ú
Q Q Q
\ Q1
, Q3 , Q2
4 4 2
Next, the conductor 1 is brought into contact with the conductor 4.
Q Q Q
Hence, Q1 Q4 Q1 , Q2 Q2 , Q3 Q3
4 2 4
and V1 V4
Hence, the relevant equations are
V1 p11Q1 pQ2 pQ3 pQ4
V2 pQ1 p11Q2 pQ3 pQ4
V3 pQ1 pQ2 p11Q3 pQ4
V4 pQ1 pQ2 pQ3 p11Q4
Since V1 V4, ( p11 p)Q1 ( p p11 )Q4 0 ¹ Q2 0 ¹ Q3
Q1 È Q1Ø
Q
\ 0
Ê4 Ú
Q Q Q Q
\ Q1 , Q4 , Q2 , Q3
8 8 2 4
Finally, the conductor 1 is earthed.
Q Q Q
\ V1 f 0 and Q2 f Q2 , Q3 f Q3 , Q4 f Q4
2 4 8
and the final equation for the first conductor is given by
V1 f = p11Q1 f + pQ2 f + pQ3 f + pQ4 f = 0
V ⎧Q Q Q ⎫ V 7Q
\ 0= Q1 f + p ⎨ + + ⎬ = Q1 f + p ⋅
Q ⎩2 4 8⎭ Q 8
7Q 2
\ Q1 f = − p · = − Q0 , as given
8V
8VQ0
\ p =
7Q 2
Now, the coefficient matrix determinants are
p11 p12 p13 p14 p11 p p p
p p22 p23 p24 p p11 p p
Δ = 21 =
p31 p32 p33 p34 p p p11 p
p41 p42 p43 p44 p p p p11
= ( p11 + 3p)( p11 p)3

The cofactor
p21 p31 p41 p p p
1 1
p12 p23 p33 p43 p p11 p
' '
p24 p34 p44 p p p11
1 1 1 0 1 1
p p
= − p p11 p = − p − p11 p11 p
Δ Δ
p p p11 0 p p11
p ( p − p11 )( p11 − p )
= −
Δ
p ( p11 − p ) 2 p ( p11 − p ) 2 p
\ cij = = =
Δ ( p11 + 3 p )( p11 − p ) 3
( p11 + 3 p )( p11 − p )
8VQ0
7Q 2
=
⎪⎧ V 24VQ0 ⎪⎫ ⎪⎧ V 8VQ0 ⎪⎫
⎨ + ⎬⎨ − ⎬
⎪⎩ Q 7Q 2 ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪ Q 7Q 2 ⎭⎪
56Q0Q 2
=
V (24Q0 + 7Q )(8Q0 − 7Q)
2.44 Three similar conductors in insulated state are arranged at the corners of an equilateral triangle,
so that each is perfectly symmetrical with respect to the other two. A wire from a battery of
unknown voltage V is touched to each in turn. If the charges on the first two are found to be
Q1 and Q2, respectively, what will be the charge on the third?
Sol. Once again, the dimensions of the conductors are assumed to be small compared with the
distances between them. See Fig. 2.34.
Fig. 2.34 Three similar conductors arranged symmetrically with respect to the other two.
The relevant equations are:

V1 = p11Q1 + p12Q2 + p13Q3
V2 = p21Q1 + p22Q2 + p23Q3
V3 = p31Q1 + p32Q2 + p33Q3
For the present arrangement,
p 11 = p22 = p33
and p 12 = p23 = p31 = p13 = p32 = p21 = p (say)
Initially, Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = 0
Stage 1: A battery of unknown voltage V touches the conductor 1, giving it a charge Q1. So,
the equations for this stage are:
V1 p11Q1 V
V2 p12Q1 pQ1
V3 p13Q1 pQ1
Stage 2: The battery at the voltage V touches the conductor 2, giving it a charge Q2.
\ V1 p11Q1 pQ2
V2 pQ1 p11Q2 V
V3 pQ1 pQ2 p(Q1 Q2 )

Stage 3: The battery now touches the conductor 3. Hence, we have
V1 pQ1 p11Q2 pQ3
V2 pQ1 p11Q2 pQ3
V3 pQ1 pQ2 p11Q3 V

Hence, we have
V1 V2 V3 V
\ p11Q1 = pQ1 + p11Q2 = pQ1 + pQ2 + p11Q3 = V
From the first two expressions, we get

p −p
Q2 = 11 Q1
p11
From the first and the third expressions, we get
p11 − p
p11Q3 = ( p11 − p )Q1 − p · Q1
p11
⎛ p ⎞
= ( p11 − p ) ⎜1 − ⎟ Q1
⎝ p11 ⎠
( p11 − p ) 2
\ Q3 = 2
Q1
p11
p11 − p
Hence Q1, Q2 and Q3 are in G.P., the ratio being .
p11
2.45 Four identical uncharged conductors in insulated state are placed symmetrically at the corners
of a regular tetrahedron. A moving spherical conductor touches them in turn at the points
nearest to the centre of the tetrahedron, thereby transferring charges Q10, Q20, Q30 and Q40 to
them, respectively. Show that the charges are in geometrical progression.
Sol. This problem is a direct extrapolation of Problem 2.44.
So, the relevant equations (in general terms) are
V1 = p11Q1 + p12Q2 + p13Q3 + p14Q4
V2 = p21Q1 + p22Q2 + p23Q3 + p24Q4
V3 = p31Q1 + p32Q2 + p33Q3 + p34Q4
V4 = p41Q1 + p42Q2 + p43Q3 + p44Q4
In the present system,
p 11 = p22 = p33 = p44
and p 12 = p23 = p34 = p41 = p14 = p43 = p32 = p21 = p31 = p13 = p24 = p42 = p (say)
Initially, the conductor 1 is given a charge of Q10 at the potential of the moving spherical
conductor. Hence
V1i = p11Q10 = p11Q10
V2i = p21Q10 = pQ10
V3i = p31Q10 = pQ10
V4i = p41Q10 = pQ10 ,
since Q2i = Q3i = Q4i = 0 and Q1i = Q10 .

In the next stage, the moving conductor is brought into contact with the conductor 2.
Hence Q2 Q20 , Q1 Q10 , Q3 Q4 0.
\ V1 p11Q10 p12Q20 p11Q10 pQ20
V2 p21Q10 p22Q20 pQ10 p11Q20
V3 p31Q10 p32 Q20 pQ10 pQ20
V4 p41Q10 p42 Q20 pQ10 pQ20

In the subsequent stage, the moving conductor now touches the conductor 3.
Hence, Q3 Q30 , Q2 Q2 Q20 , Q1 Q1 Q10 and Q4 0
Hence, V1 p11Q10 pQ20 pQ30
V2 pQ10 p11Q20 pQ30
V3 pQ10 pQ20 p11Q30
V4 pQ10 pQ20 pQ30

Next, in the final stage, the moving conductor touches the conductor 4 giving it a charge Q40.
Hence, Q4 f Q40 , Q3 f Q3 Q30 , Q2 f Q2 Q20 , Q1 f Q1 Q10
\ V1 f = p11Q10 + pQ20 + pQ30 + pQ40
V2 f = pQ10 + p11Q20 + pQ30 + pQ40
V3 f = pQ10 + pQ20 + p11Q30 + pQ40
V4 f = pQ10 + pQ20 + pQ30 + p11Q40

It should now be noted that
V1i V2 V3 V4 f
Substituting in terms of charges, this equation becomes
p11Q10 = pQ10 + p11Q20 = pQ10 + pQ20 + p11Q30 = pQ10 + pQ20 + pQ30 + p11Q40.
p11 − p
Now, p11Q10 = pQ10 + p11Q20 ⇒ Q20 = Q10
p11
p ( p11 − p )
p11Q10 = pQ10 + pQ20 + p11Q30 ⇒ p11Q30 = ( p11 − p )Q10 − Q10
p11
⎛ p ⎞
= ( p11 − p ) ⎜1 − ⎟ Q10
⎝ p11 ⎠
( p11 − p ) 2
\ Q30 = 2
Q10
p11
p11Q10 = pQ10 + pQ20 + pQ30 + p11Q40
( p11 − p ) ( p − p)2
\ p11Q40 = ( p11 − p )Q10 − p · Q10 − p · 11 2 Q10
p11 p11
⎛ p ⎞ p ( p11 − p ) 2
= ( p11 − p ) ⎜1 − ⎟ Q10 − 2
Q10
⎝ p11 ⎠ p11
⎛ 1 p ⎞ ( p − p )3
= ( p11 − p )2 ⎜ − 2 ⎟ Q10 = 11 2 Q10
⎜ p11 p ⎟ p
⎝ 11 ⎠ 11
( p11 − p )3
\ Q40 = 3
Q10
p11
p11 − p
\ Q10, Q20, Q30 and Q40 are in G.P., the ratio being .
p11
2.46 Four identical uncharged conductors in insulated state are placed at the corners of a square and
are touched in turn by a moving spherical conductor at the points nearest to the centre of the
square, thereby receiving the charges Q10, Q20, Q30 and Q40, respectively. Show that
(Q10 − Q20 )(Q10Q30 − Q20
2
) = Q10 (Q20Q30 − Q10 Q40 ).
Sol. The relevant equations with respect to Fig. 2.35 are:
Fig. 2.35 Four identical conductors at the corners of a square.
V1 = p11Q1 + p12Q2 + p13Q3 + p14Q4

V2 = p21Q1 + p22Q2 + p23Q3 + p24Q4
V3 = p31Q1 + p32Q2 + p33Q3 + p34Q4
V4 = p41Q1 + p42Q2 + p43Q3 + p44Q4
Also, p 11 = p22 = p33 = p44
p 12 = p23 = p34 = p41 = p14 = p43 = p32 = p21 = p (say)
and p 13 = p24 = p42 = p31 = p¢ (say), where obviously p¢ ¹ p.
Initially, the conductor 1 is given the charge Q10, i.e. Q1i = Q10 at a certain potential and
Q2i = Q3i = Q4i = 0.
Hence V1i = p11Q10 (= V )
V2i = p21Q10 = pQ10
V3i = p31Q10 = p ′Q10
V4i = p41Q10 = pQ10
Next, the moving conductor touches the conductor 2 and gives it a charge Q20 at a potential V.
Hence, now, Q2 Q20 , Q1 Q1i Q10 , Q3 Q4 0
\ V1 p11Q10 p12Q20 p11Q10 pQ20
V2 p21Q10 p22 Q20 pQ10 p11Q20 ( V )
V3 p31Q10 p32 Q20 p Q10 pQ20
V4 p41Q10 p42 Q20 pQ10 p Q20
In the following stage, the moving conductor touches the conductor 3 at the potential V giving
it a charge Q30, i.e.
Q3 Q30 , Q1 Q1 Q10 , Q2 Q2 Q20 , Q4 0
\ V1 p11Q10 p12Q20 p13Q30 p11Q10 pQ20 p Q30
V2 p21Q10 p22Q20 p23Q30 pQ10 p11Q20 pQ30
V3 p31Q10 p32 Q20 p33Q30 p Q10 pQ20 p11Q30 ( V )
V4 p41Q10 p42Q20 p43Q30 pQ10 p Q20 pQ30
In the final stage, the moving conductor at the voltage V touches the conductor 4 giving it a
charge Q40, i.e. Q4 f = Q40 , Q3 f = Q30 , Q2 f = Q20 , Q1 f = Q10 .
\ V1 f p11Q10 pQ20 p Q30 pQ40
V2 f pQ10 p11Q20 pQ30 p Q40
V3 f p Q10 pQ20 p11Q30 pQ40
V4 f pQ10 p Q20 pQ30 p11Q40 ( V )
Since V1i V2 V3 V4 f V , we get
p11Q10 pQ10 p11Q20 p Q10 pQ20 p11Q30 pQ10 p Q20 pQ30 p11Q40
These equations have to be solved to eliminate p, p¢ and p11.
From p11Q10 = pQ10 + p11Q20, we have
p11(Q10 Q20) = pQ10 (i)
From p11Q10 = p¢Q10 + pQ20 + p11Q30, we have
Q20
p11(Q10 Q30) = p11(Q10 Q20) p Q10 , using (i).
Q10
2
p11 (Q10 Q10 Q30 Q10 Q20 Q20
2
)
\ p Q10 (ii)
Q10
Next, we consider
p11Q10 = pQ10 + p¢Q20 + pQ30 + p11Q40
2 2 Q20
or p11(Q10 Q40) = p11(Q10 Q20) + p11 (Q10 − Q10 Q30 − Q10 Q20 + Q20 ) 2
Q10
Q30
+ p11(Q10 Q20) ,
Q10
on using (i) and (ii).
p11 is the common term which can be eliminated, since p11 ¹ 0.
Expanding, cancelling and rearranging terms, we get
Q10Q20Q30 − Q10
2
Q40 = Q10
2
Q30 − Q10Q20Q30 − Q10Q20
2
+ Q20
3
or Q10 (Q20Q30 − Q10 Q40 ) = (Q10 − Q20 )(Q10Q30 − Q20

2
)
2.47 In a capacitor made up of two concentric spheres of radii a and b (a < b), maintained at
potentials A and B, respectively, the annular space is filled with a heterogeneous dielectric
whose relative permittivity varies as the nth power of the distance from the common centre of
the spheres. Show that the potential at any point between the spheres is given by
n +1
Aa n + 1 − Bb n + 1 ⎛ ab ⎞ A− B
n +1 n +1
−⎜ ⎟ n +1
.
a −b ⎝ r ⎠ a − bn + 1
Sol. Because of spherical symmetry (Fig. 2.36), the only variation is in the r-direction,
and hence we can use the equation for the potential, when er is not a constant as obtained in
Problem 2.14, i.e.
1 d ⎛ 2 dV ⎞
− ⎜ r ε dr ⎟ = ρC (charge density)
r 2 dr ⎝ ⎠
Since there is no charge in the region under consideration (i.e. the annular space between the
two spherical surfaces), the operational equation simplifies to
d ⎛ 2 dV ⎞
r ε =0
dr ⎜⎝ dr ⎟⎠
Fig. 2.36 Spherical capacitor with relative permittivity e r = f (r n ) = cr n.

The permittivity of the medium is not a constant, but a function of r, i.e. a function of nth power
of r.
\ e = e0. f (r) = e0crn, where c is a constant.
So, the equation becomes
d ⎛ 2 dV ⎞ d ⎛ n + 2 dV ⎞
r ε 0 cr n =0 or r =0
⎜
dr ⎝ dr ⎟⎠ dr ⎜⎝ dr ⎟⎠
On integrating, we get
dV c1dr
rn + 2 = c1 or dV =
dr rn+2
Integrating again, we get
c1r − ( n + 2) + 1
V= + c2
− ( n + 2) + 1
c1
=− + c2
( n + 1) r n + 1
To evaluate the constants of integration c1 and c2, we use the boundary conditions:
c1
(i) At r = a, Va = A = + c2 (i)
( n + 1) a n + 1
c1
(ii) At r = b, Vb = B = + c2 (ii)
( n + 1)b n + 1
Subtracting (ii) from (i) and rearranging, we get
( A − B )( ab) n + 1 ( n + 1)
c1 = −
a n + 1 − bn + 1
Multiplying (i) by (n + 1)an+1 and (ii) by (n + 1)bn+1 and then subtracting, we get
Aa n + 1 − Bb n + 1
c2 =
a n + 1 − bn + 1
Hence, the expression for potential V is
n +1
Aa n + 1 − Bb n + 1 ⎛ ab ⎞ A−B
V= n +1 n +1
−⎜ ⎟ n +1
a −b ⎝ r ⎠ a − bn + 1
2.48 The present-day thermal power stations have, in their auxiliary power circuits, large ac motors
in the range of 1000 hp and above (i.e. pressurized air fan motors, induced draft fan motors,
boiler feed pump motors, and so on). The shafts of these motors are mounted with roller
bearings, which consist of a large set of cylindrical rollers positioned and equally spaced
between the inner and the outer races of the bearings. There are possibilities of unwanted shaft
currents (arising out of the magnetic dissymmetry in these machines). To design the preventive
devices for these currents, it is necessary to calculate the capacitance between the rollers and
both the races of the bearings. Given that the radii of the inner and the outer races are Ri and
Ro, respectively and the roller radius being Rr (where Rr < Ri < Ro), find these capacitances when
the axial length of the bearing is LB.
Sol. A section of the roller bearing is shown below in Fig. 2.37.
Fig. 2.37 Section of a roller bearing (All the rollers are not shown in the diagram).
Axial length of the bearing = LB (into the plane of the paper). For simplicity, the radial thicknesses of
the races have been neglected. Note the gaps between the rollers and races for the oil film or grease.
We have to find the capacitance between:

i(i) each roller and the outer race, and
(ii) each roller and the inner race.
Both these problems can be solved by using the bicylindrical coordinate system described
in Appendix 10, ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New
Delhi, 2009. In fact the method of solving the above problems (i) and (ii) is identical with the
method used in Problem 12.52 of this book.
The first problem of the roller and the outer race is that which is shown in Fig. 12.23(b), with
the dimensions suitably modified, and that of the problem (ii) is similar to the problem of
Fig. 12.23(a) (once again with suitably modified dimensions). Hence the interested readers
can refer to the solution of this problem.
However, it should be noted that in the present problem the axial length of the bearing is quite
small and comparable to the dimensions Ro, Ri and Rr, and so the fringing at the transverse
edges (in this case axial edges) has not been accounted for. This effect is really negligible in
the transmission line problems and so has been justifiably neglected, but in the bearings the
fringing effect is comparatively more significant and it should be remembered that the solution
is essentially a two-dimensional approximation.
2.49 Show that the capacitance of a spherical conductor of radius a is increased in the ratio
εr − 1 . a
1:1 + by the presence of a large mass of dielectric of permittivity e0 /er, with a plane
ε r + 1 2b
face at a distance b from the centre of the sphere, if a/b is so small that its square and higher
degree terms may be neglected.
Sol.
Fig. 2.38 Spherical conductor of radius a, in front of a large mass of

dielectric (of permittivity e0e r) with a plane face.
The capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor of radius a is
Q
C= = 4πε 0 a
V
When the sphere is placed in front of a large mass of dielectric with a plane face (Fig. 2.38), the
effect of the dielectric would be to create an image, the distance between the centres of the
source sphere and the image sphere being 2b.
In this case b >> a.
If the charge on the source sphere is Q,
εr − 1
the charge on the image sphere is = Q.
εr + 1
To find the capacitance in presence of the dielectric, we consider the source sphere with charge
Q and the image sphere with charge Q ¢.
Hr 1
where Q ¢ = Q kQ (say).
Hr 1
1 È Q QØ
\ Vs É Ù
4Q F 0 Ê a 2b Ú
1 È Q QØ
Vi É Ù
4Q F 0 Ê 2b a Ú
Q È1 k 1 kØ
\ Vs – Vi ÉÊ – – Ù
4Q F 0 a 2b 2b a Ú
Q (1 + k ) ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= ⎜ − ⎟
4π ε 0 ⎝ a 2b ⎠
Q 4π ε 0 2ab
\ C = =
Vs − Vi 1 + k (2b − a)
4π ε 0 2ab 1
=
2b ⎛ a ⎞
(1 + k ) ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ 2b⎠
1
4π ε 0 a First degree approximation
⎛ a ⎞
⎜1 − k ⎟
⎝ 2b ⎠
⎛ ka ⎞
4π ε 0 a ⎜1 + ⎟ First degree approximation
⎝ 2b ⎠
\ The capacitance has increased in the ratio
a
1:1 + k
2b
εr − 1 . a
or 1:1 + First degree approximation.
ε r + 1 2b
2.50 In a parallel plate capacitor, the two plate electrodes have coefficients of capacitance c11 and c22,
respectively and the coefficient of induction c12. Find its capacitance.
Sol. For definitions of coefficient of capacitance and coefficient of induction, refer to
Problem 2.37.
Let the first plate be given a charge + Q, so that this plate is at a potential V1 and the second
plate at a potential V2.
\ + Q = c11V1 + c12V2
As a result of the charge + Q on the first plate, the second plate will have an induced charge
Q on it.
\ Q = c12V1 + c22V2
\ c11V1 + c12V2 = (c12V1 + c22V2)
or (c11 + c12)V1 = (c12 + c22) V2
D D
\ V2 = 7
D D
Hence, the capacitance of the system $ 2

7 7
È D D Ø D D D
\ V1 V2 = 7 É Ù 7
Ê D D Ú D D

È D D Ø DD D
and Q = D7 D7 D7 D É 7 7
Ê D D ÙÚ D D

2 DD D
\ C=
7 7 D D D
2.51 Two electric fields E1 and E2 at a point combine to produce a resultant field E1 + E2, by the
principle of superposition. What is the total energy density at that point, i.e.
È Ø
ÉÊ F & F & ÙÚ F & &

PS

Sol. It should be noted that the energy is not a linear function of E and, hence, the principle
of superposition cannot be applied to such energy calculations.
When we say that the two electrostatic fields E1 and E2 have been superposed, we mean that
the two charge systems have been brought close to each other.

Then F & is the energy density of one system in isolation and F & is the energy

density of the second system also in isolation. When the two systems are brought near to each
other, the cross-term e0E1 × E2 is the energy of interaction of the two systems.

Therefore, F & &
is the correct answer.

2.52 What does Poissons equation become for non-LIH dielectrics?
Sol. We have
E = grad V (i)
D = e0 e r E (ii)
and div D = r (iii)
where for non-LIH dielectrics, the relative permittivity er is not a scalar constant but is a function
of space in the dielectric.
\ From Eqs. (iii) and (ii),
div (e0 e r E) = r
S
or div (e r E) = (iv)
F
where er is a scalar variable (of space coordinates) and E is a vector.
Substituting from Eq. (i), we get
S
EJW \F S HSBE 7
^ (v)
F
We have the vector relationship for the product of a scalar P and the vector Q as
div (P Q) = P div Q + Q × (grad P)
\ From Eq. (v),
S
e r(div grad V) + (grad V) × (grad e r) =
F
HSBE 7
¹ HSBE F S
S
or ³7
F FF S
This is the modification of the Poissons equation.
2.53 An isotropic dielectric medium is non-uniform, so that the permittivity e is a function of
position. Show that E satisfies the equation:
È ³F Ø
³ & L & ³É& ¹ Ù
Ê F Ú
where L

X N F X
D
Sol. Maxwells equations are:

#
ÑÉ= (i)
U
Ñ´H= + % (ii)
U
Ñ×B=0 (iii)
Ñ × D = rC (iv)
and the constitutive relations are
B = m H, E=rJ and D = e E, (v)
where e is the function of position (and not time).
From Eq. (i),
#
Ñ ´ Ñ ´ E = ³ ³ T
N ³ )
U U U
È % Ø È Ø
= N ÉÊ + Ù N & F &
Ù
U U Ú U ÉÊ S U Ú
N & & XN
= NF K & X NF & X
K (vi)
S U U S U
In a dielectric medium, r ® ¥ (large enough),

\ Ñ ´ Ñ ´ E = w 2meE = k2E (vii)
2
L.H.S. of Eq. (vii) Ñ ´ Ñ ´ E = grad (div E) Ñ E (viii)
In charge free region, Ñ × D = 0, D = eE (ix)
\ div (e E) = e div E + E × grad e = e × Ñ E + E × Ñ e = 0 (x)
{Ref: div (sA) = s div A + A × grad s}
& ¹ ³F
\ Ñ×E= (xi)
F
È ³F Ø
\ grad (Ñ × E) = ³ É & ¹ Ù (xii)
Ê F Ú
\ From Eqs. (vii), (viii) and (xii),
È ³F Ø
Ñ 2 E + k2 E = ³ É & ¹ Ù
Ê F Ú
2.54 A LIH dielectric sphere of radius a and relative permittivity e r has a uniform electric charge
distribution in it, the volume distribution of the charge being r. Find the electric potential V and
polarization as functions of the radial distance from the centre of the sphere. Show also that the
È Ø
polarization charge in it has a volume density of S É Ù
Ê FS Ú
Sol. Figure 2.39 shows the uniformly charged dielectric sphere.
e0 Po
e = e0 er
Pi ro
Dielectric ri
sphere
Uniform volume r
charge density a
Fig. 2.39 A uniformly charged dielectric sphere of radius a.
In the charged sphere shown above, there is peripheral and axial symmetry, the only variation
being in the radial direction. If we denote the total charge enclosed by a concentric contour
passing through point ro where ro > a, by QT, then

25 S ¹ Q B (i)

and for a point at a radius ri where ri < a

25 S ¹ Q S (ii)

J
By Gauss theorem,
Þ
ÔÔ % ¹ E4
w 25

Q B S GPS S ! B Ñ
Ñ
4
ß (iii)
Ñ
BOE 25 Q S S GPS S B Ñ
à
The contour S is a concentric sphere and
dS = rdf r sin q dq (iv)
and since D (and E too) is a function of r only, D can be taken out of the surface integral. Hence,
w
ÔÔ E4
4
Q S (v)
Since D = e E,
S
inside the sphere (ri < a), E= S Þ
F F S Ñ
Ñ (vi)
S B ß
and outside the sphere (ro > a), E= Ñ
F SP Ñ
To evaluate the potential, à
7
& HSBE 7
S
Hence, integrating w.r.t. r,

S S
Vi = ¹ $
F F S
S B
and Vo = $ (vii)
F P S
To evaluate the constants of integration,
(i) as ro ® ¥, Vo ® 0 \ C2 = 0;
S B S B S B È Ø
(ii) 7 7 GPS S S B ¹ $ ? $ É Ù (viii)
F F S F F Ê F S Ú
J P P J
Substituting in Eq. (vii),
S È B S Ø S B
7 É B Ù BOE 7P (ix)
F Ê F S F S
J
Ú
To evaluate the magnitude of the polarization vector at any radius ri,
P = e 0 ce E and the susceptibility ce = e r 1 (x)
S
\ 1 F
S from Eqs. (vi) and (x) (xi)
FS S
The polarization charge density is

rP = EJW 1 S 1S
S

S

Î S F S
Þ S S F S
= ÏS ß ¹
F S F S
S Ð
S à S
È F S Ø È Ø
= É S ÉÊ F ÙÚ S (xii)
Ê F S ÙÚ S
2.55 Use an energy argument to show that the charge on a conductor resides on its outer surface.
Sol. This situation has been proved earlier on the basis of movement of free charges in
conductors and the potential difference. We recapitulate this for better understanding, i.e. firstly,
the charges in a conductor are mobile. Hence, even a small externally applied field (i.e. E field)
would cause the charges to move about in the medium. Hence, if the field is truly static (i.e.
Electrostatic field), there can be no motion of the charges, which means the charges cannot stay
inside conductor and, hence, they must reside on the conductor surface which also, therefore,
must be an equipotential surface in order to prevent any motion of charges in a static field.
To prove this, stating from energy consideration, any motion of free charges would mean work
done and, hence, a generation of energy in the conductor. Such energy would accelerate the
movement of charges, causing the conductor to get heated which would further accelerate the
free charges in the system. Such a medium would not support a static field. In a static field since
charges cannot move, the free charges cannot reside in the conductor body (inside it). Thus,
the charges would reside on the surface which also has to be equipotential preventing any
motion of the charges.
2.56 Two particles of equal mass m, and carrying equal charges Q, have been suspended from a
common point O by light strings (ideally weightless) of equal length L. What is the angle of
separation (= 2q) of the two strings in stable positions of the charged particles?
Hence, show that for equilibrium, the separation (= x) between the charged particles for
sufficiently small values of q is approximately given by

YÉ 2 - Ù
È Ø
Ê QF NH Ú

What are the approximating simplifications implicit in the above expression?

Sol. The two particle charges at O1 and O2 are suspended from the point O by lightweight
strings of length L. They are in stable equilibrium at these two points. Each charged particle is
subjected to two forces, i.e. a repulsive force FQ along the line O1O2 (of length x) and
gravitational force Fmg acting vertically downwards (Fig. 2.40).
q q
L L
FQ cos q
charge Q, mass m O1 O2 mass m, charge Q
FQ FQ
x
q x/2 x/2 q
Fmg sin q Fmg

FR Fmg FR
Fig. 2.40 Suspended charged particles (not to scale).

The magnitudes of these forces are:

By Coulombs law
'2 2 OFXUPOT (acting in the horizontal direction.)

QF Y
where x/2 = L sin q .
The gravitational force of each particle,
Fmg = mg newtons (acting vertically downwards).
Since the string holding each particle is held taut in equilibrium at the angle q, the components
of these two opposing forces in the direction normal to the string, must be equal in magnitude, i.e.
FQ cos q = Fmg sin q
2
DPT R
or = mg sin q
-
QF TJO R

2 TJO R

R
R
or = UBO DPT
Q F - NH DPT R

UBO R UBO R
=
TFD R UBO R
\ The angle of suspension of the string (= q) is given by the equation
UBO

R 2
UBO R Q F - NH
When this angle q is small enough such that
Y Y
(i) UBO R TJO R BOE
- -
(ii) UBO R ,
2 Y
then =
Q F - NH -

È 2 - Ø
or x= É Ù
Ê QF NH Ú
2.57 A metal sphere of radius r is positioned concentrically inside a hollow metal sphere whose inner
radius is R (R > r). The spheres are charged to a potential difference (p.d.) of V. Prove that the
potential gradient in the dielectric in the annular space between spheres has a maximum value
at the surface of the inner sphere, which is
73P
&NBY
S 3 S
J P J
Also, show that this Emax, for a constant p.d. (= V) will be a minimum when r = R/2 for variable
r and fixed R.
Sol. See Fig. 2.41.
e0 er
Vi
Vo
ri
V = Vi – Vo
Ro
Fig. 2.41 Concentric spheres with a dielectric between them.
Referring to Section 2.10.3 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition,

PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, the potential at any point at radial distance r from the centre of
the system is given by
3P S 7 7
3 7 S7
7 J
¹
P J P 3P J SJ
3 S P
S 3 SJ P J
where r is the only variable.

Now, E = grad V
3P S7 È Ø
\ & J
ÉÊ ÙÚ
S
3 SP J S
This will be maximum for minimum value of r, i.e. r = ri
3P7
\ &NBY
3P S
S J J
Keeping V and Ro constant, for a minimum value of Emax, the required condition is
E&NBY
=0
ES J
E&NBY Î
ÞÑ
\
ES
= 73P ÑÏ ß
ÑÐ S 3 S
3 S
S Ñà

J
J P J
P J J
73P
= \S 3 S
^
S 3 S

J

P J
J P J
3P
\ ri =

3
Electrostatic Field Problems
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Since the various methods of solving electrostatic field problems by different methodsboth
analytical as well as approximate (including graphical, experimental and numerical)have been
discussed in reasonable depth in Chapters 4 and 5 of the textbook ElectromagnetismTheory and
Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, we shall not repeat the underlying theory
of these methods here. Instead, we shall proceed directly to solve various electrostatic field problems,
using these methods. All the methods used in solving these problems have been discussed in detail
in the textbook.
3.2 PROBLEMS
3.1 A conducting sphere of radius a is connected to earth and is placed in a uniform electric field
E0 parallel to z-axis. Show that the induced charge on the sphere is negative on the left-half of
the sphere and positive on the right-half. Find the total charge on the sphere.
3.2 A conducting earthed sphere of radius a is placed in a uniform electric field E0. Show that the
least charge Ql that can be given to the sphere, so that no part of the sphere is negatively
charged, is Qm = 12pa2e0E0.
3.3 A metal sphere of radius a is placed in an electrostatic field which was uniform at E0 till the
sphere was introduced. The potential of the sphere is Va. Show that the maximum field strength
occurs at the tips of the diameter of the sphere in the direction of the original field, and that
the maximum value of E is always three times the undistorted value of E0 and is independent
of the size of the sphere.
3.4 A large block of cast brass carries a uniform current through it. If in one part of the casting,
there is a spherical cavity of radius a, how is the field distorted. The cavity is assumed to be
small compared with the overall size of the casting block so that it has no effect on the uniform
field near the outside of the block. Also, the edge effects can be neglected. Show that the
equation to the lines of force (or flow) is
r3 a3 = C r cosec2q .
3.5 The uniform electric field E0 is distorted by a dielectric sphere of radius a and of relative
permittivity er2, whereas the relative permittivity of the rest of the space is er1. Find the resultant
field due to the presence of the sphere.
189
3.6 A long, hollow cylindrical conductor is divided into two equal parts by a plane through its axis,
and these two parts have been separated by a small gap. The two parts are maintained at
constant potentials V1 and V2. Show that the potential at any point within the cylinder {i.e.
(r, f) with no z-variation, the conductor assumed to be infinitely long axially} is
1 V –V 2ar cos θ
(V1 + V2 ) + 1 2 tan –1 2 2 ,
2 π a –r
where r is the distance of the point under consideration from the axis of cylinder and q is the
angle between the plane joining the point to the axis and the plane through the axis normal to
the plane of separation.
3.7 A conducting circular cylindrical shell of radius a and infinite length has been divided
longitudinally into four sectorial quarters. Two diagonally opposite quarters are charged to
+V0 and V0, respectively and the remaining two are earthed. Show that the potential inside the
cylinder at any point P(r, f) is
V0 ⎧ –1 2ay 2ax ⎫
⎨ tan + tan –1 2 ⎬,
π ⎩ 2
a –r 2
a – r2 ⎭
where (x, y) are the Cartesian coordinates of the point P.
3.8 The field and the potential due to an infinitely long line charge have been derived in very simple
terms (refer to ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning,
New Delhi, 2009, Section 1.7.4, p. 61) by assuming the line charge to be located at the origin
of the cylindrical polar coordinate system. However, there are systems to be studied where such
a simplifying assumption is not possible, particularly when there are a multiplicity of line
charges. Hence, express in terms of the circular harmonics, the potential distribution due to a
line charge Q0 located at the point(r0, f0).
3.9 Three line charges, each carrying an equal charge Q per unit length are placed parallel to each
other such that their points of intersection with a plane normal to them, form an equilateral
triangle of side 3c . Show that the polar equation of an equipotential curve on such a plane
is
r6 + c6 2r3c3 cos 3f = constant
the pole (the origin of the cylindrical coordinate system) being the centre of the triangle, and
the initial line (equivalent to x-axis) passing through one of the line charges.
3.10 A polystyrene circular cylinder of axial length 2l and radius a has both ends maintained at zero
potential, and the cylindrical surface has the potential
πz
Vr = a = 100 cos .
2l
Obtain an expression for the potential at any point in the material.
Hint: Use the centre of the cylinder as the origin of the cylindrical polar coordinate system.
3.11 Two semi-infinite grounded metal plates parallel to each other and to the xz-plane are located
at y = 0 and y = a planes, respectively. The left ends of these two plates at x = 0, are closed off by
ELECTROSTATIC FIELD PROBLEMS 191
a strip of width a and extend to infinity in the z-direction. The strip is insulated from both the
plates and is maintained at a specific potential V0(y). Find the potential distribution in the slot.
3.12 A rectangular slot is made up of two infinitely long grounded plates parallel to each other and
to the xz-plane, and are located (as in Problem 3.11) at y = 0 and y = a planes, respectively.
They are connected at x = ±b by two metal strips which are maintained at a constant potential
V0. Both the strips have a thin layer of insulation at each corner to prevent them from shorting
out. Hence, obtain the potential distribution inside the rectangular slot.
3.13 A semi-infinitely long metal pipe, extending to infinity as x ® ¥, is grounded. The end x = 0
is maintained at a potential V0(y, z). Derive the expression for the potential distribution V inside
this pipe.
3.14 Show that in the two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, a solution of Laplaces equation
is given by
V = (A sin mx + B cos mx)(C sinh my + D cosh my),
when m is not zero, and by
V = (A + Bx)(C + Dy),
when m is zero.
3.15 An infinitely long rectangular conducting prism has walls which are defined by the planes
x = 0, x = a and y = 0, y = b in the Cartesian coordinate system. A line charge of strength Q0
per unit length is located at x = c, y = d, where 0 < c < a and 0 < d < b, lying parallel to the
edges of the prism. Show that the potential inside the prism is
∞
2Q0 1 mπ b mπ mπ y mπ c mπ x
V1 =
πε ∑ m cosech
m =1
a
sinh
a
(b − d ) sinh
a
sin
a
sin
a
, where 0 < y < d
and
∞
2Q0 1 mπ b mπ d mπ mπ c mπ x
V2 =
πε ∑ m cosech
m =1
a
sinh
a
sinh
a
(b − y ) sin
a
sin
a
, where d < y < b.
coulombs per unit length is located at x = c, y = d, parallel to the edges of the prism, where
0 < c < a and 0 < d < b. Show that the potential inside the prism is
∞
2Q0 1 mπ b mπ mπ y mπ c mπ x
V1 =
πε ∑ m cosech
m =1
a
sinh
a
(b − d ) sinh
a
sin
a
sin
a
, where 0 < y < d
and
∞
2Q0 1 mπ b mπ d mπ mπ c mπ x
V2 =
πε ∑ m cosech
m =1
a
sinh
a
sinh
a
(b − y ) sin
a
sin
a
, where d < y < b.
(This problem is same as Problem 3.15, but has been solved by a simpler mathematical method.)
3.17 A rectangular earthed conducting box has walls which are defined in the Cartesian coordinate
system by the planes x = 0, x = a, y = 0, y = b and z = 0, z = c. A point charge Q0 is placed at
the point (x0, y0, z0). Show that the potential distribution inside the box is given by
∞ ∞
sinh Anm (c − z0 ) sinh Am z nπ x0 nπ x mπ y0 mπ y
∑∑
4Q0
V= sin sin sin sin
ε 0 ab n =1 m =1
Anm sinh Amn c a a b b
(m2 a 2 + n2b2 )
1/ 2
π
where Anm = and z < z0.
ab
For z > z0, z and z0 have to be interchanged in the above expression.
3.18 A rectangular conducting tube of infinite length in the z-direction has its walls defined by the
planes x = 0, x = a and y = 0, y = b, which are all earthed. A point charge Q0 is located at
x = x0, y = y0 and z = z0 inside the tube. Prove that the potential inside the tube is given by
∞ ∞
⎧ (m 2 a 2 + n 2b 2 )1/ 2 π ( z − z0 ) ⎫
∑ ∑
2Q0
V = (m 2 a 2 + n 2 b 2 ) −1/ 2 exp ⎨ − ⎬
πε 0 n =1, 2 m =1, 2 ⎩ ab ⎭
nπ x0 nπ x mπ y0 mπ y
× sin sin sin sin .
a a b b
3.19 An earthed conducting box has walls which are defined in the Cartesian coordinate system as
x = 0, x = a, y = 0, y = b, and z = 0, z = c. A point charge Q0 is located at a point (x0, y0, z0)
inside the box. Show that the z-component of the force on this point charge is
∞ ∞
2Q02 nπ x0 mπ y0
Fz = −
ε 0 ab ∑ ∑
n =1, 2,... m =1,2,...
cosech ( Amn c) sinh { Amn (c − 2 z0 )} sin 2
a
sin 2
b
,
(m 2 a 2 + n 2 b 2 )1/ 2
where Amn = p.
ab
3.20 A hollow cylindrical ring of finite axial length is bounded by the surfaces r = a, r = b, z = 0 and
z = c which have the potentials given by f1 (z), f2 (z), f3 (r) and f4 (r), respectively. Show that
the potential at any point inside the ring is given by the superposition of four potentials, two of
the type
⎡ ⎛ kπ r ⎞ ⎛ kπ r ⎞ ⎤
cos ⎛ k π z ⎞ ⎢⎢ 0 ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠ ⎥
I K0 ⎜
⎝ c ⎟⎠ ⎥
Ak −
sin ⎝⎜ c ⎠⎟ ⎢ ⎛ k π b ⎞ ⎛ kπ b ⎞ ⎥
∞ ⎢ I 0 ⎜ c ⎟ K0 ⎜ c ⎟ ⎥ c
cos ⎛ kπ z ⎞
⎣⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎥ 2
V (r , z ) = ∑
k =1
⎛ kπ a ⎞ ⎛ kπ a ⎞
, where Ak =
c ∫0
f ( z) ⎜
sin ⎝ c ⎠
⎟ dz
I0 ⎜ ⎟ K0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
−
⎛ kπ b ⎞ ⎛ kπ b ⎞
I0 ⎜ ⎟ K0 ⎜
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎟⎠
and the other two of the type
⎡ ⎧ J ( μ b) ⎫ ⎤
V (r , z ) = ∑A
k
k sinh ( μk z ) ⎢ J 0 ( μk r ) − ⎨ 0 k ⎬ Y0 ( μk r ) ⎥.
⎣ Y ( μ
⎩ 0 k ⎭ b ) ⎦
3.21 A cylindrical conducting box has walls which are defined by z = ±c, r = a, and are all earthed
except the two disc-shaped areas at the top and bottom (i.e. the planes z = ±c) bounded by
r = b (where b < a), which are charged to potentials +V0 and V0, respectively. Show that the
potential inside the box is given by
∞
sinh ( μk z ) J1 ( μk b) J 0 ( μ k r )
∑
2bV0
V = ,
a2 k =1 μ k sinh ( μk c) {J1 ( μk a )}2
where J0 (mka) = 0.
3.22 A large conducting body, which has been charged, has a deep rectangular hole drilled in it. The
boundaries of the hole are defined by x = 0, x = a, y = 0, y = b and z = 0. Show that far from
the opening of the hole
πx πy ⎡ ⎧⎪ π 2 π 2 ⎫⎪
1/ 2
⎤
V = C ⋅ sin sin ⋅ sinh ⎢ ⎨⎜⎛ ⎟⎞ + ⎜⎛ ⎟⎞ ⎬ z⎥ .
a b ⎢⎣ ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎥⎦
3.23 Two equal charges are placed on a line, at a distance a apart. This line joining the charges is
parallel to the surface of an infinite conducting region which is at zero potential. The specified
line is at a distance a/2 from the surface of the conducting region. Show that the force between
3Q02
the charges is . What happens to the force when the sign of one of the charges is
8πε 0 a 2
reversed?
3.24 A conducting block of metal, which is maintained at zero potential, has a spherical cavity cut
in it, and a point charge Q0 is placed in this cavity such that the distance of the point charge
from the centre of the cavity is f, which is less than the radius a of the cavity. Show that the
Q02 af
force on the point charge is .
4πε 0 (a 2 − f 2 ) 2
3.25 A conducting sphere of radius a is maintained at a zero potential. An electric dipole of moment
m is placed at a distance f ( f > a) from the centre of the sphere, such that the dipole points
away from the sphere. Show that its image is a dipole of moment ma3/f 3, and there will be a
charge ma/f 2 at the inverse point of the sphere.
3.26 An infinite conducting plane having a hemispherical boss of radius a is maintained at zero
potential, and a point charge Q0 is placed on the axis of symmetry, at a distance d from the
plate. Show that the image consists of three charges, and the source charge +Q0 is attracted
towards the plate with a force
2 È B E Ø
Ù
É
QF Ê E B
E Ú

3.27 In Problem 3.26, write down the equation to the lines of force and show that the line which
meets the conducting plane at r = a, i.e. the point of junction with the hemispherical boss, will
⎪⎧ 2 (d 2 − a 2 ) ⎪⎫
leave the charge Q0 at A at an angle cos1 ⎨1 − ⎬ with the axis of symmetry.
⎩⎪ d d + a ⎭⎪
2 2
3.28 An earthed conductor consists of a plane sheet lying in the yz-plane with the spherical boss
of radius a centred at the origin, and the region below the xz-plane is filled with a
material of relative permittivity er. A point charge Q0 is located at (x0, y0, z0) such that
x02 + y02 + z02 = b2 , where b > a. Find the images of the system.
3.29 A line charge Q1 per unit length runs parallel to a grounded conducting corner (right-angled)
and is equidistant (= a) from both the planes. Show that the resultant force on the line charge is
Q12
− per unit length
4 2πε 0 a
and is directed along the shortest line joining the point (of the line charge) and the corner.
3.30 Using Eqs. (4.182) and (4.190) of the textbook ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications,
2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, discuss the salient points of difference when a
line charge Q per unit length is placed at a distance b from the centre of an infinitely long
conducting cylinder of radius R and a point charge Q is placed at the same distance b from the
centre of a conducting sphere of radius R (both the conducting cylinder and the sphere are
earthed, and the medium is air, so that the permittivity is e0).
3.31 A high voltage coaxial cable consists of a single conductor of radius Ri, and a cylindrical metal
sheath of radius Ro (Ro > Ri) with a homogeneous insulating material between the two. Since
the cable is very long compared to its diameter, the end effects can be neglected, and hence the
potential distribution in the dielectric can be considered to be independent of the position along
the cable. Write down the Laplaces equation for the potential in the circular-cylinder
coordinates and state the boundary conditions for the problem. Solving the Laplaces equation,
show that the potential distribution in the dielectric is
VS ln ( Ro /r )
V=
ln ( Ro /Ri )
and hence find the capacitance per unit length of the cable. Note that VS is the applied (supply)
voltage on the inner conductor of radius Ri.
3.32 A polystyrene cylinder of circular cross-section has a radius R and axial length 2l. Both ends
are maintained at zero potential. An electric potential V is applied on the cylindrical surface as
πz
V = V0 cos .
2l
3.33 The electric potential distribution in a metal strip of uniform thickness and constant width a,
and extending to infinity from y = 0 to y ® ¥, is obtained as
πy⎞ ⎛ π x ⎞.
V = V0 exp ⎛⎜ − ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠
Show the coordinate system (with reference to the plate) used, and find the boundary conditions
used for the above potential distribution.
1
3.34 Prove that ∇ 2 = − 4π δ (r )
r
3.35 There are two unequal capacitors C1 and C2 (C1 ¹ C2) which are both charged to the same
potential difference V. Then, the positive terminal of one of them is connected to the negative
terminal of the other. Then, the remaining two outermost ends are shorted together.
(i) Find the final charge on each capacitor.
(ii) What will be the loss in the electrostatic energy?
3.36 A capacitor consists of two concentric metal shells of radii r1 and r2, where r2 > r1. The outer
shell is given a charge Q0 and the inner shell is earthed. What would be the charge on the inner
shell?
3.37 A spherically symmetrical potential distribution is given as
1
V (r ) = exp (− λ r ).
r
Find the charge distribution which would produce this potential field.
3.38 A capacitor is made of two concentric cylinders of radii r1 and r2 (r1 < r2) and of axial length l
such that l >> r2. The gap between these two cylinders from r = r1 to r = r3 = r1r2 is filled
with a circular dielectric cylinder of same axial length l and of relative permittivity er, the
remaining part of the gap being air.
(i) Find the capacitance of the system.
(ii) Find the values of E, P and D at a radius r in the dielectric (r1 < r < r3) as well as in the
air-gap (r3 < r < r2).
(iii) What is the amount of mechanical work required to be done in order to remove the
dielectric cylinder, while maintaining a constant potential difference between r1 and r2?
(Assume a potential difference of V between r1 and r2.)
3.39 A conducting sphere of radius a is earthed and a point charge Q is placed at a point P at a
distance b from its centre such that b > a. If P¢ is the inverse point of P with respect to the
sphere, and the surface of the sphere is divided into two parts by an imaginary plane through
the point P¢ normal to PP¢, then show that the ratio of the surface charge on the two parts of
the sphere is given by
b+a
.
b−a
3.40 Show that the capacitance between the two parallel cylinders (per unit length) is
−1
⎡ ⎧ D 2 − R12 − R22 ⎫⎤
C = πε ⎢cosh −1 ⎨ ⎬⎥
⎣ ⎩ 2 R1 R2 ⎭⎦
where R1 and R2 are the radii of the cylinders and D is the distance between their centres.
3.41 A line charge having a charge of Q units/unit length is positioned parallel to the axis of a
circular cylinder of radius a and permittivity e = e0 er. The distance of the line from the axis of
the cylinder is c (c > a). Show that the force on the line charge per unit length is
ε r − 1 . Q2 . a2
.
ε r + 1 2πε 0 c (c 2 − a 2 )
3.42 A line charge Q/unit length is located vertically in a vertical hole of radius a in a dielectric block
of permittivity, e = e0 er. The line charge is at a distance c (c < a) from the centre of the hole.
Show that the force per unit length pulling the line charge towards the wall is
FS D 2

F S QF B D
3.43 A hollow cylinder of finite axial length, enclosed by conducting surfaces on the curved side as
well as the flat ends is defined by r = a, z = + c. The whole surface is earthed except for the
two disk-shaped areas at the top and the bottom bounded by r = b (b < a) which are charged
to potentials +V0 and V0, respectively. Show that the potential inside the cylindrical enclosure
is given by
2bV0 sinh( Nk z ) J1 ( Nk b) J 0 ( Nk r ) .
V Ç
a 2 k 1 Nk sinh( Nk c) ^ J1 ( Nk a)`2
where J0(mk a) = 0.
3.44 The walls of a hollow cylindrical box of finite axial length are defined by r = a and z = + c.
The plane z = 0 bisects the box into two halves which are insulated from each other, and the
halves are charged to potentials +V0 and V0 (the half in the +ve z-region being at +V0)
respectively. Show that the potential distribution inside the box is given by
⎧ ⎛ nπ r ⎞ ⎫
⎪⎪ z 2 I0 ⎜ ⎟
∞
⎝ c ⎠ sin ⎛ nπ z ⎞ ⎪⎪
V = V0 ⎨ + ∑ ⎜ ⎟⎬
⎪c π n =1,2,... nI ⎛ nπ a ⎞ ⎝ c ⎠⎪
0 ⎜ ⎟
⎪⎩ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎭⎪
and also can be expressed as
⎪⎧ 2 ∞ sinh {μk (c − z )} J 0 ( μk r ) ⎪⎫
V = ± V0 ⎨1 − ∑ μk sinh ( μk c) J1 ( μk a) ⎭⎪
⎬
⎩⎪ a k =1
where J0(mk a) = 0 and the sign of V is that of z.

3.45 A parallel plate capacitor has the electrodes at x = 0 and x = l. The potentials of these two plates
are 0 and V0 (= constant), respectively. In the gap between these plates, there is a charge
distribution which is given by
ρ ( x) = ρ0 exp (−α x)
Find the potential distribution in the gap, given that the permittivity of this space is e and the
end effects can be neglected.
3.46 The hemispherical portion of a hollow conducting sphere is filled with a dielectric of unspecified
a
permittivity. A point charge Q is placed on the axis of symmetry at a distance from the plane
3
dielectric surface (a, being the radius of the hollow sphere). If this point charge does not experience
any force on it due to its images, prove that the permittivity of the dielectric is 1.541e0.
3.47 A cylinder r = a is positioned on the earthed plane z = 0. The potential gradient along the
cylinder is uniform and at the earthed plane z = c, from which it is insulated, the cylinder has
the potential V0. Show that the potential between these two planes z = 0 and z = c outside the
cylinder is given by
⎛ nπ r ⎞
∞ K0 ⎜ ⎟
2V ⎝ c ⎠ 1 sin ⎛ nπ z ⎞ .
V= 0
π
∑ (−1)n+1 ⎛ nπ a ⎞ n
⎜
⎝ c ⎠
⎟
n =1 K0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
3.48 The boundaries of a sector of a right circular cylinder are defined by r = a, f = 0, f = a,

z = 0 and z ® +¥. All the boundaries are at zero potential. A point charge Q0 is positioned
inside the sector at a point z = z0, r = b, f = r, where 0 < b < a and 0 < b < a. Show that the
potential is given by
⎛ pπβ ⎞
Jpπ ( μk b) sin ⎜ ⎟
∞ ∞ ⎝ a ⎠
2Q0 − μk z − z0 ⎛ pπφ ⎞
V=
εα a 2 ∑ ∑ α
⎡ ⎤
e Jpπ ( μk r ) sin ⎜
⎝ α ⎠
⎟.
p =1 k =1 α
μk ⎢ Jpπ ( μk a) ⎥
⎢⎣ α + 1 ⎥⎦
Jpπ ( μk a ) = 0.
where
α
3.49 An infinitely long conducting cylinder which is earthed, has a point charge Q0 located at the
point (r = b, f = f0, z = 0) inside it. The radius of the cylinder is a, where a > b. Show that the
potential distribution in the cylinder is
Q0 ∞ ∞ J p ( μ k b) J p ( μ k r )
V= ∑ ∑ (2 − δ 0p ) exp (−μk z ) cos { p (φ − φ0 )}
2πε a 2 k =1 p = 0 μk J p +1 (μk a)
2
where Jp(mka) = 0 and δ 0p is the Kronecker delta.
3.50 The cylinder of Problem 3.49 is now made of finite axial length by introducing two parallel
planes at z = 0 and z = L, both at zero potential as well as the cylinder r = a. The coordinates
of the point charge Q0 are r = b, f = f0 and z = c where 0 < b < a and 0 < c < L. Find the
potential distribution in the cylinder.
3.51 A right circular cylindrical shell which is conducting and has the radius a is closed by the plane
z = 0 which is normal to the axis of the cylinder and has the same potential as the shell. A point
charge Q0 is placed on the axis at a distance c from the plane z = 0. Show that the image force
on the charge is
∞ 2
Q0 ⎡ exp (− μk c) ⎤
2 ∑⎢ ⎥ where J0(mka) = 0.
2πε a k =1 ⎣ J1 ( μk a) ⎦
3.52 The right circular conducting cylinder of radius a and infinite length is filled with a dielectric
of permittivity e = e0 er, from below the z = 0 plane. A point charge Q0 is located on the axis
at z = b. Show that the potential above the dielectric is
∞
Q0 ⎡ εr − 1 ⎤ J 0 (μ k r )
∑ ⎢exp (−μk z −b )− exp (− μk z + b )⎥
2πε a 2 εr + 1 ⎦ μk {J1 ( μk a)}
2
0 k =1 ⎣
where J0(mka) = 0.
3.53 The potential inside an earthed cylindrical box of radius a and axial length L (defined by the
planes z = 0 and z = L) due to a point charge Q0 located on its (i.e. that the cylinders) axis at
the point z = c, 0 < c < L, can be obtained directly from Problems 3.49 and 3.50. Using this as
the starting point, find the potential on the axis of a ring of radius b (b < a) which is co-axial
with the cylindrical box and is inside it (say the plane z = c). Hence, prove that the potential
anywhere inside the cylindrical box due to this ring is
Q0 sinh (μk z ) sinh {μk ( L − c)} J 0 (μk b) J 0 (μk r )

∞
V =− ∑
πε 0 a k =1 sinh (μk L) μk {J1 (μk a )}
2 2
where z < c, and mk is such that J0(mka) = 0.

3.54 A sphere of radius a is earthed and two positive point charges Q and Q¢ are placed on the
opposite sides of the sphere at distances 2a and 4a, respectively from the centre and in a
25
straight line with it. Show that the charge Q¢ is repelled from the sphere if Q ′ < Q.
144
3.55 In Problem 3.40, the capacitance (per unit length) between two parallel cylinders of radii R1
and R2, has been shown to be
1
Ë ÎÑ D 2 R12 R22 ÞÑÛ
C QF Ì cosh 1 Ï ßÜ
ÍÌ ÐÑ 2 R1 R2 àÑÝÜ
where D is the distance between their centres.
(Note : The +ve sign is taken when the cylinders are external to each other, and the ve sign
when one cylinder is inside the other. See also Appendix 5 for the detailed diagram).
Hence or otherwise derive the expression for (a) the capacitance between a cylinder and a plane,
and (b) between two similar cylinders, i.e. R1 = R2.
3.3 SOLUTIONS
3.1 A conducting sphere of radius a is connected to earth and is placed in a uniform electric field
E0 parallel to z-axis. Show that the induced charge on the sphere is negative on the left-half of
the sphere and positive on the right-half. Find the total charge on the sphere.
Sol. See Fig. 3.1. Even though the applied field is z-directed, we use a spherical polar
coordinate system with its q = 0 axis along Oz.
Fig. 3.1 Conducting earthed sphere in uniform E field.
The potential V would satisfy the Laplaces equation, i.e.

Ñ 2V = 0
Since the sphere is earthed, its potential is zero, i.e.
V = 0 at r = a, for all values of q
In addition, V = E0 (r cos q) is finite at r ® ¥
Note that E = ÑV.
The originally uniform electric field has got distorted by the presence of the metal sphere, and
as we move away from the sphere, the distortion gets less, and very far from the sphere, the
field is uniform. This is a problem of axial symmetry and the potential is independent of f
variation. The Laplaces equation in spherical coordinates is, thus, reduced to
∂ 2V 2 ∂V 1 ∂ 2V cot θ ∂V
∇ 2V ≡ + + + 2 =0
∂r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂θ 2 r ∂θ
The solution will be in Legendre functions, but the functions of the second kind can be ignored
as they become infinite on z-axis. Also as the field is finite at r ® ¥, the solution would contain
only those Legendre function terms which contain negative exponents of r. But such terms
would not satisfy the boundary condition at r = a which contains a term of the type
E0 r cos q. Hence, we assume a solution of the form (ElectromagnetismTheory and
Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, Sections 4.2.7 4.2.8, pp. 123126).
B1 B
V = – E0 r cos θ + 2
cos θ + 32 P2 (cos θ ) + "
r r
This would satisfy the condition at r ® ¥. But for r = a condition, it has to satisfy the equation
⎛ B1 ⎞ B2 B3
0 = ⎜ – E0 a + 2 ⎟ cos θ + 3 P2 (cos θ ) + 4 P3 (cos θ ) + "
⎝ a ⎠ a a
for all values of q.
Since the Legendre polynomials are linearly independent, this means that
B2 = B3 = ... = 0 and B1 = E0a3
Hence the expression for the potential is
E0 a 3 ⎛ a3 ⎞
V = – E0 r cos θ + cos θ = – E0⎜ r – ⎟ cosθ
r2 ⎝ r2 ⎠
The induced charge density on the sphere is
∂V ⎡ ⎧ 2a 3 ⎫ ⎤
sq = ε 0 = ⎢ε 0 E0 ⎨1 + 3 ⎬ cos θ ⎥ = 3e0 E0 cos q
∂r r=a ⎣ ⎩ r ⎭ ⎦ r=a
So, this is positive for q = 0 to p/2 and negative for q = p/2, and if it is integrated over the
whole surface of the sphere, it is zero, i.e. the total charge on the sphere is zero.
Hint: Use circular elements, i.e. 2pa × adq for integration over the suitable limits.
3.2 A conducting earthed sphere of radius a is placed in a uniform electric field E0. Show that the
least charge Ql that can be given to the sphere, so that no part of the sphere is negatively
charged, is Ql = 12pa2e0E0.
Sol. This problem is a direct extrapolation of the induced surface charge density evaluated in
Problem 3.1. Thus, the expression for the induced charge density is
sq = 3e0E0 cos q
\ The total charge on the positive hemisphere of the conducting sphere is
θ =π /2
= ∫
θ =0
3ε 0 E0 cos θ ⋅ 2π a ⋅ a dθ
θ =π /2
π /2
= 6π a 2ε 0 E0
θ
∫
=0
cos θ dθ = 6π a 2ε 0 E0 sin θ ⎤⎦
0
= 6p a e0E0(1 0) = 6p a2e0E0
2
Since the charge gets distributed over the whole surface,

the minimum required charge = 12p a2e0E0
(Note that when the sphere receives a charge Q, it will no longer be at zero potential.)
3.3 A metal sphere of radius a is placed in an electrostatic field which was uniform at E0 till the
sphere was introduced. The potential of the sphere is Va. Show that the maximum field strength
occurs at the tips of the diameter of the sphere in the direction of the original field, and that
the maximum value of E is always three times the undistorted value of E0 and is independent
of the size of the sphere.
Sol. Let the origin of the coordinate system be at the centre of the sphere and the direction of
the original E0 field be along the z-axis. See Fig. 3.2.
Fig. 3.2 A metal sphere introduced in a uniform electric field E0.
The radius of the sphere is a and let its potential be Va.

As r ® ¥ (i.e. very far from the sphere),
E = E0 and V = E0z + V0 = E0r cos q + V0
where V0 is the value of the potential at z = 0 in the undistorted field.
This is another problem of axial symmetry and the potential V is independent of the
f coordinate. The Laplaces equation is same as in Problem 3.1. The boundary conditions are:
at r = a, V = Va and as r ® ¥, V = E0 r cos q + V0
(Note the change in sign because of the choice of direction of E0.)
For the solution, as before the Legendre function of the second kind would be ignored, because
again they become infinite on the z-axis.
Again, the field is finite as r ® ¥, only the negative exponent terms of r would exist, except
for the term E0 r cos q. Hence, the solution will be of the form
B0 B1 B
V = A0 + A1 r cos θ + + 2 cos θ + 32 P2 (cos θ ) + "
r r r
The boundary condition for r ® ¥ gets satisfied, if A0 = V0 and A1 = E0.
The boundary condition for r = a gives
⎛ B0 ⎞ ⎛ B1 ⎞ B2
⎜ V0 – Va + ⎟ + ⎜ E0 a + 2 ⎟ cos θ + 3 P2 (cos θ ) + " = 0
⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ a
This relation has to hold for all q s. Hence, we have
B0 = a(Va V0), B1 = E0a3 and B2 = B3 = = 0
Hence the potential distribution is given by
⎛1 – a ⎞ + E r ⎧⎪1 – ⎛ a ⎞ ⎫⎪ cos θ
3
a
V = Va + V0 ⎜ ⎟ 0 ⎨ ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
r ⎝ r⎠ ⎩⎪ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎭⎪
For the special case:
⎪⎧ ⎪⎫
3
V0 = Va and V = Va + E0 r ⎨1 – ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
a
⎬ cos θ
⎪⎩ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎪⎭
The electric field strength is given by
E = grad V = – i r { ∂V
∂r
+ iθ
1 ∂V
r ∂θ }
In the general case:
⎡ ⎧⎪ a ⎫⎪
3
⎤ ⎧⎪ a ⎫⎪
3
E = – i r ⎢(V0 – Va ) 2 + E0 ⎨1 + 2 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎬ cos θ ⎥ + iθ E0 ⎨1 – ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎬ sin θ
a
⎣ r ⎩⎪ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎦ ⎩⎪ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎭⎪
When Va = V0,
⎧ ⎛a⎞ ⎫
3
⎧ ⎛ a ⎞3 ⎫
E = – i r E0 ⎨1 + 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ cos θ + iθ E0 ⎨1 – ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ sin θ
⎩ ⎝r⎠ ⎭ ⎩ ⎝r⎠ ⎭
Maximum field strength occurs near the surface of the sphere, and at r = a, only the
r-component of E remains. Hence
V0 − Va
|E| = + 3E0 cos q
a
For Va = V0,
| E | = 3E0 cos q
Thus, it is seen that the maximum field strength occurs at the values z = ±a, i.e. the tips of the
diameter of z-axis and is three times the undistorted value of E0, which is independent of the
size of the sphere.
3.4 A large block of cast brass carries a uniform current through it. If in one part of the casting,
there is a spherical cavity of radius a, how is the field distorted. The cavity is assumed to be
small compared with the overall size of the casting block so that it has no effect on the uniform
field near the outside of the block. Also, the edge effects can be neglected. Show that the
equation to the lines of force (or flow) is
r3 a3 = Cr cosec2q.
Sol. See Fig. 3.3
Fig. 3.3 Spherical cavity in the casting.

Note: Rigorously speaking, this problem should be considered in the section on electric
currents, but because of certain points of comparison with Problem 3.3, it (this problem) is
being considered now.
The origin of the spherical coordinate system is taken at the centre of the cavity and the uniform
E field (and hence the current density vector J) are taken in the negative z-direction. The
potential field will be Laplacian as before, i.e.
E = grad V = ÑV
\ Ñ 2V = 0
Without loss of generality, V = 0 for z = 0 can also be assumed.
The boundary conditions are:
∂V
(i) For r = a, = 0 and
∂r
(ii) As r ® ¥, V = E0 z = E0 r cosq
where E0 is the value of the undistorted electric field.
As in Problem 3.3, the solution will be of the form
B0 B1 B
V = A0 + A1r cos θ + + 2 cos θ + 32 P2 (cosθ )
r r r
∂V B 2B 3B
Now = A1 cos θ – 20 – 31 cos θ – 42 P2 (cos θ )
∂r r r r
To evaluate the unknown coefficients A0, A1, B0, B1, B2, ..., we use r ® ¥,
V = E0 r cos q = A0 + A1 r cos q
\ A0 = 0, A1 = E0
Also, when r = a,
B0 ⎛
+ ⎜ E0 – 31 ⎞⎟ cos θ – 42 P2 (cos θ ) = 0
2B 3B
–
a 2
⎝ a ⎠ a
a3
\ B0 = 0, B2 = 0 and B1 = E0
2
as the Legendre functions are linearly independent.
⎪⎧ 1 ⎛ a ⎞ ⎪⎫
3
\ V = E0 r ⎨1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ cos θ
⎪⎩ 2 ⎝ r ⎠ ⎪⎭
The electric field strength is
∂V 1 ∂V ⎞
E = – ⎛⎜ i r + iθ ⎟
⎝ ∂r r ∂θ ⎠
⎧⎪ ⎛ a ⎞3 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ 1 ⎛ a ⎞3 ⎫⎪
= – i r 0⎨
E 1 – ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ cos θ + iθ 0 ⎨1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ sin θ
E
⎩⎪ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎪⎩ 2 ⎝ r ⎠ ⎭⎪
When r = a, we have
3
E = iθ E0 sin θ
2
3 Emax 3 E0
\ Emax = E0 and Jmax = =
2 R 2 R
where R is the resistance of the path. Comparing with Problem 3.3, it is seen that the field is
distorted in both the cases due to the sphere (and the cavity), and the maximum gradient is
raised due to the sphere. In Problem 3.3, the maximum gradient was three times the undistorted
3
value, whereas for the cavity, the maximum gradient is E0, and is also independent of the
2
size of the spherical cavity.
Field distributions for these two cases are shown in Figs. 3.4(a) and (b), respectively.
z
v = 80 V
60
40
20
O 0
–20
v=0
–40
–60
–80
Fig. 3.4(a) Field map showing the distortion of the electric field caused by the
metal sphere. The map is for the special case of f = 0 when z = 0.
z E0
v = 100 V
80
60
40
20
O
0
–20
– 40
–60
–80
–100
Fig. 3.4(b) Electric conduction field about a spherical cavity in a conductor. Comparison with Fig. 3.4(a) shows that
3
the distortion is much less marked in Fig. 3.4(b), the maximum gradient being only E0 instead of 3E0.
2
For the equation to the lines of flow, we have

dr r dθ
= = constant
Er Eθ
dr r dθ
\ = = constant
⎪⎧ ⎪⎫ ⎪⎧ 1 a ⎪⎫
3 3
– E0 ⎨1 – ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ E0 ⎨1 + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎬ sin θ
a
⎬ cos θ
⎪⎩ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ 2 ⎝ r ⎠ ⎪⎭
– r 3 dr 2r 4 dθ
or =
(r 3 – a 3 ) cos θ (2r + a 3 ) sin θ
3
(2r 3 + a 3 ) 2 cos θ
or − dr = dθ
r (r − a )
3 3 sin θ
Integrating, we get
1 ⎛ 3r 3 – r 3 + a 3 ⎞ cos θ dθ
– ∫ ⎜
r ⎝ r 3 – a3
⎟ dr = 2
⎠
∫ sin θ
⎛ 3r 2 dr dr ⎞
or − ∫
⎜ 3
⎝r –a
3
–
r ⎠
⎟ = 2 log sin q + C1
or log (r3 a3) + log r = log sin2q + C1

or log (r3 a3) = log r1 sin2q + C1
1 sin 2 θ
or = C 2
r 3 – a3 r
1 r
\ r3 a3 = = Cr cosec2q
C2 sin 2 θ
3.5 The uniform electric field E0 is distorted by a dielectric sphere of radius a and of relative
permittivity er2, whereas the relative permittivity of the rest of the space is er1. Find the resultant
field due to the presence of the sphere.
Sol. In this case, we have to consider two regions, i.e. region 1, outside the dielectric sphere
r > a and region 2, inside the dielectric sphere r < a. See Fig. 3.5.
z
P
E0 r
h
a y
Region 1 Region 2
er1 er2
x
Fig. 3.5 A dielectric sphere in an external uniform field E0.
\ In these two regions

Ñ2V1 = 0, Ñ2V2 = 0
The relevant boundary conditions are:
(i) As r ® ¥, V1 + E0r cos q is finite.
(ii) In r £ a, V2 is finite.
(iii) On r = a, V1 = V2 for all q.
∂V1 ∂V
(iv) On r = a, Dn is continuous, i.e. ε r1 = εr 2 2 .
∂r ∂r
Since as r ® ¥, V1 will approach E0r cos q, V1(r, q ) will be of the form:
⎛ B ⎞
V1(r, q ) = ⎜ – E0 r + 1 ⎟ cos θ +
⎝ r2 ⎠ n ≠1
∑
Bn r – ( n + 1) Θ n (θ )
For the region 2, inside the sphere, the potential must be zero for r = 0.
\ In the solution of the Legendre equation, all Bn must be zero.
Hence, a possible solution for the potential V2(r, q ) would be
V2(r1q ) = ∑A r n
n
Θ n (θ ) , n > 0
where Qn(q ) is a solution of the Legendre equation
d ⎛ d Θ(θ ) ⎞
⎜ sin θ ⎟ + n( n + 1) sin θ Θ (θ ) = 0.
dθ ⎝ dθ ⎠
Using the boundary condition (iii), we get
#Ø
È
ÉÊ & B

B ÙÚ

DPT R Ç #O B O 4 R
=

∑ A a Θ (θ )
n
n
O
Since this must hold for any q and Q1(q ) = cos q, we get
B1
\ E0 a + = A1a and Bna (n+1) = An an for n ¹ 1
a2
The boundary condition (iv) gives
⎧⎪ ⎫⎪
ε r1 ⎨⎛⎜ E0 + 31 ⎞⎟ cos θ + ∑ (n + 1) B a ∑{ }
2B –( n + 2)
n Θ n (θ ) ⎬ = ε r 2 – nAn a n – 1Θn (θ )
⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ n >1 ⎪⎭ n >1
which reduces to
ε r1 ⎛⎜ E0 + 31 ⎞⎟ = ε r 2 A1 and ε r1 (n + 1) Bn a – ( n + 2) = – ε r 2 n An a n – 1 for n ¹ 1
2B
⎝ a ⎠
Hence, the constants A1 and B1 come out to be
ε r 2 – ε r1 3 3ε r1
B1 = a E0 , A1 = – E
ε r 2 + 2ε r1 ε r 2 + 2ε r1 0
and An = Bn = 0 for n ¹ 1.
\ The potentials for the two regions are:
3ε r1
V2(r, q ) = – E r cosq, r ³ a
ε r 2 + 2ε r1 0
⎛ ε – ε r1 a 3 ⎞
and V1(r, q ) = – ⎜ r – r 2 ⎟ E cos θ , r £ a.
⎝ ε r 2 + 2ε r1 r 2 ⎠ 0
Also, from E = grad V,
3ε r1
we get E2 = E for r<a
ε r 2 + ε r1 0
i.e. the electric field is uniform inside the sphere and is in the direction of E0. The above
expression gives its magnitude.
Outside the sphere, we have
⎛ ε – ε r1 a3 ⎞ ⎛ ε r 2 – ε r1 a3 ⎞
E = i r ⎜1 + 2 r 2 ⎟ E cos θ + iθ ⎜–1+ ⎟ E sin θ , for r > a.
⎝ ε r 2 + 2ε r1 r 3 ⎠ 0 ⎝ ε r 2 + 2ε r1 r 3 ⎠ 0
Thus, it is clear that the field intensity outside the dielectric sphere can be considered equivalent
to the sum of E0 and a dipole of moment m p such that
ε r 2 – ε r1 3
m p = 4πε r1 a E0 ,
ε r 2 + 2ε r1
which is situated at the centre of the sphere.
3.6 A long, hollow cylindrical conductor is divided into two equal parts by a plane through its axis,
and these two parts have been separated by a small gap. The two parts are maintained at
constant potentials V1 and V2. Show that the potential at any point within the cylinder {i.e.
(r, f) with no z-variation, the conductor assumed to be infinitely long axially} is
1 V – V2 2ar cos θ
(V1 + V2 ) + 1 tan –1 2 ,
2 π a – r2
where r is the distance of the point under consideration from the axis of cylinder and q is the
angle between the plane joining the point to the axis and the plane through the axis normal to
the plane of separation.
Sol. See Fig. 3.6. Since this is a two-dimensional problem, with no variation along the z-axis
of the cylindrical polar geometry of the problem, using the method of separation of variables
in r and f variables, it can be easily checked that the separated equation in r variable reduces
from the Bessel equation to the form given below (leaving the equation unchanged):
d 2 R (r ) dR (r )
r2 2
+r – kφ2 R(r ) = 0
dr dr
V1
P(r, v)
h
v Plane of
separation
a
V2
Fig. 3.6 Cross-section of the cylindrical conductor.
(Refer to Section 4.2.5, pp. 118121, ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd

Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009.)
It can also be easily checked that the solution of this R-equation is of the form
kφ – kφ
R (r ) = Ar r + Br r
Furthermore, since on f = 0 axis, the potential is zero, in the f-equation, there will exist on
sin nf terms and the coefficients of cos nf terms will be zeros. So, the solution for the potential
V will be of the form
− kφ
V (r, f) = ( Ar r
kφ
+ Br r ) Aφ sin kφ φ
= (Ck r k + Ck′ r – k ) sin kφ ,

where the unknowns are Ck , Ck¢ and k which have to be evaluated from the relevant boundary
conditions.
Since we are interested only in the region inside the cylindrical conductor, where the potential
must be finite for r < a, it follows that we must make Ck¢ = 0.
Furthermore, since the boundary condition for r = a has to be satisfied for all f, it follows that
a single value of k will not satisfy the condition and hence a series solution is needed, i.e.
V(r, q ) = ∑C r
k
k
k
sin kφ ,
where k = 1, 2, 3, ... .
On the boundary r = a,
Va = V1 for 0 < f < p, r = a,
= V2 for p < f < 2 p, r = a,
V1 + V2
= for f = 0 and f = p, r = a.
2
\ V (a, f) = ∑C a
k =1
k
k
sin kφ = Va, as above.
To evaluate Ck , we multiply both sides by sin mf and integrate over the limits 0 to 2p.
2π
\ R.H.S. = ∑
k = 1, 2,...
Ck a k ∫ sin kφ sin mφ dφ
0
2π
Now, when k ¹ m, ∫ sin kφ sin mφ dφ

0
=0
2π 2π
1
∫ sin kφ dφ = ∫ (1 – sin 2kφ ) dφ
2
and when k = m,
2
0 0
1⎛ cos 2kφ ⎞ 2π 2π
= ⎜φ + ⎟ = =p
2⎝ 2k ⎠0 2
π 2π
L.H.S. = ∫ V sin kφ dφ + π∫ V sin kφ dφ

0
1 2
π 2π
= V1 ⎛⎜ − cos kφ ⎞⎟ + V2 ⎛⎜ − cos kφ ⎞⎟
⎝ k ⎠0 ⎝ k ⎠π
V1 V
= – (cos kπ – 1) – 2 (cos 2kπ – cos kπ )
k k
V1 V
= – (cos kπ – 1) – 2 (1 – cos kπ )
k k
⎧0, when k is even and
⎪
= ⎨ V1 – V2
⎪⎩+ k
⋅ 2, when k is odd, i.e. of the form 2k – 1.
V1 – V2 2
\ C2k 1 = ⋅ 2k –1
(2k – 1)π a
V1 – V2 ⎛ r ⎞ 2 k –1 sin(2k – 1)φ
Hence, V (r, f) = ∑ k
⎜ ⎟
π /2 ⎝ a ⎠ 2k – 1
( r/ a ) 2 k – 1
∑
V1 – V2
= sin(2k – 1) φ
π /2 k = 1,...
2 k – 1
∞
x 2 n –1 1 2 x sin θ
Now, ∑ 2n – 1 sin(2n – 1)θ
1
=
2
tan –1
1 – x2
, where x2 < 1.
r
In the present case, x = and q = f.
a
V1 – V2 1 2(r/a)sin φ
\ V (r, f) = ⋅ tan –1
π /2 2 1 − (r/a )2
V1 – V2 2ar sin φ
= tan –1 2
π a – r2
This solution is incomplete, as for f = 0 and p, we have
V1 + V2
V(a, 0) = V(a, p) =
2
V1 + V2 π
Hence, for complete solution, the quantity has to be added, and since f = – θ , we
2 2
can substitute sin f by cos q.
So, the complete expression for the potential at (r, f) is
V1 + V2 V1 – V2 2ar cos θ
V (r, f) = + tan –1 2
2 π a – r2
3.7 A conducting circular cylindrical shell of radius a and infinite length has been divided
longitudinally into four sectorial quarters. Two diagonally opposite quarters are charged to
+V0 and V0, respectively and the remaining two are earthed. Show that the potential inside the
cylinder at any point P(r, f) is
V0 ⎧ –1 2ay 2ax ⎫
⎨ tan + tan –1 2 ⎬,
π ⎩ 2
a –r 2
a – r2 ⎭
where (x, y) are the Cartesian coordinates of the point P.
Sol. See Fig. 3.7. Once again, this is a cylindrical polar geometry problem in two dimensions
r and f, so that
V = R(r) . F (f)
Fig. 3.7 Cross-section of the circular cylindrical conducting shell showing the potential distribution on it.
In this case too, the Bessel equation for R reduces to the equation of Problem 3.6 and the
F-equation is of trigonometric functions. Also, since the field is inside the cylindrical shell, the
coefficients of negative indices of r will vanish and the solution will be of the form:
V (r, f) = ∑
k = 1,2,...
(Ck r k sin kφ + Ck′ r k cos kφ )
Also, the boundary condition on the conducting shell will be as follows:

On r = a,
π
Va = +V0, 0<f< , r=a
2
π
= 0, < f < p, r = a
2
3π
= V0, p < f < , r=a
2
3π
= 0, < f < 2p, r = a
2
So, to evaluate Ck and C¢k, we multiply both sides of the equation by sin mf and then integrate
over the limits 0 to 2p, i.e.
2π
⎧⎪ 2π 2π
⎫⎪
∫ Va sin mφ dφ = ∑ ∫
k = 1,2,...
⎨
⎪⎩ 0
C k a k
sin mφ sin k φ d φ + ∫
Ck′ a k sin mφ cos kφ dφ ⎬
⎪⎭
0 0
Now, we have
2π
∫ sin mφ cos kφ dφ
0
= 0 for all k
2π
∫ sin mφ sin kφ dφ
0
= 0 for all k such that k ¹ m
2π
∫ sin mφ dφ = p (i.e. k = m, as in Problem 3.6)

2
2π π /2 3π / 2
L.H.S. = ∫
0
Va sin mφ dφ = V0 ∫
0
sin mφ dφ – V0 ∫
π
sin mφ dφ
π /2 3π / 2
⎪⎧⎛ cos mφ ⎞ cos mφ ⎞ ⎪⎫
= V0 ⎨⎜ – ⎟ – ⎛⎜ – ⎟ ⎬
⎩⎪⎝ m ⎠0 ⎝ m ⎠π ⎭⎪
mπ 3mπ
= – V0 ⎛⎜ cos + cos mπ ⎞⎟
1
– cos 0 – cos
⎝ 2 2 ⎠m
1
= – V0 (0 – 1 – 0 – 1) , for all odd m, i.e. m = 2k 1
m
1
and = V0(cos kp 1 cos 3kp + 1) , for all even m, i.e. m = 2k
m
⎧ 2V0 , for m = 2k – 1
⎪
= ⎨ 2k – 1
⎪
⎩0, for m = 2k
2V0
\ Ck =
π (2k – 1)a 2 k – 1
Next, we multiply both sides of the equation by cos mf and integrate over the same limits, i.e.
2π
⎧⎪ 2π 2π
⎫⎪
∫ Va cos mφ dφ = ∑ ∫ ∫
⎨ Ck a cos mφ sin kφ dφ + Ck′ a cos mφ cos kφ dφ ⎬
⎪0
k k
0 k = 1, 2,... ⎩ 0 ⎭⎪
Now,
2π
∫ cos mφ sin kφ dφ
0
= 0 for all k
2π
∫ cos mφ cos kφ dφ
0
= 0 for all k such that k ¹ m
2π
∫ cos mφ dφ = p (i.e. k = m, as in the previous part)

2
2π π /2 3π / 2
L.H.S. = ∫V
0
a cos mφ dφ = V0
∫ cos mφ dφ – V π∫ 0 cos mφ dφ
0
π /2 3π / 2
⎪⎧⎛ sin mφ ⎞ sin mφ ⎞ ⎪⎫
= V0 ⎨⎜ ⎟ – ⎛⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎪⎩⎝ m ⎠0 ⎝ m ⎠π ⎪⎭
mπ 3mπ
= V0 ⎛⎜ sin + sin mπ ⎞⎟
1
– sin 0 – sin
⎝ 2 2 ⎠m
⎧V [ ± 2] 1 , for m = 2k – 1
⎪ 0 m
= ⎨
⎪0, for m = 2k
⎩
±2V0
\ C k¢ = , alternate positive and negative terms
π (2k – 1)a 2k – 1
⎧⎪⎛ r ⎞2 k – 1 sin (2k – 1) φ ⎛ r ⎞2 k – 1 cos (2k – 1) φ ⎫⎪

∑
2V0
Hence, V (r, f) = ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ (– 1) k – 1 ⎬
k = 1, 2,...
π ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ 2k – 1 ⎝a⎠ 2k – 1 ⎭⎪
Summing these two series, we get
∞
x2n – 1 1 2 x sin θ
∑ 2n – 1 sin (2n – 1) θ
1
=
2
tan –1
1 – x2
, x2 < 1
∞
x2n – 1 1 –1 2 x cos θ
and ∑ ( – 1)
1
n –1
2n – 1
cos (2n – 1) θ = tan
2 1 – x2
, x2 < 1
r
In the given problem, x = , q = f and n = k.
a
⎧ ⎫
2 ⎛ ⎞ sin φ 2 ⎛ ⎞ cos φ ⎪
r r
⎪
2V0 1 ⎪ –1 ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a⎠ ⎪
\ V (r, f) = ⋅ ⎨ tan + tan –1 2 ⎬
π 2⎪ 2
1– ⎛ ⎞ 1–⎛ ⎞ ⎪
r r
⎪⎩ ⎝ a⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎭⎪
V0 ⎧ –1 2ar sin φ 2ar cos φ ⎫

= ⎨ tan + tan –1 2 ⎬
π ⎩ 2
a –r 2
a – r2 ⎭
But r cos f = x and r sin f = y, and hence
V0 ⎧ –1 2ay 2ax ⎫
V (r, f) = ⎨ tan + tan –1 2 ⎬
π ⎩ 2
a –r 2
a – r2 ⎭
3.8 The field and the potential due to an infinitely long line charge have been derived in very simple
terms (refer to ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning,
New Delhi, 2009, Section 1.7.4, p. 61) by assuming the line charge to be located at the origin
of the cylindrical polar coordinate system. However, there are systems to be studied where such
a simplifying assumption is not possible, particularly when there are a multiplicity of line
charges. Hence, express in terms of the circular harmonics, the potential distribution due to a
line charge Q0 located at the point (r0, f0).
Sol. Using the cylindrical coordinate system (Fig. 3.8), we get
Q0 − Q0
VP = ln PQ = ln R
2πε 2πε
Fig. 3.8 Line charge Q0 located at a point Q different from the origin of the coordinate system.
Now, R2 = r2 + r02 2rr0 cos(f f0)

\ 4peVP = 2Q0 ln R = Q0 ln {r2 + r02 2rr0 cos(f f0)}
⎡ ⎪⎧ ⎛ r ⎞
2
1 ⎪⎫⎤
⎪⎩ ⎝ r ⎠
r
r
{
= − Q0 ⎢ln r 2 + ln ⎨1 + ⎜ 0 ⎟ − 2 0 e j (φ − φ 0 ) + e − j (φ − φ0 ) ⎬⎥
2 ⎪⎭⎦
}
⎣
= – 2Q0 ln r – Q0 ln 1 – ^ r
e `^
r0 j (G – G 0 ) r
1 – 0 e – j (G – G 0 )
r `
Using the expansion of ln(1 + x), this simplifies to
⎡r 1 ⎛r ⎞
2
⎤
{ } {
4peVP = − 2Q0 ln r + Q0 ⎢ 0 e j (φ −φ0 ) + e− j (φ −φ0 ) + ⎜ 0 ⎟ e j 2(φ −φ0 ) + e− j 2(φ −φ0 ) + "⎥
2⎝r ⎠
}
⎣r ⎦
Replacing exponentials by trigonometric functions, we get
⎪⎧ ⎪⎫
2
r 1 ⎛r ⎞
4peVP = − 2Q0 ⎨ln r − 0 cos(φ − φ0 ) − ⎜ 0 ⎟ cos 2(φ − φ0 ) − "⎬
⎪⎩ r 2⎝ r ⎠ ⎪⎭
Writing this as a summation,
⎧⎪ ∞ 1 ⎛ r ⎞ n ⎫⎪
∑
Q0
⎜ ⎟ (cos nφ0 cos nφ + sin nφ0 sin nφ ) − ln r ⎬ , for r > r0
0
VP = ⎨
2πε
⎩⎪ n =1 ⎝ ⎠
n r
⎭⎪
When r < r0, the derived expression becomes
⎧⎪ ∞ 1 ⎛ r ⎞n ⎫⎪
∑
Q
VP = 0 ⎨ (cos nφ cos nφ + sin nφ sin nφ ) − ln r ⎬
n ⎜r ⎟
0 0 0
2πε
⎩⎪ n =1 ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎭⎪
3.9 Three line charges, each carrying an equal charge Q per unit length, are placed parallel to each
other such that their points of intersection with a plane normal to them, form an equilateral
triangle of side 3c . Show that the polar equation of an equipotential curve on such a plane is
the pole (the origin of the cylindrical coordinate system) being the centre of the triangle, and
the initial line (equivalent to x-axis) passing through one of the line charges.
c 3
Sol. See Fig. 3.9. Note that AB = BC = CA = c 3 , BD = CD = .
2
AD 3 3
cos 30° = = \ AD = c
AC 2 2
Fig. 3.9 Three parallel line charges at A, B, and C.

2
\ AO = AD = c = BO = CO
3
The potential at the point P(r, f) due to these three charges is
VP = VPA + VPB + VPC
Q Q Q
VPA = ln PA = − ln rA = − ln (r 2 + c 2 − 2rc cos φ )
2QF 2πε 4πε
VPB =
Q
2QF
ln PB = −
2
Q
πε
ln rB = −
4
Q
πε
{
ln r 2 + c 2 − 2rc cos (120° − φ ) }
= −
Q
4πε {
ln r 2 + c 2 −
2rc
2
( − cos φ − 3 sin φ ) }
VPC =
Q
2QF
ln PC = −
Q
2πε
ln rC = −
Q
4πε
{
ln r 2 + c 2 − 2rc cos (120° + φ ) }
= −
Q
4πε {
ln r 2 + c 2 −
2rc
2
(− cos φ + 3 sin φ ) }
\ VPB + VPC = −
Q
4πε
(
ln r 2 + c 2 + rc cos φ + 3 rc sin φ )(r 2 + c2 + rc cos φ − 3 rc sin φ )
=−
Q
4πε
{
ln (r 2 + c 2 + rc cos φ ) 2 − 3r 2 c 2 sin 2 φ }
\ The bracketed term
= r4 + c4 + 2r2c2 + r2c2 cos2f + 2rc(r2 + c2) cos f 3r2c2(1 cos2f)
= r4 + c4 r2c2 + 4r2c2 cos2f + 2rc(r2 + c2) cos f
\ VP = VPA + (VPB + VPC)
Q
= ln{(r2 + c2 2rc cos f)(r4 + c4 r2c2 + 4r2c2 cos2 f + 2rc(r2 + c2) cos f)}
4πε
The bracketed term
= r6 + r2c4 r4c2 + 4r4c2 cos2f + 2r3c (r2 + c2) cos f
+ r4c2 + c6 r2c4 + 4r2c4 cos2f + 2rc3 (r2 + c2) cos f
2r5c cos f 2rc5 cos f 8r3c3 cos3f 4r2c2 (r2 + c2) cos2f + 2r3c3 cos f
= r6 + c6 8r3c3 cos3f + 6r3c3 cos f
= r6 + c6 2r3c3(4 cos3f 3 cos f)
= r6 + c6 2r3c3 cos 3f
Q
\ VP = ln(r6 + c6 2r3c3 cos 3f)
4πε
Hence, the polar equation of an equipotential curve is
3.10 A polystyrene circular cylinder of axial length 2l and radius a has both ends maintained at zero
potential, and the cylindrical surface has the potential
πz
Vr = a = 100 cos
2l
Hint: Use the centre of the cylinder as the origin of the cylindrical polar coordinate system.
Sol. In this case, E = grad V = ÑV.
Also, since there is no free charge, div E = div grad V = 0, i.e. Ñ2V = 0.
Since there is no f variation in the cylindrical polar coordinate system (to be used in this
problem), the Laplaces equation for the potential V reduces to
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂V ⎞ ∂ 2V
⎜r ⎟+ =0
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ∂z 2
(i) and (ii) For z = ± l, V = 0
πz
(iii) For r = a, V = cos
2l
This problem can be solved formally by the method of separation of variables and simplified
step by step by applying the boundary conditions sequentially. On the other hand, the simplified
solution can also be written down by considering the physical conditions and interpretation of
the boundary conditions.
Since it is a two-dimensional problem with axial symmetry, only the zero-order Bessel functions
would exist, i.e. the only non-zero coefficients of Bessel functions J kφ ( k z x) and Ykφ (k x r ) will
be for kf = 0 and all other coefficients would vanish. Hence, only the zero-order Bessel
functions exist in the solution.
Also, since the non-zero potential distribution exists only on the cylindrical surface boundary
(i.e. r = a), the Bessel functions (refer to ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd
Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, pp. 118123) would have imaginary arguments, i.e.
they will be modified Bessel functions. So, the r-solution will be of the form
R = C1J0 ( jmr) + C2Y0 ( jmr)
or R = C1I0 (mr) + C2K0 (mr)
and the z-solution would be
Z = D1 sin mz + D2 cos mz
Note: The notation kz has been replaced by m, for simplicity of writing.
Furthermore, of the two modified Bessel functions, only the first kind of modified Bessel
function, [i.e. I0 (mr)] can be admitted, as K0 (mr) has a logarithmic singularity at r = 0. Hence,
the general solution will be of the form
V = ∑C
m
m I 0 ( mr ) cos mz
since the potential on the boundary r = a, contains only the cosine variation in the z-direction.
Applying the conditions, V = 0 at z = ±l, we get
Vz = + l = 0 = ∑C
m
m I 0 ( mr ) cos (± ml ) for all r
nπ
Þ cos ml = cos , where n = odd integers
2
nπ
Þ m= , n = odd integers
2l
nπ ⎞ cos nπ z
\ V= ∑ Cn I 0 ⎛⎜ ⎟
n =1,3,5,...
⎝ 2l ⎠ 2l
πz nπ r ⎞
Next, for r = a, Va = 100 cos = ∑ Cn I 0 ⎛⎜ ⎟
2l n =1,3,5,...
⎝ 2l ⎠
+l
1 πz nπ z
l ∫ 100 cos 2l ⋅ cos
−l
2l
⋅ dz
Cn =
nπ a ⎞
I 0 ⎛⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2l ⎠
l
1 πz
⋅ 100 ∫ cos ⋅ dz
2
l 2l
−l
and so C1 =
πa ⎞
I 0 ⎛⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2l ⎠
and C3 = C 5 = C7 = = 0
100
\ C1 =
πa ⎞
I 0 ⎛⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2l ⎠
πr
I0 ⎛ ⎞
⎝ 2l ⎠ πz
Hence, V = 100 cos
π
I0 ⎛ ⎞
a 2l
⎝ 2l ⎠
This is the expression for the potential distribution in the cylinder. It will change, if the
boundary potential on the cylindrical surface is made equal to
πz 3π z
Vr = a = 100 cos + 50 cos
2l 2l
The solution for this condition is a straightforward extrapolation of what has been done in this
problem and is left as an exercise for the students.
3.11 Two semi-infinite grounded metal plates parallel to each other and to the xz-plane are located
at y = 0 and y = a planes, respectively. The left ends of these two plates at x = 0, are closed off
by a strip of width a and extend to infinity in the z-direction. The strip is insulated from both
the plates and is maintained at a specific potential V0(y). Find the potential distribution in the
slot.
Sol. The configuration as shown in Fig. 3.10 is independent of the z-direction, and hence this
is a two-dimensional problem.
Fig. 3.10 Two grounded parallel metal plates at y = 0 and y = a, respectively.
\ For the potential V, the Laplaces equation is

∂ 2V ∂ 2V
+ 2 =0
∂x 2 ∂y
The relevant boundary conditions for this problem are:
(i) V = 0 when y = 0
(ii) V = 0 when y = a
(iii) V = V0(y) when x = 0
(iv) V ® 0 as x ® ¥.
By using the method of separation of variables, i.e.
V (x, y) º X (x) × Y (y)
the Laplaces equation reduces to

1 d 2 X 1 d 2Y
⋅ + ⋅ 2 = 0
X dx 2 Y dy
1 d2X 1 d 2Y
or ⋅ 2
= − 2
= k2,
X dx Y dy
a constant independent of x and y.
Solving these two ordinary differential equations, we get
V ( x, y) = ( Aekx + Be− kx ) (C sin ky + D cos ky) (i)

It should be noted that another possible solution could be
V ( x, y) = ( A sin k ′ x + B cos k ′ x) (Cek ′ y + De− k ′ y ) (ii)

But, it can be easily checked that the given boundary conditions cannot be satisfied by the
solution (ii) and hence we start with the solution (i). So, applying the boundary condition
(iv) V = 0 as x ® ¥, implies that A = 0, and so the solution simplifies to
V ( x, y) = e− kx (C sin ky + D cos ky )
by absorbing B into C and D as these are arbitrary unknown constants at this stage.
(i) V = 0 at y = 0 gives that D = 0
(ii) V = 0 at y = a gives sin ka = 0 = sin np, where n = 1, 2, 3, ...
nπ
\ k =
a
Note that n = 0 is a trivial solution as it makes V = 0 everywhere in the region.
∞
nπ y
\ V ( x, y ) = ∑
n =1,2,3,...
Cn e − nπ x / a sin
a (iii)
generalizing the solution for all values of n.

To evaluate the unknowns Cn for different values of n, we now use the boundary condition
(iii) which states that
∞
nπ y
V = V (0, y ) at x = 0 = V0 ( y ) = ∑
n =1,2,3,...
Cn ⋅ sin
a
mπ y
The above series is a Fourier sine series and so we multiply both sides by sin and
a
integrate each term within the limits y = 0 to y = a, therefore, we have
∞ a a
nπ y mπ y mπ y
∑
n =1,2,3,...
Cn ∫ sin
a
sin
a
dy = ∫ V ( y) sin
0
a
dy
0 0
a
mπ y nπ y ⎧0, if m ≠ n
Now, ∫
0
sin
a
sin
a
dy = ⎨
⎩a/2, if m = n
Thus, all terms drop out, except when m = n.
a
2 nπ y
\ Cn =
a ∫ V ( y) sin
0
0
a
dy
So, the solution, i.e. the potential distribution in the specified region as shown in Fig. 3.10 is,
thus, obtained.
As a concrete example, if V0( y) = V0, a constant potential, i.e. the strip of width a is a metal
plate at constant potential, then
a
2 nπ y 2V0
Cn = ⋅ V0
a ∫ sin
0
a
dy =
nπ
(1 cos np)
⎧0, if n is even
⎪
= ⎨ 4V0
⎪⎩ nπ , if n is odd
nπ y ⎞
∑ sin ⎛⎜
4V0 1 − nπ x / a
\ V (x, y) = e ⎟
π n =1,3,5,...
π ⎝ a ⎠
3.12 A rectangular slot is made up of two infinitely long grounded plates parallel to each other and
to xz-plane, and are located (as in Problem 3.11) at y = 0 and y = a planes, respectively. They
are connected at x = ±b by two metal strips which are maintained at a constant potential V0.
Both the strips have a thin layer of insulation at each corner to prevent them from shorting out.
Hence, obtain the potential distribution inside the rectangular slot.
Sol. This is again a two-dimensional problem and we choose the origin of the coordinate
system at the mid-point of the lower plate which is grounded (Fig. 3.11).
Fig. 3.11 A rectangular slot, infinitely long in the z-direction.

So, the potential distribution satisfies the Laplaces equation, which in this case is
∂ 2V ∂ 2V
+ 2 = 0
∂x 2 ∂y
and the relevant boundary conditions are:
(i) V = 0 for y = 0
(ii) V = 0 for y = a
(iii) V = V0 for x = +b
(iv) V = V0 for x = b
As in Problem 3.11, we use the method of separation of variables, and because the zero
potentials are on y = constant boundaries, the orthogonal functions (i.e. trigonometric functions
in the case) will be in the y-variable of the solution, i.e.
V ( x, y) = ( Aekx + Be− kx ) (C sin ky + D cos ky)

will be the general expression for the solution. However, because of the nature of the
x-boundaries, it will be seen that a more convenient form for the general solution would be
V ( x, y ) = ( A sinh kx + B cosh kx) (C sin ky + D cos ky )
It should be noted that since A and B are arbitrary constants (at this stage), both the above
expressions are, in fact, identical, and either can be used to evaluate the arbitrary constants by
using the given boundary conditions, and the same solution would be obtained by starting from
either of the expressions. However, for ease and convenience, we use the latter expression
containing the hyperbolic functions in x.
The boundary condition (i), V = 0 at y = 0, gives D = 0. The boundary condition (ii), V = 0 at
y = a, gives sin ka = 0 = sin np for all integers n. Again note that n = 0 is a trivial solution.
Hence the solution simplifies to
nπ x nπ x ⎞ nπ y
V ( x, y ) = ⎛⎜ A sinh + B cosh ⎟ sin for n = 1, 2, 3, ...
⎝ a a ⎠ a
The boundary conditions (iii) and (iv) show that the distribution is a symmetric function with
respect to x, i.e. V ( x, y) = V (x, y). Hence, the sinh function cannot exist, i.e. A = 0.
∞
nπ x ⎞ ⎛ nπ y ⎞
\ V ( x, y ) = ∑ Bn cosh ⎛⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
n =1, 2,3,...
⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠
To evaluate the coefficient Bn, it must be such that the boundary condition (iii) is satisfied, i.e.
∞
nπ x ⎞ nπ y
V (b, y ) = ∑ Bn cosh ⎛⎜ ⎟ sin = V0
n =1,2,3,...
⎝ a ⎠ a
Note that the same equation is obtained by considering the boundary condition (iv). Bn is then
mπ y
obtained by doing the Fourier series integration, i.e. by multiplying both the sides by sin
a
and integrating over the limits b to +b. This is same as in the last part of Problem 3.11, and
we therefore present the result as follows, leaving the actual evaluation of the integral as an
exercise for the students.
⎧0, if n is even
nπ b ⎞ ⎪
Thus, Bn cosh ⎛⎜ =
⎟ ⎨ 4V
⎝ a ⎠ ⎪ 0 , if n is odd
⎩ nπ
Hence, the potential distribution is obtained as
1 cosh(nπ x/a) nπ y ⎞
∑ sin ⎛⎜
4V0
V ( x, y ) = ⎟
π n =1,3,5,...
n cosh( nπ b/ a ) ⎝ a ⎠
3.13 A semi-infinitely long metal pipe, extending to infinity as x ® ¥, is grounded. The end x = 0
is maintained at a potential V0(y, z). Derive the expression for the potential distribution V inside
this pipe.
Sol. The coordinate system is as shown in Fig. 3.12, and this is a three-dimensional problem
in rectangular Cartesian geometry. The potential distribution V satisfies the Laplaces equation
inside the pipe, i.e.
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
+ 2 + 2 = 0
∂x 2 ∂y ∂z
V=0
a
V0 (y, z)
x
¥
b
V=0
z
Fig. 3.12 A semi-infinite rectangular metal tube with specified potential distribution on the end x = 0.
and the boundary conditions are:

(i) V = 0 when y = 0
(ii) V = 0 when y = a
(iii) V = 0 when z = 0
(iv) V = 0 when z = b
(v) V = 0 as x ® ¥
(vi) V = V0 (y, z) at x = 0
Using the method of separation of variables, and noting that both y- and z-boundaries are at
zero potential, we can write down the solution in terms of orthogonal functions for y and
z variables, i.e.
V ( x, y, z ) = ( A sinh k x x + B cosh k x x)(C sin k y y + D cos k y y )( E sin k z z + F cos k z z )
where k x2 = − ( k y2 + k z2 ).
2009, pp. 114118.)
Next, we apply the boundary conditions to evaluate the unknowns. Hence, the boundary
condition (i) implies that D = 0, the (ii) implies that ky = np/a, the (iii) implies that F = 0, and
the boundary condition (iv) implies that kz = mp/b, where m and n are positive integers.
Next, we apply the boundary condition (v) which states that V ® 0 as x ® ¥. Since both
sinh kx x and cosh kx x ® ¥ as x ® ¥, we rewrite the x-solution as
X Aekx x Be k x x
instead of in hyperbolic functions. Then, it becomes obvious that A = 0 for the boundary
condition (v) to be satisfied. Thus, merging the constants, the final solution simplifies to
⎡ ⎧⎪ nπ 2 1/ 2
⎤
⎞ + ⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎫⎪ nπ y ⎞ ⎛ mπ z ⎞
2
V ( x, y, z ) = Bmn exp ⎢ − ⎨⎛⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ x ⎥ sin ⎛⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣ ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎥⎦ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
where both m and n are integers.

It should again be noted that m = 0 and n = 0 would give rise to trivial solution and hence can
be neglected. Hence, the most general solution will be a linear combination of all values of m
and n, i.e. a double infinite series of m and n. So,
∞ ∞ ⎡ ⎧⎪ nπ 2 1/ 2
⎤
⎞ + ⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎫⎪ nπ y ⎞ ⎛ mπ z ⎞
2
V ( x, y , z ) = ∑ ∑ Bmn exp ⎢ − ⎨⎛⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ x ⎥ sin ⎛⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟ (i)
n =1, 2,... m =1, 2,... ⎢⎣ ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎥⎦ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
This must satisfy the last boundary condition on x = 0, i.e.

∞ ∞
nπ y ⎞ ⎛ mπ z ⎞
V (0, y, z ) = V0 ( y, z ) = ∑ ∑ Bmn sin ⎛⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
n =1,2,... m =1, 2,...
⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
n′π y ⎞
To evaluate Bmn, each term of the series on both sides is multiplied by sin ⎛⎜ ⎟ and
⎝ a ⎠
m′π z ⎞
sin ⎛⎜ ⎟ , where n¢ and m¢ are arbitrary positive integers and y and z are integrated over the
⎝ b ⎠
limits 0 to a and 0 to b, respectively. Then, the L.H.S. of the integrated equation becomes equal
ab
to Bmn.
4
a b
4 ⎛ nπ y ⎞ sin ⎛ mπ z ⎞ dy dz ,
\ Bmn =
ab ∫ ∫ V ( y, z) sin ⎜⎝
0 0
0
a ⎠
⎟ ⎜
⎝ b ⎠
⎟
which solves Eq. (i) completely.

If V0(y, z) = V0, a constant, then it can be checked that
a b
nπ y ⎞ ⎛ mπ z ⎞ dz
sin ⎛⎜
4V0
Bmn =
ab ∫
0
⎝ a ⎠
⎟ dy ∫ sin ⎜⎝
0
b ⎠
⎟
⎧0, when m and n are each even

⎪
= ⎨16V0
⎪⎩ 2 , when m and n are both odd
π
Hence, the series solution becomes
∞ ∞ ⎡ ⎧⎪ nπ 2 2 1/ 2 ⎤
exp ⎢ − ⎨⎛⎜ ⎞ + ⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎫⎪
∑ ∑
16V0 1
V ( x, y , z ) = ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ x⎥
π2 n =1,3,5,... m =1,3,5,...
mn ⎢⎣ ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎥⎦
⎛ nπ y ⎞ sin ⎛ mπ z ⎞
× sin ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
It should be noted that this is a highly convergent series which would need only a few terms
starting from the first for a very reasonable approximation.
3.14 Show that in the two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, a solution of Laplaces equation
is given by
V = (A sin mx + B cos mx)(C sinh my + D cosh my),
when m is not zero, and by
V = (A + Bx) (C + Dy),
when m is zero.
Sol. This problem is left as an exercise for students as it is a two-dimensional simplification
of the general method discussed in Chapter 4 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications,
2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009.
per unit length is located at x = c, y = d, where 0 < c < a and 0 < d < b, lying parallel to the
edges of the prism. Show that the potential inside the prism is
∞
mπ b mπ mπ y mπ c mπ x
∑ m cosech
2Q0 1
V1 = sinh (b − d ) sinh sin sin , where 0 < y < d
πε m =1
a a a a a
and
∞
mπ b mπ d mπ mπ c mπ x
∑ m cosech
2Q0 1
V2 = sinh sinh (b − y ) sin sin , where d < y < b.
πε m =1
a a a a a
Sol. See Fig. 3.13. This is again a two-dimensional problem, and since the line charge
is located at the point (c, d ), we subdivide the internal region of the prism into two regions
Fig. 3.13 Rectangular conducting prism and the line charge Q0.
by the plane y = d, passing through the line charge. The region 1 is 0 < y < d while the region
2 is d < y < b. In the x-direction, both regions have the same dimension, i.e. 0 < x < a. The
potentials in both the regions satisfy the Laplaces equation, i.e.
Ñ2V1 = 0 and Ñ2V2 = 0
∂2 ∂2
where Ñ2 º +
∂x 2 ∂y 2
On the interface plane, the presence of the line charge can be expressed in terms of the delta
function. So, the general inhomogeneous equation for the internal region of the conducting
prism would be
Q
Ñ 2V = 0 δ ( x − c ) δ ( y − d )
ε
Its solution can be written as
mπ x
V(x, y) = ∑F
m
m ( y) sin
a
where Fm(y) has to be evaluated, and for the point charge at x = c, y = d, we write it as
mπ x
P(x, y) = ∑ P ( y) sin
m
m
a
(i)
and in the limit,

Q0
= δ ( x − c) δ ( y − d )
ε
i.e. the delta function of the line charge located at x = c, y = d (in its two-dimensional section).
mπ x
So, to evaluate Pm(y), we multiply Eq. (i) by sin and integrate over the x-dimensional
a
length of the prism.
a a
mπ x mπξ
\ ∫
0
Pm ( y ) sin 2
a
dx = ∫ P (ξ , y) sin
0
a
dξ ,
where the charge is located at the point x = x , y = h which in the limit will become (c, d ).
\ On integrating, we get
a
2 mπξ
Pm(y) =
a ∫ P(ξ , y) sin
0
a
dξ
2 Q0 mπξ
= sin ⋅ δ ( y − η)
a ε a
2 Q0 mπξ
= sin ⋅ δ (y − d)
a ε a
Since the x-variable part of the Laplacian operator has been evaluated, the Poissons equation
reduces to an ordinary differential equation in y-variable as
⎛ mπ ⎞ F ( y ) = P (y)
2
d2
Fm ( y ) − ⎜ ⎟ m m
dy 2 ⎝ a ⎠
2Q0 mπ c
= − sin ⋅ δ (y − d)
εa a
The homogeneous part of the above equation has the following two independent solutions, i.e.
mπ y mπ
Y1 = sinh , Y2 = sinh (b − y )
a a
It can be checked that their Wronskian ¹ 0.
In this case, the Wronskian is
D(Y1, Y2) = Y1Y2′ − Y2Y1′
= −
mπ ⎡
a ⎣⎢
sinh
mπ y
a
⋅ cosh
mπ
a {
(b − y ) + cosh
mπ y
a }⋅ sinh
mπ
a
(b − y ) ⎤⎥
⎦ { }
mπ mπ b
= − sinh ≠0
a a
which is a constant.
The solution for y is then
⎧ RY2 dy ⎫ ⎧ RY1 dy ⎫
Y = Y1 ⎨C1 −
⎩ ∫ ⎬ + Y2 ⎨C2 +
Δ (Y1 , Y2 ) ⎭ ⎩ ∫ ⎬,
Δ (Y1 , Y2 ) ⎭
where C1 and C2 are the arbitrary constants which are to be adjusted to fit the boundary
conditions, as the indefinite integrals are given the specified limits arising out of boundary
conditions. R is the non-zero right-hand term which in this case is the delta function.
m y
{π } y =b
∫ ε { }δ {π }
sinh
a π 2Q0 m c m
\ Y= ⋅ ( y − d ) sinh (b − y ) dy
{ }
sin
m π m b π a a a
− sinh y=d
a a
{π }
m
(b − y ) y=d
∫ ε { }δ {π }
sinh
a π 2Q0 m c m y
+ ⋅ ( y − d ) sinh
{ }
sin dy
mπ π
m b a a a
− sinh y =0
a a
{ π
} { π
}
⎡sinh m y ⋅ sinh m (b − d ) , 0 < y < d
=
2Q0
{
sin
π
m c
} { π
cosech }
m b ⎢
⎢
a a
πε ⋅m a a ⎢
⎢⎣{π } {π }
sinh
m
a
(b − y ) sinh
m d
a
, d < y<b
\ The complete solution is given by
∑ m cosech {} { } { }
2Q0 1 mπ b mπ c mπ x
V(x, y) = sin sin
πε m
a a a
sinh {π
m
a } {π }
(b − d ) sinh
m y
a
,0< y<d
=
2Q0
πε ∑ m cosech
m
1
{π} {π} {π}
m b
a
sin
m c
a
sin
m x
a
sinh {π
m
a } {π }
(b − y ) sinh
m d
a
,d < y<b
coulombs per unit length is located at x = c, y = d, parallel to the edges of the prism, where
0 < c < a and 0 < d < b. Show that the potential inside the prism is
∞
mπ b mπ mπ y mπ c mπ x
∑ m cosech
2Q0 1
V1 = sinh (b − d ) sinh sin sin , where 0 < y < d
πε m =1
a a a a a
and
∞
mπ b mπ d mπ mπ c mπ x
∑ m cosech
2Q0 1
V2 = sinh sinh (b − y ) sin sin , where d < y < b
πε m =1
a a a a a
(This problem is same as Problem 3.15, but will now be solved by a simpler mathematical
method.)
Sol. See Fig. 3.14. This is again a two-dimensional problem, since the prism extends to
infinity in the z-direction (as also the line charge). The potential inside the prism satisfies the
Fig. 3.14 Rectangular conducting prism and the line charge Q0.
Laplacian field at all points except where the line charge is located. So, we can write the field
equation, using the Dirac-delta function as
Q0
Ñ 2V = − d (x c) d ( y d )
F
which is the Poissons equation.
The solution for the composite two-dimensional Laplacian and Poissonian field can be written
in terms of a double infinite series of orthogonal functions (see the Appendix for the detailed
basis of this method). Since the problem is in Cartesian geometry and all the boundaries are at
zero potential, the problem is that of non-homogeneous region with homogeneous boundaries.
So, the orthogonal functions will be trigonometric, and the requisite boundary conditions will
reduce the general expression for the potential to
mπ x nπ y
V = ∑ ∑A
m n
mn sin
a
sin
b
It can be checked that the above expression satisfies the potential requirements on all the four
boundaries. Hence, substituting it in the composite equation, we get
⎪⎧ mπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎪⎫ sin mπ y sin nπ y = + Q0 δ ( x − c) δ ( y − d )
2 2
∑∑ Amn ⎨⎛⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬
m n ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ a b ε0
where Amn has to be evaluated.

mπ x nπ y
So, we multiply both the sides of the above equation by sin sin and integrate over
a b
the limits of the prism, i.e. x = 0 to x = a for x and y = 0 to y = b for y. Thus, we get
a b
⎧⎪ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎫⎪ 2 mπ x nπ y
∫∫ Amn ⎨⎛⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬ sin sin 2 dx dy
⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ a b
0 0
x = a y =b
Q0 mπ x nπ y
=
ε0 ∫ ∫ δ ( x − c) δ ( y − d ) sin
x =0 y =0
a
sin
b
dx dy
⎪⎧ mπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎪⎫ ab = − Q0 sin mπ c sin nπ d
2 2
or Amn ⎨⎛⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ 4 ε0 a b
as obtained by the integration of the Dirac-delta function.
−1
Q0 4 ⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎫⎪ mπ c nπ d
\ Amn = − ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬ sin sin ,
ε 0 ab ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ a b
as obtained for each value of m and n by this Fourier coefficient type integration.
−1
Q0 4 ⎪⎧⎛ mπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ nπ ⎞ 2 ⎪⎫ mπ c mπ x nπ d nπ y
\ V= − ∑∑
m n
⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬
ε 0 ab ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭
sin
a
sin
a
sin
b
sin
b
,
for the whole prism.

Thus, we have obtained the requisite potential distribution inside the prism in terms of a double
infinite series and orthogonal functions (which in this case are sine trigonometric functions in
both x and y variables). Since, the required answer is expressed as a single infinite series with
trigonometric variations in x, we have to reduce the above expression to its y series {i.e.
sin (npy/b)}, which in its entirety can be written as
∞ −1
⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎫⎪ nπ d nπ y
Y = ∑ n =1
⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜
⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠
⎟ ⎬
⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭
sin
b
sin
b
We now sum the n-series to show that it reduces to the forms of the hyperbolic functions which
we have been asked to prove. For this purpose, we use the following relationships:
∞
cos nθ π cosh α (π − θ )
∑n
1
2 =
−
n =1
2
+α 2α sinh απ 2α 2
and cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B B sin A sin B

1
\ sin A sin B = {cos (A B) cos (A + B)}
2
First, we consider the range y < d.
nπ d nπ y
In this case, = A, = B, in the above expression.
b b
−1
{ }
∞
⎪⎧⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎪⎫ nπ nπ
2 2
∑
1
\ Y= ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬ cos (d − y ) − cos (d + y )
2 n =1 ⎪⎩⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎪⎭ b b
−1
{ } { }
∞
1 ⎛ π ⎞ −2 ⎪⎧ 2 ⎛ mb ⎞ ⎪⎫
2
⎡cos n π (d − y ) − cos n π ( d + y ) ⎤
= ⎜ ⎟
2⎝b⎠ ∑
n =1
⎨n + ⎜
⎪⎩
⎟ ⎬
⎝ a ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎢⎣ b b ⎥⎦
mb π π
The equivalence is a = , q1 = (d y), q 2 = (d + y).
a b b
\ Y=
b2
⋅
π ⎢
⎢
a {
⎡ cosh mb π − π ( d − y )
b
−
cosh
a}
mb π
b {
π − (d + y ) ⎤⎥
⎥
}
2π 2 2 mb ⎢ sinh
mb
π sinh
mb
π ⎥
a ⎣⎢ a a ⎥⎦
mπ mπ y
2 sinh (b − d ) sinh
ab a a
= −
4mπ mπ b
sinh
a
ab mπ b mπ mπ y
= − cosech sinh (b − d ) sinh , 0< y<d
4mπ a a a
Similarly, for the range y > d, we have
mb π π
α = , θ1 = (y − d) and θ2 = (y + d)
a b b
and we can show that
ab mπ b mπ d mπ
Y = − cosech sinh sinh (b − y ), d < y < b
2mπ a a a
Thus, the potential distribution in the two parts of the box has been obtained in terms of the
single infinite series of harmonic x-function {i.e. sin (mpx/a)}.
An alternative method of reducing the double infinite series to single infinite series solution is
to show that y-series (i.e. Y) is the Fourier expansion of the y-terms in the single infinite series,
i.e.
∞ −1
⎪⎧⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎪⎫ nπ d nπ y
2 2
Y= ∑n =1
⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ a ⎟ ⎬
⎪⎩⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭
sin
b
sin
b
ab mπ b mπ mπ y
= − cosech sinh (b − d ) sinh , for 0 < y < d
2mπ a a a
ab mπ b mπ d mπ
= − cosech sinh sinh (b − y ), for d < y < b
2mπ a a a
This is left as an exercise for the students.

3.17 A rectangular earthed conducting box has walls which are defined in the Cartesian coordinate
system by the planes x = 0, x = a, y = 0, y = b and z = 0, z = c. A point charge Q0 is placed at
the point (x0, y0, z0). Show that the potential distribution inside the box is given by
∞ ∞
sinh{ Anm (c − z0 )} sinh ( Anm z ) nπ x0 nπ x mπ y0 mπ y
∑∑
4Q0
V= sin sin sin sin ,
ε 0 ab n =1 m =1
Anm sinh Amn c a a b b
(m2 a 2 + n2b2 )
1/ 2
π
where Anm = and z < z0.
ab
For z > z0, z and z0 have to be interchanged in the above expression.
Sol. This is a direct three-dimensional extrapolation of the two-dimensional Problem 3.15, in
which the line charge has been replaced by a point charge, and the infinitely long rectangular
prism has been replaced by a finite length rectangular box of conducting walls, i.e. all the six
walls are at zero potential. The potential inside the box satisfies the Laplacian field at all points
except where the point charge is located. So, as before, we write the field equation (i.e.
Poissons equation), using the three-dimensional Dirac-delta function as
Q0
∇ 2V = − δ ( x − x0 ) δ ( y − y0 ) δ ( z − z0 )
ε0
So, once again, we write the solution for the composite Laplacian/Poissonian field problem in
terms of a triple infinite series of orthogonal functions (which in Cartesian geometry are
trigonometric functions). See Appendix 1 for the basis of this method, which is known as Roths
method.
It will again be a non-homogeneous equation (i.e. Poissons equation) with homogeneous
boundaries, on all six walls. It can be checked by the method described in Appendix 1,
according to which the solution satisfying the six boundaries will be
∞ ∞ ∞
nπ x mπ y lπ z
V = ∑∑∑A
n =1 m =1 l =1
nml sin
a
sin
b
sin
c
Substituting this expression for V in the Poissons equation, we get

∞ ∞ ∞
⎪⎧ nπ ⎞ mπ ⎞ lπ ⎪⎫ nπ x mπ y lπ z
2 2 2
− ∑∑∑ Anml ⎨⎛⎜ ⎟ + ⎛⎜ ⎟ + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎬ sin sin sin
n =1 m =1 l =1 ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭
c a b c
Q0
= − δ ( x − x0 ) δ ( y − y0 ) δ ( z − z0 ),
ε0
where Anml has to be evaluated.

nπ x mπ y lπ z
So, we multiply both the sides by sin sin sin and integrate them over the
a b c
limits x = 0 to x = a for x, and y = 0 to y = b for y, and z = 0 to z = c for z. Thus, we get
a b c
⎪⎧ nπ ⎞ mπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ lπ ⎞2 ⎪⎫ 2 nπ x 2 mπ y lπ z
2
∫∫∫ Anml ⎨⎛⎜ ⎟ + ⎛⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ c ⎟ ⎬ sin a sin sin 2 dx dy dz

0 0 0
⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭ b c
x = a y =b z = c
Q0 nπ x mπ y lπ z
= + ∫ ∫ ∫
x =0 y =0 z =0
ε0
δ ( x − x0 ) δ ( y − y0 ) δ ( z − z0 ) sin
a
sin
b
sin
c
dx dy dz
⎧⎪ nπ ⎞2 ⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ lπ ⎞2 ⎫⎪ abc nπ x0 mπ y0 lπ z0
Anml ⎨⎛⎜
Q
or ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ c ⎟ ⎬ = + 0 sin
ε
sin sin
⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎭⎪ 8 0 a b c
as obtained by the integration of the Dirac-delta function.

−1
Q 8 ⎪⎧⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ lπ ⎞2 ⎪⎫ nπ x0 mπ y0 lπ z0
\ Anml = + 0 ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬ sin sin sin
ε 0 abc ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎪⎭ a b c
as obtained for each value of l, m, n by this usual method of evaluation of the Fourier
coefficient (Triple Fourier coefficient, in this case).
−1
Q0 8 ⎧⎪⎛ nπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ mπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ lπ ⎞ 2 ⎫⎪
\ V = + ∑∑∑
n m l
⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬
ε 0 abc ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎭⎪
nπ x0 nπ x mπ y0 nπ y lπ z0 lπ z
× sin sin sin sin sin sin
a a b b c c
for the whole box.
Thus, the solution has been obtained in terms of the triple infinite series of orthogonal
functions, which has to be reduced to a double infinite series of harmonics of trigonometric
functions of x and y. So, we have to sum the z-series, which is:
∞
⎪⎧⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎛ mπ ⎞ + ⎛ lπ ⎞ ⎪⎫ sin lπ z0 sin lπ z
2 2 2
Z= ∑
l =1
⎨⎜ a ⎟ + ⎜
⎪⎩⎝ ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
⎟ ⎜ c ⎟ ⎬
⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭ c c
−1
{ }
∞
⎪⎧⎛ lπ ⎞ ⎫ lπ lπ
2
2 ⎪
∑
1
= ⎨⎜ c ⎟ + Amn ⎬ cos ( z0 − z ) − cos ( z + z)
c 0
l =1 ⎪⎩⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭ 2 c
⎧⎪ nπ ⎞2 ⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎫⎪
for z < z0 and Amn
2
= ⎨⎛⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭
−1
{ } { }
∞
1 ⎛π ⎞
2
⎧⎪ 2 ⎛ Anm c ⎞2 ⎫⎪ ⎡ cos l π ( z − z ) − cos l π ( z + z ) ⎤
\ Z= ⎜ ⎟
2⎝c⎠ ∑
l =1
⎨l + ⎜ π ⎟ ⎬
⎩⎪ ⎝ ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎢⎣ c 0 c 0 ⎥⎦
=
c2
π
⎡ cosh Anm c π − π ( z − z )
⎢
⎢
π c 0 {
−
A c
π
π
c }
cosh nm π − ( z0 + z ) ⎤⎥
⎥
{ }
2π 2 2 Anm c ⎢
sinh
Anm c
π sinh
Anm c
π ⎥
π ⎢⎣ π π ⎥⎦
c 2 sinh Anm (c − z0 ) sinh Anm z

= + , for z < z0
4 Anm sinh Anm c
∞ ∞
4Q0 sinh Anm (c − z0 ) sinh Anm z nπ x0 nπ x mπ y0 mπ y
Hence, V = ∑ ∑ ε ab
n =1 m =1 0 Anm sinh Anm c
sin
a
sin
a
sin
b
sin
b
for z < z0.
Similarly, it can be shown that for z > z0, the expression for V will have the same form as above
with only z and z0 interchanged. This is left as an exercise for the students.
Note: The summation series used is the same as that used in Problem 3.16.
Again, an alternative way of proving the above is by considering the Fourier coefficient
evaluation of the z-series which is left as an exercise for the students.
3.18 A rectangular conducting tube of infinite length in the z-direction has its walls defined by the
planes x = 0, x = a and y = 0, y = b, which are all earthed. A point charge Q0 is located at
x = x0, y = y0 and z = z0 inside the tube. Prove that the potential inside the tube is given by
∞ ∞
⎧ (m 2 a 2 + n 2b 2 )1/ 2 π ( z − z0 ) ⎫
∑ ∑
2Q0
V = (m 2 a 2 + n 2 b 2 ) −1/ 2 exp ⎨− ⎬
πε 0 n =1,2 m =1, 2 ⎩ ab ⎭
× sin sin sin sin
a a b b
Sol. This problem is again a three-dimensional problem, even though the conducting tube
extends to infinity (i.e. ± ¥ in the z-direction), because the source is a point charge Q0 located
at x = x0, y = y0 and z = z0. So, we start with a conducting box of finite dimensions, i.e. x = 0,
x = a; y = 0, y = b; and z = c to z = +c. At the end, we allow c ® ¥.
So, this is again treated as a problem with inhomogeneous field equation with homogeneous
boundaries, i.e. Poissons equation with all its boundaries (in the Cartesian coordinate system)
at zero potential. Since its source is a point charge Q0 at (x0, y0, z0), the equation will be written
in terms of the Dirac-delta function in three-dimensions, i.e.
Q0
∇ 2V = − δ ( x − x0 ) δ ( y − y0 ) δ ( z − z0 )
ε0
The solution of this equation will be written in the form of triple infinite series of trigonometric
functions, and since the box extends from z = c to z = +c, it can be checked from Appendix 1
that the solution satisfying all the six conditions on the boundary walls will be
∞ ∞ ⎧⎪ ∞ nπ x nπ y lπ z
V = ∑ ∑
n =1,2, ... m =1,2, ...
⎨ ∑
⎪⎩l =1,3,...
Anml sin
a
sin
b
cos
2c
∞
nπ x nπ y l ′π z ⎪⎫
+ ∑ ′ ′ sin
Anml
a
sin
b
sin
c ⎬⎪
l ′=1,2,... ⎭
Substituting this expression in the Poissons equation, we get
∞ ∞ ⎡ ∞ ⎪⎧⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎛ mπ ⎞ + ⎛ lπ ⎞ ⎪⎫ sin nπ x sin mπ y cos lπ z

2 2 2
− ∑ ∑
n =1,2,... m =1,2,...
⎢ ∑
⎢⎣ l =1,3,...
Anml ⎨⎜ a ⎟ + ⎜
⎪⎩⎝ ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎝ 2c ⎠ ⎪⎭ a b 2c
+
∞
⎪⎧ nπ ⎞ l ′π ⎞ ⎪⎫ l ′π z ⎤
2 2 2
mπ ⎞ nπ x mπ y
∑ ′ ′ ⎨⎛⎜
Anml ⎟ + ⎛⎜ ⎟ + ⎛⎜ ⎟ ⎬ sin sin sin ⎥
l ′=1,2,... ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎭⎪ a b c ⎥
⎦
Q0
= δ ( x − x0 ) δ ( y − y0 ) δ ( z − z0 )
ε0
′ ′ have to be evaluated.
where Anml and Anml
Hence, following the technique of the Fourier coefficient evaluation, we multiply both the sides
nπ x mπ y lπ z nπ x mπ y l ′π z
first by sin sin and , and then by sin sin sin , and integrate
a b 2c a b c
both sides of the equation over the volume of the box. By integrating the Dirac-delta function
in two stages, we get
⎪⎧ nπ ⎞ mπ ⎞ lπ ⎪⎫ abc nπ x0 mπ y0 lπ z0
2 2 2
Anml ⎨⎛⎜ + ⎛⎜ + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎬
Q
⎟ ⎟ = 0 sin sin cos
⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ 2c ⎠ ⎪⎭ 4 ε0 a b 2c
⎧⎪ nπ ⎞2 ⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ l ′π ⎞2 ⎫⎪ abc nπ x0 mπ y0 l ′π z0
′ ′ ⎨⎛⎜
Q
and Anml ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ c ⎟ ⎬ = 0 sin
ε
sin cos
⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎭⎪ 4 0 a b c
−1
∞ ∞ ⎡ ∞ ⎪⎧ 2 ⎛ lπ ⎞ ⎪⎫ nπ x0 nπ x mπ y0 mπ y
2
∑ ∑ ∑
Q 4
\ V= 0 ⎢ ⎨ Anm + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ sin sin sin sin
ε 0 ab n =1, 2, ... m =1, 2, ... ⎢⎣l =1,3, ... ⎪⎩ ⎝ 2c ⎠ ⎪⎭ a b b b
∞ −1
lπ z0 lπ z 1 ⎪⎧ 2 ⎛ l ′π ⎞ ⎪⎫ nπ x0 nπ x
2
× cos
2c
cos +
2c c ∑
l ′= 2, 4,...
⎨ Anm + ⎜
⎪⎩
⎟ ⎬
⎝ 2c ⎠ ⎪⎭
sin
a
sin
a
mπ y0 mπ y l ′π z0 l ′π z ⎤
× sin sin sin sin ⎥
b b 2c 2c ⎦⎥
Note: The c in the above denominators has been replaced by 2c, because now l¢ (in the
summation series) is written as l¢ = 2, 4, 6, ... instead of the original l¢ = 1, 2, 3, ... .
This solution (i.e. the expression for V ) is in terms of triple infinite series and now has to be
reduced to a double infinite series of harmonics of trigonometric functions of x and y only. So,
we sum the z-series, which consists of two series, i.e. in l and l¢. Hence
∞ −1
1 ⎛ π ⎞ −2 ⎧⎪ 2 2 ⎛ 2c ⎞ ⎫
2
⎪ lπ z0 lπ z
\Z= ∑
l =1,3, ...
⎜ ⎟
c ⎝ 2c ⎠
⎨
⎩⎪
l + Anm ⎜
⎝ π
⎟ ⎬ cos
⎠ ⎭⎪ 2 c
cos
2c
{ }
∞ −2 −1
1⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ c ⎞ l ′π z0 l ′π z
+ ∑
l ′=1,2, ...
⎜ ⎟
c ⎝ 2c ⎠
l ′2 + Anm ⎜ ⎟
⎝π ⎠
sin
c
sin
c
{ } { }
∞ −1
4c 2 ⎛ Anm 2c ⎞ lπ lπ
∑
1
= l +⎜ ⎟ cos ( z + z0 ) + cos ( z − z0 )
l =1,3, ... π
2
⎝ π ⎠ 2 2c 2c
−1
{ }
∞
4c ⎧⎪ 2 ⎛ Anm 2c ⎞ ⎪⎫
2
l ′π l ′π
∑
1
+ ⎨ l ′ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ cos ( z + z0 ) − cos ( z − z0 )
l ′= 2,4, ... π ⎩
2
⎪ ⎝ π ⎠ ⎭⎪ 2 2c 2c
For summing these two series, we refer to the following series:

∞
∑
1
= − (i)
n =1,2,... n +α
2 2
2α sinh απ 2α 2
∞
(− 1) n cos nθ π cosh αθ
∑
1
= − (ii)
n =1, 2,... n +α
2 2
2α sinh απ 2α 2
∞
cos nθ π cosh α (π − θ ) − cosh αθ
∑
1
\ = {(i) − (ii)} = (iii)
n =1,3,... n +α
2 2
2 4α sinh απ
∞
cos nθ π cosh α (π − θ ) + cosh αθ
∑
1 1
= {(i) + (ii)} = − (iv)
n = 2,4,... n +α
2 2
2 4α sinh απ 2α 2
We have to use the series (iii) and (iv) to sum up the two series of z.
For the first series of odd harmonics, we have only
Anm 2c π π
α =
, θ1 = ( z + z0 ), θ 2 = ( z − z0 )
π 2c 2c
and for the second series of even harmonics, we have
Anm 2c π π
α = , θ1 = ( z − z0 ), θ 2 = ( z + z0 )
π 2c 2c
⎢
⎢
π 2c
0 {
⎡ cosh Anm 2c π − π ( z + z ) − cosh Anm 2c π ( z + z ) ⎤
π 2c
0 ⎥
⎥
}
{ }
⎢ Anm 2c π ⎥
⎢ + cosh π− ( z − z0 ) − cosh Anm 2c ⎥
2c π ⎢ π 2c ⎥
\ Z= 2
π 4 Anm 2c ⎢ sinh
Anm 2c
π
⎥
π ⎢⎣ π ⎥⎦
⎢
⎢
π 2c
0{ π 2c }
⎡ cosh Anm 2c π − π ( z − z ) + cosh Anm 2c π ( z − z ) ⎤
0 ⎥
⎥
{ }
⎢ Anm 2c π Anm 2c π ⎥
⎢ − cosh π− ( z + z0 ) − cosh ( z + z0 ) ⎥
2c π ⎢ π 2c π 2c ⎥
+ 2
π 4 A 2 c ⎢ A 2 c ⎥
nm
⎢ sinh nm π ⎥⎦
π ⎣ π
1 ⎡ 2 cosh Anm {2c − ( z − z0 )} − 2 cosh Anm ( z + z0 ) ⎤

=
4 Anm ⎢⎣ sinh Anm 2c ⎥
⎦
1 exp[ Anm {2c − ( z − z0 )}] + exp[− Anm {2c − ( z − z0 )}] − cosh Anm ( z + z0 )
=
2 Anm exp( Anm 2c) − exp(− Anm 2c)
exp{ Anm ( z z0 )} exp( Anm 4c) exp{ Anm ( z z0 )} exp( Anm 2c)
1 cosh Anm ( z z0 )
=
2 Anm 1 exp( Anm 4c)
Now, let c ® ¥, then e− Anm 4c → 0, as also e− Anm 2c → 0 .
1
\ Z= exp{ Anm ( z z0 )}
2 Anm
Hence,
∞ ∞
∑ ∑
2Q0
V = ( Anm ) −1 exp{− Anm | z − z0 |} sin sin sin sin
abε 0 n =1,2,... m =1,2,...
a a b b
as the above expression is true for all values of z, either > z0 or < z0, and hence the modulus
1/ 2
⎪⎧⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎪⎫
2 2
sign. Also, note that Anm = ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬ .
⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭
3.19 An earthed conducting box has walls which are defined in the Cartesian coordinate system as
x = 0, x = a, y = 0, y = b, and z = 0, z = c. A point charge Q0 is located at a point (x0, y0, z0)
inside the box. Show that the z-component of the force on this point charge is
∞ ∞
2Q02 nπ x0 mπ y0
Fz = −
ε 0 ab ∑ ∑
n =1, 2,... m =1,2,...
cosech ( Amn c) sinh {Amn (c − 2 z0 )} sin 2
a
sin 2
b
,
(m 2 a 2 + n 2 b 2 )1/ 2
where Amn = p.
ab
Sol. Now, the force on the point charge is F, which is
F = ix Fx + iy Fy + iz Fz = Q0 E = Q0 grad V
⎧ ∂V ∂V ∂V ⎫
= − Q0 ⎨i x + iy + iz ⎬
⎩ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭
So, the first stage in solving this problem is the evaluation of the potential distribution in the
box due to the point charge. This has already been done in Problem 3.17 (which is, in fact, the
first part of this problem). So, we start with the expression for the potential distribution, which is
∞ ∞ ∞
Q0 8 ⎧⎪⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ lπ ⎞2 ⎫⎪
V= ∑ ∑ ∑
n =1,2,... m =1,2,... =
l 1, 2,...
ε 0 abc
⎨⎜ a ⎟ + ⎜
⎪
⎩⎝ ⎠ ⎝ b
⎟ +⎜ c ⎟ ⎬
⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎭⎪
nπ x0 nπ x mπ y0 mπ y lπ z0 lπ z
× sin sin sin sin sin sin
a a b b c c
for the whole box.
It should be noted that for calculating the force or force components on the point charge, it is
essential that the triple infinite series solution for V be used. The final double infinite series
solution cannot be used. If it is used, then we would not get the correct answer. Why?
The answer is left as an exercise for the students.
Since we are interested in the z-component of the force, we consider the z-part of the series
solution, i.e.
∞ −1
⎪⎧⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎛ mπ ⎞ + ⎛ lπ ⎞ ⎪⎫ lπ z0 lπ z
2 2 2
∑
2
Z= ⎨⎜ a ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ c ⎟ ⎬ sin sin
l =1
c ⎪⎩⎝ ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭ c c
∞ −2 −1
∂V ⎛π ⎞ ⎡ 2 ⎪⎧⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎪⎫ ⎛ c ⎞2 ⎤ lπ z0 ∂ lπ z
∑
2
\ Z part of = ⎜c⎟ ⎢l + ⎨⎜ a ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎜ ⎟ ⎥ sin sin
∂z l =1,2,...
c ⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎪⎩⎝ ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎝ π ⎠ ⎦ c ∂z c
∞ −1
⎧⎪ 2 ⎛ Amn c ⎞2 ⎫⎪ lπ lπ z0 lπ z
∑
2c
= ⎨l + ⎜ π ⎟ ⎬ sin cos
l =1,2,... π
2
⎩⎪ ⎝ ⎠ ⎭⎪ c c c
∞ −1
2l ⎪⎧ 2 ⎛ Amn c ⎞ ⎪⎫
2
lπ z0 lπ z
= ∑
l =1,2,...
π ⎩⎪⎨l +⎜
⎝ π ⎠ ⎭⎪
⎟ ⎬ sin
c
cos
c
At the point (x0, y0, z0), this expression becomes

∞ −1
⎛ Z part of ∂V ⎞ ⎧⎪ 2 ⎛ Amn c ⎞2 ⎫⎪ lπ z0 lπ z0
∑
2l
⎜ ⎟ = ⎨l + ⎜ π ⎟ ⎬ sin cos
⎝ ∂z ⎠ z = z0 π ⎩⎪ ⎝ ⎠ ⎭⎪ c c
l =1,2,...
∞
n sin nθ π sinh α (π − θ )
Now, ∑
n =1, 2,... n + α
2 2
=
2 sinh απ
In this case,
∞ −1
⎪⎧ 2 ⎛ Amn c ⎞ ⎪⎫
2
⎛ Z part of ∂V ⎞ 2lπ z0 2π z0
∑
l A c
⎜ ⎟ = ⎨l + ⎜ π ⎟ ⎬ sin , where α = nm and θ = .
⎝ ∂z ⎠ z = z0 π ⎪⎩ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭ c π c
l =1,2,...
Amn c⎛ 2π z0 ⎞
1 π
sinh
π ⎜⎝ π − c ⎟⎠
⎛ Z part of ∂V ⎞
\ ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ ∂z ⎠ z = z0 π 2 A c
sinh mn π
π
1 sinh Amn (c − 2 z0 )
=
2 sinh Amn c
∂V
\ Fz = Q0 ⋅ Ez = − Q0 at z = z0
∂z
∞ ∞
2Q02 nπ x0 mπ y0
= ∑ ∑
n =1,2,... m =1, 2,...
−
ε 0 ab
cosech Amn c sinh Amn (c − 2 z0 ) sin 2
a
sin 2
b
Similarly, we can derive similar expressions for Fx and Fy which are left as an exercise for the
students.
3.20 A hollow cylindrical ring of finite axial length is bounded by the surfaces r = a, r = b, z = 0 and
z = c which have the potentials given by f1(z), f2(z), f3(r) and f4(r), respectively. Show that the
potential at any point inside the ring is given by the superposition of four potentials, two of the
type
⎡ ⎛ kπ r ⎞ kπ r ⎞ ⎤
I K0 ⎛
cos ⎛ k π z ⎞ ⎢ 0 ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠⎥
−
sin ⎝ c ⎠ ⎢⎢ ⎛ k π b ⎞ kπ b ⎞ ⎥⎥
Ak
∞ I0 K0 ⎛ c
⎣⎢ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎦⎥ 2 cos ⎛ kπ z ⎞
V (r , z ) = ∑ kπ a ⎞ kπ a ⎞
, where Ak =
c ∫ f ( z)
sin ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠
dz
k =1 I0 ⎛ K0 ⎛ 0
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
−
kπ b ⎞ kπ b ⎞
I0 ⎛ K0 ⎛
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
and the other two of the type
Ë Î + N L C
Þ Û
7 S [
Ç" L
L TJOI NL [
Ì + NL S
Ï
ÍÌ Ð : N L C
à
ß : N L S
Ü
ÝÜ
Sol. This problem is to be solved by superposing four solutions, in which each boundary is
to be taken non-zero at a time, the remaining three being at zero value. The solutions due to
non-zero z = 0, and then z = c boundary will be found in Section 4.2.6 of Electromagnetism
Theory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009. The general forms
of solutions for the non-zero r = a and r = b boundaries have been stated in Eq. (4.49) of
Section 4.2.5 of the same book. The technique of evaluating the unknowns by using the
relevant boundary conditions is similar to that given in Section 4.2.6. The actual working out
of this problem is left as an exercise for the students.
3.21 A cylindrical conducting box has walls which are defined by z = ±c, r = a, and are all earthed
except the two disc-shaped areas at the top and bottom (i.e. the planes z = ±c) bounded by
r = b, (where b < a), which are charged to potentials +V0 and V0, respectively. Show that the
potential inside the box is given by
∞
sinh ( μk z ) J1 ( μk b) J 0 ( μ k r )
∑
2bV0
V = ,
a2 k =1 μk sinh ( μk c){J1 ( μk a )}2
where J0(mka) = 0.
Sol. The potential distribution inside the cylinder satisfies the Laplaces equation in the
cylindrical polar coordinate system:
∂ 2V 1 ∂V ∂ 2V
∇ 2V = + + 2 = 0
∂r 2 r ∂r ∂z
The general solution will be (for the two-dimensional problem)
V (r , z ) = {AJ 0 ( k z r ) + BY0 ( k z r )}{C cosh k z z + D sinh k z z}
Since the z-axis is included in the region under consideration, and as Y0 (0) ® ¥, B = 0. Also,
the problem has skew symmetry about the z = 0 plane, i.e. V = 0 on z = 0. Hence, the cosh kzz
terms cannot exist, i.e. C = 0.
\ The solution simplifies to
V (r , z ) = ∑ A sinh k z ⋅ J (k r )
kz
z 0 z
This expression will satisfy the condition that at r = a, V = 0, if

J0(kza) = 0
So, we denote the roots of this equation by mk.
Hence, we now write the solution in the form
∞
sinh ( μk z )
V = ∑
k =1,...
Ak ⋅
sinh ( μk a )
J 0 ( μk r )
Now, we have to satisfy the condition on z = ±c planes. We write this condition in general terms
as
∞
f (r ) = V0 over the disc ( r = b) = ∑ A J (μ r)
k =1
k 0 k
i.e. expressing the boundary potential in terms of a series of Bessel functions.

\ To evaluate the coefficients Ak,
a
2
Ak =
a 2 {J1 ( μk a )}2 ∫ rf (r ) J (μ r ) dr
0
0 k

f (r) = V0 constant over 0 £ r £ b
= 0 from b < r £ a
2V0 bJ1 ( μk b)
\ Ak =
a {J1 (μ k a)}
2 2
μk
∞
sinh ( μ k z ) J1 ( μ k b) J 0 ( μk r )
∑
2bV0
Hence, V=
a2 k =1 μ k sinh ( μk c) {J1 ( μk a )}2
3.22 A large conducting body, which has been charged, has a deep rectangular hole drilled in it. The
boundaries of the hole are defined by x = 0, x = a, y = 0, y = b and z = 0. Show that far from
the opening of the hole
πx πy ⎡ ⎪⎧ π 2 π ⎞2 ⎪⎫
1/ 2
⎤
V = C ⋅ sin sin ⎛ ⎞ ⎛
⋅ sinh ⎢ ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ z ⎥
a b ⎢⎣ ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎥⎦
Sol. Since the mass is in the conducting body, all the charge will travel to its surface, and the
walls of the hole will be at zero potential. Hence the hole has Laplacian potential distribution,
and in the Cartesian coordinate system, its expression will be
V = ∑ ∑ {A cos k x + B sin k x}{C cos k

kx ky
x x yy + D sin k y y} × {E cosh k z z + F sinh k z z}
where k z = (k x2 + k y2 )1/ 2 .
Now, the boundary conditions (i) at x = 0, V = 0 and (ii) at x = a, V = 0, will reduce the
X function to
mπ x
X = B sin , m = 1, 2, ...
a
Similarly, the boundary conditions (iii) at y = 0, V = 0 and (iv) at y = b, V = 0, will give
nπ y
Y = D sin , n = 1, 2, ...
b
Next, the boundary condition (v) at z = 0, V = 0 will eliminate the cosh terms.
Hence the solution becomes
⎡ ⎧⎪ mπ 2 1/ 2
⎤
mπ x nπ y ⎞ + ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎫⎪
2
V= ∑ ∑ K mn ⋅ sin sin ⋅ sinh ⎢ ⎨⎜⎛ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ z⎥
m =1,2,... n =1,2,...
a b ⎢⎣ ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎥⎦
Since at the opening of the hole, its four edges are at zero potential, the potential distribution
will be of the form
πx πy
sin sin
a b
then for all values of m and n, Kmn = 0, except for K11.
πx πy ⎡ ⎪⎧ π 2 π ⎞2 ⎪⎫
1/2
⎤
\ V = K11 sin sin ⎢ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛
sinh ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ z⎥
a b ⎢⎣ ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎥⎦
3.23 Two equal charges are placed on a line, at a distance a apart. This line joining the charges is
parallel to the surface of an infinite conducting region which is at zero potential. The specified
line is at a distance a/2 from the surface of the conducting region. Show that the force between
the charges is 3Q02 /8πε 0 a 2 . What happens to the force, when the sign of one of the charges is
reversed?
Sol. See Fig. 3.15. (i) The images of the point charges Q0 at A and B will be Q0 at A¢ and
B¢, respectively, in the conducting medium, such that
AA¢ = BB¢ = a and A¢B¢ = a
Fig. 3.15 Equal point charges and their images in the infinite conducting region.
The effect of the conducting region would be accounted for by these images of the two charges,
i.e. Q0 at A¢ and B¢, respectively.
\ The total force on A = Force on A due to the charge Q0 at B
+ Force due to image charge Q0 at A¢
+ Force due to image charge Q0 at B¢
Q02
\ Force on Q0 at A due to Q0 at B = , directed along AB, away from B
4πε 0 a 2
Q02
Force on Q0 at A due to Q0 at A¢ = , directed along AA¢, towards A¢
4πε 0 a 2
Q0
Force on Q0 at A due to Q0 at B¢ = , directed along AB¢, towards B¢
4πε 0 a 2 ⋅ 2
\ Total horizotanl component of the force,
Q02 Q02
FH = − cos 45°
4πε 0 a 2 4πε 0 2a 2
Q02 ⎛1 − 1 ⎞ = Q02
= ⎜ ⎟ (2 2 − 1)
4πε 0 a 2 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 8 2πε 0 a 2
which is directed away from B, i.e. towards the +x-direction.
Total vertical component of the force,
Q02 Q02
FV = − − sin 45°
4πε 0 a 2 4πε 0 2a 2
Q02 ⎛ 1 ⎞ Q02
= − ⎜ 1 + ⎟ = − (2 2 + 1)
4πε 0 a 2 ⎝ 2 2⎠ 8 2πε 0 a 2
\ The total resultant force on Q0 at A,
Q02
{(2 }
1/ 2
FT = 2 − 1) 2 + (2 2 + 1) 2
8 2πε 0 a 2
Q02
(8 + 1 − 4 )
1/ 2
= 2 + 8 +1+ 4 2
8 2πε 0 a 2
Q02 3Q02
= ⋅3 2 =
8 2πε 0 a 2 8πε 0 a 2
(ii) Let the point charge at B be Q0. Then, the image system would be as shown in Fig. 3.16.
Fig. 3.16 Image system, when the point charges are +Q0 and Q0.
In this case, the horizontal component of the force,
Q02 Q02 1
FH′ = − + ⋅
4πε 0 a 2
4πε 0 2a 2
2
Q02
= ( − 2 2 + 1)
8 2πε 0 a 2
and the vertical component of the force,
Q02 Q02 1
FV′ = − + ⋅
4πε 0 a 2
4πε 0 2a 2
2
Q02
= (−2 2 + 1)
8 2πε 0 a 2
\ FT′ =
Q02 ⎧⎪ 8 + 1 − 4 2 ⎫⎪
1/ 2
=
{
Q02 2 2 − 1 } 2
=
Q02 (2 2 − 1)
⎨ ⎬
8 2πε 0 a 2 ⎩⎪ + 8 + 1 − 4 2 ⎪⎭ 8 2πε 0 a 2 8πε 0 a 2
Also, note the change in the direction of the resultant force.
3.24 A conducting block of metal, which is maintained at zero potential, has a spherical cavity cut
in it, and a point charge Q0 is placed in this cavity, such that the distance of the point charge
from the centre of the cavity is f which is less than the radius a of the cavity. Show that the
Q02 af
force on the point charge is .
4πε 0 (a 2 − f 2 ) 2
Sol. See Fig. 3.17. The radius of the cavity = OP = a.
The point charge Q0 is at A, such that OA = f.
Fig. 3.17 The point charge in the spherical cavity of the conducting block.
\ Its image will be Q0′ at Bthe inverse point of A with respect to the circle of the cavity,
i.e.
a2
OA × OB = a2 \ OB =
f
a
and Q0′ = − Q0 ,
f
by the method of images.
a2 a2 − f 2
\ Distance AB = OB OA = f=
f f
⎛ a ⎞
Q0 ⎜ − Q0 ⎟
⎝ f ⎠ Q02 af
\ The force on Q0 at A due to Q0′ at B = = −
⎛ a2 − f 2 ⎞
2
4πε 0 ( a 2 − f 2 ) 2
4πε 0 ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ f
3.25 A conducting sphere of radius a is maintained at a zero potential. An electric dipole of moment
m is placed at a distance f ( f > a) from the centre of the sphere, such that the dipole points away
from the sphere. Show that its image is a dipole of moment ma3/f 3, and there will be a charge
ma/f 2 at the inverse point of the sphere.
Sol. See Fig. 3.18. Let the dipole moment m be Q0 × 2l, where l << a, a being the radius of
the sphere.
Now, OA = f
a2
\ The inverse point B is such that OB = .
f
Fig. 3.18 An electric dipole located near a conducting sphere at zero potential.
Since the charges of the dipole are located at A1 and A2 (+Q0 and Q0, respectively), their
images will be:
(i) For +Q0, its image will be at B1, such that
−1
a2 a2 ⎛ l ⎞ a2 ⎛ l ⎞ a2
OB1 = = 1+ ⎟ ≈ ⎜1 − f ⎟ = 2 ( f − l )
f +l f ⎜⎝ f ⎠ f ⎝ ⎠ f
and the image charge,
−1
aQ0 aQ0 ⎛ l ⎞ aQ0 ⎛ l ⎞
Q0′ = − = − 1+ ⎟ ≈ − ⎜1 − f ⎟
f +l f ⎜⎝ f ⎠ f ⎝ ⎠
(ii) For Q0 (at A2), its image will be at B2, such that
−1
a2 a2 ⎛ l ⎞ a2 ⎛ l ⎞ a2
OB2 = = 1− ⎟ ≈ ⎜1 + f ⎟ = 2 ( f + l )
f −l f ⎜⎝ f ⎠ f ⎝ ⎠ f
and the image charge,
aQ0 aQ0 Î lÞ aQ0 Î lÞ

Q0 Ï1 ß Ï1 ß
f l f Ð fà f Ð fà
Q0 al Q al
\ There is a charge 2
at B1 and + 0 at B2, such that
f f
2a
B1B2 =
f
This is equivalent to a moment,
Q0 al 2a 2 Q0 2l ⋅ a 3 ma3
m¢ = ⋅ = =
f2 f f3 f3
Also, there will be a charge at B, which will be
Q0la Q0la Q0 2la
Q0′ = + 2 =
f2 f f2
ma
=
f2
Note: B1 and B2 are not shown in Fig. 3.18, as the distances BB1 and BB2 would be quite small
and the figure would become confusing.
3.26 An infinite conducting plane having a hemispherical boss of radius a is maintained at zero
potential, and a point charge Q0 is placed on the axis of symmetry, at a distance d from the
plate. Show that the image consists of three charges, and the source charge +Q0 is attracted
towards the plate with a force of magnitude
Q02 ⎛ 4a3 d 3 1 ⎞
⎜ + ⎟
4πε 0 ⎝ (d 4 − a 4 )2 4d 2 ⎠
Fig. 3.19 A point charge Q0 in front of an infinite conducting plane at V = 0 and having
a hemispherical boss of radius a.
Sol. The image of Q0 at A, due to the conducting plane, is at A¢ and its value is Q¢, such that
Q¢ = Q0 and OA¢ = OA = d, so that the plane part of the conducting plane is at zero potential.
Due to the hemispherical boss, the image of Q0 at A would be Q1 at A1, such that OA1 =
a2/d and Q1 = Q0a/d so that the boss will be at zero potential.
But now that there are two point charges at A1 and A¢, it can be checked that this conducting
plane with the boss cannot be maintained at zero potential by the combined effect of the source
charge Q0 at A and these two image charges.
So, we need another point image charge Q¢1 at A¢1, such that
a2 Q0 a
OA1′ = and Q1′ = +
d d
Hence the force on Q0 at A1 due to these three image charges will be
1 ⎧⎪ Q0 (− Q0 ) Q0 (− Q0 a/d ) Q0 ( + Q0 a/d ) ⎫⎪
FT = ⎨ + + ⎬
4πε 0 ⎩⎪ AA′
2
AA21 AA1′2 ⎭⎪
where AA¢ = 2 × OA = 2d
a2 d 2 − a2
AA1 = OA OA1 = d =
d d
a2 d 2 + a2
and AA¢1 = OA + OA1′ = d + =
d d
1 ⎧ − Q02 − Q02 ( a/d )d 2 Q02 (a/d )d 2 ⎫

\ FT = ⎨ + + 2 ⎬
4πε 0 ⎩ (2d ) 2 (d 2 − a 2 ) 2 (d + a 2 )2 ⎭
Q02 ⎧ 1 ad ad ⎫
= ⎨− 2 − 2 + 2 2 2⎬
4πε 0 ⎩ 4d (d − a )
2 2
(d + a ) ⎭
Q02 ⎧ 1 ad{(d 2 + a 2 )2 − (d 2 − a 2 )2 } ⎫
= ⎨ − − ⎬
4πε 0 ⎩ 4d
2
(d 4 − a 4 ) 2 ⎭
Q02 ⎧ 4a3 d 3 1 ⎫
= − ⎨ + ⎬
4πε 0 ⎩ ( d 4 − a 4 ) 2 4d 2 ⎭
The negative sign indicates the attractive force towards the conducting plate.
3.27 In Problem 3.26, write down the equation to the lines of force and show that the line which
meets the conducting plane at r = a, i.e. the point of junction with the hemispherical boss, will
⎧⎪ 2(d 2 − a 2 ) ⎫⎪
leave the charge Q0 at A at an angle cos1 ⎨1 − ⎬ with the axis of symmetry.
⎩⎪ d d + a ⎭⎪
2 2
Sol. The equation to lines of force is
∑ Q cos θ i i = constant
where qi is the solid angle subtended by the respective charges at the vertices to the circle of
the point under consideration. In the present problem, referring to Fig. 3.19 of Problem 3.26,
we consider qi as the angle subtended by the four point charges at A, A1, A¢1 and A¢ subtending
the angles at the point P(x, y).
Q0 ( x − d ) (− Q0 a/d ) ( x − a 2 /d ) (+ Q0 a/d ) ( x + a 2 /d ) (− Q0 ) ( x + d )
\ + + + = C
(x − d ) + y
2 2
( x − a /d ) + y
2 2 2
( x + a /d ) + y
2 2 2
( x + d )2 + y 2
For a specific line of force, C has to be evaluated. The line of force of interest to us, is the one
meeting the conducting plane at y = a.
\ For x = 0, y = a,
Q0 (− d ) (− Q0 a/d ) (− a 2 /d ) (Q0 a/d )(a 2 /d ) (− Q0 ) (d )

C = + + +
(− d ) 2 + a 2 (− a 2 /d )2 + a 2 (a 2 /d )2 + a 2 d 2 + a2
− 2Q0 d 2Q0 (a 3 /d 2 )d −2Q0 d ⎛ a2 ⎞ 2Q0 d 2 − a 2

= + = ⎜ 1 − ⎟ = −
d 2 + a2 a d 2 + a2 d 2 + a2 ⎝ d2 ⎠ d d 2 + a2
We need to find the intersection of this line with the source point, i.e. x = d, y = 0. Hence, we
get
− Q0 a ⎞ ⎛ Q0 a ⎞ ⋅ 1 + (− Q ) ⋅ 1 = − 2Q0 d − a
2 2
Q0 ⋅ 0 + ⎛⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ 0
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ d d 2 + a2
Now, the tangent to this line of force at (x = d, y = 0) would be of the form y = mx + c, which
gives m = c/d.
In this case, this will be
⎧⎪ 2 (d 2 − a 2 ) ⎫⎪
cos −1 ⎨1 − ⎬
⎪⎩ d d 2 + a 2 ⎪⎭
as this is the angle made with the negative direction of x-axis, i.e. cos (p q ).
3.28 An earthed conductor consists of a plane sheet lying in the yz-plane with a spherical boss of
radius a centred at the origin, and the region below the xz-plane is filled with a material of
relative permittivity er. A point charge Q0 is located at (x0, y0, z0) such that x02 + y02 + z02 = b2 ,
where b > a. Find the images of the system.
Sol. See Fig. 3.20. There will be seven images and they will be:
Fig. 3.20 The earthed conductor with spherical boss and the point charge and the region of different permittivity.
Q0 at (x0, y0, z0) source Q0′ at (x0, y0, z0)
Q0 at (x0, y0, z0) − Q0′ at (x0, y0, z0)
aQ0 ⎧⎪⎛ a ⎞2 2 2
⎫⎪ aQ0′ ⎧⎪⎛ a ⎞2 2 2
⎫⎪
at ⎨⎜ ⎟ x0 , ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ y0 , ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ z0 ⎬ at ⎨⎜ ⎟ x0 , − ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ y0 , ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ z0 ⎬
a a a a
− −
b ⎩⎪⎝ b ⎠ ⎝b⎠ ⎝b⎠ ⎪⎭ b ⎩⎪⎝ b ⎠ ⎝b⎠ ⎝b⎠ ⎪⎭
aQ0 ⎧⎪ ⎛ a ⎞2 2 2
⎫⎪ aQ0′ ⎪⎧ ⎛ a ⎞2 2 2
⎪⎫
at ⎨− ⎜ ⎟ x0 , − ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ y0 , ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ z0 ⎬
a a
at ⎨ − ⎜ ⎟ x0 , ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ y0 , ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ z0 ⎬
a a +
b ⎩⎪ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝b⎠ ⎝b⎠ ⎪⎭ b ⎪⎩ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝b⎠ ⎝b⎠ ⎪⎭
1 − εr
and Q0′ = Q0
1 + εr
The details of the intermediate steps are left as an exercise for the students.
3.29 A line charge Q1 per unit length runs parallel to a grounded conducting corner (right-angled)
and is equidistant (= a) from both the planes. Show that the resultant force on the line charge is
Q12
− per unit length
4 2πε 0 a
and is directed along the shortest line joining the point (of the line charge) and the corner.
Sol. See Fig. 3.21. To consider the effects of the conducting corner, we need to consider the
effects of the image line charges. In this case, there will be three image charges A1, A2, A3 as
shown in Fig. 3.21. So, we consider each force in turn.
Fig. 3.21 A line charge Q1 per unit length at the point A in a conducting corner shown with its images.
\ Force on Q1 at A, due to its image Q1 at A1 is given by
Q12
directed along AA1 in the negative x-direction
4πε 0 a
Force on Q1 at A, due to its image Q1 at A2 is given by
Q1
directed along AA2 in the negative y-direction
4πε 0 a
Since the force due to A3 will be directed along the diagonal AA3, we take the components of
the two forces calculated so far along this direction, which will add up, whereas the two
components in the orthogonal direction will cancel out each other.
\ The resultant force on A, due to the images at A1 and A2 is given by
Q12 1 Q12 1
+
4πε 0 a 2 4πε 0 a 2
Q12
directed along AA3 towards the centre
2 2πε 0 a
The force on the charge Q1 at A, due to + Q1 at A3 ( AA3 = 2 2a) is given by

Q12
directed along AA3 away from the corner
4 2πε 0 a
\ The resultant force on the charge Q1 at A due to all the three images or the effects of the
corner is given by
Q12 Q12
−
2 2πε 0 a 4 2πε 0 a
Q12
= directed along the diagonal and towards the corner.
4 2πε 0 a
3.30 Using Eqs. (4.182) and (4.190) of the textbook ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications,
2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, discuss the salient points of difference when a
line charge Q per unit length is placed at a distance b from the centre of an infinitely long
conducting cylinder of radius R and a point charge Q is placed at the same distance b from the
centre of a conducting sphere of radius R (both the conducting cylinder and the sphere are
earthed, and the medium is air, so that the permittivity is e0).
Sol. For the conducting cylinder

When the cylinder is isolated, the images of the line charge (Q per unit length) will be an
image charge of magnitude Q at the inverse point, whose distance from the centre of the
cylinder will be R2/b and another image of line charge +Q at the centre of the cylinder. The
conducting cylinder, since it is isolated, acquires a potential but has no charge on it (why?).
When the conducting cylinder is earthed, the potential of the cylinder becomes zero, and so
the charge at the centre has to vanish (= 0) and the image charge at the inverse point will have
the magnitude Q.
For the conducting sphere
When it is earthed, the image charge will be QR/b, located at the inverse point with respect
to the location of the source point charge, the distance of the image point from the centre of
the sphere being R2/b. The magnitude of the induced charge on the sphere will be the same as
the magnitude of the image charge.
When the sphere is not earthed because it has been given a charge Qs, then there will be another
image (in addition to QR/b at the inverse point), located at the centre and its magnitude will
⎛ QR ⎞
be ⎜ Qs − ⎟.
⎝ b ⎠
3.31 A high voltage coaxial cable consists of a single conductor of radius Ri, and a cylindrical metal
sheath of radius Ro (Ro > Ri) with a homogeneous insulating material between the two.
Since the cable is very long compared to its diameter, the end effects can be neglected, and
hence the potential distribution in the dielectric can be considered to be independent of the
position along the cable. Write down the Laplaces equation for the potential in the circular-
cylinder coordinates and state the boundary conditions for the problem. Solving the Laplaces
equation, show that the potential distribution in the dielectric is
VS ln ( Ro /r )
V=
ln ( Ro /Ri )
and hence find the capacitance per unit length of the cable. Note that VS is the applied (supply)
voltage on the inner conductor of radius Ri.
Sol. See Fig. 3.22. For this problem, the Laplaces equation simplifies to a one-dimensional
equation, as there is no f or z variation. Hence,
d 2V 1 dV
+ = 0
dr 2 r dr
whose general solution will be
V = A ln r + B
where A and B are constants of integration to be evaluated by using the boundary conditions,
which are:
(i) at r = Ri, V = VS
(ii) at r = Ro, V = 0
Fig. 3.22 Section of coaxial cable. The outer metal sheath is earthed.
Substitution of the boundary conditions in the solution gives
− VS VS
A = , B = ln Ro
ln ( Ro /ri ) ln ( Ro /Ri )
\ The solution (of potential) of the problem is
ln ( Ro /r )
V = VS
ln (Ro /Ri )
The electric field strength at any point r is given by
∂V V 1
E = − grad V = − i r = ir
∂r ln ( Ro /Ri ) r
Since we need the charge per unit length of the cable to calculate the capacitance
ε 0ε r V
D = ε 0ε r E = i r
r ⋅ ln ( Ro /Ri )
To calculate the charge on the cable, we use Gauss theorem on the inner conductor at r = Ri.
ε 0ε rV
Q = ∫∫ D ⋅ dS = Ri ln ( Ro /Ri )
⋅ 2π Ri l
over a length l of the cable.

Q ε 0ε r l
\ The capacitance for a length l of the cable, Cl = = .
V ln ( Ro /Ri )
\ For a unit length, l = 1.
ε 0ε r
Hence, C=
ln ( Ro /Ri )
3.32 A polystyrene cylinder of circular cross-section has a radius R and axial length 2l. Both ends
are maintained at zero potential. An electric potential V is applied on the cylindrical surface as
πz
V = V0 cos
2l
Sol. In this case, the Laplaces equation for the potential will be
∂ 2V 1 ∂V ∂ 2V
∇ 2V = + + 2 = 0
∂r 2 r ∂r ∂z
and the boundary conditions, choosing the origin of the coordinate system at the mid-point of
the cylinder, are:
(i) z = l, V = 0
(ii) z = l, V = 0
πz
(iii) r = R, V = f (z) = V0 cos
2l
Since the non-zero potential boundary in this problem is on the cylindrical surface, it will be
found (mathematically) that the solution will be such that the z-variation will be satisfied by
orthogonal functions, i.e. trigonometric functions in this case. Hence, the Bessels equation for
r variable will be of the modified type, i.e. I0(kr) or J0( jkr). The terms containing Y0( jkr) or
K0(kr) cannot exist in this problem as these functions tend to ¥ as r tends 0. Hence, the solution
will be of the form
nπ z ⎞ ⎛ nπ r ⎞
V = C ⋅ cos ⎛⎜ ⎟ ⋅ J0 ⎜ j ⎟
⎝ 2l ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
By using the boundary conditions, we will get
nπ r ⎞
∞ J0 ⎛ j
nπ z ⎝ 2l ⎠
V = ∑ n =1
Cn cos
2l ⎛ nπ a ⎞
,
J0 j
⎝ 2l ⎠
+l
1 nπ z πz
where Cn =
l ∫
−l
f ( z ) cos
2l
dz, f ( z ) = V0 cos
2l
.
The evaluation of Cn and the final form of the solution is left as an exercise for the students.
Note: This problem is repeat of Problem 3.10, but has been solved in a very compact manner
now.
3.33 The electric potential distribution in a metal strip of uniform thickness and constant width a,
and extending to infinity from y = 0 to y ® ¥, is obtained as
πy⎞ ⎛ π x ⎞.
V = V0 exp ⎛⎜ − ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠
Show the coordinate system (with reference to the plate) used and find the boundary conditions
used for the above potential distribution.
Sol. See Fig. 3.23. The boundary conditions are:
(i) at x = 0, V = 0
(ii) at x = a, V = 0
πx
(iii) at y = 0, V = V0 sin
a
(iv) at y ® ¥, V = 0.
Fig. 3.23 The metal strip of constant width.
Using these boundary conditions, solve the Laplaces equation in the Cartesian coordinate
system, and check the given expression for the electric potential as a solution of the Laplaces
equation.
1
3.34 Prove that ∇ 2 = − 4πδ (r )
r
1
Sol. Let f (r) = ∇ 2
r
Integrating this function over a specified volume v, we get
⎛ 1⎞
I = ∫∫∫ ∫∫∫ ⎜⎝ ∇
2
f (r ) dv = ⎟ dv
r⎠
v v
È 1Ø
= w
ÔÔ Ê ³ r Ú ¹ dS
S
(by Gauss theorem)
where S is the closed surface enclosing the volume v.

In the spherical polar coordinate system, this integral becomes
1 2
I= w
ÔÔ
S
r2
r sin R dR d G w
ÔÔ sin R dR dG
⎧0, if the point r = 0 is not inside the closed surface S
= ⎨
⎩ − 4π , if the point r = 0 is inside the closed surface S
Thus, it is seen that the function f (r) satisfies the criteria of generalized function, which in this
case is the Dirac-delta function.
1
\ ∇2 = − 4πδ (r )
|r|
3.35 There are two unequal capacitors C1 and C2 (C1 ¹ C2) which are both charged to the same
potential difference V. Then, the positive terminal of one of them is connected to the negative
terminal of the other. Then, the remaining two outermost ends are shorted together.
(i) Find the final charge on each capacitor.
(ii) What will be the loss in the electrostatic energy?
Sol. The initial charges on the two capacitors will be C1V and C2V, i.e. Qi = C1V + C2V.
After connection, the total charge on the capacitors will be Qf = (C1 C2)V.
(C1 − C2 ) VC1
\ The final charge on C1 =
C1 + C2
(C1 − C2 ) VC2
and the final charge on C2 = ,
C1 + C2
1
The electrostatic energy before the connection, Wi = (C + C2)V2.
2 1
1 Q 2f (C − C2 ) 2 V 2
The electrostatic energy after the connection, Wf = = 1
2 (C1 + C2 ) 2 (C1 + C2 )
\ Loss of energy due to this connection is
V2
W i Wf =
2 (C1 + C2 )
{
(C1 + C2 )2 − (C1 − C2 ) 2 }
2V 2C1C2
=
C1 + C2
Note: Compare this problem with the results of Problem 2.7.
3.36 A capacitor consists of two concentric metal shells of radii r1 and r2, where r2 > r1. The outer
shell is given a charge Q0 and the inner shell is earthed. What would be the charge on the inner
shell?
Sol. Let the charge on the inner shell be Qi.
Due to the charge Q0 on the outer shell of radius r2,
Q0
the potential of the inner shell would be =
4πε 0 r2
Qi
The potential of the inner shell due to the charge Qi on it =
4πε 0 r1
Qi Q0
\ The resulting potential of the inner shell = +
4πε 0 r1 4πε 0 r2
The resulting potential is zero, when the inner shell is connected to the earth.
Qi Q0
\ + = 0
4πε 0 r1 4πε 0 r2
r1
\ Qi = − Q0
r2
3.37 A spherically symmetrical potential distribution is given as
1
V (r ) = exp (− λ r )
r
Find the charge distribution which would produce this potential field.
Sol. We have to consider the Poissonian field for the potential as we are interested in the
charge distribution. Since the potential field is a function of r only, we need to consider the one-
dimensional Laplacian operator in r in the spherical polar coordinate system, i.e.
1 d2 ρ
Ñ 2V = {rV (r )} = − C
r dr 2
ε0
\ rC(r) = −
ε0 d 2
r dr 2 { 1
r ⋅ exp (− λ r )
r }
ε0 2
= −
r
{λ exp (− λ r )}, for r ≠ 0
exp (− λ r ) 1
For r ® 0, V (r) = →
r r
1
\ Ñ2 = 4pd (r) as proved in Problem 3.34
r
ε λ 2 exp (− λ r )
\ r (r) = 4pd (r) 0
r
Note: As r ® 0, only d (r) would contribute to the total charge.
3.38 A capacitor is made of two concentric cylinders of radii r1 and r2 (r1 < r2) and is of axial length
l such that l >> r2. The gap between these two cylinders from r = r1 to r = r3 = r1r2 is filled
with a circular dielectric cylinder of same axial length l and of relative permittivity er, the
remaining part of the gap being air.
(i) Find the capacitance of the system.
(ii) Find the values of E, P and D at a radius r in the dielectric (r1 < r < r3) as well as in the
air-gap (r3 < r < r2).
(iii) What is the amount of mechanical work required to be done in order to remove the
dielectric cylinder, while maintaining a constant potential difference between r1 and r2?
(Assume a potential difference of V between r1 and r2).
Sol. (i) Let the charge per unit length on the inner cylinder (of radius r1) be l.
\ By Gauss theorem, we get
M
w
ÔÔ E
S
r dS
F0
where the surface S is defined as a cylinder of radius r and of unit length. Since Er is a function
of r only, we have
λ
Er =
2πε r
Hence the potential difference between the two cylinders is given by
r
2
λ ⎛ 1 r3 r ⎞
V Ô E dr =
r
r
2πε 0 ⎜⎝ ε r
ln + ln 2 ⎟
r1 r3 ⎠
1
λ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ r2 ⎞
=
2πε 0 ⎜ ε + 1⎟ ln ⎜ r ⎟ , as r3 = r1r2
⎝ r ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
λl 2πε 0 l
\ The capacitance, C = =
V ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ r2 ⎞
⎜ ε + 1⎟ ln ⎜ r ⎟
⎝ r ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
2πε 0V
\ The charge density, l =
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ r2 ⎞
⎜ ε + 1⎟ ln ⎜ r ⎟
⎝ r ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
(ii) \ From Gauss theorem, we get
λ λ
E= , for r1 < r < r3 and E = , for r3 < r < r2
2πε 0ε r r 2πε 0 r
and D in the dielectric medium,
λ
D= , r1 < r < r 2
2π r
and the polarization,

(ε r − 1) λ
P = D e 0E = , for r1 < r < r3 and P = 0, for r3 < r < r2
2πε r r
(iii) When the potential difference has to be maintained at a constant value, an external source
of charge has to be provided.
When the dielectric cylinder is removed, the capacitance of the system will be C ¢, such that
2πε 0l
C¢ =
⎛r ⎞
ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ r1 ⎠
1 1
The required work = C ¢V 2 CV 2 = (Q¢ Q)V
2 2
where Q ¢ is the final total charge on one cylinder.
V2
\ Work needed = (C C ¢), since Q ¢ = C ¢V and Q = CV
2
V2
2πε 0l ⎧⎪ ⎫
1 1
= − ⎪
2 ⎨ ⎛ + 1⎞ ln
1 ⎛ r2 ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞
2 ⎬
⎪ ⎜⎝ ε ⎟ ⎜ r ⎟ 2 ln ⎜ ⎟⎪
⎩ r ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ r1 ⎠ ⎭
⎧ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎫
⎪ 2 − ⎜ + 1⎟ ⎪
⎪ ⎝ ε ⎠ ⎪
= V 2πε 0 l ⎨ r
⎬
⎪ 2 ⎛ 1 + 1⎞ ln ⎛ r2 ⎞⎪
⎪⎩ ⎝⎜ ε r ⎠⎟ ⎜⎝ r1 ⎟⎠ ⎪
⎭
(ε r − 1) πε 0lV 2
=
⎛r ⎞
(ε r + 1) ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ r1 ⎠
3.39 A conducting sphere of radius a is earthed and a point charge Q is placed at a point P at a
distance b from its centre such that b > a. If P ¢ is the inverse point of P with respect to the
sphere, and the surface of the sphere is divided into two parts by an imaginary plane through
the point P ¢ normal to PP ¢, then show that the ratio of the surface charge on the two parts of
the sphere is given by
b+a
.
b−a
Sol. We use the method of images, and hence the field outside the sphere can be taken as due
to the real source charge Q at P, and due to an image charge − Q′ = − Q (a/b) at the inverse
point P¢ (Fig. 3.24).
Fig. 3.24 Earthed conducting sphere and the point charge Q at P.
We consider an arbitrary point A on the surface of the sphere. The surface flux density D on
the sphere would be equal to the surface charge density at the point under consideration. Hence,
the normal component of D at the point A is
Q ⎛−r⎞ ⎛ Qa ⎞ 1 ⎛ r′ ⎞ ⋅ n
Dn = 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⋅n + ⎜− ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
4π r ⎝ r ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ 4π r ′2 ⎝ r ′ ⎠
where n is the unit normal vector.
The two scalar products would be
a
r × n = (b cos q a) and r¢ × n = (b a cos q )
b
a2 2
and r¢2 = (b + a2 2ab cos q )
b2
Q b2 − a 2 1
\ Dn = − = σ S , the surface charge density.
4π a (b + a − 2ab cos θ )3/ 2
2 2
Hence, the charge on the surface to the right of the plane through P¢ is
θ1
−
Q b2 − a2
4π a ∫
2π a ⋅ a sin θ dθ
(b + a − 2ba cos θ )
2 2 3/ 2
= −
Q
2b
{
(b + a ) − b 2 − a 2 , cos θ1 = }
a
b
0
Qa
The total charge on the sphere = the image charge = − .
b
\ The charge to the left of the plane through P¢
= −
Qa Q
b
+
2b
{
(b + a) − b 2 − a 2 } = 2Qb {(b − a) − b2 − a 2 }
b+a
\ The ratio of the two charges will be .
b−a
3.40 Show that the capacitance between the two parallel cylinders (per unit length) is
−1
⎡ ⎛ D 2 − R12 − R22 ⎞ ⎤
C = 2πε ⎢cosh −1 ⎜ ⎟⎥ ,
⎣ ⎝ 2 R1 R2 ⎠⎦
where R1 and R2 are the radii of the cylinders and D is the distance between their centres.
Sol. See Fig. 3.25. We have seen that the equipotentials for infinitely long line charges are
coaxial cylinders. Also, in Problem 3.8, we have derived the expression for the potential of a
line charge which is not located at the origin of the coordinate system.
R2
R1
Fig. 3.25 Two parallel circular cylinders.
When the line charge (Q/unit length) is located at the origin, the potential is
Q
V = − ln r
2πε 0
Q
which is the real part of − ln z ,
2πε 0
where z = x + jy = r cos q + jr sin q
= re jq
\ Using the complex variables conjugate functions,
Q
W = U + jV = − ln z
2πε 0
Q jQθ
= − ln r −
2πε 0 2πε 0
Q ln ( x + jy ) Q ln ( x 2 + y 2 )1/ 2 jQ tan −1 ( y/x)
= − = − −
2πε 0 2πε 0 2πε 0
\ We can generalize and say that when there are n charges Q1, Q2, ..., Qn at the points
z1, z2, ..., zn, then
∑ Q ln ( z − z )
1
W = − i i
2πε 0 i =1
Since our interest is in the problem of two cylinders, we consider two line charges ±Q at the
points z = +a and z = a, respectively.
Q z + ja
\ We have W= ln
2πε 0 z − ja
j 2 ⋅ tan −1 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
Q a
=
2πε 0 ⎝z⎠
j 2 cot −1 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
Q z
=
2πε 0 ⎝a⎠
To simplify the mathematical manipulations, we set Q = 2pe0.
Then, we get
⎛W ⎞ U + jV
z = a cot ⎜ ⎟ = a cot
⎝2j⎠ 2j
a sin (U/j ) + a sin V
=
cos (U/j ) − cos V
Separating the real and the imaginary parts, we obtain
a sin V a sinh U
x = , y =
cosh U − cos V cosh U − cos V
Eliminating V from these two equations, we get
x2 + y2 2ay coth U + a2 = 0
or x2 + ( y a coth U )2 = a2 cosech2U (i)
Thus, equipotentials are a set of circles with centres on the y-axis.
On the other hand, eliminating U from the expressions for x and y, we get
x2 2ax cot V + y2 a2 = 0
or (x a cot V )2 + y2 = a2 cosec2V
i.e. the lines of force are also a set of circles with centres on the x-axis and all of them pass
through the points y = ±a on the y-axis.
Now, we consider the problem of two cylinders at potentials (say) U1 and U2. Then, the
capacitance will be
2πε
C=
U 2 − U1
From Eq. (i), we get
R1 a cosec U1 , R2 a cosec U 2
and D a coth U1 coth U 2 ,

when the two cylinders are outside each other as shown in Fig. 3.25.
Now, cosh(U2 U1) = cosh U2 cosh U1 ± sinh U 2 sinh U1
= coth U 2 coth U1 1 sinh U 2 sinh U1
Î 1
= Ï coth U 2 coth U1 (coth U 2 cosech U 2 )
2 2
Ð 2

1
2 `
(coth 2 U1 – cosech 2 U1 ) sinh U1 sinh U 2
coth U 2 coth U1 B cosech 2 U1 B cosech 2 U 2

2
=
2 cosech U1 cosech U 2
Hence substituting the values of D, R1 and R2, we get
D 2 − R12 − R22
cosh(U 2 − U1 ) = ±
2 R1 R2
\ The capacitance per unit length between the two cylinders is
−1
⎧ ⎛ D 2 − R12 − R22 ⎞ ⎫
C = 2πε ⎨cosh −1 ⎜ ⎟⎬
⎩ ⎝ 2 R1 R2 ⎠⎭
3.41 A line charge having a charge of Q units/unit length is positioned parallel to the axis of a
circular cylinder of radius a and permittivity e = e0 er. The distance of the line from the axis of
the cylinder is c (c > a). Show that the force on the line charge per unit length is
ε r − 1 . Q2 . a2
.
ε r + 1 2πε 0 c (c 2 − a 2 )
Sol. The effect of the dielectric on the line charge can be reproduced by considering the
images of the line in the cylinder, one image being located at the inverse point with respect to
the position of the line charge. See Fig. 3.26. Once the image charges have been obtained then
it is a matter of finding the force between these three charged lines.
Fig. 3.26 Line charge at A and the parallel dielectric cylinder.
The image of the line charge Q/unit length at A, due to the dielectric cylinder will be at B, such that
a2 ,
OA × OB = a2, so that OB OA = c and the magnitude of the charge (image) will be Q
c
F 0F r F 0 ε0εr − ε0 .
Q. and one more image at the centre of the cylinder, of charge, Q ′′ = Q
F 0F r F 0 ε0ε r + ε0
\ Force on the line charge at A due to the dielectric cylinder
+Q 2 ε r − 1 −Q 2 ε r − 1
= +
⎛ a 2 ⎞ ε r + 1 2πε 0 c ε r + 1
2πε 0 ⎜⎜ c − ⎟
⎝ c ⎟⎠
εr − 1 Q2 ⎡ c 1 ⎤ εr − 1 Q 2 a2
= ⎢ − ⎥ = .
ε r + 1 2πε0 ⎣ c 2 − a 2 c ⎦ ε r + 1 2πε0 c (c 2 − a 2 )
3.42 A line charge Q/unit length is located vertically in a vertical hole of radius a in a dielectric block
of permittivity, e = e0 er. The line charge is at a distance c (c < a) from the centre of the hole.
Show that the force per unit length pulling the line charge towards the wall is
εr − 1 c Q2
.
ε r + 1 2πε 0 ( a 2 − c 2 )
Sol. In this problem, the source line charge is located inside the cylindrical hole. See
Fig. 3.26(a). Since our region of interest is inside the hole, we need to consider the image of
the line charge located at the inverse point (which would be of course outside the hole). If our
interest had been outside the hole, then of course there would be another image located at the
centre of the hole, which we do not need to consider for the present problem.
Fig. 3.26(a) Cylindrical hole of radius a in the dielectric block

and the line charge Q/unit length located at the point A.
The source line charge is at A and the image line charge is at B which is the inverse point of A
with respect to the circular hole of radius a.
a2 a2 a2 − c2
OA = c, \ OB = \ AB = −c=
c c c
ε0 εr − ε0
Magnitude of the image charge = Q.
ε0 εr + ε0
\ Force on the line charge at A due to its image at B
⎛ ε −1⎞ 1
= Q2 ⎜ r ⎟
⎝ ε r + 1 ⎠ 2πε a − c
2 2
0
c
Fr 1 c Q2
Its direction = ?
F r 1 2QF 0 (a 2 c 2 )
3.43 A hollow cylinder of finite axial length, enclosed by conducting surfaces on the curved side as
well as the flat ends is defined by r = a, z = + c. The whole surface is earthed except for the
two disk-shaped areas at the top and the bottom bounded by r = b (b < a) which are charged
to potentials +V0 and V0, respectively. Show that the potential inside the cylindrical enclosure
is given by
2bV0 sinh( Nk z ) J1 ( Nk b) J 0 ( Nk r ) .
V Ç
a2 k 1 Nk sinh( Nk c) ^ J1 ( Nk a)`2
where J0(mk a) = 0.
Sol. See Fig. 3.27.
Fig. 3.27 Cylindrical box of finite axial length and the potential distribution on the top end.
This is a two-dimensional, axi-symmetric, cylindrical geometry problem, i.e. in terms of Bessel

functions. The curved surface (r = a) is at zero potential, and the two flat ends, z = + c have
non-zero potential distributions along the variable r. Hence the orthogonal function must be in
the r-variable, i.e. Jn(kz r) type and hence the z-variable function would be non-orthogonal
hyperbolic functions of z. Since it is an axi-symmetric problem, the Bessel function will be of
zero-order only (i.e. no f variation n = 0). Also, since on the surface r = a, V = 0 and on the
axis z = 0, the potential is finite, Yn(kzr) terms will not exist, and the z-variable function will be
sinh (kzz) only.
Note: All these points could have been also derived if the most general solution of the Laplaces
equation was written down, and each boundary condition was applied step by step. But by using
the physical arguments, the solution can be written down quickly and the laborious process
shortened thereby. Hence the solution for the potential can be written down in the form
V = ∑ Ak sinh( μk z ) J 0 ( μk r )
(A)
k
where mk has been written in place of kz.

Further more we really need to consider only half the axial length of the cylinder, i.e. z = 0 to
z = +c, because from z = 0 to z = c, there would be inverted symmetry due to the boundary
conditions on the two ends (z = + c), the result being that on the plane z = 0, the potential would
be V = 0. Thus for the region z = 0 to z = + c, the boundary conditions then are
z = 0, V=0 (i)
z = +c, V = V0 for r = 0 to r = b
(ii)
=0 for r = b to r = a, a>b
r = a, V=0 for z = 0 to z = + c (iii)
The solution would get simplified, if we rewrite the general solution in the form
sinh ( μk z ) J 0 ( μk r )
V = ∑ Ak (B)
k sinh ( μk c)
It should be noted that even if the above form {i.e. Eq. (B)} was not assumed, the expression
(A) would reduce to this form when the boundary conditions are applied. To keep the solution
general at the early stages, we will write the boundary condition (ii) in a more general form,
i.e.
at z = + c, V = f (r) (iv)
where f (r) takes the form given in the boundary condition (ii).
To evaluate the unknowns mk and Ak, we use the boundary conditions. The boundary condition
(i) is automatically satisfied because of the way the expression for the solution has been written
down.
The boundary condition (iii) gives
Ak sinh (mkz) J0 (mka) = 0 for all z. (v)
\ J0 (mka) = 0 (vi)
Thus the boundary condition (iii) is satisfied by selecting values of (mka) which are roots of
Eq. (vi).
Next, from the boundary condition (ii) or (iv) at this stage
∞
V = ∑ Ak J 0 ( μk r ) = f (r ) (vii)
k =1
To evaluate Ak , we multiply each term by (ml r) J0 (ml r) and integrate w.r.t. r within the limits
0 to a.
Since J0(mkr) and J0(mlr) are orthogonal on (0, a) w.r.t. the weighting function r, then
∫ r J 0 (μk r ) J 0 (μl r ) dr = 0 for k ≠ l (viii)

0
And for k = l, the integral becomes

a
a2 ⎡
∫ r {J 0 (μk r )} dr =
2
{J 0 ( μk a)}2 + {J1 ( μk a}2 ⎤⎦
0
2 ⎣
a2
= {J1 ( μk a)}2 , since J0(mka) = 0 (ix)
2
a
2
\ Ak =
a 2 {J ( μk a )}
2 ∫r f ( r ) J 0 ( μk r ) dr (x)
0
Substituting for f (r) from the boundary condition (ii),

a b
∫ r f (r ) J 0 (μk r ) dr = V0 ∫ r J 0 (μk r ) dr (xi)

0 0
b V0
= J1 ( μk b)
μk
2bV0 J1 ( μk b)
\ Ak = (xii)
μk {J ( μk a)}
2 2
a
Hence the complete expression for the potential comes out to be

∞
2bV0 sinh ( μk z ) J1 ( μk b) J 0 ( μk r )
V = ∑ (xiii)
μk sinh ( μk c) {J1 ( μk a )}
2 2
a k =1
where J0(mka) = 0.
Note: This problem is same as Problem 3.21. It has been repeated here because it is solved in
a different manner.
3.44 The walls of a hollow cylindrical box of finite axial length are defined by r = a and z = + c.
The plane z = 0 bisects the box into two halves which are insulated from each other, and the
halves are charged to potentials +V0 and V0 (the half in the +ve z-region being at +V0)
respectively. Show that the potential distribution inside the box is given by
⎧ ⎛ nπ r ⎞ ⎫
⎪⎪ z 2 I0 ⎜ ⎟
⎛ nπ z ⎞ ⎪⎪
∞
⎝ c ⎠
V = V0 ⎨ + ∑ nπ a ⎞
sin ⎜
⎝ c ⎟⎠ ⎪
⎬
⎪c π n =1,2,... nI ⎛
0 ⎜
⎪⎩ ⎝ c ⎟⎠ ⎪⎭
and also can be expressed as
⎪⎧ 2 ∞ sinh {μk (c − z )} J 0 ( μk r ) ⎪⎫
V = ± V0 ⎨1 − ∑ μk sinh ( μk c) J1 ( μk a) ⎭⎪
⎬
⎩⎪ a k =1
where J0(mk a) = 0 and the sign of V is that of z.

Sol. In this problem all the boundaries have non-zero potentials, i.e.
z = + c, V = V0 0£r£a (i)
z = c, V = V0 0£r£a (ii)
r = a, V = +V0 c³z>0
(iii)
V = V0 0>z ³c
So, we break the problem into two sub-problems, i.e.
(A) z = + c, V = V0 0£r£a (iv)
z = c, V = V0 0£r£a (v)
r = a, V=0 c > z > c (vi)
(B) z = + c, V=0 0£r<a (vii)
z = c, V=0 0£r<a (viii)
r = a, V = +V0 c>z>0 (ix)
V = V0 0 > z > c
For both the answers, the problem will be solved in two stages. All these three problems are
axi-symmetric, and hence the Bessel functions will be zero order functions, whether they are
ordinary Bessel functions or modified Bessel functions.
First we solve the sub-problem (B). Since the z = const. boundaries are at zero potential and
the r = const. boundary has a non-zero potential, then the z-variable function will be an
orthogonal function, i.e. trigonometric function and so the r-variable function will be non-
orthogonal and hence modified Bessel function.
\ The z = variable solution will be of the type
A sin(kzz) + B cos(kzz) (x)
Since at z = + c, the z-function is zero and it changes sign passing through the origin (z = 0),
there will only be the sin(kzz) term.
For the r-function, since at r = 0, the potential has a finite value, there will be no term
containing K0 (kzr) and the function will contain the I0 (kzr) term only. Hence the general form
of the solution will be
V = ∑ Ak I 0 ( k z r ) sin( k z z )
kz
Applying the boundary conditions (vii) and (viii), we get

nπ ,
kz = n = 1, 3, 5, ..... (i.e. odd integers only)
c
∞
⎛ nπ r ⎞ ⎛ nπ z ⎞
\ V= ∑ An I 0 ⎜
⎝ c ⎠
⎟ sin ⎜
⎝ c ⎠
⎟ (xi)
n =1,3,5,...
Next we consider the boundary r = a. To evaluate An, we multiply both the sides of Eq. (xi) by
⎛ mπ z ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟ and integrate over the limits 0 to c (or c to + c), and since
⎝ c ⎠
c
⎛ mπ z ⎞ ⎛ nπ z ⎞
∫ sin ⎜⎝ c ⎠
⎟ sin ⎜
⎝ c ⎠
⎟ dz = 0 for m ≠ n (xii)
0
the only non-zero term we are left with is

c c
⎛ nπ a ⎞ 2 ⎛ nπ z ⎞ ⎛ nπ z ⎞
An I 0 ⎜ ⎟ ∫ sin ⎜ ⎟ dz = ∫ V0 sin ⎜ ⎟ dz (xiii)
⎝ c ⎠0 ⎝ c ⎠ 0 ⎝ c ⎠
+c c 0
⎛ nπ a ⎞ 2 ⎛ nπ z ⎞ ⎛ nπ z ⎞ ⎛ nπ z ⎞
or An I 0 ⎜ ⎟ ∫ sin ⎜ ⎟ dz = ∫ +V0 sin ⎜ ⎟ dz + ∫ −V0 sin ⎜ ⎟ dz (xiv)
⎝ c ⎠ −c ⎝ c ⎠ 0 ⎝ c ⎠ −c ⎝ c ⎠
Both these expressions give the same answer, which is

4
An =
⎛ nπ a ⎞ (xv)
nπ I 0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
Hence the potential distribution for the sub-problem B is
È nQ r Ø
I0 É
4 Ê c ÙÚ È nQ z Ø
V Ç
Q n 1,3,... È nQ a Ø
sin É
Ê c ÙÚ
(xvi)
n I0 É Ù
Ê c Ú
This can be re-written as
È nQ r Ø È nQ r Ø
I0 É
Ê c ÙÚ
I0 É
2
È nQ z Ø 2 Ê c ÙÚ nQ z
V Ç
Q n 1,3,... È nQ a Ø
sin É
Ê Ù
Ú

Q
Ç nQ a Ø
sin
n I0 É
c n 1,3,5,... n I È c
Ê c ÙÚ 0 É
Ê c ÙÚ
È nQ r Ø
I0 É
2 Ê c ÙÚ È nQ z Ø
Ç
Q n 1,2,... È nQ a Ø
sin É
Ê c ÙÚ (xvii)
n I0 É Ù
Ê c Ú
⎛ nπ r ⎞ ⎛ 2nπ r ⎞
Since ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ and so on, so that one of the summation signs can be considered
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ 2c ⎠
equivalent to be made up of even values of n (i.e. 2n, where n is an odd integer only).
Next, let us consider the solution of the sub-problem (A):

From the boundary conditions (iv) and (v), it is obvious that V is a linear function of z, i.e.
z,
V = V0 for the boundary z = + c ® V = +V0 (xviii)
c
\ The solution for the complete problem is
Î È nQ r Ø Þ
I0 É
ÑÑ z 2 Ê c ÙÚ È nQ z Ø ÑÑ
V V0 Ï Ç sin ÉÊ Ùß
n 1,2,... nI È nQ a Ø
Ñc Q c ÚÑ (xix)
0 É
ÑÐ Ê c ÙÚ àÑ
Note: It should be noted that Eq. (xviii) is also a solution of Laplaces equation, or this is a
Laplacian field as well.
For the second solution, we solve the sub-problem (A) using the Bessel function expression,
but change the limits of the boundary conditions slightly, which will now be:
(A¢) z = + c, V = +V0 0£r<a (xx)
z = c, V = V0 0£r<a (xxi)
r = a, V=0 c £ z £ +c (xxii)
(B¢) z = + c, V=0 0£r£a (xxiii)
z = c, V=0 0£r£a (xxiv)
r = a, V = +V0 c>z>0
(xxv)
V = V0 0 > z > c
The sub-problem (A¢ ) is nearly the same as Problem (3.43), except that on the planes
z = + c,
V = +V0 for 0 £ r < a
i.e. b of Problem 3.43 has been extended to a the whole of top and bottom covers of
the cylindrical box.
This change will modify the limits of the integral of Eq. (xi) of Problem (3.43) to 0 to a instead
of 0 to b.
Also, since the edges r = a, z = + c (the circles where the flat cover and the curved cylinders
meet) are at zero potential.
For this requirement, since the z-variable function is now of sinh kzz type (non-orthogonal
function in z, as the r-variable function Jn(mkr) is orthogonal now), to make the hyperbolic
function meet the edge potential requirement, the necessary function will be
sinh{mk(c z)} for z +ve,
and sinh{mk(c + z)} for z ve;
Or, combining the two, this function would be
sinh{mk(c | z | )} for all z.
\ Equation (xi) of Problem (3.43) now gets modified to

a a
∫ r f (r ) J 0 (μk r ) dr = V0 ∫ r J 0 (μk r ) dr
0 0
aV0
= J1 ( μ k a ) (xxvi)
μk
\ From Eq. (x) of Problem (3.43), the coefficient Ak is determined as
2aV0 J1 ( μk a)
Ak =
μk {J1 ( μk a)}
2 2
a
2V0 1
= (xxvii)
a μ k J1 ( μ k a )
\ The solution is now
2V0 ∞ sinh {μk (c − | z |)} J 0 ( μk r )
V =
a
∑ μk sinh( μk c) J1 ( μk a)
(xxviii)
k =1
It is to be further noted that since mk z has been replaced by mk (c | z |), the solution obtained
is the solution of the complement problem, and hence we further modify the problem (B¢) to its
complement, i.e. raise the potential of the whole region, i.e. above the z = 0 plane to +V0 and
below the z = 0 plane to V0 and subtract the complement solution of (A¢) from this potential
to obtain the final solution. Thus, the potential distribution is then obtained as
⎧ 2
⎪ ∞ {
sinh μk (c − z )} J 0 (μk r ) ⎫⎪
V = ± V0 ⎨1 − ∑ μk sinh( μk c) J1 ( μk a)
⎬ (xxix)
⎪⎩ a k =1 ⎪⎭
where J0(mka) = 0 and the sign of the above experssion is that of z.

3.45 A parallel plate capacitor has the electrodes at x = 0 and x = l. The potentials of these two plates
are 0 and V0 (= constant), respectively. In the gap between these plates, there is a charge
distribution which is given by
ρ ( x) = ρ0 exp (−α x)
Find the potential distribution in the gap, given that the permittivity of this space is e and the
end effects can be neglected.
Sol. Because of the charge distribution, the field in the gap between the plates is Poissonian
and since the end-effects are being neglected, it is a one-dimensional Poissons equation to be
solved, i.e.
d 2V ρ0
∇ 2V = =− exp (−α x)
dx 2
ε
(starting point is E = grad V = ÑV ).
The solution is of the form
ρ0
V =Ω− exp (−α x)
εα 2
The solution of the homogeneous equation (i.e. Laplaces equation) is
V = A + Bx
At x = 0, V=0 (i)
At x = l, V = V0 (ii)
The complete solution is
ρ0
V = A + Bx − exp ( −α x )
εα 2
Applying the boundary conditions:
ρ0
(i) At x = 0, V=0=A
εα 2
ρ0
\ A=
εα 2
ρ0
(ii) At x = l, V = V0 = A + Bl − exp (−α l )
εα 2
1⎧ ρ0 ⎫
\ B= ⎨V0 − A + 2 exp ( −α l ) ⎬
l⎩ εα ⎭
1Ë S S Û
= ÌV0 – 02 + 02 exp (–B l ) Ü
lÍ FB FB Ý
\ The potential distribution in the gap is
ρ0 1 ⎧ ρ ρ ⎫ ρ
V = + ⎨V0 − 02 + 02 exp ( −α l ) ⎬ x − 02 exp (−α x)
εα 2
l ⎩ εα εα ⎭ εα
V0 x ρ ⎡ x⎤
= + 02 ⎢{1 − exp (−α x)} − {1 − exp (−αl )} ⎥
l εα ⎣ l⎦
3.46 The hemispherical portion of a hollow conducting sphere is filled with a dielectric of unspecified
a
permittivity. A point charge Q is placed on the axis of symmetry at a distance from the plane
3
dielectric surface (a, being the radius of the hollow sphere). If this point charge does not experience
any force on it due to its images, prove that the permittivity of the dielectric is 1.541e0.
Sol. See Fig. 3.28.
Fig. 3.28 A hollow conducting sphere, half-filled with dielectric.
a.
The source charge Q is located at A such that OA = There will be three images to maintain
3
the conducting sphere at zero potential. (Refer to Problem 3.26 for detailed explanation.) The
three images are as follows: The first image is at B, the inverse point of A with respect to the
a2 a2
sphere, so that OB = 3a, and the magnitude of this image charge will be
OA a/3
a
Q1 = − Q = − 3Q
a/3
The second image will be of Q at A on the dielectric surface, located at C, such that OC = OA
a
= and its magnitude will be
3
ε0ε r − ε0 ε −1
Q2 = − Q=− r Q
ε0ε r + ε0 εr + 1
The third image will be the image of the image charge at B on the dielectric surface. It will
be located at D, such that
OB = OD = 3a, and the magnitude will be
⎧ ε ε − ε0 ⎫ ε −1
Q3 = − ⎨ 0 r ( −3Q ) ⎬ = + r 3Q
⎩ ε0ε r + ε0 ⎭ εr + 1
\ Force on Q at A, due to the image charges will be
1Ë 3Q 2 F r – 1 Q 2 F r – 1 3Q 2 Û
F Ì – Ü
4QF 0 Í AB 2 F r 1 AC 2 F r 1 AD 2 Ý
a 8a , 2a , a 10a .
where AB 3a AC AD 3a
3 3 3 3 3
It is required that this force be zero, i.e.
3 Fr 1 1 Fr 1 3
. . 0
È 8a Ø
2 F r 1 È 2a Ø 2 F r 1 È 10a Ø 2
ÉÊ ÙÚ ÉÊ ÙÚ ÉÊ Ù
3 3 3 Ú
The position of the point charges and the nature of the forces (attractive or repulsive) define
the signs of these terms.
3 εr − 1 ⎛ 1 3 ⎞
or − ⎜ − ⎟=0
64 ε r + 1 ⎝ 4 100 ⎠
3 22
or (ε r + 1) − (ε r − 1) = 0
64 100
or 300(er + 1) 1408(er 1) = 0
or 1108er = 1708
1708
\ εr = = 1.541
1108
\ Permittivity = 1.541e0.
3.47 A cylinder r = a is positioned on the earthed plane z = 0. The potential gradient along the
cylinder is uniform and at the earthed plane z = c, from which it is insulated, the cylinder has
the potential V0. Show that the potential between these two planes z = 0 and z = c outside the
cylinder is given by
È OQ S Ø
, É
7 Ê D ÙÚ È OQ [ Ø
7 Ç
O TJO É
Q È OQ B Ø O Ê D ÙÚ
O , É Ù
Ê D Ú
Sol. Since the zero potential boundaries are z = 0 and z = c, the orthogonal function will be
in z-variable, i.e. sin(kzz), and/or cos(kzz). As V = 0 for both z = 0 and z = c, sin(kzz) is the
preferred choice of function. Since the r-variable function is non-orthogonal, it will be the
modified Bessel function of zero order as there is no peripheral variation. Also the region of
interest is outside the cylinder r = a, going up to r ® ¥ where the potential will be zero. This
implies that the solution expression can contain only the modified Bessel function of the second
kind. So the general form of the solution will be
V = ∑ Ak z K 0 (k z r ) sin (k z z )
kz
Applying the boundary conditions on z = 0 and z = c, we have

sin kzc = 0 ® kzc = np, n = integer
nπ
\ kz =
c
\ The solution is of the form
∞
⎛ nπ r ⎞ ⎛ nπ z ⎞
V = ∑ An K 0 ⎜ ⎟⎠ sin ⎜⎝ ⎟
n =1
⎝ c c ⎠
The boundary condition on the surface r = a is that the potential gradient is uniform and at
z = c, the potential is V0 (a constant value)
z
\ V = V0 on r = a and 0 ≤ z ≤ c.
c
\ Applying this boundary condition, we get
z ∞ ⎛ nπ a ⎞ ⎛ nπ z ⎞
V0 = ∑ An K 0 ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
c n =1 ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
⎛ mπ z ⎞
To evaluate An, multiply both sides by sin ⎜ ⎟ and integrate over the limits z = 0 to z = c.
⎝ c ⎠
When the integration is done, we get: for all m ¹ n, integrals are zero, and for m = n
c c
V0 ⎛ nπ z ⎞ ⎛ nπ a ⎞ 2 ⎛ nπ z ⎞
c ∫ z sin ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠ dz = An K0 ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠ ∫ sin ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠ dz
0 0
c
⎛ nπ z ⎞ c
∫ sin ⎟ dz = , and
2
⎜
0 ⎝ c ⎠ 2
c 2
⎛ nπ z ⎞ n +1 ⎛ c ⎞
∫ z sin ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠ dz = (−1) π ⎜⎝ nπ ⎟⎠
0
Ref : Ô x sin x dx sin x x cos x
\ From
c c
V0 È nQ z Ø È nQ a Ø È nQ z Ø
c Ô z sin ÉÊ c ÙÚ dz An K0 É
Ê c Ú Ù Ô sin 2 É
Ê c ÙÚ
dz
0 0
2V0 (−1) n +1 .
we get An =
π ⎛ nπ a ⎞
nK 0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
\ The potential distribution is
È OQ S Ø È OQ [ Ø
, É TJO
7 O Ê D ÙÚ ÉÊ Ù
D Ú
7
Q Ç
È OQ B Ø

O
O , É
Ê D ÙÚ
3.48 The boundaries of a sector of a right circular cylinder are defined by r = a, f = 0, f = a,

z = 0 and z ® +¥. All the boundaries are at zero potential. A point charge Q0 is positioned
inside the sector at a point z = z0, r = b, f = r, where 0 < b < a and 0 < b < a. Show that the
potential is given by
È QQC Ø
+QQ N L C
TJO ÉÊ B ÙÚ
2 NL [ [ È QQG Ø
7
FB B ÇÇ B
Ë Û

F +QQ NL S
TJO É
Ê B ÙÚ
Q L B
NL Ì +QQ N L B
Ü
ÌÍ ÜÝ
B
where +QQ N
L B

B
Sol. There are some points of interest in this problem. The potential is not axi-symmetric and
it varies in the peripheral direction. Hence the order of the Bessel functions will not be zero.
So the Bessel functions used in the solution will be of higher orders. Since the axial length of
the enclosure is not finite, and as the potential tends to 0 as z approaches ¥, the z-variable
function will be of the type exp(kzz) which is a non-orthogonal function. For this three-
dimensional problem the functions in other two variables (r and f) will be orthogonal functions,
i.e. ordinary Bessel function in r and trigonometric function in f. The potential source is a point
charge at a point inside the enclosure whose all boundaries are at zero potential and hence a
three-dimensional Dirac-delta function could be used for the operating Poissons equation. But
since the Bessels functions involve two indices simultaneously, the solution cannot be written
in a triple infinite series in a simple manner as can be done for a similar problem in Cartesian
geometry (Ref. Problems 3.15 to 3.19, Problems 9.9 to 9.10). So we will derive the solution by
the method of Greens function.
The r-variable function will be Bessel function of the first kind and in this problem, there will
be no Ykf(kzr) as the potential is finite or zero at r = 0 and r = a. Again, as f = 0 and f = a
boundary planes are at zero potential, sin kff will suffice for the solution. As mentioned earlier,
since the potential vanishes as z ® ¥, the z-variable function will be of the type exp(kzz).
Furthermore, since the coordinates of the point charge are r = b, f = b and z = z0, the exact
z-function will take the form exp (kz | z z0 | ) as will be seen in the derivation. Thus the
solution will be of the form
V (r , φ , z ) = ∑ ∑ A J kφ (k z r ) sin (kφ φ ) exp (−k z z − z0 ) (i)

Since the planes f = 0 and f = a are zero-potential boundaries, we have for these values of f
sin(kfa) = 0 = sin pp
\ pπ , p = integers
kφ =
α
and using the usual notation mk for kz, the solution can be written in the form
∞
⎛ pπφ ⎞
V (r , φ , z ) = ∑ ∑ Akp Jpπ ( μk r ) sin ⎜ ⎟ exp ( − μk z − z0 ) (ii)
k p =1,... α ⎝ α ⎠
where mk is so chosen that J pπ ( μ k r ) = 0, to satisfy the boundary condition on the surface

r = a. α
Note: The point charge implies that its dimensions are too small to measure physically, yet
different from zero, so that the field intensity (i.e. E field) and the potential function are
everywhere bounded.
So we consider the plane where the point charge is located, i.e. z = z0.
\ Differentiating V w.r.t. z and setting z = z0,
È V Ø È pQG Ø
ÉÊ Ù
z Ú z
Ç Ç Nk Akp JpQ ( Nk r ) sin É
Ê B ÙÚ (iii)
z0 k p B
pπφ ⎞
To determine Akp, we multiply the above expression by rJpπ ( μ l r ) . sin ⎛⎜ ⎟ and integrate
α ⎝ α ⎠
from r = 0 to r = a and f = 0 to f = a. The result will be that on the R.H.S., all the terms will
vanish except for p = q and k = l.
In this case, we get
È V Ø È pQG Ø
ÔÔ ÉÊ z ÙÚ z r JpQ ( Nk r ) sin É
Ê B ÙÚ
rd G dr
z
0 B
2
⎧⎪ ⎫⎪ ⎛ pπφ ⎞
= μk Akp ∫∫ r ⎨ Jpπ ( μk r ) ⎬ sin 2 ⎜ ⎟ d φ dr (iv)
⎪⎩ α ⎪⎭ ⎝ α ⎠
on the plane z = z0.
⎛ ∂V ⎞
In this plane, the area dS (= r df dr) in which ⎜ ⎟ ≠ 0 is considered to be so small that
⎝ ∂z ⎠ z = z
0
⎛ k πφ ⎞
in this area J p π ( μ k r ) has the constant value Jpπ ( μ k b ) and sin ⎜ becomes
⎟
α α ⎝ α ⎠
⎛ pπβ ⎞ .
sin ⎜ ⎟ This L.H.S. integral then becomes
⎝ α ⎠
⎛ pπβ ⎞ ⎛ ∂V ⎞
Jpπ ( μ k b ) sin ⎜ ⎟ ∫∫ ⎜ ⎟ rd φ dr
α ⎝ α ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ⎠z
0
È pQC Ø È V Ø
JpQ ( Nk b) sin É
Ê B ÙÚ ÔÔ ÉÊ n ÙÚ dS
B
Q0 ⎛ pπβ ⎞
= Jpπ ( μ k b ) sin ⎜ ⎟ (v)
2ε α ⎝ α ⎠
by Gauss theorem.
Note: What we have done is effectively used the two-dimensional delta function on the plane
z = z0, the function being f (r, f) d (r b) d (f b).
In the above application of Gauss theorem, the digit 2 in the denominator is due to the fact that
only half the flux passes upwards.
Now we consider the R.H.S. integral, there the two variables are completely separable, i.e.
α
⎛ pπφ ⎞ α
∫ sin 2 ⎜
⎝ α ⎠
⎟ dφ =
2
(vi)
φ =0
2 μk a 2
a ⎧⎪ ⎫⎪ −2
⎧⎪ ⎫⎪
∫ r ⎨ Jpπ (μk r )⎬ dr = μk ∫ x ⎨ Jpπ ( x) ⎬ dx
0 ⎪ ⎩ α ⎪⎭ 0 ⎪⎩ α ⎪⎭
⎧ 2 2⎫
1 2 ⎪⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎪ pπ a
= a ⎨ ⎢ Jpπ ( μ k a) ⎥ + ⎢ Jpπ (μk a) ⎥ ⎬− Jpπ ( μk a ) Jpπ ( μk a) (vii)
2 ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ α ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ α ±1 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ αμ k α α
±1
Since J pπ ( μ k a ) = 0, the above integral simplifies to

α
2
1 ⎡ ⎤
= a 2 ⎢ Jpπ ( μk a ) ⎥ (viii)
2 ⎢⎣ α ±1 ⎥⎦
⎪⎧ Q ⎛ pπβ ⎞ ⎪⎫ 1 . 2 . 2
\ Akp = ⎨ Jpπ ( μ k b ) sin ⎜ ⎟⎬ (ix)
⎩⎪ 2ε α ⎝ α ⎠ ⎭⎪ μk α 2
⎡ ⎤
a 2 ⎢ Jpπ ( μk a ) ⎥
+1
⎣⎢ α ⎦⎥
⎛ pπβ ⎞
Jpπ ( μ k b ) sin ⎜ ⎟
2Q0 α ⎝ α ⎠
= (x)
εα a 2 ⎡ ⎤
2
μ k ⎢ Jpπ ( μ k a ) ⎥
+1
⎣⎢ α ⎦⎥
Hence the potential distribution is
È QQC Ø
+ QQ N L C
TJO ÉÊ B ÙÚ
2 È QQG Ø
7 S G [
FB B ÇÇ B
Ë Û

+QQ N L S
TJO É
Ê B ÙÚ
FYQ N L [ [
(xi)
L Q B
NL Ì +QQ N L B
Ü
ÌÍ B ÜÝ
ADDENDUM: SOME HINTS ON BOUNDARY CONDITIONS IN TERMS OF SERIES

OF BESSEL FUNCTIONS
Let f (r) be a function which satisfies the conditions for expansion into a Fourier series in the
range from r = 0 to r = a, and satisfies one of the three general boundary conditions:
(1) f (a) = 0. This is a case where if f (r) is a potential function, then the boundary is at zero
potential.
(2) f ¢(a) = 0. In this case, the boundary is a line of force.
(3) a f ¢(a) + B f (a) = 0. This general or mixed boundary reduces to (1) if B ® ¥ and to (2)
if B = 0.
The function f (r) can be expanded in the form

f (r ) Ç Ak J n ( Nk r ), (xii)
k 1
where the values of mk are so chosen that in the case

(1) Jn(mk a) = 0,
(2) J n′ (μ k a ) = 0, and
(3) μ k aJ n′ ( μ k a) + BJ n ( μ k a ) = 0.
To evaluate Ak , we multiply both sides of Eq. (xii) by r Jn(mk r) and integrate from r = 0 to
r = a. All the terms for l ¹ÿ k would vanish, leaving only Ak Ô r ^ J n ( Nk r )`

2
dr , so that
Ô r f (r ) J n (N k r ) dr
0
Ak a
(xiii)
Ô r ^ J n ( Nk r )`
2
dr
0
The integral in the denominator when evaluated, gives

a Nk a
Ô r ^ J n ( Nk r )` Ô x ^ J n ( x)` dx
2
2
dr Nk 2
0 0
=
1 2
2
a {[J (μ a)] + [J
n k
2
n ±1 ( μ k a ) ]2 } − μ
na
k
J n (μk a ) J n ±1 ( μk a) (xiv)
In the case (1), by using Eq. (xiv), the value of Ak comes out to be
a
2
Ak
âJ n ±1 ( Nk a)`2
Ô r f (r ) J n (N k r ) dr (xv)
0
In the case (2), the use of Eq. (xiv) gives

a
2
r f ( r ) J (N
` ^J ( N a)` Ô
Ak k r) dr
â (xvi)
n
– n 2 Nk–2
2 2
n k 0
In the case (3), similar procedure gives

a
2
Ak Ô r f (r ) J n (N k r ) dr
â 2 ( B 2 – n 2 ) / Nk2 ` ^J n ( Nk a)`2 0
(xvii)
3.49 An infinitely long conducting cylinder which is earthed, has a point charge Q0 located at the
point (r = b, f = f0, z = 0) inside it. The radius of the cylinder is a, where a > b. Show that the
potential distribution in the cylinder is
Q0 Jp ( Nk b) Jp ( Nk r )
V Ç Ç (2 – E p0 ) exp (– Nk z ) cos ^ p(G – G 0 )`
2QF a 2 k =1 p = 0 Nk J p +1 ( Nk a )
2
where Jp(mka) = 0 and δ 0p is the Kronecker delta.
Sol. It is to be noted that all the boundaries of the cylinder are at zero potential, and the source
is a point charge inside it. Since the point charge is not on the axis of the cylinder, there is no
axial symmetry in this problem and hence the Bessel function will not be of zero order, but of
higher order. We again remind in this problem that the point charge has dimensions which are
too small to be measurable physically, but not exactly zero so that the field-intensity and the
potential functions are everywhere bounded (i.e. not infinite). The field is Laplacian everywhere
except at the location of the point charge. The solution of this problem should be such that it
vanishes when z ® ¥ and so the z-variable term will be exponential with ve indexa non-
orthogonal function. The r and f-variable functions will be orthogonal and f = f0 plane will be
a plane of symmetry, and on the cylindrical boundary r = a, V = 0. So the expression for the
solution for +ve values of z will be

V Ç Ç Akp exp (– Nk z ) Jp ( Nk r ) cos p(G – G 0 ) (i)
k =1 p = 0
where mk is so chosen that Jp(mka) = 0. There will be no Yp(mkr) term as Yp ® ¥ at r = 0 (i.e.

the axis of the cylinder).
From symmetry considerations, z = 0 plane will be all lines of force except at the point of the
∂V
charge itself. Hence the boundary condition on this plane will be that = 0 everywhere
∂z
except a small area d S at the point r = b, f = f0. Hence differentiating Eq. (i) and making
z = 0,
È V Ø
ÉÊ Ù – Ç Ç Nk Akp J p ( Nk r ) cos ^ p(G – G 0 )` (ii)
z Ú z = 0 k =1 p = 0
To determine Akp, we follow the same procedure as in Problem 3.48, i.e. multiply both sides of
Eq. (ii) by rJ q ( Nl r ) cos {q (G – G 0)} and integrate from r = 0 to r = a and from f = 0 to
f = 2p. In this case, the term on the R.H.S. will vanish except for p = q and k = l. This non-
zero term, when integrated gives
2π
∫ cos { p (φ − φ0 )} d φ = π
2
(iii)
0
Ô r ^Jp ( Nk r )` ^ `
2 1 2 2
and dr a Jp +1 ( Nk a ) (iv)
0
2
{From Problem 3.48, Addendum, Eq. (xiv)} (v)

– (2 – E p0 ) È V Ø
\ Akp 2 ÔÔ ÉÊ z ÙÚ z =0 rJp ( Nk r ) cos ^ p(G – G 0 )` dr dG (vi)
QNk ËÍ aJp +1 ( Nk a ) ÛÝ
where δ 0p is the Kronecker delta = 1, when p = 0, and d 0p = 0 if p ¹ 0.
⎛ ∂V ⎞
In the z = 0 plane, the area dS in the vicnity of ⎜ ⎟ ≠ 0 is taken to be so small that in it
⎝ ∂z ⎠
Jp (mkr) has the constant value Jp (mkb) and cos {p(f f0)} ® 1. Hence the L.H.S. integral of
Eq. (ii) then becomes
È V Ø V Q0
Jp ( N k b) ÔÔ É rd G dr Jp ( N k b) ÔÔ ES – Jp( N k b) (vii)
Ê z ÙÚ z 0 n 2F
by Gauss theorem. The 2 in the denominator is due to the fact that only half the flux passes
upwards from the plane z = 0.
\ Akp
^ `
Q0 2 E 0p Jp ( N k b)
(viii)
^ Jp 1(Nk a)`
2 2
2QF N k a
\ The potential distribution is then given by
Q0 Jp ( Nk b) Jp ( Nk r )
V Ç Ç (2 E 0p ) exp ^ Nk z ` cos ^ p (G G0 )` (ix)
2QF a ^ `
2 2
k 1 p 0 P k J p 1 ( Nk a )
This is effectively the Greens function for a circular cylinder.

Note: (1) If the coordinates of the point charge Q0 are r = b, z = z0 and f = f0, then in
Eq. (ix) | z | would be replaced by | z z0 |.
(2) If the point charge Q0 was located at r = 0, i.e. on the axis of the cylinder, then the
problem becomes axi-symmetric, and all the terms of the p-series except p = 0 would
vanish and J0 (mk b) = 1, i.e. the solution is in terms of zero-order Bessel function of r.
3.50 The cylinder of Problem 3.49 is now made of finite axial length by introducing two parallel
planes at z = 0 and z = L, both at zero potential as well as the cylinder r = a. The coordinates
of the point charge Q0 are r = b, f = f0 and z = c where 0 < b < a and 0 < c < L. Find the
potential distribution in the cylinder.
Sol. This problem can be solved directly as for a closed cylindrical box of finite axial length
(= L) with a source point charge Q0 located in the z = c plane, off the axis of the cylinder at r = b.
On the other hand this problem can also be treated as an extension of Problem 3.49 in which we
obtained the potential distribution in an infinite cylinder with a point charge located at a point
away from the axis. In the present problem, the axial length of the cylinder has been made finite
by introducing two parallel zero-potential planes normal to the axis of the cylinder at z = 0 and
z = L, respectively such that the point charge Q0 on the plane z = c lies somewhere between the
two planes {i.e. 0 < c < L}. Since the two zero-potential planes are on two sides of the point
charge Q0, the effect of these two parallel boundaries can be reproduced by taking into account
the effect of the images of Q0 in these two parallel planes. There will be a series of images on a
line passing through Q0 and parallel to the axis of the cylinder and these images will be alternately
positive and negative. The locations of positive images will be given by z = 2nL + c and those of
the negative images will be at z = 2nL c where n will have all integral values extending from
¥ to + ¥.
Thus the problem is reduced to that of finding the effect of these point charges in an infinitely
long cylinder. Since the f and r variations will remain unchanged from those of Problem 3.49, we
shall consider only the z-variable derivation and at the end add the (r, f) terms straight from the
last problem. Since there will be terms for both +ve and ve values of z, the term
exp (mk | z | ) will be replaced by 4 series from the summation of terms due to n ranging from
(0 or 1) to + ¥ (by the principle of superposition).
\ For z < c,
∞ ∞
Z= ∑ exp [− μk (2nL + c − z ) ] + ∑ exp [− μk (2nL − c + z ) ]
n=0 n =1
∞ ∞
+ ∑ exp [− μ k (2nL − c − z ) ] − ∑ exp [− μk (2nL + c + z )] (i)
n =1 n=0
By re-arranging the terms and taking out exp (B μk c) and exp ( ± μk z ) out of the summation
signs as these are only constant factors, the summation being only for the exponent containing
n in the index, the above expression can be rewritten as (by combining the first and fourth
terms, and the second and third terms),
⎡ ∞ ∞ ⎤
Z = ⎢ exp ( − μk c ) ∑ exp ( −2n μk L ) − exp ( μk c) ∑ exp ( −2n μk L) ⎥ {exp ( μk z ) − exp ( − μk z )}
⎣ n=0 n =1 ⎦
⎡ ∞ ⎤
= 2 ⎢{exp ( − μ k c ) − exp ( + μ k c )}∑ exp ( − 2 n μ k L ) + exp ( μ k c ) ⎥ sinh ( μ k z )
⎣ n=0 ⎦
⎡ 1 ⎤
= 2 ⎢{exp ( − μk c ) − exp ( + μk c )} + exp ( μk c ) ⎥ sinh ( μk z ) (ii)
⎣ 1 − exp ( −2 μ k L ) ⎦
Note that the last term exp(mkc) in the box bracket comes because the second summation
∞ ∞
∑ has been extended to ∑ and then combined with the first summation and the last term is
n =1 n =0
the correcting term for the extension. Thus,
⎡ {exp (− μk c) − exp (+ μk c)}exp ( μk L) + exp ( μk c ) {exp ( μk L) − exp (− μk L)}⎤

Z =⎢ ⎥ sinh ( μk z )
⎢⎣ {exp ( μk L) − exp (− μk L)} ⎥⎦
Ë exp ( Nk c) exp ( Nk L) exp ( Nk c) exp ( Nk L) Û

2Ì Ü sinh ( Nk z )
Í exp ( Nk L) exp ( Nk L) Ý
2 . sinh {μ k ( L − c )} sinh ( μ k z )
= (iii)
sinh ( μ k L )
This is the z-variable part of the solution of the problem. Since there is no difference in the
(r, f) parts of the solution of the Problem 3.49, we will not repeat the derivation of these parts,
and hence the complete solution can be written as
sinh ^ Nk ( L – c)` sinh ( Nk z ) Jp ( Nk b) Jp ( Nk r )
^ `
Q0
V 2 ÇÇ
(2 – E p0 ) cos p G – G 0 (iv)
sinh ( Nk L)
^ `
2
Fa Q k 1p 0 Nk Jp +1( Nk a)
for z < c {and Jp(mka) = 0}.

When z > c, then in the preceding expression, z has to be replaced by L z and c by L c, and
hence the solution becomes
Q0 sinh ( Nk c) sinh { Nk ( L z )} Jp ( Nk b) Jp ( Nk r )
V
NF a 2
Ç Ç (2 E p0 ) sinh( Nk L) Nk { Jp 1 ( Nk a)}2
cos{ p (G G0 )} (v)
k 1 p 0
for z > c {and Jp(mka) = 0}.

If the charge Q0 was located on the axis of the cylinder, i.e. b = 0, then the problem becomes
axi-symmetric and the p-series get replaced by a single term for which p = 0. The solution is
then a single infinite series and can be written as
Q0 ∞
sinh {μk ( L − c)} sinh( μk z ) J 0 (μk r )
V= ∑ for z < c, (vi)
πε a sinh(μk L) μk {J1 (μk a )}
2 2
k =0
Q0 J 0 ( Nk r )
and V Ç sinh ^ Nk ( L z)` for z < c, (vii)
QF a Nk ^ J1 ( Nk a )`
2 2
k 0
and J0 (mka) = 0.
3.51 A right circular cylindrical shell which is conducting and has the radius a is closed by the plane
z = 0 which is normal to the axis of the cylinder and has the same potential as the shell. A point
charge Q0 is placed on the axis at a distance c from the plane z = 0. Show that the image force
on the charge is
Q02 Ë exp ( N c) Û 2
2 ÇÌ
k
Ü where J0(mka) = 0.
2QF a k 1 Í J1 ( Nk a ) Ý
Sol. This problem is very similar to the two problems, i.e. Problems 3.49 and 3.50 discussed
earlier. In the present problem since the charge is located on the axis of the cylinder, it has now
become an axi-symmetric problem, i.e. there is no f variation. There would be no f term and
the r-variable Bessel function would be of zero order and so the solution has only a single-
infinite series. Though the cylindrical shell is semi-infinite (extending to +¥ in the z-variable)
because the z = 0 plane boundary is at zero potential, its effect can be reproduced by allowing
the shell to extend to z ® ¥ and considering the image of the source charge Q0 at z = c, to
be Q0 at z = c. The resulting field would be due to these two point charges and we need
consider only the region for which z is positive.
Hence the expression for the potential can be of the form
∞
V = ∑ Ak exp ( − μ k z ) J 0 ( μ k r ) (i)
k =1
where mk is so chosen such that J0(mka) = 0.

There would be no Y0 (mkr) terms, as it is infinite on the axis of the cylinder.
To evaluate Ak we follow similar steps as in Problem 3.49 and consider the point charges in
sequence. Thus, the point charge Q0 on the plane z = c would be considered first. This plane
would be all lines of force except the point r = 0, which of course is on the axis of the cylinder.
⎛ ∂V ⎞
So as in that problem ⎜ ⎟ would be zero everywhere except in a very small area around
⎝ ∂z ⎠ z =c
the axis r = 0. Hence differentiating Eq. (i) w.r.t. z and substituting z = c,

È V Ø
ÉÊ ÙÚ Ç Nk Ak exp ( Nk c) J 0 ( Nk r ) (ii)
z z c k 1
To evaluate Ak , we multiply the above expression by r J0 (ml r) and integrate w.r.t. r within the
limits r = 0 to r = a. (In this case f integration is equivalent to multiplying by 2p as this is an
axi-symmetric problem.) On integrating, all the terms on the R.H.S. would vanish except when
l = k and this integral comes out to be:
a
1 2
Ô r ^ J 0 ( Nk r )` a ^ J1 ( Nk a)`
2 2
dr (iii)
0
2
{Ref : Problem 3.48, Addendum, Eq. (xiv)}.
exp ( Nk c) È V Ø
\ Ak ÔÉ Ù rJ 0 ( Nk r ) dr (iv)
2QNk â J1 ( Nk a )` Ê z Ú z
2
c
In the plane z = c, the area (2p r dr) is taken to be so small that over this area J0(mkr) is taken
to have the constant value J0(mk0) = 1 and thus the L.H.S. integral of Eq. (ii) then becomes
È V Ø V Q0 Q0
J 0 ( Nk c ) Ô É Ù rdr (2Q ) J 0 ( Nk c) ÔÔ dS J 0 ( Nk 0) (v)
Ê z Ú z c n 2F 2F
by Gauss theorem. Since only half the flux goes upwards in the plane z = c, the denominator
in Eq. (v) has 2 there.
Q0 exp ( Nk c)
\ Ak (vi)
2QF a 2 ^ J1 ( Nk a )` Nk
2
Q0 exp ^ N ( z c)` J ( N r )
\ V Ç k 0 k
(vii)
2QF a 2 Nk ^ J1 ( Nk a)`
2
k 1
There is also an image charge Q0 on the plane z = c at the intersection with the axis. This
would create another term very similar to the above expression except that Q0 would be
replaced by Q0 and (z c) by (z + c). Hence the resulting potential comes out to be
Q0 J 0 ( Nk r )
V Ç ËÍ exp ^ Nk ( z c)` exp ^ Nk ( z c)`ÛÝ (viii)
2QF a Nk ^ J1 ( Nk a )`
2 2
k 1
The next stage is the calculation of the force. To calculate the force it is necessary to evaluate
the field intensity, i.e. E field (grad V). Since the force required is the image force, it will be
sufficient to find the z-component of E as both the charges (i.e. the source charge and the image
charge) are on the axis of the cylinder (i.e. z-axis)
V Q0 J 0 ( Nk r )
\ Ç Nk [exp{ Nk ( z c)} exp{ Nk ( z c)}] (ix)
z 2QF a 2 Nk ^ J1 ( Nk a )`
2
k 1
\ The force on the point charge Q0 located at z = c, r = 0 will be

∞
Q02 1
Fz = ∑ [1 − exp (−2 μ k c) ] (x)
2πε a 2
k =1 {J1 ( μk a )}2
since exp{mk (c c)} = exp{0} = 1 and J0(mk 0) = J0(0) = 1
Since it is the image force which is required, this would be given by the second term of the
expression in the equation, i.e.
Q02 exp ( 2 N c)
Fz , image Ç k
2QF a 2 k 1 ^ J1 ( Nk a)`2
Q02 Ë exp ( N c) Û 2
ÇÌ k
2QF a 2 k 1 Í J1 ( Nk a) Ý
Ü (xi)
where J0(mka) = 0.
3.52 The right circular conducting cylinder of radius a and infinite length is filled with a dielectric
of permittivity e = e0 er, from below the z = 0 plane. A point charge Q0 is located on the axis
at z = b. Show that the potential above the dielectric is
Q0 Ë Fr 1 Û J 0 ( Nk r )
Ç Ìexp ( Nk zb ) exp ( Nk z b ) Ü
a2 Fr 1 Ý Nk ^ J1 ( Nk a )`
2
2QF 0 k 1Í
where J0(mka) = 0.
Sol. This problem is very similar to the first part of Problem 3.51. The point charge Q0 is
located in the plane z = b (instead of z = c) on the axis of the cylinder. Secondly, instead of
z = 0 plane being conducting at zero potential, it is now the interface between the free space
(z > 0) and a dielectric of permittivity e0er extending to z ® ¥. So the image of the source
εr − 1
charge Q0 will be having a magnitude −Q0 (by the method of images) located on the
εr + 1
axis at z = b plane. The process of solving would exactly be same as Problem 3.51 up to the
stage of Eq. (vii) therein. Thus,
Q0 exp ^ N ( z b)` J ( N r )
V Ç k 0 k
(viia)
2QF 0 a2 Nk ^ J1 ( Nk a)`
2
k 1
due the the source charge Q0 at z = +b on the axis.

εr − 1
But after this, the magnitude of the image charge is −Q0 located at z = b on the axis
εr + 1
of the cylinder and hence the resulting potential distribution will be
Q0 Ë F 1 Û J 0 ( Nk r )
V 2 ÇÌ
exp ^ Nk ( z b)` r exp ^ Nk ( z b)`Ü (viiia)
F 1 Ý Nk ^ J1 ( Nk a)`
2
2QF 0 a k 1Í r
where J0(mka) = 0 and z > 0.

To find the potential in the dielectric, we have to consider the image system as seen from the
dielectric. In the dielectric, there is no source point charge. Extending this region to z ® +¥,
the image as seen from the dielectric is
εr − 1
−Q0
εr + 1
at the point where the source charge existed, i.e.
z = +b at r = 0 on the axis of the cylinder
Hence the potential distribution can be written as
Q0 F 1 exp ^ N ( z b)` J ( N r )
V Ç r k 0 k
(ixa)
2QF 0 a 2 k 1 F r 1 Nk ^ J1 ( Nk a)`
2
where J0(mka) = 0 and z < 0.

3.53 The potential inside an earthed cylindrical box of radius a and axial length L (defined by the
planes z = 0 and z = L) due to a point charge Q0 located on its (i.e. that the cylinders) axis at
the point z = c, 0 < c < L, can be obtained directly from Problems 3.49 and 3.50. Using this as
the starting point, find the potential on the axis of a ring of radius b (b < a) which is co-axial
with the cylindrical box and is inside it (say the plane z = c). Hence, prove that the potential
anywhere inside the cylindrical box due to this ring is
Q0 sinh ( μ k z ) sinh {μ k ( L − c)} J 0 ( μ k b) J 0 ( μ k r )
∞
V =− ∑ sinh ( μ k L)
πε a k =1 μ k {J1 ( μ k a )}
2 2
where z < c, and mk is such that J0(mka) = 0.

Sol. Problem 3.49 deals with the derivation of the potential distribution due to a point charge
Q0 located inside an infinitely long earthed cylinder of radius a. The point charge is not
necessarily on the axis of the cylinder in that problem. Hence the expression for the potential
distribution is in terms of Bessel functions of higher order. From this result, in Problem 3.50,
the potential distributions due to a point charge Q0 inside an earthed cylindrical box of finite
axial length (0 < z < L, z = 0, z = Lall boundaries being earthed) have been obtained. Again,
the point charge is located anywhere inside the box and not necessarily on the axis of the
cylinder, i.e. z = c, r = b, f = f0 (0 < c < L, 0 < b < a, 0 < f0 < 2p) is the point at which Q0
is located.
The potential distribution due to that source was obtained as
Q0 ∞ ∞
sinh {μk ( L − c)}sinh (μk z ) J p (μk b) J p ( μk r )
V= ∑ ∑ (2 − δ 0p ) . cos { p (φ − φ0 )} (i)
εa π sinh ( μk L) μ k {J1 (μk a)}
2 2
k =1 p = 0
for z < c and Jp(mka) = 0.

In the present problem, the point charge Q0 is located on the axis of the cylinder.
\ b=0 and f0 = 0
This means that the problem has become axi-symmetric and hence p = 0.
\ J0(mk 0) = J0(0) = 1
and cos 0 = 1.
Also the p-summation series will be replaced by the p = 0 term only, i.e.
Q0 ∞
sinh {μk ( L − c)} sinh (μk z ) J 0 (μ k r )
V= ∑ (ii)
ε a 2π sinh(μk L) μk {J1 (μk a )}
2
k =1
for z < c and J0(mka) = 0.

Hence the potential at any point on the ring z = c, r = b will be
Q0 ∞
sinh {μk ( L − c)} sinh( μk c) J 0 ( μ k b)
V= ∑ (iii)
εa π sinh(μk L) μk {J1 (μk a )}
2 2
k =1
Hence by the Greens Reciprocation theorem, this will give the potential on the axis of the
cylinder due to the potential imposed on the ring at the point z = c, r = b.
Equation (iii) is the potential on the axis at the point z = c.
\ The potential at any point on the axis will be
Q0 ∞ sinh {μ k ( L − c )} sinh( μ k z ) J 0 ( μk b)
V= ∑ sinh( μ k L )
(iv)
εa π μ k {J1 ( μ k a )}
2 2
k =1
\ The potential at any point (r, z) inside the cylindrical box, due to the ring would be
Q0 ∞ sinh {μ k ( L − c )} sinh( μ k z ) J 0 ( μ k b ) J 0 ( μ k r )
V= ∑ sinh( μ k L )
(v)
ε a 2π μ k {J 1 ( μ k a )}
2
k =1
where z < c and J0(mka) = 0.

Note: Equation (ii) could have been derived from the first initial step as was done in
Problem 3.49. However since the whole process has been discussed in detail in that problem,
we have not repeated it in this problem.
3.54 A sphere of radius a is earthed and two positive point charges Q and Q¢ are placed on the
opposite sides of the sphere at distances 2a and 4a, respectively from the centre and in a
25
straight line with it. Show that the charge Q¢ is repelled from the sphere if Q ′ < Q.
144
Sol. The effect of the sphere on the two point charges will be to produce image charges at the
corresponding inverse points.
+Q a + Q¢
B (–2a, 0) B¢ O A¢ (4a, 0) A
Fig. 3.29 Earthed conducting sphere and two point charges on opposite sides.
For the charge Q¢ at A (4a, 0), the image will be at A¢, such that at A¢, the image charge will be
Qi′, whose magnitude
a Q′
Qi′ = − Q′ = −
4a 4
a2 a .
and its location is at A¢, i.e. OA¢ = =
4a 4
The charge +Q at B (2a, 0) will have its image at B¢ such that its magnitude
a Q
Qi = − Q=−
2a 2
a2 a
and its location is at B¢, i.e. OB¢ = = (on the negative side)
2a 2
È QØ È QØ
Q É Ù Q É Ù
Ê 4Ú Ê 2Ú
\ The attractive force on Q¢ = +
4QF 0 ( A A) 2 4QF 0 ( B A) 2
Î Þ
Ñ Ñ
Q Ñ Q Q Ñ
Ï 2ß
FA
4QF 0 Ñ È aØ
2
È aØ
ÑÐ 4 ÉÊ 4a 4 ÙÚ 2 É 4a Ù ÑÑ
Ê 2Ú à
Q′ ⎧ 4Q′ 2Q ⎫
\ FA = ⎨ + ⎬
4πε0 ⎩ 225a 2
81a2 ⎭
Q Q QQ
The repulsive force on Q¢ = FR .
4QF 0 ( AB ) 2
4QF 0 ¹ 36a 2
The condition for zero force on Q¢ at A is
FA = FR
4Q ′ 2Q Q
or + =
225 81 36
4Q ′ Q 2Q Q
or = − =
25 4 9 36
25Q
\ Q′ =
144
\ For the force to be repulsive,
25Q .
Q′ <
144
3.55 In Problem 3.40, the capacitance (per unit length) between two parallel cylinders of radii R1
and R2, has been shown to be
1
Ë ÎÑ D 2 R12 R22 ÞÑÛ
C 2QF Ì cosh 1 Ï ßÜ
ÌÍ ÐÑ 2 R1 R2 àÑÜÝ
where D is the distance between their centres.
(Note: The +ve sign is taken when the cylinders are external to each other, and the ve sign
when one cylinder is inside the other. See also Appendix 5 for the detailed diagram.)
Hence or otherwise derive the expression for (a) the capacitance between a cylinder and a plane,
and (b) between two similar cylinders, i.e. R1 = R2.
Sol. For convenience we refer to Fig. A.5.2.
Starting from the given result for the capacitance between two cylindrical conductors, these two
problems can be solved in a number of different ways.
We consider the configuration of Fig. A.5.2, i.e. when one cylinder is inside the other
eccentrically located, and express the larger radius R1 in terms of the distance between the
centres of two cylinders (=D) as R1 = D + h.
Now we let R1 ® ¥ such that this outer cylinder circles through infinity and in the finite region
it coincides with the x-axis.
R12 R22 D 2 , 2
In such a situation, in the expression R2 can be neglected compared to R12 in
2 R1 R2
the numerator and so the above expression in the limit tends to become
R12 R22 D 2 R2 D2 ( R1 D) ( R1 D)
1
2 R1 R2 2 R1 R2 2 R1 R2
Now R1 D R1 ( R1 h) 2 R1 h 2 R1
R12 R22 D 2 h . 2 R1 h
\
2 R1 R2 2 R1 R2 R2
Hence the capacitance per unit length of a conducting cylinder of radius R with its axis parallel
to and at a distance h from an infinite conducting plane is
1
Î hÞ
C 2QF Ïcosh 1 ß (i)
Ð Rà
For the second part of the problem when there are two similar cylinders each of radius R with
their centres at a distance D = 2h, the capacitance of such a system will be half of the value
given by the above expression as the new arrangement is equivalent to having two capacitors
of the above type connected in series.
Î DÞ
\ C QF Ïcosh 1 ß (ii)
Ð 2R à
One the other hand, if in the original expression we substitute R1 = R2 (=R) and D = 2h, we get
1
ÑÎ 2 R 2 4h 2 ÑÞ
C 2QF Ïcosh 1 ß
ÑÐ 2R2 Ñà
1
ÎÑ È 2h 2 Ø ÞÑ
2QF Ïcosh 1 É 2 1Ù ß (iii)
ÑÐ Ê R Ú Ñà
which is somewhat more complicated.
{Why is the above difference obtained?}.
4
Electric Currents (Steady)
4.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT AND CURRENT DENSITY VECTOR

So far we have considered the static field problems, in which the electric charges were at rest. When
the charges are moving, it is said that there is an electric current (or to be more precise, conduction
current). This is measured by the rate at which the charge crosses unit cross-sectional area of the
medium in which the flow is taking place. In this chapter, we shall consider only the steady currents,
i.e. the problems in which the current is flowing independent of time, though it may vary from place
to place. So, we have the current density vector J given by
J = NQv,
where
N = number of free charges per unit volume
Q = charge on each particle
v = average velocity of the charges.
Further, the relationship between the total current (intensity) across an arbitrary surface S is
given by
dQ
I=
dt ∫∫
= J ⋅ dS
S
4.2 ELECTRIC CURRENT AND ELECTRIC FORCE

When a current flows in a conductor, there would exist an electric force E within the material of the
conductor. This relationship between the current and the electric field is given by the Ohms law,
which expresses it as
V = RI,
where V is the potential difference between the ends of the conductor element, and R is the resistance
of the conductor to the flow of the current. Now,
V = El,
where l is the length of the conductor. The resistance R is given by
ρl
R= ,
S
where S is the cross-sectional area of the conductor and r is the resistivity of the conducting medium.
Resistivity can also be expressed as the reciprocal of the conductivity of the medium (i.e. r = 1/s ).
J
Hence, E = rJ =
σ
290
ELECTRIC CURRENTS (STEADY) 291
4.3 THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY (OR THE CONSERVATION OF CHARGE)

Since the charges are indestructible, if there is an inflow of charges in any part of a conductor, there
would be an equivalent outflow elsewhere. Mathematically, this is represented as
⎧ ⎛ d ρC ⎞ ⎫
∫∫∫ ⎨⎩∇ ⋅ J + ⎜⎝
v
⎟ ⎬ dv = 0
dt ⎠ ⎭
or in differential form
d ρC
∇⋅J + = 0,
dt
where rC is the charge density.
When the current does not change with time, and the charge density is also independent of time,
this simplifies to
Ñ.J = 0
4.4 EMF AND POTENTIAL IN THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

The electromotive force is the agency which supplies the energy for maintaining the potential
difference across the resistor for the current through it. This is abbreviated to emf = E.
It should be remembered that in an electrostatic field of stationary charges, the work done in
carrying a charged particle round a closed path is zero, i.e.
vÔ E ¹ dl
C
0
But vÔ E ¹ dl 0,
C
in a current-carrying circuit
and vÔ E ¹ dl
C
= E , in the region of steady current flow
4.5 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FIELD AND FLOW OF CURRENT

E = grad V
J = sE
and div J = 0.
Hence, when s is constant, the last equation becomes
Ñ 2V = 0
The differential equation for the lines of flow is
dx dy dz
= =
Jx J y Jz
as in the previous sections.
4.6 PROBLEMS
4.1 A cube is formed by joining the ends of 12 equal wires, each of resistance R, so that these wires
form the edges of the cube. If a current enters into the cube from one corner of the cube and
leaves from the diagonally opposite corner, show that its resistance is 5R/6.
4.2 A uniform, regular dodecahedron is made of 30 conductors of equal length and each of
resistance R, which form its edges. Show that the resistance of the network between the
opposite pairs of corners is 7R/6.
4.3 A network is made in the shape of a regular tetrahedron by connecting the ends of four equal
conductors, each of resistance R. If a current enters into the tetrahedron from one of the four
vertices and comes out from the opposite corner, find the effective resistance of the network.
4.4 A regular octahedron is made by joining 12 equal conductors, each of resistance R. If a current
enters into it from one vertex and comes out of the diagonally opposite vertex, show that the
effective resistance of the network is R/2.
4.5 A network in the shape of a regular icosahedron is made by joining the ends of 30 equal
conductors, each of resistance R. Show that the effective resistance of the network, when a
current enters one vertex and comes out of the diagonally opposite vertex, is R/2.
4.6 A uniform conducting toroid of rectangular cross-section has the inner radius a, the outer radius
b and the axial height h. A sectorial strip subtending an angle p/2 is cut and removed from the
remaining part of the toroid. If this remaining part is fitted with perfectly conducting strip
conductors, find the resistance offered by this part to the flow of a steady current.
4.7 A block of conducting material, whose each side is of unit length, has two perfectly conducting
parallel plates in contact with the top and bottom surfaces. If the conductivity of the block
varies uniformly from s1 at the top to s2 at the bottom, find the resistance between the plates.
What will be the resistance, if the plates are shifted to the two side faces of the metal cube?
4.8 In Problem 4.7, there are charges giving rise to the steady current flow. If the block material
has constant permittivity, calculate the charges in the system producing the steady current.
4.9 In Problem 4.8, the permittivity is allowed to vary. Find an equation for the variation of the
permittivity, such that the volume charge density is zero everywhere.
4.10 A circular strip of conducting material of conductivity s has the radial dimension between
r = a to r = b (b > a), and its peripheral length extends over an angle a. If perfectly conducting
strips are fitted to the edges f = 0 and f = a, find the resistance of the strip.
4.11 If in Problem 4.10, the electrodes are fitted on the arcs AC and BD instead of the radii, then
find the resistance of the conductor.
4.12 Two coaxial cylinders of axial length l and radii a and b (a < b) form the electrodes of a
conducting medium of conductivity s. Find the resistance between these electrodes.
4.13 A thin spherical shell of radius a and thickness t is made up of conducting material of
conductivity s. One of its diameters is AOB such that a current I enters into and leaves from
the points A and B by two small circular electrodes of radius c (c << a) whose centres are at A
and B. Given that P is a point on the shell such that ÐPOA = q, prove that the magnitude of the
current vector at P is
I
2π at sin θ
and that the resistance of the conductor is
1 c
log cot .
πσ t 2a
4.14 A conducting strip of rectangular cross-section b × h is bent to form a circular loop, with the
dimension b in the radial direction of the loop. A current I is fed into the loop through an
electrode at q = 0 and taken out from q = 2p, the two electrodes being insulated from each
other. Derive the expression for the potential difference across the complete turn and show that
the potential difference per unit length of the strip reduces to that of a straight strip, i.e.
Ir/(bh), as the radius of the loop tends to infinity ( r = resistivity of the material).
4.15 Show that the current density in a conductor distributes itself in a manner that the heat
generation due to it is always a minimum.
4.16 An earthing electrode has been made out of a perfectly conducting metal hemisphere of radius
Re, and it has been buried in soil with its flat face flush with the earth surface. If the soil is
assumed to be isotropic with constant resistivity r, show that the resistance between the
electrode and the earth is given by
ρ
.
2π Re
4.17 If in Problem 4.16, there is now a perfectly conducting plane parallel to the outer surface at a
depth d (d >> Re ) and extending to infinity, find the resistance of the system.
4.18 Prove that the lines of current flow are refracted at the interface plane between two media of
different conductivities.
4.19 A steady current with the normal component Jn is flowing across the interface between the two
conducting media of conductivities s1 and s2 and permittivities e1 and e2, respectively. Show
that there must be a surface charge density on the interface surface. Find its magnitude.
4.20 In Problem 4.16, what will happen, if a man approaches the earthing electrode?
4.21 In Problem 4.16 of the earthing hemisphere, if the earth in the vicinity of the hemisphere is
inhomogeneous but isotropic, of conductivity s1 for a < r b, find its resistance.
4.22 Two hemispherical electrodes of radii a are buried in the earth of homogeneous, isotropic
conductivity s, flush with the surface. The distance between the centres of the electrodes is d
which is such that d >> a. Find the resistance between the electrodes.
4.23 In Problem 4.22, what will be the resistance if the earth is now non-homogeneous and isotropic
so that the conductivity is s1 for a < r b?
4.24 Three wires of same uniform cross-section and material form the three sides of a triangle ABC,
such that the sides BC, CA and AB have the resistances a, b, c, respectively. A fourth wire of
resistance d starts from the point A and makes a sliding contact on the side BC at D (say). If a
current enters this network at A leaves from the sliding contact point D, show that the maximum
resistance of the network is given by
(a + b + c) d
.
a + b + c + 4d
4.25 A truncated right circular cone, of resistive material of resistivity r, has the axial length L. Its
cross-section normal to its axis is circle, the radii of the two ends being a and b (b > a). If its
ends are flat circles normal to the axis, find its resistance along the axial length, by considering
circular discs of thickness dÿz and then integrating over the whole axial length. This method is
fundamentally flawed. Why? Hence, consider the end surfaces to be spherical surfaces whose
centre would be at the apex of the cone.
4.26 A black box has in it unknown emfs and resistances connected in an unknown way such that
(i) a 10 W resistance connected across its terminals takes a current of 1 A and (ii) an 18 W
resistance takes 0.6 A. What will be the magnitude of the resistance which will draw 0.1 A?
Ax
4.27 The two potential functions are (i) V = Axy, (ii) V = . Which three-
( x + y + z 2 )3/ 2
2 2
dimensional steady current flow problems are solved by these potential functions?
4.28 A cube has been made out of 12 equal wires of resistance R joined together at the ends to form
its edges. If a current enters and leaves at the two ends of one wire, show that the effective
resistance of the network is 7R/12. If the current enters and leaves at the ends of a face
diagonal, then show that the effective resistance of the network is 3R/4.
Hint: Use the star-delta transformation at suitable junctions to simplify the network analysis.
4.29 A truncated right circular cone, made out of insulator, has the height h, base radius a1 and top
radius a2 (a2 < a1). The base sits on a conducting plate and the top supports a cylindrical
conducting rod of radius a3, such that a3 < a2. If the surface of the cone has a surface resistivity
rS, then show that the surface resistance between the plate and the rod is
ρS ⎡⎢ {h + ( a1 − a2 ) } ⎛ a1 ⎞ ⎞⎤
2 2
⎛a
ln ⎜ ⎟ + ln ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥ .
2π ⎢ a1 − a2 ⎝ a2 ⎠ ⎝ a3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣
4.30 A square is made out of a length 4a of uniform wire by bending it. The opposite vertices of the
square are joined by straight lengths of the same wire which also form a junction at the point
of their intersection. A specified current is fed into the point of intersection of the diagonals
and comes out at one of the angular points of the square. Show that the effective resistance to
the path of the current is given by the length a 2 /(2 2 + 1) of the wire.
4.31 Show that in a system, if the entire volume between the electrodes is filled with a uniform
isotropic medium, then the current distribution and the resistance between the electrodes can
be derived from the solution of the electrostatic problem for the capacitance between the same
electrodes when the intervening medium is insulating (principle of duality).
4.32 A current enters a spherical conducting shell at a point defined by qÿ =ÿa,ÿf = 0 and comes out
at the point qÿ =ÿa,ÿfÿ =ÿp, the origin of the spherical polar coordinate system being located at
the centre of the spherical shell. Prove that the potential on the surface of the shell is of the
form
⎛ 1 − cosα cos θ − sin α sin θ cos φ ⎞
A ln ⎜ ⎟ + C.
⎝ 1 − cos α cos θ + sin α sin θ cos φ ⎠
Note: The angle q of the coordinate system is also called the latitude angle and f is the
longitude angle (for obvious reasons).
4.33 A rectangular plate ABCD (of dimensions l × b) of resistive material has a uniform
thickness d and a conductivity s. When the conducting electrodes are fixed to the two edges
AB and CD, the resistance of the plate is R1 and when these electrodes are fixed to the edges
BC and DA, this resistance changes to R2. Show that
1
R1 R2 = .
σ d
2 2
4.34 There are conductors of complex shapes when the rigorous values of their resistances cannot
be computed. But in most cases, the upper limit and the lower limit of the resistance can be
computed. To obtain the lower limit, insert into the conductor, thin sheets of perfectly
conducting material in such a way that they coincide as nearly as possible with the actual
equipotentials but at the same time permit the computation of the resistance. In this case, the
result is less than (or at most equal to) the actual resistance. To calculate the upper limit, thin
insulating sheets are inserted as nearly as possible along the actual lines of flow in such a way
that the resistance can be computed. In this case the computed value exceeds (or at least equals)
the actual resistance.
Hence calculate the two limits of the resistance between the perfectly conducting electrodes
applied at the two ends of a horse-shoe shaped conductor of triangular cross-section as shown
in the figure below. The triangle is isosceles with the base being the outer edge of length a, and
the altitude of the triangle is also a. The length of the straight arms of the conductor is c, the
arms being parallel with a gap equal to 2b, being the distance between the vertices of the cross-
section.
a
P R
a
x a+b
2b c Resistivity of the
conductor = r
a
Q S
y
4.35 A cable PQ which is 50 miles long, has developed a fault at one point in it and it is required
to locate the fault point. When the end P is connected to a battery and is maintained at a
potential of 200 V, the end Q which is insulated has a potential of 40 V under steady-state
conditions. Similarly when the end P is insulated, the potential to which Q has to be raised in
order to produce a steady potential of 40 V at P, is 300 V. Hence prove that the distance of the
fault point from the end P is 19.05 miles.
4.36 A current source of magnitude I has the form of a circular loop of radius r = b and is located
co-axially inside a solid cylinder of resistive material of resistivity r. The cylinder is of radius
a (a > b) and has the axial length L (i.e. z = 0 to z = L). The location of the loop inside the
cylinder is defined by r = b, z = c where 0 < c < L. The ends of the cylinder are perfectly
earthed. Show that the potential distribution in the cylinder is
IS sinh ^N ( L – c)` sinh (N z ) J ( N b) J (N r )

Ç k
N
k 0 k 0 k
k^ 0 k `
Q a2 k 1 sinh ( k L ) N J ( N a )
2
for z < c and where J1(mka) = 0.
4.7 SOLUTIONS
4.1 A cube is formed by joining the ends of 12 equal wires, each of resistance R, so that these wires
form the edges of the cube. If a current enters into the cube from one corner of the cube and
leaves from the diagonally opposite corner, show that its resistance is 5R/6.
Sol. See Fig. 4.1. If the current enters into the cube from the point O, then the points A, B
and C are at the same potential and hence can be short circuited.
R
Hence ROABC =
3
Similarly, at the exit end, the points D, E, F are at the same potential and can be short circuited.
R
\ RDEFO ¢ =
3
Fig. 4.1 A cube made up of wires of equal resistance.

Now, between the short-circuited points (ABC ) and (DEF ), there are six wires connected in
parallel and hence
R
R(ABC)(DEF) =
6
R R R 5
\ The effective resistance, Reff = + + = R
3 3 6 6
4.2 A uniform, regular dodecahedron is made of 30 conductors of equal length and each of
resistance R, which form its edges. Show that the resistance of the network between the
opposite pairs of corners is 7R/6.
Sol. A dodecahedron has 30 edges, 20 vertices and 12 faces. See Fig. 4.2. At the entry point
(and at each vertex), there are three edges meeting and in the next stages, there are six edges
coming out. At each of these stages, there are first three equipotential ends and then six
equipotential points, as can be seen from Fig. 4.20. This would also be the similar arrangement.
For these 18 conductors (i.e. 3 + 6 + + 6 + 3), the parallel-series arrangement would produce
an effective resistance of
⎛R R⎞ ⎛R R⎞ R R
Reff1 = Reff .st + Reff .re = ⎜ + ⎟ + ⎜ + ⎟ = + = R
⎝3 6⎠ ⎝6 3⎠ 2 2
Plan view
Fig. 4.2 A regular dodecahedron made of 30 equal conductors.
In between, we are left with 30 18 = 12 conductors. Out of these twelve conductors, six
conductors connect the two ends in parallel, out of the remaining six conductors, at each end
there are three conductors at each side connecting equipotential points and hence they carry no
currents (as can be seen by studying Fig. 4.2).
R
\ At the middle stage, Reff 2 =
6
R 7R
Hence, the total effective resistance = R + =
6 6
4.3 A network is made in the shape of a regular tetrahedron by connecting the ends of four equal
conductors, each of resistance R. If a current enters into the tetrahedron from one of the four
vertices and comes out from the opposite corner, find the effective resistance of the network.
Sol. A tetrahedron has six edges, four vertices and four faces. See Fig. 4.3.
Plan views
B
I O B
B
C A
O O
I C A
A C
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.3 A regular tetrahedron made of four equal conductors.
In the present problem, if O is the entry vertex for the current, then the diagonally opposite exit
vertex can be any of the vertices A or B or C. We choose arbitrarily the vertex A as the exit
point for the current.
At the vertex O, the current enters into the tetrahedron and divides it into three parts, i.e. along
OA, OB and OC. Since the current exits at A, and the available paths at B and C are,
respectively BA and CA. Hence, B and C are equipotential points and so BC does not carry any
current. Hence, the resistances of the three parallel paths are R, R + R, R + R.
1 1 R
\ The effective resistance, Reff = = =
⎛1 1 1 ⎞ 2 2
+ +
⎜ R 2R 2R ⎟ R
⎝ ⎠
4.4 A regular octahedron is made by joining 12 equal conductors, each of resistance R. If a current
enters into it from one vertex and comes out of the diagonally opposite vertex, show that the
effective resistance of the network is R/2.
Sol. An octahedron has 12 edges, 6 vertices and 8 faces. See Fig. 4.4.
A regular octahedron has all equilateral triangular faces like a regular tetrahedron.
In the present problem, O has been chosen as the entry point and O¢ as the exit point for the
current, though we could have chosen any of the other pairs of points like A, C or B, D.
O Plan view
O
D
A C
B
O¢
O¢
Fig. 4.4 A regular octahedron made of 12 equal length conductors.
At the vertex O, there are 4 parallel paths OA, OB, OC and OD and at the exit point O¢, there
are 4 parallel paths AO¢, BO¢, CO¢ and DO¢ meeting. Since A, B, C and D are at the same
potential, no currents flow in the conductors AB, BC, CD and DA.
Hence the effective resistance of the network is
R R R
Reff = + =
4 4 2
4.5 A network in the shape of a regular icosahedron is made by joining the ends of 30 equal
conductors, each of resistance R. Show that the effective resistance of the network, when a
current enters one vertex and comes out of the diagonally opposite vertex, is R/2.
Sol. An icosahedron has 30 edges, 12 vertices and 20 faces. A regular icosahedron has all
faces as equilateral triangles like a regular tetrahedron and an octahedron. See Fig. 4.5.
Plan view
Fig. 4.5 A regular icosahedron made of 30 equal length conductors.
In an icosahedron at each vertex, five edges meet. A study of Fig. 4.5 will show that there are
five equilateral triangles meeting at the entry point vertex, and the five base points are at the
same potential, and so there would be no current flow in five conductors forming the bases of
these five equilateral triangles. The situation will be similar at the exit side as well. So, we have
accounted for 5 + 5 + + 5 + 5, i.e. 20 conductors. Thus, we are left with 10 more conductors
which effectively are connected in parallel between the two ends as can be seen from the above
figure. So, the effective resistance of the whole network can be calculated as
R R R 5R R
Reff = + + = =
5 10 5 10 2
Comments on Generalization
So far, we have considered the five regular uniform convex polyhedra which constitute the five
Platonic solids. For our purpose, they can be put into two groups.
Group 1. They have all their faces as equilateral triangles, e.g. tetrahedra, octahedra and
icosahedra. For this, the number of edges meeting at each vertex is different for each type of
polyhedra, e.g. three edges in a vertex of tetrahedra, four edges in a vertex of octahedra and
five edges for the icosahedra. In all such polyhedra, the resistance for a current through the
diagonally opposite vertices is R/2, where R is the resistance of each edge. This would hold true
for other such polyhedra, e.g. stella octangula, stellated rhombic dodecahedron, etc. which, of
course, are non-convex polyhedra.
Group 2. These are of the type in which at each vertex only three edges meet, but the faces of
these polyhedra are not equilateral triangles. In this class, we have the cube [its name in
common parlance, its rigorous mathematical name being hexahedron (regular)] and the
dodecahedron. The effective resistance across the diagonally opposite corners is found to be
5R/6 and 7R/6, respectively. A similar generalization as in the previous case is also possible
here.
4.6 A uniform conducting toroid of rectangular cross-section has the inner radius a, the outer
radius b and the axial height h. A sectorial strip subtending an angle p/2 is cut and removed
from the remaining part of the toroid. If this remaining part is fitted with perfectly conducting
strip conductors, find the resistance offered by this part to the flow of a steady current.
Sol. Consider an elemental strip of the toroid (Fig. 4.6) at a radius r, of radial width dr.
3π
ρ r
ρl 2 = ρ 3π r
\ Rel = =
a h dr 2h dr
All such strips are in parallel.
Fig. 4.6 A cut toroid of rectangular cross-section.
If the applied potential difference across this part of the toroid is V,
E V 2V
then J (r ) = = =
ρ ρ (2π r ⋅ 3/4) 3 ρπ r
2V
\ The total current in the element, J (r )dS = h dr
3ρπ r
S C
7I ES 7I È C Ø
\ Total current, *
S
Ô B
SQ S
MO É Ù
SQ Ê B Ú
V 3 ρπ
Hence, R= =
I 2h ln (b/a )
4.7 A block of conducting material, whose each side is of unit length, has two perfectly conducting
parallel plates in contact with the top and bottom surfaces. If the conductivity of the block
varies uniformly from s1 at the top to s2 at the bottom, find the resistance between the plates.
What will be the resistance, if the plates are shifted to the two side faces of the metal cube?
Sol. Case 1. Electrodes on the faces ABCD and EFGH [Fig. 4.7(b)]
D C i
r1 r1
x x
dx i
dx
A B
H G r2 r2
(b) Section for Case 1 (c) Section for Case 2
E F
(a) Isometric view
Fig. 4.7 Cubic metal block with perfectly conducting plates on opposite faces.
Consider a thin slice at a distance x from the top electrode, the thickness of the slice being dx.
δx
\ Resistance of the strip, dR = , where the cross-sectional area = 12 = 1
σ x ⋅1
and sx = s1 + (s2 s1)x
All such strips are in series.
1 1
dx 1
\ Total resistance, R = ∫ dR = ∫ 0
σ 1 + (σ 2 − σ 1 ) x
=
σ 2 − σ1
ln {σ 1 + (σ 2 − σ 1 )x}
0
1 ln (σ 2 /σ 1 )
= (ln σ 2 − ln σ1 ) =
σ 2 − σ1 σ 2 − σ1
Case 2. Electrodes on the faces ADHE and BCGF [Fig. 4.7(b)]. Now, the strips of the previous
type are connected in parallel.
V
If the potential difference between the electrodes is V, then E = = V.
1
\ dI along the strip = sxE = V{s1 + (s2 s1)x}dx.1
1 1
σ −σ
\ Total current, I = V ∫ {σ 1 + (σ 2 − σ 1 ) x}dx = V ⎧⎨σ 1 x + 2 1 x2 ⎫⎬
0
⎩ 2 ⎭0
⎛ σ − σ1 ⎞ σ1 + σ 2
= V ⎜ σ1 + 2 ⎟ =V
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
V 2
\ R= =
I σ1 + σ 2
4.8 In Problem 4.7, there are charges giving rise to the steady current flow. If the block material
has constant permittivity, calculate the charges in the system producing the steady current.
Sol. Case 1. When the electrodes are on the faces ABCD and EFGH [Fig. 4.8(a)].
Fig. 4.8 Sections of the metal block with perfectly conducting plates (refer to Fig. 4.7).
Let us consider an elemental slice of thickness dx.

Electric flux entering the slice = Dx.1 = eEx
⎛ ∂E ⎞
Flux leaving the slice = Dx+dx . 1 = ε ⎜ E x + x dx ⎟
⎝ ∂x ⎠
∂E x
\ Net flux out of the slice = ε dx
∂x
i i
Now, Ex = =
σ x σ 1 + (σ 2 − σ 1 ) x
∂E x − (σ 2 − σ 1 )i dx
\ E dx = ε
∂x {σ 1 + (σ 2 − σ 1 ) x}2
which is equal to the enclosed charge, by Gauss theorem,

− ε (σ 2 − σ 1 )i dx
i.e. ρ x ⋅ dx ⋅1 =
{σ 1 + (σ 2 − σ 1 ) x}2
−ε (σ 2 − σ 1 )i
\ Volume charge density, ρ x =
{σ 1 + (σ 2 − σ 1 ) x}2
1
Hence, the total charge in the system = ∫ρ
0
x ⋅1 ⋅ dx + charge on the plates.
εi
On the plate where sx = s1, charge = Dx1 ⋅1 =
σ1
−ε i
On the plate where sx = s2, charge = Dx2 ⋅1 =
σ2
1
−ε (σ 2 − σ 1 )i dx ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
\ Total charge in the system = ∫ {σ
0 1 + (σ 2 − σ 1 ) x}
+ εi ⎜
2
− ⎟
⎝ σ1 σ 2 ⎠
1
1 ⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= −ε i (σ 2 − σ 1 ) ⎜ ⎟ + εi ⎜ − ⎟
(σ 2 − σ 1 ) ⎝ σ 1 + (σ 2 − σ 1 ) x ⎠0 ⎝ σ1 σ 2 ⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= εi ⎜ − ⎟ + εi ⎜ − ⎟=0
⎝ σ 2 σ1 ⎠ ⎝ σ1 σ 2 ⎠
Note that the charges on the plates are not equal and opposite.
Case 2. When the electrodes are on the faces ADHE and BCGF [Fig. 4.8(b)].
Let the potential difference between the electrodes be V.
V
\ E= = V, constant throughout
1
This is because s does not change in the direction of the current flow. Since e is also constant,
Dy and Dy + dy will also be equal.
\ Volume charge density = ry = 0
The charge on the plates must also be equal and opposite to one another, and equal to the
normal flux density, i.e. ±eV.
4.9 In Problem 4.8, the permittivity is allowed to vary. Find an equation for the variation of the
permittivity, such that the volume charge density is zero everywhere.
Sol. Case 1. When the electrodes are on the faces ABCD and EFGH [Fig. 4.9(a)].
Let us consider an elemental slice of thickness dx.
Fig. 4.9 Sections of the metal block with perfectly conducting plates (refer to Fig. 4.7.).
\ Flux entering into the slice = Dx.1 = exEx

and the flux leaving the slice = Dx + δ x ⋅1 = ε x + δ x ⋅ Ex + δ x
⎛ ∂ε ⎞⎛ ∂E ⎞
= ⎜ ε x + x δ x ⎟ ⎜ Ex + x δ x ⎟
⎝ ∂x ⎠⎝ ∂x ⎠
⎛ ∂E x ∂ε ⎞
\ Net flux out of the slice = ⎜ ε x + Ex x ⎟ δ x (first order approximation)
⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠
∂
= (ε x E x )δ x = Enclosed charge = rx . 1
∂x
If the charge density is to be zero everywhere, then
∂
(ε x E x ) = 0
∂x
i
\ ÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿexEx = constant, but E x =
σx
εx
Þ = constant = k (say)
σx
Þ ÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿex = k{s1 + (s2 s1)x}
Case 2. When the electrodes are on the faces ADHE and BCGF [Fig. 4.9(b)].
Since s does not change along the direction of the current flow, E is constant everywhere.
\ For Dy and Dy+ dÿ y to be equal, we must have constant e.
4.10 A circular strip of conducting material of conductivity s has the radial dimension between
r = a to r = b (b > a), and its peripheral length extends over an angle a. If perfectly conducting
strips are fitted to the edges f = 0 and f = a, find the resistance of the strip.
Sol. In the two-dimensional cylindrical polar coordinate system, the equation satisfied by the
potential is
Ñ 2V = 0
In the given problem, its solution will be of the form
V = kf, where k = constant
The equipotential surfaces are f = constant, and E = ÑV, which gives E = k/r and is directed
along the peripheral lines, i.e. concentric circular arcs. See Fig. 4.10.
Fig. 4.10 Circular strip of conducting medium.

\ J = sÿ E will flow along the concentric circular arcs about the origin.
Thus, the total current leaving AB(f = 0) =
∫∫ J ⋅ dS
kσ
If t = thickness of the strip, J = , then
r
r =b
dr b
I = − kσ t
∫
r =a
r
= − kσ t ln
a
Now, the potential difference between the electrodes AB and CD = ka

α
\ Resistance of the strip =
σ t ln (b/a )
4.11 If in Problem 4.10, the electrodes are fitted on the arcs AC and BD instead of the radii, then
find the resistance of the conductor.
Sol. Now, for the arrangement in Fig. 4.11, the current flow will be in radial directions, and
the equipotentials will be the concentric circular arcs.
Fig. 4.11 Circular strip of conducting medium with electrodes on arc edges.
Let the thickness of the strip be t.

At any radius r (a < r < b), let us consider a peripheral strip of radial length dr.
Its cross-sectional area = A = t . a r.
δr
\ Resistance of this elemental strip, δ R =
σ tα r
r =b
1 dr 1 b
\ Resistance of the complete circular strip, R =
σα t ∫
r =a
=
r σα t
ln
a
Note: We have used the principle of duality to find the directions of current flow and the
equipotentials with reference to Problem 4.10.
4.12 Two coaxial cylinders of axial length l and radii a and b (a < b) form the electrodes of a
conducting medium of conductivity s. Find the resistance between these electrodes.
Sol. See Fig. 4.12. In this case too, the current will flow along the radial lines and the
equipotential surfaces will be the concentric cylindrical surfaces between r = a and r = b.
Fig. 4.12 Cylindrical conductor showing the elemental cylindrical strip.
\ For the elemental cylindrical strip shown,

l δr
dR = =
σ A σ 2π rl
r =b
1 dr 1 b
\ Total resistance =
2πσ l
· ∫
r =a
r
=
2πσ l
ln
a
4.13 A thin spherical shell of radius a and thickness t is made up of conducting material of
conductivity s. One of its diameters is AOB such that a current I enters into and leaves from
the points A and B, respectively, by two small circular electrodes of radius c (c << a) whose
centres are at A and B. Given that P is a point on the shell such that ÐPOB = q, prove that the
magnitude of the current vector at P is
I
2π at sin θ
and that the resistance of the conductor is
1 c
log cot .
πσ t 2a
P
OP = OA = OB = a
I I
A h B
O
Circular electrodes of radius c

Shell of thickness t
Fig. 4.13 A spherical shell of conducting material.
Sol. The current enters at A and leaves from B, and so the current I gets evenly distributed
into every elemental circular strip normal to the diameter AOB.
\ Circumferential length of the elemental strip through P = 2pa sin q, and the shell has a
thickness t.
I
\ J (R ) T E the electric field.
t ¹2Q a sin R
I 1 ∂V
Hence, E = = − grad V = − , where V is the potential at P.
2π at σ sin θ a ∂θ
θ =π − c / a θ =π − c / a
I dθ I θ
\ Potential difference across AB, VAB = ∫
θ =c / a
=
2πσ t sin θ 2πσ t
ln tan
2 θ =c / a
because the angle subtended by the circular electrodes, at the centre of the spherical shell would
be q = c/a.
I ⎧ ⎛π c ⎞ ⎛ c ⎞⎫
\ VAB = ⎨ln tan ⎜ − ⎟ − ln tan ⎜ ⎟⎬
2πσ t ⎩ ⎝ 2 2a ⎠ ⎝ 2a ⎠ ⎭
c
cot
I 2a
= · ln
2πσ t c
tan
2a
2
I ⎛ c ⎞ I c
= ln ⎜ cot ⎟ = ln cot
2πσ t ⎝ 2a ⎠ πσ t 2a
VAB 1 c
Hence the total effective resistance = = ln cot .
I πσ t 2a
4.14 A conducting strip of rectangular cross-section b × h is bent to form a circular loop, with the
dimension b in the radial direction of the loop. A current I is fed into the loop through an
electrode at q = 0 and taken out from q = 2p, the two electrodes being insulated from each
other. Derive the expression for the potential difference across the complete turn and show that
the potential difference per unit length of the strip reduces to that of a straight strip, i.e.
Ir/(bh), as the radius of the loop tends to infinity ( r = resistivity of the material).
Sol. See Fig. 4.14. The path of the current will be in concentric circular loops, so that the
current density will be a function of r, if we define the potential difference across the loop as V.
V
\ V = 2π r J ( r ) ρ or J (r ) =
2π r ρ
Ro
The total current, I= ∫∫ J (r )dr dh = h ∫ J (r ) drRi
In the limit, both Ri and Ro ® ¥, but still Ro Ri = b.

Fig. 4.14 Circular strip of rectangular cross-section b × h.
\ We write the limits of the integral as

Ri + b
V Vh ⎛ R + b ⎞ Vh ⎛ b ⎞
I =h ∫
Ri
2π r ρ
dr = ln ⎜ i ⎟=
2πρ ⎝ Ri ⎠ 2πρ ⎝
ln ⎜1 + ⎟
Ri ⎠
Furthermore, it should be noted that at any arbitrary radius r of the strip, the length of the
complete turn = 2p r = 2p (Ri + eb), where 0 < e < 1; and the actual value of e depends on the
radial location of the element.
\ At any arbitrary radius r,
I 2πρ
Potential difference across the complete turn =
h ln{1 + (b/Ri )}
I 2πρ Iρ
and potential difference per unit length = =
2π rh ln{1 + (b/Ri )} h( Ri + ε b) ln{1 + (b/Ri )}
Iρ
=
hRi {1 + (ε b/Ri )} ln{1 + (b/Ri )}
Now, as Ri increases, gradually tending to infinity, for large values of Ri (before it actually
becomes infinite), ln{1 + (b/Ri)} is of the form ln(1 + x) where x << 1, and hence can be
approximated as
x 2 x3
ln(1 + x) = x − + +"
2 3
l x, neglecting the higher degree terms.
Iρ Iρ
Potential difference per unit length = = (e < 1)
⎛ εb ⎞ b ⎛ εb ⎞
hRi ⎜1 + ⎟ bh ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ Ri ⎠ Ri ⎝ Ri ⎠
Now, let Ri ® ¥,
Iρ
\ Potential difference per unit length = ,
bh
which is the expression in the Cartesian coordinate system.
4.15 Show that the current density in a conductor distributes itself in a manner that the heat
generation due to it is always a minimum.
Sol. We start by assuming that there is a deviation from the distribution given by Ohms law,
the additional current density being Ja.
By Ohms law, J = sÑ (emf )
Since there is to be no accumulation of charge, Ja has to satisfy the equation of continuity,
Ñ × Ja = 0
So, considering an element of a tube of flow in the conductor, for the heat generated, we get
2 2
⎡⎧ 1 ⎫ ⎤ ds ⎧ 1 ⎫
dP = ⎢ ⎨− ∇V + J a ⎬ · dS ⎥ σ = σ ⎨− ∇V + J a ⎬ dv,
⎣⎩ σ ⎭ ⎦ dS ⎩ σ ⎭
where dS is the cross-sectional area of the elemental tube and ds is its length.
\ Integrating over the whole region, we get
Î1 2Þ
ÔÔÔ ÏÐT (³V ) 2 J a ¹³V T J a
2
P ß dv (i)
v
à
Next, applying the Greens theorem to the second term of the above integrand, we get
∫∫∫ (J
v
a ⋅ ∇V ) dv = − ∫∫∫ V (∇ ⋅ J
v
a ) dv + ∫∫ Vn ⋅ J dS
S
a
In the above expression, the first term on R.H.S. = 0, because Ñ × Ja = 0.

The second term on R.H.S. is also zero, because the total electrode current is constant.
\ The first and the third terms in (i) remain.
The first term in (i) represents the heat generated when the Ohms law holds. The third term is
positive and hence shows that any deviation from this law increases the rate of generation of heat.
4.16 An earthing electrode has been made out of a perfectly conducting metal hemisphere of radius
Re, and it has been buried in soil with its flat face flush with the earth surface. If the soil is
assumed to be isotropic with constant resistivity r, show that the resistance between the
electrode and the earth is given by
ρ
.
2π Re
Sol. See Fig. 4.15. Symmetry considerations indicate that the current in the electrode will be
purely radial. Let us now consider an imaginary hemispherical shell of radius r and thickness
d r, concentric with the metal hemisphere. The current through this surface would be the same
as that leaving the metal electrode.
Re Soil of resistivity q
r
Metal hemisphere dr
Fig. 4.15 An earthing electrode buried flush with the surface of the earth.
\ The current density over this surface is

I Er
Jr = =
2π r 2
ρ
⎛ ρI ⎞ 1
\ Er = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2π ⎠ r 2
Hence, the potential of the hemisphere will be
Re
ρI
V =− ∫ E dr = 2π R
r
e
∞
V ρ
\ Resistance, R = =
I 2π Re
4.17 If in Problem 4.16, there is now a perfectly conducting plane parallel to the outer surface at a
depth d (d >> Re ) and extending to infinity, find the resistance of the system.
Sol. See Fig. 4.16. We solve this problem by solving the problem of capacitance of a sphere
of radius R, positioned centrally between the two earthed parallel planes, which are 2d apart.
Q ⎪⎧ 1 1 1 1 1 ⎪⎫
\ Ex = ⎨ 2 + − + − + "⎬
4πε 0 ⎪⎩ x (2d − x ) 2
(2d + x ) 2
(4d − x ) 2
(4d + x ) 2
⎪⎭
Re
d (>> Re) Soil of resistivity q or conductivity r
Perfectly conducting plane
(a) Hemisphere and the conducting plane
2d
–Q +Q –Q +Q
(b) Image system

Fig. 4.16 Hemisphere, the conducting plane below, and its image system.
Hence,
d
Q ⎧ 1 1 1 1 1 ⎫
P.D., V = ⎨− + + − − + "⎬
4πε 0 ⎩ x 2d − x 2d + x 4d − x 4d + x ⎭R
Q ⎧⎪ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎫⎪
= ⎨− ⎜ − ⎟ + ⎜ − ⎟+⎜ − ⎟−⎜ − ⎟ + "⎬
4πε 0 ⎩⎪ ⎝ d R ⎠ ⎝ d 2d − R ⎠ ⎝ 3d 2d + R ⎠ ⎝ 5d 4d + R ⎠ ⎭⎪
Q ⎧1 1 1 1 1 ⎫
= ⎨ − − + + + "⎬
4πε 0 ⎩ R 2 d − R 2d + R 4 d + R 4 d − R ⎭
Q ⎧1 1 1 1 1 ⎫
⎨ − + − + + "⎬
4πε 0 ⎩ R d 2 d 3d 4 d ⎭
Q ⎧ R⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞⎫
= ⎨1 − ⎜1 − + − + " ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 R ⎩ d ⎝ 2 3 4 ⎠⎭
Q ⎧ R ⎫
= ⎨1 − ln 2 ⎬
4πε 0 R ⎩ d ⎭
Q 4πε 0 Re
\ C= = , Re here is the radius of the hemisphere.
V ⎛ Re ⎞
⎜1 − ln 2 ⎟
⎝ d ⎠
ε
Now, CR1 = ερ = , where e and s are constants and R1 is the resistance of the system.
σ
ε
\ R1 = 0
σC
But in the present problem,
2ε 0
R1 =
σC
because in the original problem, we have the hemisphere only and not the complete sphere.
1 ⎛ Re ⎞
\ Resistance, R1 = ⎜1 − ln 2 ⎟
2πσ Re ⎝ d ⎠
4.18 Prove that the lines of current flow are refracted at the interface plane between two media of
different conductivities.
Sol. Bookwork.
4.19 A steady current with the normal component Jn is flowing across the interface between the two
conducting media of conductivities s1 and s2 and permittivities e1 and e2, respectively. Show
that there must be a surface charge density on the interface surface. Find its magnitude.
Sol. Let the surface charge density be rS.
ε1 ε
\ ρS = Dn1 − Dn 2 = ε1 En1 − ε 2 En 2 =J n1 − 2 J n 2
σ1 σ2
But it is given that the normal component of the current density is continuous.
\ J n1 = J n 2 = J n
Hence the surface charge density on the interface is given by
⎛ε ε ⎞
ρS = ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟ J n
⎝ σ1 σ 2 ⎠
4.20 In Problem 4.16, what will happen, if a man approaches the earthing electrode?
Sol. The resistance of the electrode is given by
ρ 1
R= =
2π a 2πσ a
where
s = conductivity of the earth
a = radius of the electrode.
Also, at any point distant r from the centre of the electrode,
I
Er =
2πσ r 2
for a current I flowing through the electrode.
The potential at any point r on the surface of the earth, due to the current flow is
∞
I
∫
Vr = E dr =
r
2πσ r
Hence, the potential difference between the two points at a distance dr is then given by
I I Iδ r
ΔV = − =
2πσ r 2πσ ( r + δ r ) 2πσ r ( r + δ r )
Suppose a man approaches the earthing electrode when a large current flows through it, the
potential difference DV between his feet can then be very large. For example,
if s = 102 S/m, I = 1000 A, ÿÿdr = 0.75 m, r = 1 m, then DV = 6820 V,
which is dangerous, if someone is walking barefoot near the electrode. Any person walking near
this electrode must have shoes made of insulating material in order to withstand such high
voltages.
4.21 In Problem 4.16 of the earthing hemisphere, if the earth in the vicinity of the hemisphere is
inhomogeneous but isotropic, of conductivity s1 for a < r b, find its resistance.
Sol. See Fig. 4.17. In this case,

I
Er = for a < r b
2πσ 2 r 2
Fig. 4.17 Electrode hemisphere in non-homogeneous earth.
\ The potential of the hemisphere will be

∞ r =b ∞
I dr I dr
V= − ∫
r =a
E ⋅ dr = − ∫
r =a
2πσ 1r 2
−
r =b
∫ 2πσ 2 r 2
I ⎛1 1⎞ I I ⎪⎧ 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 1 ⎪⎫
= − ⎜ − ⎟+ = ⎨ ⎜ − ⎟− ⎬
2πσ 1 ⎝ b a ⎠ 2πσ 2b 2π ⎪⎩ b ⎝ σ 1 σ 2 ⎠ σ 1a ⎭⎪
V 1 ⎧⎪ 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 1 ⎫⎪
\ Its resistance, R = = ⎨ ⎜ − ⎟+ ⎬
I 2π ⎪⎩ b ⎝ σ 2 σ 1 ⎠ aσ 1 ⎪⎭
Note: This answer would reduce to that of the Problem 4.16 when s1 = s2, or b = a or
b ® ¥.
4.22 Two hemispherical electrodes of radii a are buried in the earth of homogeneous, isotropic
conductivity s, flush with the surface. The distance between the centres of the electrodes is d
which is such that d >> a. Find the resistance between the electrodes.
Sol. Two earthed electrodes are so far from each other (d >> a) that in the near vicinity of
each, the current distribution would be such that we can consider each to be in isolation. In
particular, on points on the earth surface, the current density vectors are parallel and in the same
direction and so they add algebraically. See Fig. 4.18.
\ On such a point (say P), due to a current I through the electrodes,
I I
J1 = and J 2 =
2π r 2
2π ( d − r ) 2
Fig. 4.18 Two earthed electrodes at a distance d (d >> a).
Hence the potential difference between the electrodes will be

d −a d −a d −a
J1 + J 2 I ⎧⎪ 1 1 ⎫⎪
V1 V2 = ∫
a
E ⋅ dr = ∫
a
σ
dr =
2πσ ∫
a
⎨ 2 +
⎪⎩ r ( d − r ) 2 ⎪⎭
⎬ dr
I ⎧ 1 1 1 1 ⎫ I
= ⎨− + + − ⎬ ( d >> a)
2πσ ⎩ d − a a d − ( d − a ) d − a ⎭ πσ a
V 1
\ The resistance, R = =
I πσ a
i.e. it is as if the two resistors are in series.
4.23 In Problem 4.22, what will be the resistance if the earth is now non-homogeneous and isotropic
so that the conductivity is s1 for a < r b?
Sol. See Fig. 4.19. Once again, since the distance between the electrodes d is much greater than
their radii a, i.e. d >> a, they can be treated as if they are in isolation. In this case, the surface
current directions do not change. Since the same current I is being fed in, the potential differences
Fig. 4.19 Two earthed electrodes in non-homogeneous soil.
will be different. (If it had been the same applied potential, then the currents would be
different.) So, at a point P on the surface, due to a current I, through the electrodes
I I
J1 = and J 2 =
.
2π r 2
2π ( d − r ) 2
Hence the potential difference between the electrodes will be
d −a d −a
I ⎡1 ⎧ 1
d −a ⎤
J1 + J 2 1 ⎫
V1 V 2 =
∫ Edr = ∫ σ
dr = ⎢ ⎨− + ⎬
2π ⎢ σ ⎩ r d − r ⎭a ⎥
⎥
a a ⎣ ⎦
I ⎡1 ⎧ 1
b d −b d −a⎤
1 ⎫ 1 ⎧ 1 1 ⎫ 1 ⎧ 1 1 ⎫
= ⎢ ⎨ − + ⎬ + ⎨ − + ⎬ + ⎨ − + ⎬ ⎥
2π ⎢ σ 1 ⎩ r d − r ⎭a σ 2 ⎩ r d − r ⎭b σ 1 ⎩ r d − r ⎭d − b ⎥
⎣ ⎦
I ⎡1 ⎧ 1 1 1 1 ⎫ 1 ⎧ 1 1 1 1 ⎫
= ⎢ ⎨− + + − ⎬ + ⎨− + + − ⎬
2π ⎣⎢ σ 1 ⎩ b a d − b d − a ⎭ σ 2 ⎩ d − b b d − (d − b) d − b ⎭
1 ⎧ 1 1 1 1 ⎫⎤
+ ⎨− + + − ⎬⎥
σ1 ⎩ d − a d − b d − ( d − a ) d − (d − b) ⎭⎥⎦
I ⎡ 2 ⎧1 1 1 1 ⎫ 2 ⎧1 1 ⎫⎤
= ⎢ ⎨ − + − ⎬+ ⎨ − ⎬⎥
2π ⎢⎣ σ 1 ⎩ a b d − b d − a ⎭ σ 2 ⎩ b d − b ⎭⎥⎦
I ⎡1 ⎧1 1⎫ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎨ − ⎬+ ⎥ , as d >> a
π ⎣ σ1 ⎩ a b ⎭ σ 2b ⎦
V1 − V2 1 ⎡ 1 ⎧ 1 1 ⎫ 1 ⎤
\ Resistance, R = = ⎢ ⎨ − ⎬+ ⎥
I π ⎣ σ 1 ⎩ a b ⎭ σ 2b ⎦
i.e. the two resistors appear to be in series.
Also, the answer would reduce to that of Problem 4.22, when s1 = s2, or b = a or b ® ¥.
4.24 Three wires of same uniform cross-section and material form the three sides of a triangle ABC,
such that the sides BC, CA and AB have the resistances a, b, c, respectively. A fourth wire of
resistance d starts from the point A and makes a sliding contact on the side BC at D (say). If a
current enters this network at A and leaves from the sliding contact point D, show that the
maximum resistance of the network is given by
B C D
E

B C D E
Fig. 4.20 Four wires forming a triangular network.
Sol. See Fig. 4.20. Let the resistance of BD be x.

\ The resistance of CD = a x
\ In our network, we have three parallel branches ABD, AD and ACD. If the effective
resistance of the network is Reff, then we have
1 1 1 1
= + +
Reff c+x d b+a−x
d ( a + b − x ) + ( a + b − x )(c + x) + (c + x ) d
=
( a + b − x)(c + x ) d
( a + b) d − xd + ( a + b)c + ( a + b) x − xc − x 2 + cd + xd
=
( a + b)cd + xd ( a + b) − xcd − x 2 d
( a + b + c) d + ( a + b)c + ( a + b − c) x − x 2
=
( a + b)cd + xd ( a + b − c ) − x 2 d
( a + b)cd + x ( a + b − c ) d − x 2 d
\ Reff =
( a + b + c ) d + ( a + b) c + x ( a + b − c ) − x 2
To find the maxima of Reff, we have to differentiate it with respect to x.
[{( a + b − c ) d − 2 xd }{( a + b + c ) d + ( a + b)c + x ( a + b − c) − x 2 }

d − {( a + b)cd + x ( a + b − c) d − x 2 d }{( a + b − c) − 2 x}]
\ Reff =
dx {( a + b + c) d + ( a + b)c + x ( a + b − c ) − x 2 }2
For Reff max, the numerator = 0,
i.e. (a + b c)(a + b + c)d2 + (a + b c)(a + b)cd + (a + b c)2xd (a + b c)x2d

2xd2(a + b + c) 2xcd (a + b) 2x2d (a + b c) + 2x3d
(a + b)(a + b c)cd x(a + b c)2d + x2d (a + b c)
+ 2x(a + b)cd + 2x2(a + b c)d 2x3d = 0
or (a + b c)(a + b + c)d2 2xd2(a + b + c) = 0
or (a + b + c){(a + b c) 2x}d2 = 0
a+b−c
\ x=
2
1 1 1 1
\ = + +
Reff max a+b−c d a+b−c
c+ a+b−
2 2
2 1 2 2d + a + b + c + 2d
= + + =
a+b+c d a+b+c ( a + b + c) d
( a + b + c) d
\ Reff max =
a + b + c + 4d
4.25 A truncated right circular cone, of resistive material of resistivity r, has the axial length L.
Its cross-section normal to its axis is circle, the radii of the two ends being a and b (b > a).
If its ends are flat circles normal to the axis, find its resistance along the axial length, by
considering circular discs of thickness d z and then integrating over the whole axial length. This
method is fundamentally flawed. Why? Hence, consider the end surfaces to be spherical
surfaces whose centre would be at the apex of the cone.
Sol. See Fig. 4.21. Let the semi-vertical angle of the cone be a, and let the radii of the end
sections be a and b, then
b−a
tan α =
L
b−a L
\ sin α = , cos α =
2 2
L + (b − a ) L + (b − a ) 2
2
Fig. 4.21 A truncated cone showing both flat ends as well as spherical ends.
Initially, we consider the circular sections of the truncated cone, normal to its axis, each section
of axial thickness dz and radius of section r.
I
\ J at r = 2
πr
and the potential difference across this elemental slice,
I ρ dz
dV =
π r2
Now z = r/tan a, where the origin of the coordinate system is at the imaginary apex of the
truncated cone.
dr
\ dz =
tan α
r =b r =b
Iρ
dr Iρ dr
Hence, V=
r =a
∫ =
π r tan α π tan α
2 ∫
r =a
r2
r =b
Iρ ⎧ 1⎫ IρL ⎧ 1 1 ⎫ I ρL
= ⎨− ⎬ = ⎨− + ⎬ =
π (b − a )/L ⎩ r ⎭r = a π (b − a ) ⎩ b a ⎭ π ab
V ρL
\ R= =
I π ab
This answer is intrinsically flawed. Why?
It is left to the students to explain the reason behind the flaw. The correct answer is obtained
by considering not the flat strips, but by considering the truncated cones ends to be made of
concentric spherical surfaces whose centre is at the apex of the cone.
We will now consider such a section whose generator radius length is R and which is related to
r of the previous consideration by the expression
r
= sin a
R
Hence, the range of R for the truncated cone will vary from R = a/sin a to R = b/sin a, and the
area of such a spherical section will be based on the consideration of the solid angle
subtended by O.
\ Area of the spherical sector at the generator radius R is given by
2pR2(1 cos a),
and the elemental thickness of such sections will be dR and not dz.
I
\ J =
2π R (1 − cos α )
2
\ dV = r J dR
b/ sin α
\ V= ∫
a/ sin α
ρ J dR
b/ sin α
ρI dR
=
2π (1 − cos α ) ∫α R
a/ sin
2
b/ sin α
ρI ⎧ 1⎫
= ⎨− ⎬
2π (1 − cos α ) ⎩ R ⎭a/ sin α
ρ I sin α ⎧ 1 1 ⎫
= ⎨− + ⎬
2π (1 − cos α ) ⎩ b a ⎭
ρ I (b − a ) sin α
=
2π (1 − cos α ) ab
ρ I (b − a ) 2
=
2π ab ⎡ {L2 + (b − a ) 2 } − L ⎤
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
V ρ (b − a ) 2
\ R = =
I 2π ab ⎡ {L2 + (b − a ) 2 } − L ⎤
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
4.26 A black box has in it unknown emfs and resistances connected in an unknown way such that
(i) a 10 W resistance connected across its terminals takes a current of 1 A and (ii) an 18 W
resistance takes 0.6 A. What will be the magnitude of the resistance which will draw 0.1 A?
Sol. There is a general theorem (which we shall not prove here) that such a black box can be
replaced by an effective emf E and an effective resistance Rs connected in series. See Fig. 4.22.
Fig. 4.22 Equivalence of the black box.
\ E = (Rs + 10) . 1
and E = (Rs + 18) × 0.6
\ Rs + 10 = 0.6Rs + 10.8
or 0.4Rs = 0.8
\ Rs = 2 W
and E = 12 V
\ RL for 0.1 A will be
12 = (2 + RL ) × 0.1
Þ 0.1RL = 12 0.2 = 11.8
\ RL = 118 W
Ax
4.27 The two potential functions are (i) V = Axy, (ii) V = . Which three-
( x + y + z 2 )3/ 2
2 2
dimensional steady current flow problems are solved by these potential functions?
Sol. (i) (a) In the Cartesian coordinate system,
V = Axy
\ E = grad V = ixAy iy Ax
A
Hence, J=− (i y + i y x )
ρ x
(b) In the cylindrical polar coordinate system,
V = Axy = Ar2 sin f cos f
⎧ ∂V 1 ∂V ∂V ⎫
\ E = grad V = − ⎨i r + iφ + iz ⎬
⎩ ∂r r ∂φ ∂z ⎭
⎧⎪ Ar 2 ⎫⎪
= − ⎨i r A2r sin φ cos φ + iφ (cos 2 φ − sin 2 φ ) ⎬
⎩⎪ r ⎭⎪
A
\ J = ρE = − (i r sin 2φ + iφ r cos 2φ )
ρ r
(c) In the spherical polar coordinate system,
V = Axy = Ar2sin2q sin f cos f
⎧ ∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V ⎫
\ E = - grad V = − ⎨i r + iθ + iφ ⎬
⎩ ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ ⎭
⎧⎪ r2
= − A ⎨i r 2r sin θ sin φ cos φ + iθ 2sin θ cos θ sin φ cos φ
2
⎪⎩ r
r 2 sin 2 θ ⎫⎪
+ iφ (cos 2 φ − sin 2 φ ) ⎬
r sin θ ⎪⎭
1 A
\ J=+ E = − (i r r sin 2 θ sin 2φ + iθ r sin θ cosθ sin 2φ + iφ r sin θ cos 2φ )
ρ ρ
Ax Ar sin θ cosθ A sin θ cos φ

(ii) V = 2 2 2 3/ 2
= 3
= in spherical polar coordinates.
(x + y + z ) r r2
⎧ ⎛ 2 ⎞ 1 1 ⎫
\ E = − grad V = − A ⎨i r ⎜ − 3 ⎟ sin θ cos φ + iθ 3 cos θ cos φ + iφ 3 ( − sin φ ) ⎬
⎩ ⎝ r ⎠ r r ⎭
1 A⎧ 2sin θ cos φ cos θ cos φ sin φ ⎫

\ J=− E = − ⎨− i r + iθ − iφ 3 ⎬
ρ ρ⎩ r 3
r 3
r ⎭
The physical interpretation of these current distributions is left as an exercise for the students.
4.28 A cube has been made out of 12 equal wires of resistance R joined together at the ends to form
its edges. If a current enters and leaves at the two ends of one wire, show that the effective
resistance of the network is 7R/12. If the current enters and leaves at the ends of a face
diagonal, then show that the effective resistance of the network is 3R/4.
Hint: Use the star-delta transformation at suitable junctions to simplify the network analysis.
4.29 A truncated right circular cone, made out of insulator, has the height h, base radius a1 and top
radius a2 (a2 < a1). The base sits on a conducting plate and the top supports a cylindrical
conducting rod of radius a3, such that a3 < a2. If the surface of the cone has a surface resistivity
rS , then show that the surface resistance between the plate and the rod is
ρS ⎡⎢ {h + (a1 − a2 ) } ⎛ a1 ⎞ ⎞⎤
2 2
⎛a
ln ⎜ ⎟ + ln ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥ .
2π ⎢ a1 − a2 ⎝ a2 ⎠ ⎝ a3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣
Sol. See Fig. 4.23. Suppose r = radius of a circular disc and R = the corresponding cone
generator radius.
r
\ = sin a
R
where a is semi-vertical angle of the cone.
a1 − a2
\ α = tan −1
h
dr
Hence, = dR
sin α
We consider a circular section of the cone of radius r.
\ The elemental strip is of inclined height dR.
\ Surface resistance of the element,
ρS dR ρS dr
dRS1 = =
2π r 2π r sin α
Hence the total surface resistance of the inclined part of the cone,
a1
ρS dr ρS ⎛a ⎞
∫
RS1 = dRS1 =
2π sin α ∫
a2
r
= ln ⎜ 1 ⎟
2π sin α ⎝ a2 ⎠
Fig. 4.23 The truncated cone sitting on a conducting plate and supporting a conducting rod.
We have also to consider the surface resistance of the annular ring of the top end from r = a3
to r = a2.
a2
ρS dr ρS ⎛ a2 ⎞
\
∫
RS2 = dRS2 =
2π ∫
a3
r
= ln ⎜ ⎟
2π ⎝ a3 ⎠
ρS ⎧⎪ 1 ⎛a ⎞ ⎛a ⎞ ⎫⎪ a1 − a2
\ RS = RS1 + RS2 = ⎨ ln ⎜ 1 ⎟ + ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎬ where sin α =
2π ⎩⎪ sin α ⎝ a2 ⎠ ⎝ a3 ⎠ ⎭⎪ h 2 + ( a1 − a2 ) 2
4.30 A square is made out of a length 4a of uniform wire by bending it. The opposite vertices of the
square are joined by straight lengths of the same wire which also form a junction at the point
of their intersection. A specified current is fed into the point of intersection of the diagonals
and comes out at one of the angular points of the square. Show that the effective resistance to
the path of the current is given by the length a 2 /(2 2 + 1) of the wire.
Sol. See Fig. 4.24. We take the lengths as proportional to the resistances of each arm.
Fig. 4.24 The square network and its D converted equivalent circuit.
Y
We use D conversion to eliminate the vertices B and D, respectively.

For the B AOC star, we get RAO = a( 2 + 1), RCO = a( 2 + 1), RAC = a ( 2 + 1) 2.
Similarly for the D AOC star, RAO = a( 2 + 1), RCO = a( 2 + 1), RAC = a ( 2 + 1) 2.
There are three parallel arms between A and O, as between O and C.
\ For A and O,
1 1 1 1
= + +
RAO a ( 2 + 1) a/ 2 a ( 2 + 1)
2 (2 2 + 1)
=
a(
1
2 + 1)
{1 + 2 ( 2 + 1) + 1 = } a ( 2 + 1)
a ( 2 + 1) a ( 2 + 1) a ( 2 + 1)
\ RAO = , ROC = and RAC = ,
2 (2 2 + 1) 2 (2 2 + 1) 2
because of the two equal parallel branches.
So, the circuit simplifies to the one shown in Fig. 4.25.
Fig. 4.25 Final simplified circuit.
Since RAO and RAC are in series,

ROAC = RAO + RAC
a ( 2 + 1) a ( 2 + 1)
= +
2 (2 2 + 1) 2
a ( 2 + 1) ⎛ 1 + 2 2 + 1 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2 ⎝ 2 2 +1 ⎠
a ( 2 + 1) 2 2
=
2 2 +1
\ Effective resistance of the two parallel branches is
1 1 1
= +
Reff ROAC ROC
⎪⎧ 2 2 + 1 2 (2 2 + 1) ⎪⎫ 1
= ⎨ + ⎬
⎪⎩ 2 ( 2 + 1)
2
2 + 1 ⎪⎭ a
2 2 + 1 1 + 2( 2 + 1)
=
a 2 ( 2 + 1) 2
2 2 +1 ( 2 + 1) 2
=
a 2 ( 2 + 1) 2
2 2 +1
=
a 2
a 2
\ Reff =
2 2 +1
4.31 Show that in a system, if the entire volume between the electrodes is filled with a uniform
isotropic medium, then the current distribution and the resistance between the electrodes can
be derived from the solution of the electrostatic problem for the capacitance between the same
electrodes when the intervening medium is insulating (principle of duality).
Sol. Note that in both the cases, the operating equation to be solved is
Ñ 2V = 0
In the electrostatic case, starting from the Gauss theorem, we have
³¹ D w
ÔÔ D ¹ dS w
S
ÔÔ F E ¹ ndS
S
Q,
where Q is the enclosed charge in the closed surface S.

Hence, the boundary conditions on the electrode a (say) in vacuo will be
V
V Va , Qa w
ÔÔ F n dS
Sa
a
Similarly, for the current distribution problem, the corresponding equation will be
1 V
V Va , I a w
ÔÔ S n dS
Sa
a
The equipotential surfaces correspond exactly, since the boundary conditions in the two cases
are identical.
\ By using Ohms law, we get
| Vb − Va | | V − Va | ρε
R= = ρε 0 b = ,
| Ia | | Qa | C
where C is the capacitance in vacuo in the electrostatic case.

So, if it is possible to find an electrostatic problem, in which the tubes of force are identical in
shape with the insulating boundaries of the conductor of resistivity r and the equipotential ends
of the tubes have the same shape as the perfectly conducting terminals of the conductors, then
the resistance between such terminals can be obtained from the capacitance of the tube of force.
Charge on one end

Note: Capacitance = .
P.D. between the ends
4.32 A current enters a spherical conducting shell at a point defined by qÿ =ÿa,ÿf = 0 and comes out
at the point qÿ =ÿa,ÿfÿ =ÿp, the origin of the spherical polar coordinate system being located at
the centre of the spherical shell. Prove that the potential on the surface of the shell is of the form
È DPT B DPT R TJO B TJO R DPT G Ø
" MO É $
Ê DPT B DPT R TJO B TJO R DPT G ÙÚ
Note: The angle q of the coordinate system is also called the latitude angle and f is the
longitude angle (for obvious reasons).
Sol. See Fig. 4.26. When there is a current distribution on a spherical shell, both the surface
current density and the potential distribution are independent of the radius of the shell (which
in this case is taken as r = a).
A point to note here is that even though the spherical surface cannot be developed into a plane,
it can be projected on an infinite plane surface in such a manner that all the angles on the
original surface are maintained at the same values even after projection. This process is known
as stereographic projection and has strong resemblance to inversion.
Fig. 4.26 Spherical shell and stereographic projection.
At the end of a diameter, a plane is taken as tangent to the sphere. A line starting from the other
end of this diameter (i.e. point A of the diameter AB ) and passing through a point P on the
sphere (which makes an angle q with the specified diameter) intersects the tangent plane at P¢.
Then P ¢ is called the projection of P.
Now, the Laplaces equation on the sphere is
∂ ⎛ ∂V ⎞ ∂ 2V
sin θ ⎜ sin θ + =0 (i)
∂θ ⎝ ∂θ ⎟⎠ ∂φ 2
On the tangent plane, it takes the form
∂ ⎛ ∂V ′ ⎞ ∂ 2V ′
r r + =0 (ii)
∂r ⎜⎝ ∂r ⎟⎠ ∂φ 2
In the projecting system of curves, these equations are represented on the sphere by V ¢ of the
plane, and the angle q remains unchanged. Hence, from Fig. 4.26, r and q are related by
θ
r = 2a tan
2
The variables q and f of Eq. (i) have been transformed into r and f in Eq. (ii).
∂ dθ ∂ ∂
Note that =r
r · = sin θ ,
∂r dr ∂θ ∂θ
and so Eq. (i) transforms into Eq. (ii).
We have seen earlier that both U and V are solutions of Ñ2V = 0,
where U + jV = f (x + jy) = f (r cos f + jr sin f ), and
where f (z) is analytic.
Hence, substituting r = 2a tan q/2, we get
⎧⎛ θ⎞ ⎫
U + jV = f ⎨⎜ 2a tan ⎟ (cos φ + j sin φ ) ⎬
⎩⎝ 2⎠ ⎭
So, both U and V are solutions of Laplaces equation (equation of continuity here) on the
surface of sphere of radius a, and U and V are respective potential and stream functions or vice-
versa.
From the laws of inversion, the lines in the plane project into circles through A on the sphere,
and the circles project into circles.
From Problem 3.39, Eq. (i) is (transformed for current flow)
2π U x 2 + y 2 + b 2 r 2 + b2
coth = =
ρI 2by 2br sin φ
r = 2a tan q/2, and
b = 2a tan a/2, a being the angular point where the current enters and leaves.
2π U tan 2 θ /2 + tan 2 α /2 1 − cos α cos θ

\ coth = = ,
ρI 2 tan(θ /2) tan(α /2) sin φ sin α sin θ cos φ
since f ranges from f = 0 to f = p.
Hence the potential is of the form
⎛ 1 − cos α cos θ ⎞ 1 − cos α cos θ − sin α sin θ cos φ
A coth −1 ⎜ ⎟ + C = A log e +C
⎝ sin α sin θ cos φ ⎠ 1 − cos α cosθ + sin α sin θ cos φ
1 1
Note: coth −1 x = ln (1 + x) − ln ( x − 1).
2 2
4.33 A rectangular plate ABCD (of dimensions l × b) of resistive material has a uniform
thickness d and a conductivity s. When conducting electrodes are fixed to the two edges
AB and CD, the resistance of the plate is R1 and when these electrodes are fixed to the edges
BC and DA, this resistance changes to R2. Show that
1
R1 R2 = .
σ d
2 2
Sol. If AB = CD = l and BC = DA = b, then

b
, R1 =
σ ld
when the electrodes are connected to the edges AB and CD.
When the electrodes are connected to the edges BC and DA, then
l
R2 =
σ bd
b l
\ R1R2 = ·
σ ld σ bd
1
=
σ d
2 2
Note: This result holds for any region ABCD bounded by two lines of current flow and two
equipotentials.
This is Tsukadas theorem.
4.34 There are conductors of complex shapes when the rigorous values of their resistances cannot
be computed. But in most cases, the upper limit and the lower limit of the resistance can be
computed. To obtain the lower limit, insert into the conductor, thin sheets of perfectly
conducting material in such a way that they coincide as nearly as possible with the actual
equipotentials but at the same time permit the computation of the resistance. In this case, the
result is less than (or at most equal to) the actual resistance. To calculate the upper limit, thin
insulating sheets are inserted as nearly as possible along the actual lines of flow in such a way
that the resistance can be computed. In this case the computed value exceeds (or at least equals)
the actual resistance.
Hence calculate the two limits of the resistance between the perfectly conducting electrodes
applied at the two ends of a horse-shoe shaped conductor of triangular cross-section as shown in
Fig. 4.27. The triangle is isosceles with the base being the outer edge of length a, and the altitude
of the triangle is also a. The length of the straight arms of the conductor is c, the arms being
parallel with a gap equal to 2b, being the distance between the vertices of the cross-section.
a
P R
a
x a+b
2b c Resistivity of the
conductor = r
a
Q S
y
Fig. 4.27 Horse-shoe conductor with triangular cross-section.
Sol. All the dimensions of the conductor are as indicated in Fig. 4.27.
We calculate first the lower limit of the resistance for which the perfectly conducting sheets are
introduced normal to each leg at the points R and S. The current in each leg is then uniformly
distributed.
Resistance of the leg under this condition
ρ × length of the leg ρc 2ρc

= = 1 2 = 2
cross-section area a a
2
Next the resistance of the semi-circular part has to be calculated. Here the conductor has the
shape of a triangular tube of force in the two-dimensional electrostatic field given by
W = ln z
from which the stream function (U) and the potential function (V) are
U = ln r and V=q
noting that W = U + jV and z = r exp ( jq) and z = x + jy (in polar coordinates).
We are using the knowledge from Problem 4.31 giving the equivalence between R and C.
\ The resistance of the strip in y from Fig. 4.27 is
ρπ
dR1 =
a+b
ln dy
b + 2y
[Note: For the conjugate functions, the current density at any point is
1 dW 1 V 1 U
i
S dz S n S l
If the conductor is bounded by the equipotentials V1 and V2 and the lines of force U1 and U2,
the current flowing through it will be
U2 U2 U2
1 ∂V 1 ∂U U − U1
I= ∫ idl =
ρ ∫ ∂n
dl =
ρ ∫ ∂l
dl = 2
ρ
U1 U1 U1
\ Resistance of the conductor is
V1 − V2 V1 − V2
R= =ρ
I U1 − U 2
If the equipotentials V1 and V2 above are closed curves, then the E.S. capacitance between the
electrodes in vacuo is
ε [U ]
C=
V2 − V1
where [U] is the integral of U around U1 or U2.
ρ ε0
Thus, R= (the result derived in Problem 4.31).
C
Since all the strips in the semi-circular part are in parallel, the total resistance of this part is
1 a/2
Ë 1 Û ab
R1 ÌÔ Ü QS Ô ln dy
Í dR1 Ý 0
b 2y
Q S
b ln ( a b) b ln b a
The legs of conductor and this bent part are in series, and hence the total resistance (i.e. the
lower limit) is
⎡ 4c π ⎤
Rl = ρ ⎢ 2 − ⎥
⎣a b ln (a + b) − b ln b − a ⎦
Next, we calculate the upper limit of the resistance, and for this purpose infinitely thin insulating
sheets are introduced very close together so that the currents can flow only in straight lines and
a semi-circle.
The length of one such layer (as shown in Fig. 4.27) is
= 2c + p (b + x)
and the cross-sectional area of the strip = x dx.
\ The resistance of the strip,
ρ {2c + π (b + x)}
dRu =
x dx
Since all such strips are in parallel, the upper limit of the resistance is given by
−1
⎧ 1 ⎫
Ru = ⎨ ∫ ⎬
⎩ dRu ⎭
⎧⎪ a x dx ⎫⎪
= ⎨∫ ⎬
⎩⎪ 0 ρ {2c + π (b + x)}⎪⎭
⎧ 2c + π ( a + b ) ⎫
= ρπ 2 ⎨π a − (2c + π b) ln ⎬
⎩ 2c + π b ⎭
4.35 A cable PQ which is 50 miles long, has developed a fault at one point in it and it is required
to locate the fault point. When the end P is connected to a battery and is maintained at a
potential of 200 V, the end Q which is insulated has a potential of 40 V under steady-state
conditions. Similarly when the end P is insulated, the potential to which Q has to be raised in
order to produce a steady potential of 40 V at P, is 300 V. Hence prove that the distance of the
fault point from the end P is 19.05 miles.
Sol. Let the fault point be at a distance x miles from the end P. When either point is insulated,
it acquires the potential of the fault-point because the current flows from the source point to
the fault point and into the earth. Hence in both the cases the fault point (F, say) is at the
potential of 40 V and it follows that the fault earth current is also same for both the
arrangements. Thus if R1 is the resistance of the cable per mile length, then
for the first arrangement,
200 40 Î VP VF Þ
I1 Ï ß
xR1 Ð Resistance à
and for the second arrangement,
300 40 Î VQ VF Þ
I2 Ï ß
(50 x) R1 ÐÑ Resistance Ñà
200 − 40 300 − 40
But I1 = I 2 → =
xR1 (50 − x) R1
or 160 (50 x) = 260x
or 160 × 50 = 260x + 160x
8000 400
\ x= = = 19.0476 miles
420 21
19.05 miles
4.36 A current source of magnitude I has the form of a circular loop of radius r = b and is located
co-axially inside a solid cylinder of resistive material of resistivity r. The cylinder is of radius
a (a > b) and has the axial length L (i.e. z = 0 to z = L). The location of the loop inside the
cylinder is defined by r = b, z = c where 0 < c < L. The ends of the cylinder are perfectly
earthed. Show that the potential distribution in the cylinder is
Iρ ∞sinh {μ k ( L − c )} sinh ( μ k z ) J 0 ( μ k b) J 0 ( μk r )
∑ sinh ( μ k L)
π a k =1 μ k {J 0 ( μk a )}
2 2
for z < c and where J1(mka) = 0.

Sol. In this problem, we use the principle proved in Problem 4.31. This principle states that
if the entire volume between the electrodes is filled with a uniform isotropic medium, then the
current distribution and the resistance can be obtained from the solution of the electrostatic
problem for the capacitance between the same electrodes when the intervening medium is
insulating (Principle of Duality).
ρε
i.e. Resistance, R =
C
where
C = capacitance of the system
r = resistivity
e = permittivity
The electrostatic problem with the same electrodes has been solved in Problem 3.53. i.e. the
problem of the potential distribution in the cylindrical box defined by z = 0 to z = L and r = a
with the charged potential ring r = b at z = c.
Q0 sinh {μ k ( L − c )} sinh ( μk z ) J 0 ( μk b) J 0 ( μ k r )
∞
V = ∑ sinh ( μ k L)
πε a k =1 μ k {J 0 ( μ k a)}
2 2
where z < c and mk is such that J1(mka) = 0.

\ Capacitance C of the system,
−1
Q0 ⎧⎪ ∞ sinh {μk ( L − c)} sinh ( μk z ) J ( μ b) J ( μ r ) ⎫⎪
= πε a 2 ⎨∑
0 k 0 k
2 ⎬
V ⎪⎩ k =1 sinh ( μ k L ) μk {J 0 ( μk a )} ⎪⎭
ερ
Since R=
C
ρ ∞ sinh {μ k ( L − c)} sinh ( μk z ) J 0 ( μ k b) J 0 ( μ k r )

= ∑ sinh ( μ k L)
π a2 μ k {J 0 ( μ k a)}
2
k =1
\ The required potential distribution,

V = IR
Iρ sinh {μ k ( L − c)} sinh ( μ k z ) J 0 ( μk b) J 0 ( μ k r )

∞
= ∑ sinh ( μk L )
π a k =1 μ k {J 0 ( μ k a)}
2 2
for z < c, and mk is such that J1(mka) = 0.

Note: The reason for the difference in the solution here from that of Problem 3.53 is
explained as follows: The boundary condition here is that the ends of the cylinder (of radius
r = a) are perfectly earthed. So on the surface r = a, the current will flow into the ends. Hence
the outer surface of the cylinder will consist of axial current-flow lines. Therefore, from the
Addendum of Problem 3.48, it is the condition (2) which has to be fulfilled, i.e. J¢n(mka) = 0
and this when substituted in Eq. (xiv) will give the condition J1(mka) = 0 for the evaluation of
mk and the term in the denominator will be mk{J0(mka)}2.
5
Magnetostatics I
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The two basic laws which we shall deal with in this chapter are Amperes law and BiotSavarts law.
These laws are briefly stated below.
1. BiotSavarts Law: The magnetic field at a point P, due to a conductor element dl carrying a
current I is given by
μ0 I d l × u
'B = ,
4π r 2
where u is the unit vector in the direction of r, the distance between the current element and the point
of observation P.
2. Amperes Circuital Law: For any current-carrying region,
v$Ô H ¹ EM J
or in differential form,
curl H = Ñ × H = J
Another important law, which we shall encounter in the problems in this chapter is the law of
conservation of magnetic flux, which in integral form is
vÔ B ¹ dS
S
0
or which in differential form (by using Gauss divergence theorem) is

div B = Ñ × B = 0
This is a mathematical way of saying that magnetic monopoles cannot exist physically.
The two boundary conditions which need to be used on the surfaces of discontinuity are:
(i) (B1 B2) × n = 0
(ii) n × (H1 H2) = JS, the surface current density on the interface.
Finally, the forces acting on the current in the magnetic fields can be obtained by considering
the Lorentz force on moving charges, which states that
F = Q(v × B)
332
MAGNETOSTATICS I 333
which, when translated for current elements, becomes
F I vÔ dl B
Initially, we shall consider some problems of magnetic fields in free space and then consider
the effects of presence of magnetic materials in the region.
5.2 PROBLEMS
5.1 Find the magnetic field of current in a straight circular cylindrical conductor of radius a. Also,
express the magnetic field as a vector in terms of the current density J.
5.2 Find the magnetic field due to a current I in a coaxial cable whose inner conductor has radius
a and the outer conductor has the radii b, c (b < c). Also, express the magnetic field as a vector
in terms of the current density.
5.3 The magnetic field at a radius r, inside a long circular conductor of radius a carrying a uniform
current density J is
J×r
H= .
2
Hence, show that if a circular hole of radius b is drilled parallel to the axis of the conductor
with the centre of the hole at a distance d from the axis, then the field in the hole is uniform
and depends only on the location of the hole and not on its size (i.e. the radius of the hole).
5.4 Find the magnetic field due to a plane current sheet, and hence extrapolate it for two parallel
current sheets (with equal currents flowing in opposite directions).
5.5 A circuit has the shape of a regular hexagon whose opposite vertices are at a distance of 2a from
each other. Prove that when a current I flows in each arm of the hexagon, the magnetic force
at its centre is ( 3/π ) ( I/a).
5.6 Sketch the current waveform when a direct voltage is applied to a pure inductance. What limits
the current and what determines the initial rate of rise of current in a practical coil?
5.7 A wire-made regular polygon of 2n sides is such that the distance between the opposite parallel
sides is 2a. Prove that, when this loop carries a current I, the magnetic flux density at its centre
π
is {μ0 nl (π a)} sin .
2n
5.8 A solenoid is wound on a long former, square in section and containing no magnetic material.
It is bent round into a toroid of internal and external radii a and b, respectively. A straight thin
cable of infinite length passes along the axis of the toroid at right angles to its plane. Show that
the mutual inductance between the cable and the solenoid is
b2 − a 2 ⎛ b ⎞
M = μ0 n ln ⎜ ⎟ henry,
2 ⎝a⎠
where n is the mean number of turns per metre on the solenoid.
5.9 Calculate the inductance of a 500 turn coil wound on a toroidal core having an outer diameter
of 15 cm, mean diameter of 10 cm, a square cross-section and permeability of 100. What error
will be introduced by assuming that the magnetic flux density was equal to the flux density at
the mean diameter multiplied by the area?
5.10 Two coils having the same self-inductance are connected in series. When a current I flows
through the coils, the magnetic energy stored in their fields is W joules. If the connections of
one coil are interchanged and the current is reduced to (1/2)I, the energy stored is again
W joules. Calculate the ratio of the mutual inductance and the self-inductance.
5.11 A solenoid has both finite axial length as well as finite radial width, such that there are N1 turns
radially per metre and N2 turns axially per metre. Find the magnetic field at a point on its axis,
due to a current I per turn in the solenoid.
5.12 A coil of negligible dimensions of N turns has the shape of a regular polygon of n sides
inscribed in a circle of radius R metres. Show that the magnitude of the flux density at the centre
of the coil, when it carries a current I per turn, is {m0NnI/(2pR)}tan(p/n).
5.13 Two similar concentrated circular coils are arranged on the same axis with their fields
reinforcing each other. It is required that the field midway between them shall be as uniform as
possible. Prove that the distance between the coils shall be equal to their radius.
5.14 In Problem 5.13, the circular coils are replaced by square coils of side a. Find the condition for
similar uniformity of the field at the mid-point of the common axis.
5.15 Show that the mutual inductance between a straight long conductor and a coplanar equilateral
triangular loop is
μ0
π 3 {
(a + b) ln
a+b
b
−a , }
where a is the altitude of the triangle and b is the distance from the straight wire to the side of
the triangle parallel to it and also nearest to it.
5.16 Find the mutual inductance between an infinitely long straight wire and a one-turn rectangular
coil whose plane passes through the wire and two of whose sides are parallel to the wire. The
sides parallel to the wire are each of length a, and the other two wires are each of length b, and
the side nearest to the wire is at a distance d from it. What is the force between the two circuits,
when both carry the same current?
5.17 A rectangular loop of dimensions a × b is arranged by an infinitely long wire such that while
the sides of length a are parallel to the long wire but the loop is not coplanar with the wire.
The plane of the loop is at a height c from a radial plane to which it is parallel and the shortest
distance between the long wire and the nearer parallel side of the loop is R. Show that the
mutual inductance between the two is given by
μ0 a R
M = ln .
2π {2b( R − c ) + b 2 + R 2 }1/ 2
2 2 1/ 2
5.18 In Problem 5.17, show that the component of the force acting on the rectangular loop in the
direction of R increasing is given by
μ0 aI1 I 2 bR 2 − 2bc 2 + b 2 ( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2
F =
2π R( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2 2b( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2 + b 2 + R 2
when c is held constant. Find the component of the force acting on the rectangular loop when
R is held constant and c is allowed to vary.
5.19 Cartesian axes are taken within a non-magnetic conductor, which carries a steady current
density J which is parallel to the z-axis at every point but may vary with x and y. B is
everywhere perpendicular to the z-axis and the current distribution is such that Bx = k(x + y)2.
Prove that
By = f (x) k(x + y)2
where f (x) is some function of x only. Deduce an expression for Jz, the single component of J,
and prove that if Jz is a function of y only, then
f (x) = 2kx2.
5.20 Find the magnetic field at a point adjacent to a long current sheet of finite width and negligible
thickness. Consider three positions of the point, i.e. when it is directly opposite to one edge of
the current sheet and when this point has moved both down and up parallel to the current sheet
(the width of the sheet being A and the shortest distance of the point from the current sheet
being B).
5.21 A circular coil of radius a and a long straight wire lie in the same plane such that 2a is the angle
subtended by the circle at the nearest point of the wire. If I and I¢ are the currents in the circle
and the straight wire, respectively, then the mutual attraction between them is
mII¢(sec a 1).
5.22 A wire is made into a circular loop of radius a, except for an arc of angular length 2a where
it follows the chord. The loop is suspended from a point which is opposite to the mid-point of
the chord so that the plane of the loop is normal to a long straight wire passing through the
centre of the loop. When the currents in the two circuits are I and I¢, show that the torque on
the loop is
N II a
(sin B B cos B ).
Q
5.23 A steady time-invariant current I flows in a long conductor of circular cross-section of radius
a and permeability m. A circular tube of inner radius b and outer radius c (a < b < c) and of the
same permeability m is placed coaxially with the circular conductor. Evaluate the vectors H, B,
M, Jm and Jms at all points, assuming that m is a constant.
5.24 Evaluate the magnetic flux density produced by an infinitely long strip of surface current of
density Jx (= constant), of length dl in the direction of flow.
Note: Such a current strip cannot exist in isolation but can represent a part of complete current
system.
5.25 Find the internal self-inductance of a straight cylindrical conductor.

Note: The external self-inductance is the contribution to L from the flux which does not traverse
across the conductor. On the other hand, the internal self-inductance is the contribution to L
from the flux which does traverse the conductor.
5.26 Two very large magnetic blocks of permeability m1 and m2 are divided by a plane surface. In
the medium 1 of permeability m1, a thin straight conductor with a current of intensity I runs
parallel to the interface surface between the two media. Show that
(i) the influence of medium 2 on the magnetic field in the medium can be reduced to the
field of a straight current filament of intensity aI, where the filament is at the place of
the image of the current I in the boundary surface, and the whole space is assumed to
be filled with the medium 1,
(ii) the influence of the medium 1 on the magnetic field produced in the medium 2 by the
current I can be reduced to an additional current bI in the conductor, the whole space
being now filled with the medium 2 of permeability m2. Evaluate a and b.
5.27 The adjoining figure shows an air-cored choke, having
200 turns wound on a laminated core of iron. Estimate
the inductance
(i) when the magnetic circuit is as shown by full
lines and
(ii) when the portion hatched is removed.
In both the cases, assume that the iron is infinitely
permeable, and neglect leakage and fringing. In
practice, the iron can be considered to be completely
saturated at B = 1.8 T. Show that this means the choke
can be used satisfactorily for currents up to
approximately 7 amperes.
5.28 An electromagnet with opposite poles has square faces of side l, separated by an air-gap G. Into
this air-gap, an iron plate is moved with its faces parallel to the faces of the pole and edges
parallel to the edges of the pole. Its length and width are l and its thickness is (G g). The plate
overlaps the poles by a distance x in one direction, and in the perpendicular direction they
overlap completely. The remaining magnetic path of the electromagnet is of iron and U-shaped,
and is wound with a winding of N turns carrying a current I; but the exact shape is immaterial,
since the iron of both the magnet and the plate is of zero reluctance so that the mmf, NI, is
solely employed in forcing the flux across the air-gaps. Prove the following:
Èl x xØ
(a) The flux traversing the air-gap is N0 N I l É Ù.
Ê G gÚ
1 ⎛l − x x ⎞
(b) The energy stored in the air-gap field is μ0 N 2 I 2 l ⎜ + ⎟.
2 ⎝ G g⎠
1 ⎛G− g ⎞
(c) The force tending to draw the iron plate further into the air-gap is μ0 N 2 I 2 l ⎜ ⎟.
2 ⎝ Gg ⎠
Flux fringing should be neglected.
5.29 Give an approximate calculation of the self-inductance of the slotted stator winding of an
alternator as shown in the figure below. The rotor surface is assumed to be smooth and the
stator laminated. The conductors are assumed to be solid and the currents in them uniformly
distributed. State the simplifying assumptions and use the leakage flux paths as shown in
the figure.
5.30 The basic actuator for a time-delay relay consists of a fixed structure made of a highly
permeable magnetic material with an excitation winding of N turns as shown in the following
figure. A movable plunger which is also made of a highly permeable magnetic material is
constrained by a non-magnetic sleeve to move in the normal direction (say, defined as
x-direction). Calculate the flux linkage l at the electrical terminal pair as a function of
current i and displacement x and also determine the terminal voltage V for the specified time
variation of i and x.
Highly permeable g Non-magnetic sleeve

g
magnetic material w
w
Depth perp. to
H 1¢ H1
the paper = d
1
Plunger
2w
x H2 w
i
+
k, V f
N turns
–
5.31 The flux linkage in the actuator discussed in Problem 5.30 can be expressed as
L0i 2wd μ 0 N 2
l= where L0 =
1 + ( x/g ) g
Find the force that must be applied to the plunger to hold it in equilibrium at a displacement x
and with a current i.
Sketch the force (i) as a function of x with constant i and (ii) as a function of x with constant
flux linkage l.
5.32 The magnetic circuit shown in the following figure has its circuit completed by a rectangular
movable piece which is made up of infinitely permeable magnetic material, free to move either
in the x- or y-direction. The air-gaps in the circuits are short compared to the cross-sectional
dimensions of the device, so that the fringing effects can be neglected. Find the flux linkage l
as a function of the gaps and the current.
5.33 A magnetic circuit has a movable plunger, and is excited by an N-turn coil as depicted in the
following figure. Both the yoke and the plunger of the system are perfectly permeable. The
system has two air-gaps, one variable x (t) and the other non-magnetic fixed d, and has a width
w into the paper. The gap widths are much smaller than other dimensions so that all the fringing
can be neglected.
Find (a) the terminal relation for the flux l(i, x) linked by the electrical terminal pair and
(b) the energy W m (l, x) stored in the electromechanical coupling. Also, using the energy
function Wm (l, x), find the expression for force Fe of electrical origin on the plunger.
5.34 A magnetic circuit with a movable element has two excitation sources as shown in the following
figure. When the movable element is exactly at the centre, the two air-gaps on its two sides have
the same length a. The displacement of the element from the central position is denoted by x.
Find the flux linkages l1 and l2 in terms of the currents and displacement x. Calculate the co-
energy Wm (ii , i2 , x) in the electromechanical coupling.
5.35 A magnetic field coupling system, which is electrically nonlinear, is diagrammatically shown
below and has the equations of state as
⎧ λ ⎛ λ ⎞2 ⎫ ⎧1 λ2 1 λ4 ⎫
⎪ +⎜ ⎟ ⎪ ⎪ +
⎪ λ0 ⎝ λ0 ⎠ ⎪ I0 ⎪ 2 λ0 4 λ03 ⎪⎪
i = I0 ⎨ ⎬, Fe = ⎨ 2 ⎬
⎪ 1+ x ⎪ a ⎪ ⎛1 + x ⎞ ⎪
⎪ a ⎪ ⎩⎪ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎪⎭
⎩ ⎭
where I0, l0 and a are positive constants.
Show that the system is conservative and evaluate the stored energy at the points l1, x1 in
variable space.
5.36 A rotating heteropolar machine as depicted in the following figure consists of two concentric
cylinders of ferromagnetic material with infinite permeability and zero conductivity. Both the
Surface current densities

r 0
t ato r ®
S ,
¥
® Nsis
l Hrs(y) Ks = iz
2(R+g)
siny
0 y 1
r
to ®
o
R , r
¥ iz into the paper
® R
l
N ri r
Kr = iz sin (y – h)
2R
Hrs(y + o)
–
kr
ir
+ ks is
– +
cylinders are of axial length l and are separated by an air-gap g. The rotor and the stator carry
windings of Nr and Ns turns, respectively, both distributed sinusoidally and having negligible
radial thickness. The current through these windings leads to sinusoidally distributed surface
currents. Neglect the end effects and assume g << R (the rotor radius), so that the radial
variation of the magnetic field can be neglected.
Find the radial component of the air-gap flux density (a) due to stator current alone and
(b) due to rotor current alone. Hence, evaluate the flux linkages and the inductances.
5.37 Solve Problem 5.36 for the following surface current densities which are for more practical
uniform winding distributions.
Î Ns is
ÑÑ i z for 0 Z Q
Q (R g)
Ks = Ï
Ns is
Ñ i for Q Z 2Q
ÐÑ
z
Q (R g)
Î i N r ir for 0 (Z R ) Q
ÑÑ z Q R
Kr = Ï
Ñ i N r ir for Q (Z R ) 2Q
ÑÐ z Q R
5.38 The structure discussed in Problem 5.36, now has a 3-phase winding on the stator which has Ns
turns on each phase. The total number of turns on the rotor winding is Nr. The surface current
densities produced by the 3-phase armature windings (on the stator) are:
N s ia
Ka = iz sin y
2( R + g )
Ns ib
Kb = iz sin(y 2p/3)
2( R + g )
N s ic
Kc = iz sin(y 4p/3)
2( R + g )
The surface current density due to the rotor current on the surface R is
N r ir
Kr = iz sin(y q )
2R
Assume that g << R, so that there is no appreciable variation in the radial component of the
magnetic field in the air-gap. Find the radial flux density due to current in each winding. Also
find the mutual inductance between the a and b windings on the stator and the expressions for
the flux linkages of each phase.
5.39 In Problem 5.38, let the stator currents be as given below:
ia = Ia cos wt
2π ⎞
ib = Ib cos ⎛⎜ ω t − ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
4π ⎞
ic = Ic cos ⎛⎜ ω t − ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
Prove that the radial component of the air-gap flux density can be expressed as the sum of two
constant amplitude waves, one rotating in the positive q direction with speed w and the other
rotating in the negative q direction with speed w. Also prove that when Ia = Ib = Ic, the
amplitude of the wave travelling in the negative q direction goes to zero.
5.40 Two parallel conducting strips of negligible thickness and each of width A, maintained at a
distance of B from each other, form the opposite sides of a rectangular prism. A current I goes
out on one strip and returns on the other, such that the current is uniformly distributed in each.
Hence, show that the two strips repel each other by a force per unit length given by
μ0 I ⎧ −1 A 1 ⎛ A2 + B 2 ⎞ ⎫
⎨ A tan − B ln ⎜ ⎟⎬.
π A2 ⎩ B 2 ⎝ B
2
⎠⎭
5.41 Two non-ferrous conducting bus-bar strips of negligible thickness and each of width A are
positioned in the xz-plane with uniformly distributed currents I1 and I2, respectively flowing
along the z-direction. The distance between the centres of the strips is B such that B > A. Show
that the force between the strips, per unit length is
Fx =
2π A
{
μ0 I1 I 2
2
( B + A) ln
B+ A
B
+ ( B − A) ln
B−A
B }.
5.42 A composite conductor of cylindrical cross-section, used in overhead transmission lines, is

made up of a steel inner wire of radius Ri, and an annular outer conductor of radius Ro, the two
having electrical contact. Evaluate the magnetic field within the conductors and the internal
self-inductance per unit length of the composite conductor.
5.43 Prove that the self-inductance of a closely-wound toroidal coil of major radius R and minor
radius a is
{ }
L = μ0 N 2 R − ( R 2 − a 2 )1/ 2 ,
where N is the number of turns.
5.44 The coefficient of coupling k between two single-turn coils has been defined as
k = ka kb ,
where ka is the fraction of the flux linked by the circuit b when the circuit a is excited and kb
is the fraction of the flux linked by the circuit a when the circuit b is excited by the
same current. (Refer to ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI
Learning, New Delhi, 2009, Section 10.6.3, pp. 332333.)
Hence, prove that
ka Lb
=
kb La
so that, in general, ka ¹ kb
where La and Lb are the self-inductances of the circuits a and b, respectively.
5.45 Two long coplanar rectangular loops are parallel to each other, but are not overlapping. Their
lengths are l1 and l2, and widths w1 and w2, respectively. The distance between the near sides
is s. It is given that l2 < l1 and the end-effects can be neglected. Under these conditions, show
that the mutual inductance between the loops is
μ0 l2 w1 + s
M = ln .
2π ⎛ w2 ⎞
s ⎜1 +
⎝ w1 + s ⎟⎠
(Assume the loops to have a single turn.)
5.46 A solid cylinder of radius a and relative permeability mr is placed in a homogeneous magnetic
field H0 whose direction is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Assume the cylinder to be
infinitely long axially and hence neglect the edge effects. Obtain the expressions for the
magnetic scalar potential W both inside and outside the cylinder, and show that the magnetic
intensity inside the cylinder is
2H0
H (r < a, φ ) = .
1 + μr
5.47 A solid conducting sphere is placed in a steady uniform magnetic field H0 directed along the
z-axis. Show that the resultant field inside the sphere is constant, independent of the radius a
of the sphere and is also z-directed.
5.48 A rectangular strip of metal lying in xy-plane has the bottom edge at zero potential (i.e. on
y = 0 boundary) and a constant potential W = V on the top edge y = b (say). The other two edges
x = 0 and x = a are insulated so that there is no normal component of current on these edges.
State the boundary conditions in mathematical terms and evaluate the potential distribution in
the strip.
5.49 Show that the magnetic potential due to a linear current I situated mid-way in the air space
bounded by two parallel walls of infinitely permeable iron is
{
Ω = 2 I tan −1 tan ⎛⎜
πy⎞ ⎛πx ⎞ .
⎟ tanh ⎜
⎝ l ⎠
⎟
⎝ l ⎠ }
5.50 A single turn circular coil of radius R is made out of a wire and another long straight wire is
taken and both are made coplanar such that the centre of the circle is at a distance D = 2R from
the straight wire. Show that the mutual inductance between the two wires is 0.268m0R.
5.51 A solenoid of finite axial length L and finite radial thickness has inner radius R1 and outer
radius R2.
(a) Show that the magnetic induction B0 at the centre of the solenoid is
μ0 NLI ⎧⎪ α + (α 2 + β 2 )1/2 ⎫⎪
B0 = ln ⎨ 2 1/2 ⎬
2 ⎪⎩ 1 + (1 + β ) ⎪⎭
3 -
where B C
3 3
N = number of turns per square metre of the cross-section

and I = current per turn of the solenoid.
(b) Show that if V is the volume of the winding, the length l of the wire required for winding
the solenoid is given by
l = VN = 2pN(a 2 1)b R13 .
5.52 Prove that for a short circular solenoid of radius R and axial length L, with N turns over its
whole length, the m.m.f. along the axis from one end to the other is
Î 3 3 ÞÑ
*/ ÑÏ
ÑÐ -

- ßàÑ
where I is the current per turn of the solenoid.
5.53 A Helmholtz galvanometer consists of two similar circular coils, each of radius R and N
concentrated turns, placed co-axially with their planes R distance apart. Show that the magnetic
field at a point on the common axis mid-way between the planes of the coils is
# N /*
3
when each turn carries a current I such that the field in the two coils support each other
magnetically.
5.54 (a) A closed rectangular loop of wire has the dimensions 2a ´ 2b. When the current in the loop
is I amperes, show that the magnetic force at the centre of the loop, at right angles to the plane
of the loop is
B C
) *
BC
(b) A circular ring, of non-magnetic material, is of rectangular cross-section, its internal and
external radii being R1 and R2 (R2 > R1) respectively, and has its axial thickness equal to D. It
has a uniform, closely wound toroidal winding of N turns of fine wire. Show that the total flux
in the ring, with the current per turn I, is given by
/*% 3
G N MO
Q 3
and then also find the inductance of the winding.
5.3 SOLUTIONS
5.1 Find the magnetic field of current in a straight circular cylindrical conductor of radius a. Also,
express the magnetic field as a vector in terms of the current density J.
Fig. 5.1 (a) Circular conductor carrying a current I. (b) Distribution pattern of H or Bf .
Sol. The current density in the conductor will be uniform (= J ).

Consider a point P at a distance r1 from the centre of the conductor, as shown in Fig. 5.1.
By Amperes law,
vÔ H ¹ dl
C1
= enclosed current I
= Jp a2
or 2p r1H = I
I I a2 J a2
\ H= = =
2π r1 2π a r1
2
2 r1
The direction of H will be circumferential, i.e. normal to that of I or J and r1.
2
J × r1 ⎛ a ⎞
\ H= , for r1 ³ a, i.e. outside the conductor.
2 ⎜⎝ r1 ⎟⎠
Inside the conductor, at a radius r2, such that r2 < a,
vÔ H ¹ dl
C2
= enclosed current
I
or 2p r2H = π r22 = J π r22
π a2
Jr2
\ H=
2
J × r2
Hence, H= , r2 £ a
2
5.2 Find the magnetic field due to a current I in a coaxial cable whose inner conductor has radius
a and the outer conductor has the radii b, c (b < c). Also, express the magnetic field as a vector
in terms of the current density.
Sol. Once again, the current I is uniformly distributed in both the conductors. See Fig. 5.2.
I
Current density in the inner conductor, Ji = and the current density in the outer conductor,
π a2
I
Jo = .
π (c 2 − b 2 )
So, for the region inside the inner conductor (r < a), we have by Amperes law
I
vÔ H ¹ dl
C1
=
π a2
p r 2 = J ip r 2
or 2p rH = Jip r2
Fig. 5.2 A coaxial cable carrying the current I.

Ji J ×r
\ H=
r or H = i , for r < a
2 2
For the annular region between the inner and the outer conductors, a < r < b, we have by
Amperes law
I
vÔ
H ¹ dl enclosed current
C2
I
Qa 2
Q a 2 J iQ a 2
Ji a2 J × r ⎛ a ⎞2
\ H = or H = i ⎜ ⎟ , for a < r < b
2 r 2 ⎝r⎠
In the outer conductor (b £ r £ c), we have by Amperes law
I Q (r 2 b2 ) I
vÔ
C3
H ¹ dl enclosed current I
Q (c 2 b 2 ) Q (c b 2 )
2
Q (c 2 r 2 )
Jo ⎛ c2 ⎞ J o × r ⎧⎪⎛ c ⎞2 ⎫⎪
\ H = ⎜ − r ⎟ or H = ⎨⎜ ⎟ − 1⎬ , for b ≤ r ≤ c
2 ⎝ r ⎠ 2 ⎩⎪⎝ r ⎠ ⎭⎪
Outside the outer conductor (r > c), we have
H=0
5.3 The magnetic field at a radius r, inside a long circular conductor of radius a carrying a uniform
current density J is
J×r
H=
2
Hence, show that if a circular hole of radius b is drilled parallel to the axis of the conductor
with the centre of the hole at a distance d from the axis, then the field in the hole is uniform
and depends only on the location of the hole and not on its size (i.e. the radius of the hole).
Sol. Resolving the problem in Fig. 5.3, as shown in Fig. 5.3(b), we have by Amperes law, at
the point P due to the component (i),
Fig. 5.3 Circular section of the conductor with a hole and its resolution into components.
J×r
H=
2
and at the same point P due to the component (ii),
J × r′
H¢ = −
2
\ Resultant H at the point P due to the holed conductor,
J × r J × r′ J × (r − r′) J×d
HP = − = =
2 2 2 2
\ HP does not depend either on the diameter of the hole or even on the position of the
point P inside the hole, but only on the length d, the distance of the centre of the hole from the
centre of the conductor.
5.4 Find the magnetic field due to a plane current sheet, and hence extrapolate it for two parallel
current sheets (with equal currents flowing in opposite directions).
Sol. See Fig. 5.4. By Amperes law,
vÔ H ¹ dl
C
2 HL J S L,
the contour being a rectangular path of length L.
Fig. 5.4 Magnetic fields due to plane current sheets.

JS
\ H=
2
i.e. the magnetic field is independent of the distance from the sheet.
When there are two parallel sheets, we have
B = m 0 JS
between the two parallel sheets, and is zero elsewhere (i.e. on both outward sides of the two
sheets).
5.5 A circuit has the shape of a regular hexagon whose opposite vertices are at a distance of 2a from
each other. Prove that when a current I flows in each arm of the hexagon, the magnetic force
at its centre is ( 3/π ) ( I/a).
Sol. See Fig. 5.5. By BiotSavarts law,

I
HP = (sin φ2 − sin φ1 )
4π r0
Fig. 5.5 The hexagonal circuit, its one-arm resolved and a conductor element for BiotSavarts law.
In this case, for each side

a 3
f 2 = f1 = 30° and r0 =
2
I
\ H PS = {sin 30° sin (30°)}
a 3
4π
2
I ⎛1 + 1⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
2 3π a ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
I
=
2 3π a
and its direction will be normal to the plane of the paper.
\ For six sides of the hexagon,

6I 3I
HC = =
2 3π a πa
5.6 Sketch the current waveform when a direct voltage is applied to a pure inductance. What limits
the current and what determines the initial rate of rise of current in a practical coil?
Sol. For a pure inductance L, we have
di
V= L
dt
V
\
L
dt i= ∫
i.e. a linear rise of current with time [See Fig. 5.6(a)].
A practical coil has resistance. So, we have
i=
V
R
(
1 − e − Rt/L ) [See Fig. 5.6(b).]
Fig. 5.6 (a) Rate of rise of current in a pure inductor and (b) rate of rise of current in a practical inductor.
5.7 A wire-made regular polygon of 2n sides is such that the distance between the opposite parallel
sides is 2a. Prove that, when this loop carries a current I, the magnetic flux density at its centre
π
is {m0nl/(pa)} sin .
2n
Sol. See Fig. 5.7.
2a
Given OO¢ = =a
2
2π π
2a = =
2n n
\ Side AB = 2AO¢ = 2a tan a
π
= 2a tan
Fig. 5.7 The geometry of one side of the 2n-sided regular polygon. 2n
Given that the distance between the opposite parallel sides of the polygon = 2a, we find that
the length of each side = 2a tan(p/2n) as OO¢ = a.
\ H field at the centre due to the current in each side (as obtained by BiotSavarts law as
shown in Problem 5.5) is given by
HO S =
I
4π a {
sin
π
2n
− sin ⎛⎜ −
π ⎞
⎝ 2n ⎠
⎟ }
2I π I sin(π /2n)
= sin =
4π a 2n 2π a
in the direction normal to the plane of the paper.

\ Total magnetic flux density at the centre O, due to all 2n sides
μ0 I ⋅ sin (π /2n)
BO T = × 2n
2π a
μ0 nI π
= sin
πa 2n
5.8 A solenoid is wound on a long former, square in section and containing no magnetic material.
It is bent round into a toroid of internal and external radii a and b, respectively. A straight thin
cable of infinite length passes along the axis of the toroid at right angles to its plane. Show that
the mutual inductance between the cable and the solenoid is
b2 − a 2 ⎛ b ⎞
M = μ0 n ln ⎜ ⎟ henry,
2 ⎝a⎠
where n is the mean number of turns per metre on the solenoid.
Sol. See Fig. 5.8. Due to the infinite long cable, at a point P,
μ0 I
B=
2π r
Fig. 5.8 Solenoid converted into toroid of square cross-section.

\ Flux linked by the cross-section of the toroid (per turn):

b
μ0 I
l= ∫
a
2π r
(b − a) dr
μ 0 I (b − a) b
μ I (b − a ) ⎛ b ⎞
= ln r ⎤⎥ = 0 ln ⎜ ⎟
2π ⎦a 2π ⎝a⎠
Total number of turns in the toroid = n × mean length of the toroid

a+b
= n × 2p rmean = 2p n
2
= p n(a + b)
\ Total flux linked = lT
μ 0 I (b − a) ⋅ π n (a + b) ⎛ b ⎞
= ln ⎜ ⎟
2π ⎝a⎠
μ0 nI (b 2 − a 2 ) ⎛ b ⎞
= ln ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝a⎠
λT μ n (b 2 − a 2 ) ⎛ b ⎞
\ M= = 0 ln ⎜ ⎟
I 2 ⎝a⎠
5.9 Calculate the inductance of a 500 turn coil wound on a toroidal core having an outer diameter
of 15 cm, mean diameter of 10 cm, a square cross-section and permeability of 100. What error
will be introduced by assuming that the magnetic flux density was equal to the flux density at
the mean diameter multiplied by the area?
Sol. H at the radius r is given by (see Fig. 5.9)
H × 2p r = NI = 500I, the direction of H being circumferential.
Fig. 5.9 Coil wound on a toroidal core of square cross-section.

500 I NI
\ Hf = =
2π r 2π r
μ NI
and Bf = , m = m0 mr
2π r
r = 3a
μ NIa 3a
\ Flux linked per turn = ∫ Bφ a dr = ln r ⎤⎥
2π ⎦ 2a
r = 2a
μ NIa 3
= ln
2π 2
μ N 2 Ia 3
\ Flux linkages in 500 turns (= N turns), f = ln
2π 2
φ μ N 2a 3
\ Inductance, L = = ln
I 2π 2
By the approximate method:

The value of B at the mid-point of the cross-section, i.e. r = 2.5a is given by
μ NI μ NI
Bf = =
2π ⋅ 2.5a 5π a
μ NI 2 μ NIa
\ Flux linked per turn = a =
5π a 5π
μ N 2 Ia
and the flux linked in 500 (= N) turns, f =
5π
φ μ N 2a
\ Inductance L = =
I 5π
μ N 2a 3 μ N 2a μ N 2a ⎛ 1 ln 1.5 − 1⎞
\ Error = ln − = ⎜ ⎟
2π 2 5π π ⎝2 5⎠
μ N 2a ⎛ 1
ln 1.5 − ⎞ × 100%
1
π ⎝2 5⎠
\ % error =
L
2 ⎛ ln 1.5 −
1 1⎞
⎝2 5⎠
= × 100%
ln 1.5
μ N 2a 3 4π × 10 −7 × 100 × 500 2 × 2.5 × 10−2

Now, L= ln = × 0.405
2π 2 2π
= 1.25 × 103 × 0.405
ln 1.5 − 0.4
and = 0.005
ln 1.5
0.005
\ % error = × 100 = 1.2%
0.4
5.10 Two coils having the same self-inductance are connected in series. When a current I flows
through the coils, the magnetic energy stored in their fields is W joules. If the connections of
one coil are interchanged and the current is reduced to (1/2)I, the energy stored is again
W joules. Calculate the ratio of the mutual inductance and the self-inductance.
Sol. The effective inductances of the circuit, for the two connections are:
LA = L + L 2M and LB = L + L + 2M
= 2L 2M = 2L + 2M
1
\ Stored energy in the circuit 1, WA = LA I12
2
1
and the stored energy in the circuit 2, WB = LB I 22
2
Now, we are given that
1 1
I2 = I1 = I and WA = WB
2 2
2
1
LAI2 = WA = W = WB = LB ⎛⎜ I ⎞⎟
1 1
\
2 2 ⎝2 ⎠
1 1
\ LA = LB
2 8
1 ⎛1⎞
or LA = LB or 2(L M) = ⎜ ⎟ 2(L + M)
4 ⎝4⎠
\ 4 (L M ) = L + M
or 3L = 5M
M 3
\ =
L 5
5.11 A solenoid has both finite axial length as well as finite radial width, such that there are N1 turns
radially per metre and N2 turns axially per metre. Find the magnetic field at a point on its axis,
due to a current I per turn in the solenoid.
z
P(r, v, z)
a1
a2
b2 b1
O r
dr dz
Fig. 5.10 A solenoid of finite axial and radial dimensions.
Sol. See Fig. 5.10. Consider an elemental coil ring of radius r, radial width dr, and axial
thickness dz.
Cross-sectional area of the elemental ring = drdz
and the current flowing through the ring = N1N2Idrdz.
\ Field at the point P on the axis due to this ring coil,
μ N1 N 2 I δ rδ z 3
dB = sin a, in the axial direction,
2r
r r
where tan a = and sin a = 2
z r + z2
For a given r, z = r cot a.
\ dz = r cosec2a da
\ Resultant field due to the solenoid,
r = r2 z = z2
μ N1 N 2 I sin 3 α
B=
2 ∫ ∫
r = r1 z = z1
r
dr dz
r2 B B2
N N1 N 2 I sin 3 B
=
2 Ô
r1
dr Ô
B B1
r
( r cosec 2 B d B )
r2 α2
μ N1 N 2 I
=
2 ∫
r1
dr ∫α sin α dα
1
r2
μ N1 N 2 I
=
2 ∫ dr (cos α
r1
1 − cos α 2 )
r2
μ N1 N 2 I ⎡ z1 z2 ⎤
=
2 ∫ ⎢⎣⎢
r1 r 2 + z12
− ⎥ dr
r 2 + z22 ⎦⎥
μ N1 N 2 I ⎡ r + r22 + z12 r + r22 + z22 ⎤

= ⎢ z1 ln 2 − z2 ln 2 ⎥
2 ⎢⎣ r1 + r12 + z12 r1 + r12 + z22 ⎥⎦
where r1 and r2 are the inner and outer radii of the solenoid, and z1 and z2 are the z-coordinates
of the two axial ends of the solenoid, respectively.
5.12 A coil of negligible dimensions of N turns has the shape of a regular polygon of n sides
inscribed in a circle of radius R metres. Show that the magnitude of the flux density at the centre
⎛ μ NnI ⎞ tan ⎛ π ⎞ .
of the coil, when it carries a current I per turn, is ⎜ 0 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2π R ⎠ ⎝n⎠
Sol. See Fig. 5.11. Given OB = R.
\ Length of side of the polygon = AB = 2AP = 2R sin a and the length OP = R cos p/n.
H field at the centre O of the polygon, due to current I in one of the sides is (by BiotSavarts
law as shown in Problem 5.5)
π
{ }
2 I sin
I π ⎛ π⎞ n = I tan π
H OS = sin − sin ⎜ − ⎟ =
4π OP n ⎝ n⎠ π 2π R n
4π R cos
n
Fig. 5.11 A section of the regular polygon coil of n sides.

There are N turns of the coil and n sides of the polygon.

\ The resultant magnetic field at O, due to the whole polygon is
μ NnI ⎞ tan ⎛ π ⎞
BO = ⎛⎜ 0 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2π R ⎠ ⎝n⎠
5.13 Two similar concentrated circular coils are arranged on the same axis with their fields
reinforcing each other. It is required that the field midway between them shall be as uniform as
possible. Prove that the distance between the coils shall be equal to their radius.
Sol. See Fig. 5.12. The radius of each coil = a and the distance between the two coils = 2x.
Now, the magnetic field at the mid-point of the axis, due to each coil is
μ0 I
B= sin 3 φ
2a
2009, Section 7.4.3,p. 221.)
\ The total field at C due to both the coils,
μ0 I μ I
BT = 2 ⋅ sin 3 φ = 0 sin 3 φ
2a a
μ0 I a3 a
= ⋅ 2 , since sin f =
a (a + x 2 )3/ 2 a + x2
2
dB
For maxima or minima of the field, the requirement is that at that point, = 0, and for the
dx
d 2B
resultant field to be uniform, = 0.
dx 2
Fig. 5.12 Two similar circular coils arranged in parallel planes normal to their common axis (Helmholtz coils).
= Ia 2 ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ ( a 2 + x 2 ) −5 / 2 ⋅ 2 x = − 3Ia 2 x ( a 2 + x 2 ) −5 / 2
dB 3
i.e.
dx ⎝ 2⎠
\
d 2B
dx 2 {
= − 3Ia 2 (a 2 + x 2 )−5/ 2 + x ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ (a 2 + x 2 )−7 / 2 ⋅ 2 x
⎝ 2⎠
5
}
⎧ 1 5x2 ⎫
= − 3Ia 2 ⎨ 2 − 2 7/2 ⎬
⎩ (a + x ) (a + x ) ⎭
2 5/ 2 2
2
3Ia 3Ia 2
= − 2 ( a 2
+ x 2
− 5 x 2
) = − (a 2 − 4 x 2 )
(a + x 2 )7 / 2 (a 2 + x 2 )7 / 2
a2 4x2 = 0 or 2x = ± a
Hence, the distance between the coils must be equal to their radius.
5.14 In Problem 5.13, the circular coils are replaced by square coils of side a. Find the condition for
similar uniformity of the field at the mid-point of the common axis.
Sol. The field on the axis of a square coil (of side b), at a distance x from the plane of the coil is
4 N0 Ia 2
BV =
Q ( a 2 4 x 2 ) 2a 2 4 x 2
The process for finding the condition for uniformity of the field is similar to Problem 5.13, and
is left as an exercise.
5.15 Show that the mutual inductance between a straight long conductor and a coplanar equilateral
triangular loop is
N0
Q 3 ^
( a b) ln
ab
b
a , `
where a is the altitude of the triangle and b is the distance from the straight wire to the side of
the triangle parallel to it and also nearest to it.
Sol. See Fig. 5.13.
Fig. 5.13 A long straight conductor and a coplanar equilateral triangular coil.
Due to an infinitely long conductor, at a distance r from the conductor,

I
H=
2π r
μ0 I
\ B=
2π r
r =a +b
μ0 I
Hence, the flux linked by the triangular coil, f = ∫
r =b
2π r
l dr
a 2a 2
Side of the equilateral triangle = = . \ l= {a (r b)}
sin 60° 3 3
a+b a +b
μ I 2 {a − ( r − b)} μ I ⎡ ⎤
\ f= 0
2π ∫
b
3 r
dr = 0
π 3
⎢(a + b) ln r − r ⎥
⎣ ⎦b
=
π 3 {
μ0 I
(a + b) ln
a+b
b
−a }
\ M=
φ
I
=
μ
π 3 {
0
(a + b) ln ⎜⎛1 + ⎟⎞ − a}
⎝
a
b⎠
5.16 Find the mutual inductance between an infinitely long straight wire and a one-turn rectangular
coil whose plane passes through the wire and two of whose sides are parallel to the wire. The
sides parallel to the wire are each of length a, and the other two wires are each of length b, and
the side nearest to the wire is at a distance d from it. What is the force between the two circuits,
when both carry the same current?
I μ I
Sol. See Fig. 5.14. For a current I in the straight wire, H = , B= 0 .
2π r 2π r
Fig. 5.14 Coplanar straight long wire and rectangular coil.

b+d
μI μ Ia b + d
Flux linked by the rectangular coil, f = ∫
r =d
2π r
aδr =
2π
ln
d
φ μa b + d
\ M= = ln
I 2π d
∂M
\ Force, F = IAIB , in this case s is the dimension along d.
∂s
μa ∂ b+d
or F = I2 ln
2π ∂d d
= I2
2π b + d d2
{
μ a d 1 ⋅ d − 1 (b + d )
}
I 2 μ ad b μ ab
= − = − I2
2π (b + d ) d 2
2π d (b + d )
5.17 A rectangular loop of dimensions a × b is arranged by an infinitely long wire such that while
the sides of length a are parallel to the long wire but the loop is not coplanar with the wire.
The plane of the loop is at a height c from a radial plane to which it is parallel and the shortest
distance betwen the long wire and the nearer parallel side of the loop is R. Show that the mutual
inductance between the two is given by
μ0 a R
M = ln .
2π {2b( R − c ) + b 2 + R 2 }1/ 2
2 2 1/ 2
I1
Sol. See Fig. 5.15. Due to the infinitely long wire, H = .
2π r
Fig. 5.15 Infinitely long straight wire and projection of the rectangular loop ABCD into A¢B¢C¢D¢
in the parallel radial plane and its front view.
OA
μ0 I1
\ Flux linked by the rectangular coil, f =
OB
∫ 2π r
a dr ,
{R } + c ⎤⎥⎦ { }
1/ 2
⎡ 2 1/ 2
where OA = R, OB = ⎢ 2
− c2 + b 2
= R 2 + b 2 + 2b R 2 − c 2
⎣
μ 0 I1a R
\ f = ln
2π
{2b }
1/ 2
R 2 − c2 + b2 + R 2
φ μ a R
Hence, M= = 0 ln
2π
{2b }
I1 1/ 2
R 2 − c2 + b2 + R 2
5.18 In Problem 5.17, show that the component of the force acting on the rectangular loop in the
direction of R increasing is given by
μ0 aI1 I 2 bR 2 − 2bc 2 + b 2 ( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2

F =
2π R( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2 2b( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2 + b 2 + R 2
when c is held constant. Find the component of the force acting on the rectangular loop when
R is held constant and c is allowed to vary.
∂M
Sol. The force is given by F = I1I2
∂s
Stage 1. In this case, s is equivalent to R, but c also is not allowed to vary.
∂M
\ F = I1I , where M has been evaluated in Problem 5.17.
∂R
μ0 I1 I 2 a ∂ ⎡ R ⎤
Hence, F = ⎢ ln 2 1/ 2 ⎥
2π ∂R ⎣ {2b( R − c ) + b + R } ⎦
2 2 1/ 2 2
μ 0 aI1 I 2 {2b ( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2 + b 2 + R 2 }1/ 2 ⎡

= × ⎢1 ⋅ {2b ( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2 + b 2 + R 2 }−1/ 2
2π R ⎣
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 {
+ R ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ {2b( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2 + b 2 + R 2 }−3/ 2 2b ⋅ ( R 2 + c 2 )−1/ 2 ⋅ 2 R + 2 R ⎤⎥
1 1
⎦ }
μ0 aI1 I 2
{2b( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2 + b 2 + R 2 }
1/ 2 − 3/ 2
=
2π R
⎡ R⎧ ⎫⎤
{
× ⎢ 2b( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2 + b 2 + R 2 − ⎨ 2 } 2bR
2 ⎩ (R + c )
2 1/ 2
+ 2 R ⎬⎥
⎣ ⎭⎦
μ 0 aI1 I 2 1 ⎡ 2b( R 2 − c 2 ) + b 2 ( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2 − bR 2 ⎤

=
2π R 2b( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2 + b 2 + R 2 ⎢⎣ ( R 2 + c 2 )1/ 2
⎥
⎦
μ0 aI1 I 2 bR 2 − 2bc 2 + b 2 ( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2

=
2π R ( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2 2b( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2 + b 2 + R 2
Since, the distance c is being maintained at constant value, the rectangular loop is constrained
to move, parallel to its own plane along the x-direction.
Stage 2. Now R is held constant and c is allowed to vary.
∂M
\ F = I1I2
∂c
μ0 I1 I 2 a ∂ ⎡ R ⎤
= ⎢ ln
2 1/ 2 ⎥
⎣⎢ {2b ( R − c ) + b + R } ⎦⎥
2π ∂c 2 2 1/ 2 2
μ 0 aI1 I 2 {2b ( R − c ) + b + R }
2 2 1/ 2 2 2 1/ 2
=
2π R
× ⎡⎢ R ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ 2b ( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2 + b 2 + R 2
⎣ ⎝ 2⎠
1
{ }
−3/ 2
{
2b
1 2
2 }
( R − c 2 )−1/ 2 (− 2c ) ⎤⎥
⎦
μ0 aI1 I 2 1/ 2 − 3/ 2 ⎧ − 2bc ⎫
or F=
2π R
{2b ( R 2 − c 2 )1/ 2 + b 2 + R 2 } ⎨ 2 2 1/ 2 ⎬
⎩ (R − c ) ⎭
− μ 0 abc I1 I 2 1
= ⋅
π R( R − c )
2 2 1/ 2
2b( R − c ) + b 2 + R 2
2 2 1/ 2
Now, the coil is constrained to move peripherally, i.e. along the arc of the circle of radius R
(maintained at constant value) with the centre at O [Fig. 5.15(b)], the line of the infinitely long
conductor, while keeping the plane of the rectangular loop parallel to its initial plane, side AB,
moving along the shown arc.
5.19 Cartesian axes are taken within a non-magnetic conductor, which carries a steady current
density J which is parallel to the z-axis at every point but may vary with x and y. B is
everywhere perpendicular to the z-axis and the current distribution is such that Bx = k (x + y)2.
Prove that
By = f (x) k(x + y)2
where f (x) is some function of x only. Deduce an expression for Jz, the single component of J,
and prove that if Jz is a function of y only, then
f (x) = 2kx2
Note: This problem is same as Problem 0.11 of Chapter 0 (Vector Analysis). But now the
emphasis is on the physics of the magnetic field instead of the algebra of vector analysis.
Sol. Since B is everywhere perpendicular to the z-axis,
B = ix Bx + iy By + iz O
and Div B = Ñ × B = 0
∂Bx ∂By
or + =0
∂x ∂y
Since it is given that Bx = k(x + y)2, the above equation becomes
∂By
2k ( x + y ) + = 0
∂y
This equation along with Bz = 0 implies that By as well as Bx must be functions of x and y.
Integrating the above equation, we get
By = f (x) k(x + y)2,
where f (x) is a function of x only. Now,
1 ⎛ ∂B y ∂B y ⎞ 1
J z = (curl H ) z =
⎜ − ⎟ = { f ′( x) − 4k ( x + y )}
μ0 ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ μ0
Since, the above expression is to be a function of y only,
\ f ¢(x) = 4 k x or f (x) = 2kx2 + C
5.20 Find the magnetic field at a point adjacent to a long current sheet of finite width and negligible
thickness. Consider three positions of the point, i.e. when it is directly opposite to one edge of
the current sheet and when this point has moved both down and up parallel to the current sheet
(the width of the sheet being A and the shortest distance of the point from the current sheet
being B).
Sol. See Fig. 5.16.
y
w
D
dy Q
A A Bx CD P3(B, y3)
C
y Bx CD
P3(B, y3)
y3 BCE
ByCE
BCD
dBx a
P1 x B ByCD
B (B, 0) E
a
BDE
dB dBy
Direction P2(B, – y2)

of current
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.16 Field due to a current sheet of finite width A.
Before we consider the magnetic field, we will have to look at the two possible approaches to
the representation of the current distribution in the conducting sheet. If the final answer is
expressed in terms of the total current, it does not matter which approach is followed.
First, we consider a very thin busbar of width w, which is much smaller than all other
dimensions. Taking the total current I, the current density in this problem, where the current is
flowing in the z-direction, is
I
J =
wA
and when we consider an elemental strip (as shown in Fig. 5.16), we have to represent it by
w dy, so that the w terms get cancelled in the final expression.
On the other hand, if the surface current sheet approach is followed, then
I
JSz =
A
and the element strip is dy.
Hence, it really does not matter which approach is followed.
Here, we shall use the surface current sheet approach, and taking the elemental strip at Q, the
magnetic field at P1 is
μ0 J S dy μ0 J S dy
dB = =
2π PQ
1 2π ( B 2 + y 2 )1/ 2
whose direction is orthogonal to P1Q (as shown in Fig. 5.16).
So, the x- and y-components of the magnetic field are
μ0 J S y dy μ0 J S B dy
dBx = and dBy =
2π ( B + y )
2 2
2π ( B 2 + y 2 )
Hence, we can now find the resultant field at P1 due to the whole current sheet of width A as
y=A y=A
μ I y dy μ0 I 1 2 ⎤ μ 0 I 1 B 2 + A2
∫ = ⋅ + = ⋅ ln
2
Bx = 0 ln ( B y ) ⎥⎦
2π A B2 + y2 2π A 2 y =0 2π A 2 B2
y =0
y=A
μ0 IB μ IB 1 μ IA
= 0 ⋅ tan −1 ⎤⎥ = 0 tan −1
dy y A
and By =
2π A ∫
y =0
y +B
2 2 2π A B B ⎦0 2π A B
For the point P2 whose coordinates are (B, y2), the resultant field will be
y = A + y2
μ I y dy μ 0 I 1 B 2 + ( A + y2 ) 2
Bx = 0
2π A ∫
y = y2
B2 + y2
=
2π A 2
⋅ ln
B 2 + y22
y = A + y2
μ IB μ I A + y2
= 0 ⎛⎜ tan −1 − tan −1 2 ⎞⎟
dy y
and By = 0
2π A ∫
y = y2
y +B
2 2
2π A ⎝ B B ⎠
For the point P3, the current in the whole sheet I, needs to be divided into two parts, by a normal
through P3 onto the line of the current sheet DE.
In this case, this normal is P3C of length B [Fig. 5.16(b)]

I ( A − y3 )
and the current in the part CD =
A
Iy3
and the current in the part CE = .
A
In this case, it is obvious that the field components due to these two partial current sheets would
be such that while the y-components add up, the x-components are oppositely directed. It should
be further noted that the resultant x-component would be zero when y3 = A/2. Combining these
results, the resultant field (for the general situation) would be
μ0 I 1 B 2 + ( A − y3 ) 2
Bx = ⋅ ln
2π A 2 B 2 + y32
μ0 I ⎛ −1 A − y3
+ tan −1 3 ⎞⎟
y
and By = ⎜ tan
2π A ⎝ B B⎠
5.21 A circular coil of radius a and a long straight wire lie in the same plane such that 2a is the angle
subtended by the circle at the nearest point of the wire. If I and I¢ are the currents in the circle
and the straight wire, respectively, then the mutual force of attraction between them is given by
the expression mII¢ÿ (sec a 1).
Sol. See Fig. 5.17. Due to the infinitely long conductor, the field at any point is
μ0 I ′
B = (RQ = r0 in Fig. 5.17),
2π r0
where r0 is the normal radial distance from the straight wire.
The distance between the straight wire and the centre of the loop,
a a
OP = L = =
sin α cos β
Fig. 5.17 Coplanar circular coil and a straight long wire.

Force on an element ds of the circular loop at the point Q, subtending an angle q at O, with the
common axis is
d F = I(ds × B),
a
where ds = a dq and r0 = L a cos q = a cos q.
sin α
μ0 II ′δθ
\ δF =
⎛ 1 ⎞
2π ⎜ − cos θ ⎟
⎝ sin α ⎠
whose direction is normal to the plane containing B which is perpendicular to the plane of the
paper and ds, i.e. along the radius vector as shown in Fig. 5.17.
\ Force of attraction between ds and the straight conductor
μ0 II ′ cos θ dθ
=
2π 1
− cos θ
sin α
Hence, the total force of attraction between the circle and the straight wire
⎛ +π / 2 +π / 2
⎞
μ II ′ ⎜ cos θ dθ cos θ dθ ⎟
= 0 ⎜
2π ⎜ ∫ 1
− ∫
− cos θ −π / 2
1 ⎟
+ cos θ ⎟
−π / 2
⎝ sin α sin α ⎠
+π / 2
⎡⎧ ⎛ 1 ⎞ θ⎫
⎢⎪
μ II ′ ⎢ ⎪ ⎜⎝ sin 2 α − 1⎟⎠ tan 2 ⎪
1 2 ⎪
= 0 ⎨ −θ + tan −1 ⎬
2π ⎢ ⎪ sin α 1 1 ⎪
⎢⎪ −1 −1
⎢⎣ ⎩ sin 2 α sin α ⎪⎭
−π / 2
+π / 2
⎧ ⎛ 1 ⎞ θ⎫ ⎤
⎪ ⎜⎝ sin 2 α − 1 ⎟⎠ tan ⎪ ⎥
⎪ 1 2 2⎪ ⎥
− ⎨θ − tan −1 ⎬ ⎥
⎪ sin α 1 1
+1 ⎪
−1 ⎥
sin α
⎩⎪ sin 2 α ⎭⎪−π / 2 ⎥⎦
⎡⎧ θ ⎫+ π / 2 ⎧ θ ⎫+ π / 2 ⎤
μ II ′ ⎢ ⎪ cos α tan cos α tan ⎥
= 0 ⎢⎨− θ +
2
tan −1 2⎪ ⎪
− ⎨θ −
2
tan −1 2⎪ ⎥
⎬ ⎬
2 ⎢⎪ cos α 1 − sin α ⎪ ⎪ cos α 1 + sin α ⎪ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎩ ⎭−π / 2 ⎩ ⎭−π / 2 ⎦⎥
θ
a 2 − b 2 tan
dθ 2
∫
−1 2
Note: = tan , where a > b
a + b cos θ a 2 − b2 a+b
α
1 + tan
cos α 2 = tan ⎛ π + α ⎞ cos α π α
and = ⎜ ⎟ and = tan ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟
1 − sin α α ⎝4 2⎠ 1 + sin α ⎝4 2⎠
1 − tan
2
\ Total force (of attraction)
μ0 II ′ ⎡⎧ 2 ⎛ π + α + π + α ⎞ ⎫ − ⎧π − 2 ⎛ π − α + π − α ⎞⎫⎤
=
2π ⎢ ⎨− π + cos α ⎜
⎝ 4 2 4 2 ⎠⎭ ⎩
⎟⎬ ⎨
cos α
⎜
⎝ 4 2 4 2 ⎠ ⎭ ⎥⎦
⎟⎬
⎣⎩
μ 0 II ′ ⎡⎧ 2 ⎛ π + α ⎞ ⎫ − ⎧π − 2 ⎛ π − α ⎞⎫⎤
=
2π ⎢ ⎨ − π + cos α ⎜ ⎟⎬ ⎨
cos α
⎜ ⎟⎬⎥
⎣⎩ ⎝2 ⎠⎭ ⎩ ⎝2 ⎠⎭⎦
μ0 II ′ ⎛ 2π ⎞
= − 2π ⎟
2π ⎜⎝ cos α ⎠
= m0II ¢(sec a 1)
5.22 A wire is made into a circular loop of radius a, except for an arc of angular length 2a where
it follows the chord. The loop is suspended from a point which is opposite to the mid-point of
the chord so that the plane of the loop is normal to a long straight wire passing through the
centre of the loop. When the currents in the two circuits are I and I ¢, show that the torque on
the loop is given by μ II ′a (sin α − α cos α ).

π
Sol. See Fig. 5.18.
O
Point of suspension dh
I¢
h
Straight conductor
at the centre carrying
current I r
O
2a
a a
r h a
h
A B
R H P r dh
R
H sin h
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.18 (a) Chorded loop and the straight long conductor at the centre of the loop. (b) Enlarged view of r dq at the point R.
Since H due to the straight conductor on the circular part of the loop is in the same peripheral
direction, the torque produced on the loop is due to the action of this H on the chord only.
Here, we consider the action on a point R on the chord which makes an angle q with the vertical
line OP through the centre of the loop.
Now, OP = a cos a, where a is radius of the loop
OP a cos α
and OR = r = =
cos θ cos θ
Due to the current I in the central conductor at O, the magnetic field at R is
I I cos θ
HR = =
2π r 2π a cos α
which is the peripheral direction, i.e. normal to the radius OR.
\ Component of H at R normal to the chord AB is
I cos θ sin θ
H R sin θ =
2π a cos α
Note that H is acting over an elemental length r dq, whose component in the direction of the
chord will be
a cos α
r tan θ δθ = tan θ δθ
cos θ
and the arm length PR (for the torque) will be
a cos a tan q
\ Contribution to the torque by this elemental length
μ II ′ cos θ sin θ a cos α
= ⋅ tan θ δθ ⋅ a cos α tan θ
2π a cos α cos θ
μ II ′a
= cos α tan 2 θ δθ
π
θ =α
μ II ′a
\ Total torque =
θ
∫
=0
π
cos α tan 2 θ dθ
μ II ′a α
= cos α [tan θ − θ ]0
π
μ II ′a
= cos α (tan α − α )
π
μ II ′a
= (sin α − α cos α )
π
5.23 A steady time-invariant current I flows in a long conductor of circular cross-section of radius
a and permeability m. A circular tube of inner radius b and outer radius c (a < b < c) and of the
same permeability m is placed coaxially with the circular conductor. Evaluate the vectors, H,
B, M, Jm and Jms at all points, assuming that m is a constant.
Sol. See Fig. 5.19. It should be noted that the lines of both H and B would be concentric
circles with centre at O, the centre of the conductor. The magnitudes of these vectors would be
functions of r only.
Fig. 5.19 A long circular conductor carrying current I, and a coaxially placed circular tube of same permeability.
Hence by Amperes law,

⎧ π r2
⎪I for r ≤ a
vÔ H ¹ dl = H 2π r = ⎨ π a 2
⎪I
C ⎩ for r ≥ a
⎧ Ir for r ≤ a
⎪⎪
H = ⎨ 2π a
2
\
⎪ I for r ≥ a
⎪⎩ 2π r
and for constant m
⎧ μ Ir for r < a
⎪ 2π a 2
⎪
⎪μ I
B= ⎨ 0 for a < r c
⎪ 2π r
⎪ μI
⎪ 2π r for b < r < c
⎩
The magnetization vector M will be
⎧⎛ μ ⎞ Ir
⎪⎜ μ − 1⎟ for r < a
⎠ 2π a
2
⎪⎝ 0
M = Mf = ⎨
⎪⎛ μ − 1⎞ I for b < r < c
⎪⎩⎜⎝ μ0 ⎟ 2π r
⎠
and M = 0 elsewhere.
The equivalent currents in the conductor and the annular tube are:
1 d ⎛ μ ⎞ I
J m = J mz = curl z M = ( rM φ ) = ⎜ − 1⎟ for r < a
⎝ μ0 ⎠ πa
2
r dr
and J m = 0 for b < r < c.
The surface current densities are:
⎛ μ ⎞ I
Jms(a) = M(a) × ina or Jms(a) = − ⎜ − 1⎟
⎝ μ0 ⎠ 2π a
⎛ μ ⎞ I
Jms(b) = M(b) × inb or Jms(b) = ⎜ − 1⎟
⎝ μ0 ⎠ 2π b
⎛ μ ⎞ I
Jms(c) = M(c) × inc Jms(c) = − ⎜
or − 1⎟
⎝ μ0 ⎠ 2π c
Note: If m is a function of H, i.e. m = m0(H/H0) (say), where H0 is a constant, the evaluation of
the corresponding vectors is left as an exercise for the students.
5.24 Evaluate the magnetic flux density produced by an infinitely long strip of surface current of
density Jx (= constant), of length dl in the direction of flow.
Note: Such a current strip cannot exist in isolation but can represent a part of complete current
system.
Fig. 5.20 A strip of surface current density Jx (= constant) of length d l in the direction of current flow, and of infinite width.
Sol. We consider the cross-hatched portion of the current sheet which we have taken to lie in
the xz-plane, adjoining the z-axis, of length dl.
\ δ I = J Sδ z and δ l = i xδ l
The point under consideration, P, connected to the point A at the centre of the current element
is given by the unit vector along AP, i.e.
u = ix cos q cos f + iy cos q sin f iz sin q

\ d l × u = dl(cos q × sin f × iz + sin q × iy)
And by BiotSavarts law,
μ 0δ I
δ 2B =
(δ l × u)
4π r 2
\ The components of the magnetic flux density vector are:
μ 0δ I δ l μ δ Iδ l
δ 2 Bx = 0, δ 2 By = sin θ , δ 2 Bz = 0 2 cos θ sin φ
4π r 2
4π r
The corresponding current element at z would produce at P, the y-component of d B which is
d 2By ( z) = d 2By (z). Thus, the total y-component of d B created by the strip will be zero, so
that B will have only non-zero z-component.
μ0 J S sin φ δ l
\ δ 2 Bz = ⋅ cos θ dθ
4π a
r dθ a
Hence, δ I = J S dz, dz = and r =
cos θ cos θ
Hence, the total flux density produced by the strip is
+π / 2
μ0 J S sin φ δ l
dBz =
4π a ∫
π
− /2
cos θ dθ
μ0 J S sin φ δ l
=
2π a
5.25 Find the internal self-inductance of a straight cylindrical conductor.
Note: The external self-inductance is the contribution to L from the flux which does not traverse
across the conductor. On the other hand, the internal self-inductance is the contribution to L
from the flux which does traverse the conductor.
Sol. We consider a cylindrical conductor whose circular cross-section has the radius a
(Fig. 5.21). It carries a current I distributed uniformly over its cross-section. This conductor is
Fig. 5.21 Cross-section of a cylindrical conductor of radius a.

assumed to be isolated, i.e. the return current is so far away, as compared with the flux
distribution inside the conductor, as to have its effects negligible.
μ0 I π r 2 μ Ir
For r £ a, Bf = = 0 2
π a 2π r
2
2π a
Flux in an elemental ring of radius r and radial width dr,
μ 0 Ir dr
df = B × l × dr = per unit length of the conductor
2π a 2
Current linked with this filament,

I Ir 2
i= ⋅ π r 2
=
π a2 a2
μ0 I 2 3
Hence, i df = r δr
2π a 4
∑ i δφ
1
\ Internal self-inductance: Li =
I
a
μ0 μ0
∫ r dr = 8π
3
=
2π a 4
0
External self-inductance of the parallel go and return conductor is

μ0 b
Le = ln
π a
μ0 ⎛ b 1 ⎞
\ L = Le + Li = ⎜ ln + ⎟ , due to two conductors
π ⎝ a 4⎠
For rods of diameter 1 cm at spacings of 5 cm, Li is about 11% of Le.
As m0 = 4p × 107, Li = 0.05 mH/m of the conductor.
Note that this figure is independent of the diameter of the conductor.
5.26 Two very large magnetic blocks of permeability m1 and m2 are divided by a plane surface.
In the medium 1 of permeability m1, a thin straight conductor with a current of intensity I runs
parallel to the interface surface between the two media. Show that
(i) the influence of medium 2 on the magnetic field in the medium can be reduced to the
field of a straight current filament of intensity aI, where the filament is at the place of
the image of the current I in the boundary surface, and the whole space is assumed to
be filled with the medium 1,
(ii) the influence of the medium 1 on the magnetic field produced in the medium 2 by the
current I can be reduced to an additional current bI in the conductor, the whole space
being now filled with the medium 2 of permeability m2. Evaluate a and b.
Fig. 5.22 Interface between the two media of different permeabilities.
Sol. See Fig. 5.22. Replace medium 2 by medium 1, and assume a current aI at the image
point of I.
\ At a point P on the interface, we have
μI μ αI
BI = 1 , Bα I = 1
2π r 2π r
μ1 I
\ B1n = BI cos q + BaI cos q = (1 + a) cos q
2π r
BI B I
and H1t = sin θ − α I sin θ = (1 − α ) sin θ
μ1 μ1 2π r
Now, replace the whole region by medium 2, and the actual current by a current (1 + b )I.
(1 + β ) I
\ At the point P, B(1+b )I = m2
2π r
(1 + β ) I (1 + β ) I
So, B2n = m2 cos q and H2t = sin q
2π r 2π r
Now, at the point P on the interface, the boundary condition must be satisfied, i.e.
B1n = B2n and H1t = H2t
\ m1(1 + a ) = m2(1 + b ) and (1 a ) = (1 + b ) Þ b = a
μ2 − μ1 μ1 − μ2
Hence, a= and b=
μ1 + μ2 μ1 + μ2
Special cases
1. When m2 >> m1, e.g. when medium 2 is a magnetic medium, m2 = m0mr and medium 1 is air
space (say), m1 = m0, where mr is very large, then a l 1 and b l 1.
\ aI = I and (1 + b )I = (1 1)I = 0
i.e. the field in the medium 1 is identical with the field due to the current I at the source point,
and its positive image I at its image point existing in homogeneous medium of permeability m1,
while in the medium 2, the field is practically non-existent, i.e. the lines of magnetic flux
density vector enter the ferromagnetic substance virtually normal and close on themselves
through a thin layer near the surface of the ferromagnetic block.
2. When m1 >> me, a l 1, b l +1.
\ aI = I, (1 + b )I = 2I
i.e. the field in the medium 1 is now due to the current I (at the source point) and its negative
image (at the corresponding image point) in a homogeneous medium of permeability m1.
Whereas in the medium 2, the magnetic field is produced by a current 2I in place of the real
current I.
Note that this does not contradict the condition
tan α1 μ
= 1
tan α 2 μ2
In this case, a2 = p/2 and a1 can be any angle and the above condition is still satisfied.
Fig. 5.23 Flux lines in two media.
Note: On an infinitely permeable surface, the flux lines are normal, whereas on an infinitely
conducting surface, the flux lines can only be tangential and no normal flux exists.
Hence, an infinitely conducting surface can be considered to be of zero permeability.
This can also be derived from the consideration of boundary conditions:
If mr = 0, then a = 1, b = +1, and (1 + b ) = 2, and so on.
5.27 Figure 5.24 shows an air-cored choke, having 200
turns wound on a laminated core of iron. Estimate the
inductance
(i) when the magnetic circuit is as shown by full
lines and
(ii) when the portion hatched is removed.
In both the cases, assume that the iron is infinitely
permeable, and neglect leakage and fringing. In
practice, the iron can be considered to be completely
saturated at B = 1.8 T. Show that this means that the
choke can be used satisfactorily for currents up to
approximately 7 amperes. Fig. 5.24 Air-cored choke.
Sol. The mmf in the choke = NI = 200I.

Since the iron is assumed to be infinitely permeable,
NI 200 I
H = =
lgap 1 × 10−3
4π × 10 −7 × 200 I
\ B = m0 H = Wb/m2 (= T)
1 × 10 −3
Cross-sectional area of the gap, A1 = 5 × 20 = 100 cm2 = 100 × 104 m2
4π × 10 −7 × 200 I × 100 × 10−4

\ Flux/turn, f = BA1 = = 8pI × 104 Wb
1 × 10 −3
Nφ
\ L1 = = 200 × 8p × 104 H = 16p × 102 H
I
l 503 mH
If the cross-sectional area is reduced to A2 (= 3 × 20 = 60 cm2), then
L2 = 0.6L1 = 302 mH
For the limiting current,
4π × 10−7 × 200 I
1.8 T = B = = 8pI × 102
10−3
180 22.5
\ I= = =7A
8π π
5.28 An electromagnet with opposite poles has square faces of side l, separated by an air-gap G.
Into this air-gap, an iron plate is moved with its faces parallel to the faces of the pole and edges
parallel to the edges of the pole. Its length and width are l and its thickness is (G g). The plate
overlaps the poles by a distance x in one direction, and in the perpendicular direction they
overlap completely. The remaining magnetic path of the electromagnet is of iron and U-shaped,
and is wound with a winding of N turns carrying a current I; but the exact shape is immaterial,
since the iron of both the magnet and the plate is of zero reluctance so that the mmf, NI, is
solely employed in forcing the flux across the air-gaps. Prove the following:
⎛l − x x ⎞
(a) The flux traversing the air-gap is μ0 NIl ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ G g⎠
1 ⎛l − x x ⎞
(b) The energy stored in the air-gap field is μ0 N 2 I 2 l ⎜ + ⎟
2 ⎝ G g⎠
1 ⎛G− g ⎞
(c) The force tending to draw the iron plate further into the air-gap is μ0 N 2 I 2 l ⎜ ⎟.
2 ⎝ Gg ⎠
Note: Flux fringing should be neglected.
Sol. See Fig. 5.25.

(a) Applied mmf = NI.
The air-gap in the magnet is resolved into the following two parts:
(i) Where the plate has not been penetrated,
area = l(l x), length = G
(ii) Where the plate has been penetrated,
Area = lx, length = G (G g) = g
G
Reluctance of part (i) =
μ0l (l − x)
g
and Reluctance of part (ii) =
μ0lx
Since the two parts are in parallel, the effective reluctance of the air-gap, Reff, is given by
1 μ l (l − x) μ0lx
= 0 +
Reff G g
\ The flux traversing the air-gap =

NI ⎛l − x x ⎞
= μ0 NIl ⎜ + ⎟.
Reff ⎝ G g⎠
Note that these reluctances are not to be added in series.
∑ iφ
1
(b) The stored energy in the air-gap =
2
1 ⎛l − x x ⎞
= μ0 N 2 I 2 l ⎜ + ⎟
2 ⎝ G g⎠
Fig. 5.25 View of the electromagnet and the iron-plate in its air-gap (not to scale).
(c) If F is the force tending to draw the plate into the air-gap, then for a displacement Dx,
we have
Change in energy = F × Dx
1 2 2 l Δx 1 2 2 l Δx
= N I μ0 − N I μ0
2 g 2 G
1 2 2 ⎛G − g ⎞
= N I μ0 l ⎜ ⎟ Δx
2 ⎝ Gg ⎠
1 2 2 ⎛G− g ⎞
\ F= N I μ0l ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ Gg ⎠
5.29 Give an approximate calculation of the self-inductance of the slotted stator winding of an
alternator as shown in Fig. 5.26. The rotor surface is assumed to be smooth and the stator
laminated. The conductors are assumed to be solid and the currents in them uniformly
distributed. State the simplifying assumptions and use the leakage flux paths as shown in
the figure.
Fig. 5.26 Slotted stator conductor of an alternator.
Sol. Leakage flux is produced when a sudden high frequency emf (frequency f >> normal
power frequency) is imposed due to opening of a series circuit breaker. The high frequency flux
penetrates the stator iron but not the rotor.
This leakage flux is divided into three parts:
(a) The slot leakage flux which links only part of the conductor
(b) The slot leakage flux which links whole of the conductor
(c) Tooth-tip leakage flux.
The simplifying assumptions used are:
(i) Reluctance of iron is neglected (i.e. the shape of the flux path in iron is immaterial).
(ii) Fluxes (a) and (b) traverse the slot in straight lines.
(iii) Flux (c) lies in the air-gap in lines which consist of a straight central part terminated by
two circular quadrants as shown in Fig. 5.26.
φa + φb + φc
\ L= = La + Lb + Lc
I
(a) Slot leakage flux which traverses the conductor
I = total current in the conductor
Let the path traverse the conductor at a distance x from its bottom.
Ix
\ Linked current = =i
d
Ix
Hence by Amperes law, Hw1 =
d
μ0 Ix
\ B=
ω1d
Hence, flux in the layer between x and x + dx (per unit axial length) is
μ0 Ix
dF = dx
ω1d
μ0 I 2 x 2δ x
\ i dF =
ω1d 2
d
μ0 μ0 d
∑
1
i δΦ = ∫ x dx =
2
Hence La =
2 ω1d 2 3ω1
0
(b) Slot leakage which does not traverse the conductor

In any flux path which surrounds the whole conductor, mmf = I. The flux paths are in air and
iron, which is assumed to be infinitely permeable. Hence, if fb is the flux traversing part of the
slot above the conductor, then
φb
= Lb, permeance of this path ⎛⎜ = ⎞
Flux 1
Lb = = ⎟
I ⎝ MMF Reluctance ⎠
Here, there is a parallel sided tube of flux, of uniform cross-sectional area d S (say) and length l.
⎛δS ⎞
\ L = ∑μ 0⎜
⎝ l ⎠
⎟
If the conductor is centrally located in the parallel sided region,
d1 − d
L × 1 = m0
2w1
For the d2-part, the length l varies linearly between w1 and w2.
d2
\ L2 = m0
( w1 + w2 )/2
⎛d −d 2d 2 ⎞
Hence, Lb = m0 ⎜ 1 +
⎝ 2 w1 w1 + w2 ⎟⎠
(c) Tooth-tip leakage fluxSimilar permeance calculation
π
The central straight part has a length w1 and each of the two quadrants has the length y.
2
g
μ0 g
ln ( w1 + π y ) ⎤⎥
dy
\ L = m0 ∫0 w1 + 2 ⋅
π
y
=
π ⎦0
2
N X Q H -D
= MO
Q X
If there are N conductors in series and the length of the iron core is lc, then
L = Nlc(La + Lb + Lc)
Note: The conductor is assumed to be solid and the current in it uniformly distributed.
5.30 The basic actuator for a time-delay relay consists of a fixed structure made of a highly
permeable magnetic material with an excitation winding of N turns as shown in the following
figure (Fig. 5.27). A movable plunger which is also made of a highly permeable magnetic
material is constrained by a non-magnetic sleeve to move in the normal direction (say, defined
as x-direction). Calculate the flux linkage l at the electrical terminal pair as a function of
current i and displacement x and also determine the terminal voltage V for the specified time
variation of i and x.
Highly permeable g Non-magnetic sleeve

g
magnetic material w
w
Depth perp. to
H 1¢ H1
the paper = d
1
Plunger
2w
x H2 w
i
+
k, V f
N turns
–
Fig. 5.27 Section of the actuator showing the plunger.

Sol. Simplifying assumptions

1. The permeability of magnetic materials is high enough to be assumed infinite.
2. The air-gap lengths g and x are small compared to the transverse dimensions, g << w,
x << 2w, so that the fringing at the gap edges can be neglected.
3. Leakage flux is assumed to be negligible, i.e. the only appreciable flux passes through
the magnetic material except for the gaps g and x.
Note: Such a device is used for tripping circuit-breakers, operating valves, etc. where a
relatively large force is applied to a member that moves a relatively short distance.
This is a quasi-static magnetic field problem.
The required equations are:
vÔ H ¹ dl
C
= ∫∫ J ⋅ dS
S
(i)
w
ÔÔ J ¹ dS
S
= 0, no charge (ii)
and B = m0(H + M) (iii)

Let the terminal current be i.
Since mr ® ¥, B = mH.
\ H is zero inside the magnetic material.
Hence, only non-zero H occurs in the air-gaps g and x
and here B = m0 H
\ Using Eq. (i) for the contour 2 in Fig. 5.27, we have
H1′g + H1 g = 0 ∴ H1′ = − H1
i.e. the H field intensities in the two g-gaps are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign
expected from the symmetry of the problem.
From contour 1, H1g + H2x = Ni
From w
ÔÔ B
S
n ¹ dS = 0, considering a surface which encloses the plunger and passes through
the gaps x and g.

\ B1d × 2w B2d × w B2d × w = 0
or m0H1(2wd) m0H2(2wd) = 0
\ H1 = H2
Ni
and so H1 = H2 =
g+x
Now, the flux through the central limb (= F) is the flux through the air-gap x.
2wd μ0 Ni
\ F = B2(2wd) =
g+x
Since, the leakage flux is neglected, the same flux links the N turns.
2wd μ0 N 2 i
\ Flux linkage = l = NF =
g+x
= L(x)i, as l is a linear function of i
2wd μ0 N 2
where L(x) =
g+x
The terminal voltage V is
di dL dx
V = L( x ) +i ⋅
dt dx dt
2wd μ0 N 2 di 2 wd μ0 i dx
= ⋅ ⋅
g+x dt ( g + x) 2 dt

Transformer voltage Speed voltage
Note: The derivation of the above equation will be obvious after the study of electromagnetic
induction.
5.31 The flux linkage in the actuator discussed in Problem 5.30 can be expressed as
L0i 2wd μ0 N 2
l= , where L0 =
1 + ( x/g ) g
Find the force that must be applied to the plunger to hold it in equilibrium at a displacement x
and with a current i.
Sketch the force as (i) a function of x with constant i and (ii) as a function of x with constant
flux linkage l.
Sol. In a system which is linear (as in this case), l and i are linearly related as shown in
Fig. 5.28(a), i.e.
1 2
Wm = Li
2
Fig. 5.28(a) Energyco-energy diagram.
and for a linear system,

1 2
Wm′ = Li
2
i
L0i 2
or Wm′ = ∫
0
λ di =
⎛ x⎞
2 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ g⎠
Force applied to the plunger, F = Fe
∂
= Wm′ (i, x)
∂x
∂ ⎧ 1 L0i 2 ⎫
= ⎪ ⎪
∂x ⎨2 x⎬
⎪⎩ 1 + g ⎪⎭
1 L0i 2 1 1 L0i 2
\F= 2
( − 1) = 2 , expressing in terms of i.
2 ⎛ x⎞ g 2g ⎛ x⎞
⎜1 + g ⎟ ⎜1 + g ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Expressing in terms of l, we get
λ2
F=
2gL0
(i) F as a function of x with constant current i

1 L0 i 2
We have F= 2
2g ⎛ x⎞
⎜ 1 +
⎝ g ⎟⎠
Fig. 5.28(b) Force as a function of x for constant current.
With constant current, the applied force F decreases as the square of the gap length x as shown
in Fig. 5.28(b).
With i being a constant, ∫ H ⋅ dl increases with the increase in x.

\ The field in the gap is decreased, if x is increased.
(ii) F as a function of x with constant l
λ2
We have F=
2gL0
Fig. 5.28(c) Force as a function of x at constant flux linkage.
\ The force is independent of the distance x.

Now, i is not a constant.
\ The field in the gap must remain constant, independent of x, i.e. with this constraint.
5.32 The magnetic circuit shown in the following figure (Fig. 5.29) has its circuit completed by a
rectangular movable piece which is made up of infinitely permeable magnetic material, free to
move either in the x- or y-direction. The air-gaps in the circuits are short as compared to the
cross-sectional dimensions of the device, so that the fringing effects can be neglected. Find the
flux linkage l as a function of the gaps and the current.
Fig. 5.29 Magnetic circuit with a rectangular movable piece.
Sol. In a magnetic system,
vÔ H ¹ dl
C
= ∫∫ J ⋅ dS
S
and w
ÔÔ B ¹ dS
S
= 0
For the two contours 1 and 2,
∫∫ J ⋅ dS
S
= ni
To evaluate the line integral of H in the parts where mr ® ¥, H = 0.

Only the three gaps need to be considered. (Let H1, H2, H3 be the gap intensities as shown in
Fig. 5.29.)
For the contour 1,
vÔ H ¹ dl
1
= H1(c b y) + H3 x = ni
For the contour 2,
vÔ H ¹ dl
2
= H1(c b y) + H2 y = ni
For the conservation of flux equation, a closed surface to be considered is that of the movable
slab, i.e.
m0H1LD = m0H2aD + m0H3bD
or H1L = H2a + H3b
The implicit assumptions here are
axla Þ x << a and bylb Þ y << b
To evaluate l, H1 is required.
\ From the previous three equations, we get
1
H3 = {ni H1(c b y)}
x
1
H2 = {ni H1(c b y)}
y
a b
Hence, H1 L = {ni − H1 (c − b − y )} + {ni − H1 (c − b − y )}
y x
⎛ a b⎞
ni ⎛ + ⎞
y x
ni ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ y x⎠ ⎝ a b⎠
or H1 = =
⎛ a b⎞ L ⎛ ⋅ ⎞ + (c − b − y ) ⎛ + ⎞
y x y x
L + (c − b − y ) ⎜ + ⎟ ⎝ a b⎠ ⎝ a b⎠
⎝ y x⎠
\ Flux linkage through n turns of the coil
= nB1LD = nm0H1LD
μ0 n 2 ⎛ + ⎞ LDi
y x
⎝ a b⎠
=
L ⎛ ⋅ ⎞ + (c − b − y ) ⎛ + ⎞
y x y x
⎝ a b⎠ ⎝ a b⎠
Since the air-gaps are assumed to be small compared to the cross-sectional dimensions, we get
c−b− y y x
<< 1, << 1, << 1
L a b
If it is assumed, as shown in Fig. 5.29, that

a > L > c > b > (c b)
then the previously mentioned implicit assumptions become
x << b
and y << b
5.33 A magnetic circuit has a movable plunger, and is excited by an N-turn coil as depicted in the
following figure (Fig. 5.30). Both the yoke and the plunger of the system are perfectly
permeable. The system has two air-gaps, one variable x(t) and the other non-magnetic fixed d,
and has a width w into the paper. The gap widths are much smaller than other dimensions so
that all the fringing can be neglected.
Find (a) the terminal relation for the flux l(i, x) linked by the electrical terminal pair and
(b) the energy W m (l, x) stored in the electromechanical coupling. Also, using the energy
function Wm (l, x), find the expression for force Fe of electrical origin on the plunger.
Fig. 5.30 Magnetic circuit with a movable plunger.
Sol. We apply the equation, vÔ H ¹ dl

C
= ∫∫ J ⋅ dS
and get for the contour 1, Hx x + Hd d = Ni
Also from w
ÔÔ B ¹ dS
S
= 0, over a closed surface enclosing the plunger,
m0Hd bw = m0Hx aw
a Ni
\ Hd = H and so Hx =
b x x+
ad
b
So, the flux linked by the electrical terminal,
N 2 μ 0 awi
l = Nm0Hxaw = = Li
ad
x+
b
N 2 μ0 aw
\ L=
ad
x+
b
Energy Wm(l, x)
Since the system is electrically linear, we have
Wm′ (λ , x ) = ∫ λ di
= ∫
N 2 μ0 aw
x+
ad
i di {from λ =
∂
∂L }
Wm′ (λ , x)
N 2 μ0 awi 2
=
2 ⎛⎜ x +
ad ⎞
⎟
⎝ b ⎠
and Wm = λ i − Wm′
N 2 μ 0 awi 2 N 2 μ0 awi 2
= −
2 ⎛⎜ x +
ad ad ⎞
x+ ⎟
b ⎝ b ⎠
ad
x+
1 N 2 μ0 awi 2 1 2 b
= = λ
2
x+
ad 2 N 2
μ 0 aw
b
1 λ2
=
2 L
= Wm(l, x)
Force, Fe = −
∂
∂x
Wm (λ , x) ={∂
∂x
Wm′ (i, x) }
∂ ⎧1 λ2 ⎛ x + ad ⎞ ⎫
= − ⎨ ⎜ ⎟⎬
∂x ⎩ N awμ0 ⎝
2 2
b ⎠⎭
1 λ2
= −
2 N 2 μ0 aw
5.34 A magnetic circuit with a movable element has two excitation sources as shown in the following
figure (Fig. 5.31). When the movable element is exactly at the centre, the two air-gaps on its
two sides have the same length a. The displacement of the element from the central position is
denoted by x. Find the flux linkages l1 and l2 in terms of the currents and displacement x.
Calculate the co-energy Wm′ (i1 , i2 , x) in the electromechanical coupling.
Fig. 5.31 Magnetic circuit with two nodes.
Sol. It should be noted that this is a multinode problem.
From vÔ H ¹ dl Ô Ô J ¹ dS ,
C
we get for the contour 1,
H1(a + x) + H2(a x) = N1i1 + N2i2
From w
ÔÔ B ¹ dS , over a closed surface round the movable element, we have
S
m0H1A1 = m0H2A2
Solving for H1, we get
N1i1 + N 2i2
H1 =
⎛ A ⎞ ⎛ A ⎞
a ⎜1 + 1 ⎟ + x ⎜1 − 1 ⎟
⎝ A 2 ⎠ ⎝ A 2 ⎠
Neglecting fringing, the flux in the two air-gaps must be same, since
F = m0 H 1 A1 = m0 H 2 A2
\ Flux linkages, l1 = N1F, l2 = N2F
Hence, l1 = N12L(x)i1 + N1N2L(x)i2

and l2 = N1N2L(x)i1 + N22L(x)i2,
μ0 A1
where L(x) =
⎛ A ⎞ ⎛ A ⎞
a ⎜1 + 1 ⎟ + x ⎜1 − 1 ⎟
⎝ A2 ⎠ ⎝ A2 ⎠
Co-energy
The system is electrically linear.
\ For a multinode system, we have
∂Wm′
lj = , j = 1, 2, ..., N
∂i j
In this case, N = 2.
Wm′ = L(x) ⎛⎜ N12 i12 + N1 N 2i1i2 + N 22 i22 ⎞⎟

1 1
\
⎝2 2 ⎠
N
Note: Wm′ = ∑λi
j =1
j j − Wm .
5.35 A magnetic field coupling system, which is electrically nonlinear, is diagrammatically shown
below (Fig. 5.32) and has the equations of state as
⎧ λ ⎛ λ ⎞2 ⎫ ⎧1 λ2 1 λ4 ⎫
⎪ +⎜ ⎟ ⎪ ⎪ +
⎪ λ0 ⎝ λ0 ⎠ ⎪ I ⎪2 λ0 4 λ03 ⎪⎪
i = I0 ⎨ ⎬, Fe = 0 ⎨ 2 ⎬
⎪ 1+ x ⎪ a ⎪ ⎛1 + x ⎞ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎜ ⎟
⎩
a
⎭ ⎩⎪ ⎝ a⎠ ⎭⎪
where I0, l0 and a are positive constants.
Show that the system is conservative and evaluate the stored energy at the points l1, x1 in
variable space.
Fig. 5.32 Magnetic field coupling system.
Sol. The condition for conservation of energy is

dWm = i dl Fe dx
Also, it must satisfy
∂Wm ∂Wm
dWm = dλ + dx
∂λ ∂x
∂Wm ∂Wm
\ i= and Fe = −
∂λ ∂x
Hence the condition to be satisfied is

∂i ∂F
= − e
∂x ∂λ
\ From the given equations, we get
⎧ λ λ3 ⎫ ⎧ λ λ3 ⎫
⎪ + ⎪ ⎪ + ⎪
∂i I ⎪λ λ03 ⎪ ∂Fe I ⎪λ λ03 ⎪
= − 0 ⎨ 0 2⎬
and = 0 ⎨ 0 2⎬
∂x a ⎪⎛ x⎞ ⎪ ∂λ a ⎪⎛ x⎞ ⎪
1+ ⎟ 1+ ⎟
⎪⎩ ⎜⎝ a ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ ⎜⎝ a ⎠ ⎪⎭
Hence proved.
⎧1 λ2 1 λ4 ⎫ I0
Stored energy, Wm = ∫
x ⎨
i dλ =+
1 + ⎩ 2 λ0 4 λ0 ⎭
3⎬
a
5.36 A rotating heteropolar machine as depicted in the following figure (Fig. 5.33) consists of two
concentric cylinders of ferromagnetic material with infinite permeability and zero conductivity.
Both the cylinders are of axial length l and are separated by an air-gap g. The rotor and the
stator carry windings of Nr and Ns turns, respectively, both distributed sinusoidally and having
negligible radial thickness. The current through these windings leads to sinusoidally distributed
surface currents. Neglect the end effects and assume g << R (the rotor radius), so that the radial
variation of the magnetic field can be neglected.
Find the radial component of the air-gap flux density (a) due to stator current alone and
(b) due to rotor current alone. (c) Hence evaluate the flux linkages and the inductances.
Surface current densities

r 0
ato ®
St , r
¥
® Nsis
l Hrs(y) K s = iz
2(R+g)
siny
0 y 1
r
to ®
R ,r
o
¥ iz into the paper
® R
l
N ri r
Kr = iz sin (y – h)
2R
Hrs(y + o)
–
kr
ir
+ ks is
– +
Fig. 5.33 Section of a rotating machine showing the stator and the rotor windings.
Sol. (a) With the stator current alone, by using
vÔ H ¹ dl = ∫∫ J ⋅ dS
C S
around the contour 1 as shown in Fig. 5.33, we get
ψ +π
N s is
gH rs (ψ ) − gH rs (ψ + π ) = ∫
ψ
2( R + g )
sin ψ ⋅ ( R + g ) dψ
By symmetry, Hrs(y) = Hrs(y + p)

1 Ns is
\ Hrs(y) = {− cos ψ }ψψ + π
2g 2
Ns is cos ψ
=
2g
μ0 Ns is cos ψ
Hence, Brs =
2g
(b) With a similar contour for the rotor excitation, we have
μ0 N r ir cos(ψ − θ )
Brr =
2g
(c) Evaluation of flux linkages
The total radial flux density in the air-gap,
μ0
Br = Brs + Brr = {Ns is cos ψ + N r ir cos(ψ − θ )}
2g
Consider a coil on the stator whose sides have an angular span of dy at positions y and
y + p.
\ Flux linking one turn of the coil (a full-pitched one)
ψ +π
=
∫
ψ
Br l ( R + g ) dψ
μ0l
= {Nsis sin ψ + N r ir sin(ψ − θ )}( R + g )
g
N s sin ψ
No. of turns in the elemental coil = (R + g)dy
2( R + g )
N s sin ψ
= dy
2
\ Flux linkages in the elemental coil,
μ0 Ns ( R + g )l
dls = sin ψ {Ns is sin ψ + N r ir sin(ψ − θ )}dψ
2g
Adding up all the contributions to stator coils, we get

ψ +π
μ0 Ns ( R + g )l ⎛ π π ⎞
ls =
ψ
∫
=0
d λs =
2g
⎜ Ns is + N r ir cos θ ⎟
⎝2 2 ⎠
μ0π ( R + g )l 2 μ π ( R + g )l
= Ns is + 0 Ns N r ir cos θ
4g 4g
= Ls is + (M rs cos θ )ir
Similarly for the rotor winding, we get
μ0π Rl 2 μ π Rl
lr = N r ir + 0 N r Ns is cos θ
4g 4g
= Lr ir + (M sr cos θ )is
Note: Mrs = Msr, if g << R.

These can be calculated from the stored energy as well.
5.37 Solve Problem 5.36 for the following surface current densities which are for more practical
uniform winding distributions.
⎧ i Ns is
for 0 < ψ < π
⎪⎪ z π ( R + g )
Ks = ⎨
⎪− i Ns is
for π < ψ < 2π
⎪⎩ z
π (R + g)
⎧ i N r ir
for 0 < (ψ − θ ) < π
⎪⎪ z πR
Kr = ⎨
⎪− i N r ir
for π < (ψ − θ ) < 2π
⎪⎩ z πR
Sol. (a) In this case, for 0 < y < p,
ψ +π
2Hrs g =
∫
ψ
K s ( R + g )dψ
⎧π π +ψ ⎫
Ni ⎪ ⎪
= ss
π ⎪⎩ψ
∫
⎨ dψ +
π
∫
− dψ ⎬
⎪⎭
N s is
= {(π − ψ ) − (π + ψ − π )}
π
2ψ ⎞
= N s is ⎛⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ π ⎠
For p < y < 2p,
⎧2π ψ −π ⎫
Ns is ⎪ ⎪
2Hrs g =
π ∫
⎨ − dψ +
⎪⎩ ψ 0
∫
dψ ⎬
⎪⎭
N s is
= {− (2π − ψ ) + (ψ − π − 0)}
π
2ψ ⎞
= N s is ⎛⎜ − 3 + ⎟
⎝ π ⎠
⎧ μ0 N i ⎛1 − 2ψ ⎞ for 0 < ψ < π

⎪⎪ 2 g s s ⎜⎝ π ⎠
⎟
\ Brs = ⎨
⎪ μ0 N i ⎛ − 3 + 2ψ ⎟⎞ for π < ψ < 2π
⎪⎩ 2 g s s ⎜⎝ π ⎠
(b) Similarly, for the rotor winding
⎪⎪ 2 g r r
Brr = ⎨
{
⎧ μ0 N i 1 − 2 (ψ − θ )
π } for θ < ψ < π + θ
⎩⎪ 2 g
r r {
⎪ μ0 N i − 3 + 2 (ψ − θ )
π } for π + θ < ψ < 2π + θ
(c) Express the turn densities and the flux densities in terms of Fourier series expansions.
5.38 The structure discussed in Problem 5.36, now has a 3-phase winding on the stator which has Ns
turns on each phase. The total number of turns on the rotor winding is Nr. The surface current
densities produced by the 3-phase armature windings (on the stator) are:
Ns ia
Ka = iz sin y
2( R + g )
Ns ib
Kb = iz sin(y 2p/3)
2( R + g )
N s ic
Kc = iz sin(y 4p/3)
2( R + g )
The surface current density due to the rotor current on the surface R is
N r ir
Kr = iz sin(y q)
2R
Assume that g << R, so that there is no appreciable variation in the radial component of the
magnetic field in the air-gap. Find the radial flux density due to current in each winding. Also
find the mutual inductance between the a and b windings on the stator and the expressions for
the flux linkages of each phase.
Magnetic axis of the
a-phase stator winding
Magnetic axis of
the rotor winding
h
Stator
y
Rotor
iz
2o/3
2o R
3
g Magnetic axis of the

b-phase stator winding
Magnetic axis of the
c-phase stator winding
Fig. 5.34 Section of the rotating machine showing the current sheet axes.
Sol. See Fig. 5.34.

Radial flux density
Since the current density expressions for the three phases are similar to those in Problem 5.36,
by using a contour similar to the contour 1 of that problem, we get due to the winding a,
ψ +π
N s ia
2Hra g = ∫
ψ
2( R + g )
sin ψ ⋅ ( R + g ) dψ
Ns ia
= 2 cos ψ ⋅ ( R + g )
2( R + g )
μ0 Ns ia
\ Bra = cos y
2g
The windings of phases b and c are identical to that of phase a except for the shown phase
displacements. So,
μ0 Ns ib 2π ⎞
Brb = cos ⎛⎜ψ − ⎟
2g ⎝ 3 ⎠
μ0 Ns ic 4π ⎞
Brc = cos ⎛⎜ψ − ⎟
2g ⎝ 3 ⎠
and for the rotor winding,
μ0 N r ir
Brr = cos (ψ − θ )
2g
Mutual inductance
Considering the flux density due to the windings a and b, we have
Brab =
μ0
2g {
Ns ia cos ψ + Ns ib cos ⎛⎜ψ −
⎝
2π ⎞
⎟
3 ⎠ }
Take a coil on the statoran elemental coil (full-pitched) on the stator whose sides have
angular spans of dy at positions y and y + p (Fig. 5.35).
Fig. 5.35 Full-pitched elemental coil.
\ Flux linking 1 turn of a full-pitched elemental coil

ψ +π
=
∫
ψ
Br l ( R + g ) dψ
ψ +π
=
μ0 l ( R + g )
2g ∫
ψ
{
N s ia cos ψ + N s ib cos ⎛⎜ψ −
⎝
2π ⎞
}
⎟ dψ
3 ⎠
=
μ0 l ( R + g )
2g {
2 Ns ia sin ψ + 2 Ns ib sin ⎛⎜ψ −
⎝
2π ⎞
⎟
3 ⎠ }
=
μ0l ( R + g )
g {
Ns ia sin ψ + Ns ib sin ⎛⎜ψ −
⎝
2π ⎞
⎟
3 ⎠ }
Ns sin ψ N
No. of turns in the span = ( R + g )dψ = s sin ψ dψ
2( R + g ) 2
\ Flux linking this elemental coil,
dλ =
Ns
2
μl
g {
sin ψ dψ ⋅ 0 Ns ia sin ψ + Ns ib sin ⎛⎜ψ −
⎝
2π ⎞
⎟
3 ⎠ }
Hence, the total flux linkage in the stator due to the windings a and b,
π
∫ {i }
μ N 2 ( R + g )l 2π ⎞
lab = 0 s a sin 2 ψ + ib sin ψ sin ⎛⎜ψ − ⎟ dψ
2g ⎝ 3 ⎠
0
μ 0 N s2 ( R + g )l ⎛ π i + π i cos 2π ⎞
= ⎜ a b ⎟
2g ⎝2 2 3 ⎠
\ Mutual inductance between the windings a and b,
μ 0 N s2 ( R + g )l π 2π
Mab = cos
2g 2 3
πμ0 Ns2 ( R + g )l ⎛' cos 2π = 1 ⎞

= − ⎜ ⎟
8g ⎝ 3 2⎠
πμ 0 N s2 ( R + g )l
Self-inductance of the winding a, La =
4g
Note that La = Lb = Lc (= Ls, say), because of relative geometry of the windings
L L
and Mab = − = − s = Mac = Ms = Mbc
2 2
Flux linkages
Ls L
λ a = L s ia − ib − s ic + M rs cos θ ⋅ ir
2 2
2π ⎞
ia + L s ib − s ic + M rs cos ⎛ θ −
Ls L
λb = − ⋅ ir
2 2 ⎝ 3 ⎠
4π ⎞
ia − s ib + L s ic + M rs cos ⎛ θ −
Ls L
and λc = − ⋅ ir
2 2 ⎝ 3 ⎠
2π ⎞ ⋅ i + M cos ⎛θ − 4π
Also, λr = M sr cos θ ⋅ ia + M sr cos ⎛⎜θ − ⎟ b sr ⎜
⎞⋅i + L i ,
⎟ c r r
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
πμ0 Ns N r ( R + g )l
where Mrs =
4g
πμ0 Ns N r Rl
Msr =
4g
πμ0 N r2 Rl
Lr =
4g
5.39 In Problem 5.38, let the stator currents be as given below:

ia = Ia cos w t
2π
ib = Ib cos ⎛⎜ ω t − ⎞
⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
π
ic = Ic cos ⎛⎜ ω t − ⎞
4
⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
Prove that the radial component of the air-gap flux density can be expressed as the sum of two
constant amplitude waves, one rotating in the positive q direction with speed w and the other
rotating in the negative q direction with speed w. Also prove that when Ia = Ib = Ic, the
amplitude of the wave travelling in the negative q direction goes to zero.
Sol. Now,
Brs =
μ0 Ns
2g {
ia cos ψ + ib cos ⎛⎜ψ −
⎝
2π ⎞
3 ⎠
⎛
⎟ + ic cos ⎜ψ −
⎝
4π ⎞
⎟
3 ⎠ }
=
μ0 Ns
2g {
I a cos ω t cos ψ + Ib cos ⎛⎜ ω t −
⎝
2π ⎞
3 ⎠
⎛
⎟ cos ⎜ψ −
⎝
2π ⎞
⎟
3 ⎠
+ I c cos ⎛⎜ ω t −
⎝
4π ⎞ ⎛
⎟ cos ⎜ψ −
3 ⎠ ⎝
4π ⎞
⎟
3 ⎠ }
=
2g {
μ0 Ns I a + Ib + I c
2
cos (ω t − ψ ) + ⎛⎜ I a + Ib cos
1
2⎝
4π
3
+ I c cos
2π ⎞
⎟ cos (ω t + ψ )
3 ⎠
1⎛
+
2⎝
⎜ I b sin
4π
3
+ I c sin
2π ⎞
⎟ sin (ω t + ψ )
3 ⎠ }
\ Amplitude of the forward travelling wave,
μ0 Ns
Br f m = (Ia + Ib + Ic)
4g
and the amplitude of the backward travelling wave,
μ N ⎧⎪⎛ Ib Ic ⎞
2
⎛ 3 3 ⎞ ⎫⎪
2
Br b m = 0 s ⎨⎜ I a − − ⎟ + ⎜− Ib + Ic ⎟ ⎬
⎩⎪⎝
4g 2 2⎠ ⎝ 3 2 ⎠ ⎪⎭
When Ia = Ib = Ic = I, we get
Br b m = 0
i.e. only the forward travelling wave exists.
5.40 Two parallel conducting strips of negligible thickness and each of width A, maintained at a
distance of B from each other, form the opposite sides of a rectangular prism. A current I goes
out on one strip and returns on the other, such that the current is uniformly distributed in each.
Hence, show that the two strips repel each other by a force per unit length given by
μ0 I ⎧ −1 A 1 ⎛ A2 + B 2 ⎞ ⎫
⎨ A tan − B ln ⎜ ⎟⎬.
π A2 ⎩ B 2 ⎝ B
2
⎠⎭
Fig. 5.36 Parallel current sheets of finite width.
Sol. See Fig. 5.36. This problem is, in fact, an extrapolation of Problem 5.20. First, we find
the magnetic field due to one strip at an element dy at P on the second strip. Then, we evaluate
the force due to the interaction between the magnetic field produced by the first strip and the
current in the element of the second strip. It is obvious that only the y-component of the
magnetic field will react with the current (flowing in the z-direction) in the second strip,
producing a repelling force between the first strip and this element of the second strip dFx.
Then, we integrate over the whole width of the second strip for obtaining the total repelling
force between the two strips.
So, the y-component of the magnetic field due to the first strip, produced at the point P on the
second strip is
μ 0 I ⎛ −1 A − y
+ tan −1 ⎞⎟
y
By = ⎜ tan
2π A ⎝ B B⎠
Hence, the differential force dFx per unit length of the sheet, caused by a differential element
I
of current dy in the second strip is
A
μ 0 I I ⎛ −1 A − y
+ tan −1 ⎞⎟ dy
y
δ Fx = ⋅ ⎜ tan
2π A A ⎝ B B⎠
For the total force in the x-direction, integrating this expression over the limits y = 0 to
y = A, we get
y= A
μ I2 ⎛ tan −1 A − y + tan −1 y ⎞ dy
Fx = 0 2
2π A ∫
y =0
⎜
⎝ B B⎠
⎟
μ0 I 2 ⎧ −1 A 1 ⎛ A2 + B 2 ⎞⎫
= ⎨ A tan − B ln ⎜ ⎟⎬
2π A2 ⎩ B 2 ⎝ B
2
⎠⎭
1
∫ tan
−1
Note: x dx = x tan −1 x − log (1 + x 2 ).
2
5.41 Two non-ferrous conducting bus-bar strips of negligible thickness and each of width A are
positioned in the xz-plane with uniformly distributed currents I1 and I2, respectively, flowing
along the z-direction. The distance between the centres of the strips is B such that B > A. Show
that the force between the strips, per unit length is
Fx =
μ0 I1 I 2
2π A2
{
( B + A) ln
B+ A
B
+ ( B − A) ln
B−A
B
. }
Fig. 5.37 Parallel, coplanar current sheets, with sections along the x-axis (direction of current flow z-axis,
normal to the plane of the paper).
Sol. See Fig. 5.37. This is again an extrapolation of Problem 5.20. But, now, the width of the
current sheets is along the x-axis and not along the y-axis as in Problems 5.20 and 5.40.
So, we write down the expression for the elemental magnetic field due to an element dx1 at Q
of strip, at a point P of the element dx2 on strip 2.
μ0 J S1dx1 μ0 I dx1
\ | d B | = d By = =
2π QP 2π A( x2 − x1 )
\ The magnetic field at P due to the whole strip 1 is
x1 = − A / 2
μ0 I1 dx1 μ I
∫
− A/ 2
By = = − 0 1 {ln ( x2 − x1 )}+ A / 2
2π A x2 − x1 2π A
x1 = + A / 2
=
N0 I1
2Q A ^
ln È x2 Ø ln È x2 Ø
Ê
A
2 Ú Ê
A
2Ú `
There is no component in the x-direction, as we are considering the field on the x-axis.
Force on the element dx2 at P on the second strip, the surface current density being JS2
(= I2/A), is
N IJ
2Q A
A
2 ^
E Fx 0 1 S2 ln ÈÊ x2 ØÚ ln ÈÊ x2 ØÚ dx2
A
2 `
\ Total force on the second strip is

x2 = B + A / 2
μ0 I1 I 2
ln ⎛⎜ x2 + ⎞⎟ − ln ⎛⎜ x2 − ⎞⎟ dx2
A A
Fx = −
2π A2 ∫
x2 = B − A / 2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Note:
∫ ln x dx = x ⋅ ln x − x
μ0 I1 I 2 ⎧( B + A) ln ( B + A) − ( B − A) ln B − ( B + A) ln B + ( B − A) ln ( B − A) ⎫
\ Fx = − ⎨ ⎬
2π A2 ⎩− ( B + A) + ( B − A) + ( B + A) − ( B − A) ⎭
μ0 I1 I 2 ⎧ B+A B − A⎫
= − 2 ⎨
( B + A) ln + ( B − A) ln ⎬
2π A ⎩ B B ⎭
5.42 A composite conductor of cylindrical cross-section, used in overhead transmission lines, is

made up of a steel inner wire of radius Ri, and an annular outer conductor of radius Ro, the two
having electrical contact. Evaluate the magnetic field within the conductors and the internal
self-inductance per unit length of the composite conductor.
Sol. See Fig. 5.38. It should be noted that the current in both the conductors (i.e. inner and
outer) must be uniformly distributed, but of different densities (say, J1 and J2 in the inner and
Fig. 5.38 Composite conductor of cylindrical cross-section.
the outer conductors, respectively) because they would have the same potential gradient (or
drop) axially, as they are in electrical contact on the surface r = Ri, i.e.
J1 J
E = = 2
σ1 σ2
and J1π Ri2 + J 2π ( Ro2 − Ri2 ) = I

where I is the total current.
IT 1 σ2
\ J1 = and J2 = J1
Q ^(T 1 T 2 ) Ri2 T 2 Ro2 ` σ1
The magnetic field is purely circumferential and varies as a function of r only (from symmetry
considerations).
\ Using the Amperes law (to evaluate the magnetic field), we get
for 0 < r < Ri, 2π rHφ i = J1π r 2
J1r μJr μ Iσ r
\ Hφ i = , Bφ i = 1 1 = 1 1
2 2 2π (σ 1 − σ 2 ) Ri2 + σ 2 Ro2
2π rHφo = J1Q Ri2 J 2 Q (r 2 Ri2 ) and J1

T1
For Ri < r < R¥, J2
T2
J 2 (σ 1 − σ 2 ) Ri2 + σ 2 r 2
\ Hφo = ⋅
2r σ2
I 1 (σ 1 − σ 2 ) Ri2 + σ 2 r 2
=
π 2r (σ 1 − σ 2 ) Ri2 + σ 2 Ro2
and Bφo = m0Hf

To find the inductance, we now calculate the energy stored in the conductor.
μH 2
Energy stored in the inner conductor =
2
dv ∫∫∫
\ Energy stored per unit length of the inner conductor,
r = Ri
μ1 2
W1 =
r =0
∫ 2
Hφ i 2π r dr
Ri 2
μ1 ⎧ I σ1 ⎫ 3
= ∫
0
2
2π ⎨ ⎬ r dr
⎩ 2π (Den) ⎭
Ri
μ1 I 2σ12 r 4
=
4 π (Den) 2 4 0
μ1 I 2σ 12 4
= Ri
16π (Den) 2
Next, the energy stored per unit length of the second conductor,
μ0 Hφ2o
W2 = ∫∫∫ 2
dv
2 Ro
μ ⎛ I ⎞ {(σ1 − σ 2 ) Ri2 + σ 2 r 2 }2
= 0 ⎜
2 ⎝ 2π (Den) ⎟⎠ ∫
Ri
r2
2π r dr
Ro
μ0 I 2 (σ 1 − σ 2 ) 2 Ri4 + 2(σ 1 − σ 2 ) σ 2 Ri2 r 2 + σ 22 r 4
\ W2 =
π (Den) 2 ∫
Ri
r
dr
μ0 I 2 ⎧ Ro 2 σ 22 4 ⎫
= ⎨ (σ 1 − σ 2 ) 2 4
Ri ln + (σ 1 − σ 2 ) σ 2 Ri
2
( Ro
2
− Ri
2
) + ( Ro − Ri4 ) ⎬
π (Den) ⎩
2
Ri 2 4 ⎭
1 2
Now, W = W1 + W2 = LI .
2
1 ⎡ μ1σ 12 Ri4 μ0 ⎧ Ro
\ L= + ⎨(σ 1 − σ 2 ) Ri ln
2 4
2 ⎢
π (Den) ⎣ 8 2 ⎩ Ri
σ 22 4 ⎫⎤
+ (σ 1 − σ 2 ) σ 2 Ri2 ( Ro2 − Ri2 ) + ( Ro − Ri4 ) ⎬ ⎥ ,
4 ⎭⎦
where Den = (σ1 − σ 2 ) Ri2 + σ 2 Ro2 .
5.43 Prove that the self-inductance of a closely-wound toroidal coil of major radius R and minor
radius a is
{
L = μ0 N 2 R − ( R 2 − a 2 )1/ 2 , }
where N is the number of turns.
Fig. 5.39 A toroidal coil of circular cross-section.

Sol. See Fig. 5.39. In the nomenclature of this problem, it is implied that the toroid has a
circular cross-section, the major radius R being the mean radius of the toroid and the minor
radius a being the radius of the circular cross-section of the toroid.
As with the toroid of rectangular cross-section, all the flux lines are circles which are either
concentric or coaxial with the toroid. But, the integration of the flux density B over the circular
cross-sectional area of the toroid is relatively more complicated. So, we subdivide the circular
cross-section into circular annular sections, and consider a differential element rdq at an angle
q, referred to the centre of the cross-section. (This does not refer to the coordinate system for
the whole toroid.)
We now consider a differential surface element (dr) (rÿdq) at a radius r, of radial width dr and
at an angle q made with the mid-axis of the toroid as shown in Fig. 5.39(b).
The H-field at such a point is given by
NI = 2p (R r cos q )Hq,
where N is the total number of turns in the toroid, I is the current per turn and r is the radial
distance from the centre of the cross-section.
\ The corresponding flux density is
NI ρ dρ dθ
B = μ0
2π ( R − ρ cos θ )
Hence, the differential flux linkage in this element is
μ0 N 2 I ρ d ρ dθ
dλ =
2π ( R − ρ cos θ )
Integrating over the whole cross-section, we get
ρ =a 2π
μ N 2I dθ
λ = 0
2π
ρ
∫=0
ρ dρ
θ
∫
=0
R − ρ cos θ
θ
a 2 − b 2 tan
dθ a
Note: ∫ a + b cos θ
=
(a − b )
2 2
tan −1
a+b
2 , a 2 > b 2 , refer to Gradshteyn and
Ryzhik, p. 148.
By taking the limits, we get
a
μ0 N 2 I 2πρ d ρ
l=
2π
ρ
∫
=0
( R 2
− ρ 2 )1/ 2
a
= μ0 N 2 I ⎡⎣ − ( R 2 − ρ 2 )−1/ 2 + 1 ⎤⎦
0
= μ 0 N 2 I {R − ( R 2 − a 2 )1/ 2 }
dλ
\ The self-inductance, L=
dI
= μ0 N 2 {R − ( R 2 − a 2 )1/ 2 }
dx
Note: The integral
∫ a + b cos x
can also be solved by the substitution
x b+a
z = tan and c 2 =
2 b−a
when it reduces to the form
1 ⎡ dz dz ⎤
c (b − a ) ⎢⎣ ∫ z+c
− ∫ z − c ⎥⎦
This is left as an exercise for the students.

5.44 The coefficient of coupling k between two single-turn coils has been defined as
k = ka kb ,
where ka is the fraction of the flux linked by the circuit b when the circuit a is excited, and kb
is the fraction of the flux linked by the circuit a when the circuit b is excited by the
same current. (Refer to ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI
Learning, New Delhi, 2009, Section 10.6.3, pp. 332333.)
Hence, prove that
ka L
= b
kb La
so that, in general, ka ¹ kb
where La and Lb are the self-inductances of the circuits a and b, respectively.
Sol. Let the two circuits a and b be loosely coupled, then a current Ia in the circuit a produces
a flux Faa in it and a fraction of it is linked by the circuit b.
\ Φab = ka Φaa
The self-inductance of the coil is
Φaa
La =
Ia
The mutual inductance between the two coils is
Φab k Φ
M ab = = a aa = ka La
Ia Ia
Similarly, a current Ib in the circuit b produces a flux Fbb in it, out of which a fraction kb is
linked by the circuit a.
\ Φba = kb Φbb k
Φbb
Hence, the self-inductance of b, Lb = .
Ib
The mutual inductance between the two circuits is

Φ k Φ
M ba = ba = b bb = kb Lb
Ib Ib
Now, Mab = Mba = M
\ M 2 = k a kb L a L b
Þ M = ± ka kb La Lb = ± k La Lb ,
where k = ka kb .
M ab k L
Also, =1= a a
M ba kb Lb
La k
\ = b
Lb ka
Since La is not necessarily equal to Lb, it follows that in general ka ¹ kb.
5.45 Two long coplanar rectangular loops are parallel to each other, but are not overlapping.
Their lengths are l1 and l2, and widths are w1 and w2, respectively. The distance between the
near sides is s. It is given that l2 < l1 and the end-effects can be neglected. Under these
conditions, show that the mutual inductance between the loops is
μl w1 + s
M = 0 2 ln . (Assume the loops to have a single turn.)
2π ⎛ w2 ⎞
s ⎜1 +
⎝ w1 + s ⎟⎠
Sol. See Fig. 5.40. Let a current I flow through the circuit 1.
dr
2 l2
I I
l1 r¢
dr ¢
w1 s w2
Fig. 5.40 Two coplanar, parallel rectangular loops.

Since l1 > l2 and the end-effects can be neglected, the currents in the length l1 can be considered
to be as if in infinitely long conductors.
\ Flux density at any point in the circuit 2 due to currents in the circuit 1 can be written as
μ I μ I
B= 0 − 0 (as shown in Fig. 5.40)
2π r 2π r ′
Hence the differential flux d F linked by the elemental strip of length l2 and width dr
(and/or d r¢) will be
μ Il ⎛ δ r δ r ′ ⎞
dF = 0 2 ⎜ − ⎟
2π ⎝ r r′ ⎠
Hence the total flux linked in the circuit 2 is
μ Il ⎧ w1 + s δ r w1 + s + w2 δ r ′ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
F= 0 2
2π
⎨ ∫
⎪⎩ s r
− ∫ r′ ⎪
⎬
w1 + s ⎭
μ0 Il2 ⎧ w1 + s w + s + w2 ⎫
= ⎨ln − ln 1 ⎬
2π ⎩ s w1 + s ⎭
μ0 Il2 w1 + s
=
ln
2π ⎛ w2 ⎞
s ⎜1 +
⎝ w1 + s ⎟⎠
Φ μ0 l2 w1 + s
\ M= = ln
I 2π ⎛ w2 ⎞
s ⎜1 +
⎝ w1 + s ⎟⎠
5.46 A solid cylinder of radius a and relative permeability mr is placed in a homogeneous magnetic
field H0 whose direction is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Assume the cylinder to be
infinitely long axially and hence neglect the edge effects. Obtain the expressions for the
magnetic scalar potential W both inside and outside the cylinder, and show that the magnetic
intensity inside the cylinder is
2H0
H (r < a, φ ) =
.
1 + μr
Sol. See Fig. 5.41. The problem is solved for a section of unit length.
Fig. 5.41 A solid cylinder (infinitely long) of constant permeability placed in a uniform magnetic field.
So, we can write H = grad W

where W is the scalar magnetic potential.
Since div B = 0, which in this case gives div H = 0, we have
div grad W = 0
or Ñ 2W = 0
We use the cylindrical polar coordinate system, in two dimensions with no variation in the
z-direction, i.e.
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂Ω ⎞ 1 ∂ 2 Ω
⎜r ⎟+ = 0
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r 2 ∂φ 2
\ Its general solution is
W = R(r) × F (f )
by the method of separation of variables.
On separating, the ordinary differential equations are
d 2R dR
r2 2
+r − n2 R = 0 (Euler equation)
dr dr
d 2Φ
and + n2 Φ = 0 ,
dφ 2
where n is an unknown separation constant.
Hence the general solution is
Ω = ( An cos nφ + Bn sin nφ ) (Cn r n + Dn r − n )
Inside the cylinder, i.e. 0 < r < a, W must be finite, even at r = 0.
\ Dn = 0
Symmetry consideration about the x-axis implies that Bn = 0.
\ Ω1 = An r n cos nφ , for 0 < r < a
Outside the cylinder, i.e. r > a, as r ® ¥, the effect of the cylinder on the original field will get
smaller and smaller.
⎛ ∂Ω ⎞
So, for r ® ¥, H ® H0 ⎜ = − grad Ω − ⎟
⎝ ∂r ⎠
\ Ω0 = Hr cos φ
Hence outside the cylinder, the potential will be of the form
Ω = H 0 r cos θ + Dn r − n cos nφ
To determine the unknown integration constants, we have
H 1 f = H2 f at r = a
and m0mrH1r = m0H2r at r = a

1 ∂Ω ∂Ω
Now, Hφ = − and H r = −
r ∂φ ∂r
From these equations, it will be obvious that
n = 1 and A1 = H0 + D1a2
\ m0 mr A1 = m0H0 + m0D1a2
Solving these equations, we get
2H 0 1 − μr
A1 = and D1 = − H0a2
1 + μr 1 + μr
2H 0
\ W1 = r cos f, 0<r<a
1 + μr
⎧⎪ 1 − μ r ⎛ a ⎞2 ⎫⎪
and W2 = ⎨1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ H 0 r cos φ
⎩⎪ 1 + μ r ⎝ r ⎠ ⎪⎭
H can be calculated for the region inside the cylinder and it will be found to be
2H 0
H(r < a, f) =
1 + μr
i.e. it is in the same direction as the original field and is homogeneous (a constant value).
5.47 A solid conducting sphere is placed in a steady uniform magnetic field H0 directed along the
z-axis. Show that the resultant field inside the sphere is constant, independent of the radius a
of the sphere and is also z-directed.
Sol. See Fig. 5.42. Again, we solve for the magnetic scalar potential W, which satisfies the equation
H = grad W
Fig. 5.42 A sphere placed in a uniform magnetic field.

1
combined with div H = Ñ×B=0
μ
The operating equation in this case is
∇2 Ω = 0
In the present problem, we use the spherical polar coordinate system, which with the
f-symmetry of the problem, reduces the above equation to
∂ ⎛ r 2 ∂Ω ⎞ + 1 ∂ ⎛ sin θ ∂Ω ⎞ = 0
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ sin θ ∂θ ⎝ ∂θ ⎠
By the method of separation of variables, we get
Ω = R (r ) ⋅ Θ (θ )
The separation constant k2 = (n + 1)n.
Then, the ordinary differential equation for r is
d 2R dR
r2 2
+ 2r − n (n + 1) R = 0
dr dr
This is the Euler differential equation, whose solution is
B
R = Ar n + n +1
r
The q equation is obtained as
d 2Θ dΘ
+ cot θ + n (n + 1) Θ = 0
dθ 2
dθ
which is the Legendre differential equation, with its solution as Legendre function of the first
kind Pn(cos q ) comes out as
Θ = Pn (cos θ )
Hence the solution of the operating equation is
Ω = ⎛⎜ Ar n + n +1 ⎞⎟ Pn (cos θ )
B
⎝ r ⎠
First, we consider the region inside the sphere where r < a.
The potential must remain finite as r ® 0.
\ B=0
Hence, Ω1 = Ar Pn (cos θ ), r < a
n
The original uniform magnetic field H0 (in the z-direction) can be expressed in terms of a scalar
potential function as
∂Ω0
H 0 cos θ = (− ∇Ω0 ) r = −
∂r
\ Ω0 = H 0 r cos θ
The solution outside the sphere, i.e. r > a must be such that as r ® ¥, the scalar potential must
reach the original value W0.
W2 = ⎛⎜ Dr n + n +1 ⎞⎟ Pn (cos θ )
E
\
⎝ r ⎠
where D = H0 and n = 1
W2 = ⎛⎜ − H 0 r + 2 ⎞⎟ cos θ
E
\ For r > a,
⎝ r ⎠
Now, the constants A and E have to be evaluated.
This is done by using the two interface continuity conditions on the spherical surface r = a,
which are the continuity of the normal component of the flux density
m1H1r (r = a, q) = m2H2r (r = a, q)
and the continuity of the tangential component of H,
H1q (r = a, q) = H2q (r = a, q)
∂Ω 1 ∂Ω
where H r = − (grad Ω) r = − and Hθ = − (grad Ω)θ =
∂r r ∂θ
Hence the continuity conditions reduce to (after algebraic manipulations)
2E
m1A = m2H0 + m2
a3
E
and A = H0 + 2
a3
By evaluating the constants A and E, the potential distributions come out as
3μ 2 H 0
W1 = r cos q, for r < a
μ1 + 2μ2
⎪⎧ μ − μ2 ⎛ a ⎞3 ⎪⎫
and W2 = H0r ⎨1 − 1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ cos q, for r > a
⎩⎪ μ1 + 2 μ2 ⎝ r ⎠ ⎪⎭
\ Inside the sphere (r < a),
∂Ω1 3μ2
H1r = − = H cos θ
∂r μ1 + 2 μ2 0
1 ∂Ω1 3μ2
and H1 q = − = H sin θ
r dθ μ1 + 2 μ2 0
These two components are orthogonal and lie in a longitudinal plane.
3μ2
\ H1 = H12r + H12θ = H
μ1 + 2 μ2 0
i.e. independent of r and z-directed.
Note: m1 = m0mr and m2 = m0.
5.48 A rectangular strip of metal lying in xy-plane has the bottom edge at zero potential (i.e. on
y = 0 boundary) and a constant potential W = V on the top edge y = b (say). The other two edges
x = 0 and x = a are insulated so that there is no normal component of current on these edges.
State the boundary conditions in mathematical terms and evaluate the potential distribution in
the strip.
Sol. It will be seen that this problem has mixed boundary conditions. See Fig. 5.43.
On y = 0, W = 0zero value Dirichlet condition
On y = b, W = Vnon-zero Dirichlet condition
∂Ω
On x = 0, = 0 ⎫⎪
∂x ⎪
⎬ Neumann condition
∂Ω
On x = a, = 0⎪
∂x ⎪⎭
Note: On the x-boundaries, since there is no normal component of current, there cannot be
normal component of potential gradient.
Fig. 5.43 Rectangular strip of metal with mixed boundary conditions.

Now, W satisfies the Laplaces equation in Cartesian coordinates. So, in the two-dimensional
coordinate system, the equation is
∂ 2Ω ∂ 2Ω
∇ 2Ω = + 2 = 0
∂x 2 ∂y
This is to be solved by the method of separation of variables, i.e.
Ω = X ( x) Y ( y )
The orthogonal function will be in the x variable as both the x boundary conditions are zeros
∂Ω
of .
∂x
The general solution will be of the form
Ω = ( An cos kn x + Bn sin kn x ) (Cn cosh kn y + Dn sinh kn y )
∂Ω
Since = 0 on x = 0 and x = a, and W = 0 on y = 0, by applying these boundary conditions,
∂x
it can be checked that the solution will reduce to the form
nπ y
∞ sinh
a ⋅ cos nπ x
φ = ∑
n =1, 2,...
An
nπ b a
sinh
a
To evaluate the coefficient An, we use the Fourier series method with the boundary condition at
y = b, which will give the equation
x=a
2 nπ x
An =
a ∫ V cos
x=0
a
dx
where V is a constant.
5.49 Show that the magnetic potential due to a linear current I situated mid-way in the air space
bounded by two parallel walls of infinitely permeable iron is
: ^
2 I tan 1 tan È
Q yØ
Ê l Ú
Qx
tanh È Ø .
Ê l Ú `
Sol. See Fig. 5.44. This problem can be more easily understood by considering its dual in
electrostatics where we replace the line current by the line charge.
We apply the method of images and since we get an infinite set of images by the parallel
perfectly reflecting surfaces, these image currents will also be replaced by line charges.
Hence, the potential at a point P(x, y) due to these line charges will be
V = C − 2σ ln (r0 r1r1′ r2 r2′ ...)
Fig. 5.44 Line current between two parallel iron surfaces of infinite permeability and the image system.
where r0 , r1 , r1′, r2 , r2′ , ... are the distances of these charges from the point P. Expressing this
expression in Cartesian coordinates, we get
{
V = C − σ ln ⎡⎣ ( x 2 + y 2 ) x 2 + ( y − a ) 2 }{x 2 + ( y + a)2 }{x 2 + ( y − 2a)2 }{x 2 + ( y + 2a)2 }⎤⎦ ...
⎧⎪⎛ x2 ⎞ ⎛ x2 ⎞⎛ x2 ⎞⎛ x2 ⎞
\ V = C − σ ln ⎨⎜1 + ⎟⎜ 1 + ⎟⎜ 1 + ⎟⎜ 1 + ⎟ ...
⎩⎪⎝ y2 ⎠ ⎝ (a − y)2 ⎠ ⎝ (a + y ) 2 ⎠ ⎝ (2a − y ) 2 ⎠
⎫
... y 2 ( a − y ) 2 ( a + y ) 2 (2a − y ) 2 (2a + y ) 2 ...⎬
⎭
2π x 2π y
⎛ x2 ⎞ ⎛ x2 ⎞ ⎛ x2 ⎞⎛ x2 ⎞ cosh − cos
Now, ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜ 1 + ⎟ ⎜ 1 + ⎟ ... = a a
⎝ y ⎠⎝ (a − y)2 ⎠ ⎝ (a + y )2 ⎠ ⎝ (2a − y ) 2 ⎠ 2 πy
2 sin
a
1 πy
and y2(a y)2 (a + y)2 (2a y)2 = 2 sin
2
× a2 × a4 × 24a4 × ...,
π a
where a is the distance between the successive charges, which in the case of currents is l.
Since C is an arbitrary constant, it can be chosen so that the numerical part of the potential
function can be eliminated.
2π x 2π y ⎞
\ V = − σ ln ⎛⎜ cosh − cos ⎟
⎝ a a ⎠
If U is made to denote the flux function, then
⎧ 2π x ⎫
sinh
∂V ∂U 2πσ ⎪ a ⎪
= = − ⎨ ⎬
∂x ∂y a ⎪ 2π x 2π y ⎪
cosh − cos
⎩ a a ⎭
2π ⎧ tan π y ⎫
dy ⎪
2π x a ⎪
\ U = − σ sinh
a ∫ cosh
a
2π x
− cos
2π y
= − 2σ tan −1 ⎨ ⎬
⎪ tanh π x ⎪
a a ⎩ a ⎭
dθ 2 ⎧ α−β θ⎫
Note: ∫ α + β cos θ =
α −β
2 2
tan −1 ⎨
⎩ α + β
tan ⎬
2⎭
Now, by the principle of duality, we get

W = U (and a ® l )
⎧ tan π y ⎫
⎪ a ⎪
\ W = 2I tan1 ⎨ ⎬
⎪ tanh π x ⎪
⎩ a ⎭
5.50 A single turn circular coil of radius R is made out of a wire and another long straight wire is
taken and both are made coplanar such that the centre of the circle is at a distance D = 2R from
the straight wire. Show that the mutual inductance between the two wires is 0.268 m0R.
Sol. See Fig. 5.45. To find the mutual inductance, we evaluate the flux produced by a current
I in the straight conductor, which is linked with the circular coil.
Fig. 5.45 A circular coil coplanar with a straight wire.
At a distance x from the straight conductor carrying a current I, the flux density B is
μ0 I
B =
2π x
We consider the area of the circular coil to be made of vertical strips of width dx.
Elemental flux linked by one such strip,
μ0 I
dF = × Area of the strip CD
2π x
μ0 I
= 2R sin q × dx
2π x
x = 2R + R cos q \ dx = R sin q × dq
\ Total flux linked by the whole circle,
θ =π
μ0 I sin θ (− R sin θ dθ )
F=
2π
2R
θ
∫ =0
R (2 + cos θ )
π
μ0 IR sin 2 θ dθ
= −
π ∫0
2 + cos θ
π
μ0 IR 4 − cos 2 θ − 3
= −
π ∫
0
2 + cos θ
dθ
π
μ0 IR ⎛ 3 ⎞
= −
π ∫ ⎜⎝ 2 − cos θ − 2 + cos θ ⎟⎠ dθ
0
dθ 2 ⎛ a−b θ⎞
Note: ∫ a + b cos θ
=
a −b
2
tan −1 ⎜
2 ⎝ a + b
tan ⎟
2⎠
In this case, a = 2, b = 1.
a−b 1
\ a 2 − b2 = 3 and =
a+b 3
{ }
π
μ0 IR ⎡ 2θ − sin θ − 3 2 tan −1 ⎛ 1 tan θ ⎞ ⎤
Hence, F= − ⎢⎣ ⎜ ⎟
π 3 ⎝ 3 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 0
μ0 IR
= − ⎡⎣ 2(π − 0) − (sin π − sin 0) − 2 3 {tan −1 (∞) − tan −1 (0)}⎤⎦
π
= −
μ0 IR
π { π
2π − 0 − 2 3 ⎛⎜ − 0 ⎞⎟
⎝2 ⎠ }
μ0 IR
= − π (2 − 3) = − μ0 IR(2 − 1.732)
π
= − μ0 IR (0.268)
Φ
\ The mutual inductance = = 0.268m0R
I
5.51 A solenoid of finite axial length L and finite radial thickness has inner radius R1 and outer
radius R2.
(a) Show that the magnetic induction B0 at the centre of the solenoid is
μ0 NLI ⎪⎧ α + (α 2 + β 2 )1/2 ⎪⎫
B0 = ln ⎨ 2 1/2 ⎬
2 ⎪⎩ 1 + (1 + β ) ⎪⎭
3 -
whereÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿ B C
3 3
N = number of turns per square metre of the cross-section
and I = current per turn of the solenoid.
(b) Show that if V is the volume of the winding, the length l of the wire required for winding
the solenoid is given by
l = VN = 2pN(a 2 1)bR13
Sol. (a) This problem is a direct extrapolation of Problem 5.11 where the magnetic field BP
at an arbitary point P on the axis of such a solenoid has been evaluated. In this problem, instead
of starting ab initio, we use the solution derived in that problem. We write down the expression
for the field using some of the notations of this problem, i.e.
N / / * ÎÑ 3 3 ; 3 3 ; ÞÑ

#1 Ï ; MO ; MO ß

ÑÐ 3 3 ; 3 3 ; Ñà
where
N1 N 2 = N
and L = |Z1 Z2|
In the present problem, point P has been shifted to the centre of the solenoid (refer to Fig. 5.10
of Problem 5.11), i.e. point O; and we shift the origin of the coordinate system to this point,
then
|Z1 |= | Z2 | = L/2
and |Z1 Z2| = L again
Î - - Þ
Ñ 3 3 ÈÉ ØÙ 3 3 ÈÉ ØÙ Ñ
N /* Ñ - Ê Ú È -Ø Ê Ú Ñ
\ B0 = Ï MO É Ù MO
Ê Ú ß
Ñ È -Ø
È -Ø Ñ

Ñ 3 3 É Ù 3 3 É Ù Ñ
Ð Ê Ú Ê Ú à

3 È - Ø
3 3
N /*- 3 ÉÊ 3 ÙÚ
\ B0 = MO
È - Ø

3 3 É Ù
Ê 3 Ú

3 È3 Ø È - Ø
É Ù É
N /-* 3 Ê 3 Ú Ê 3 ÙÚ
= MO
È - Ø

É
Ê 3 ÙÚ
N /-* B B C
= MO
C

where
3 -
a= and b=
3 3
(b) Length of the wire required = l.

Consider the winding cross-sectional area of the solenoid. This is rectangular in shape of
dimensions (R2 R1) ´ L. Let this cross-sectional area be divided into elemental (rectangular)
strips parallel to the axis of the solenoid and consider a strip of length L and radial thickness
d R at a radius R as shown in Fig. 5.46.
R2
R1 dR
R L
Fig. 5.46 Elemental strip in the cross-section of the solenoid.
\ Cross-sectional area of the elemental strip = LdR

\ No. of turns of the wire in this strip = NLdR.
It should be noted that all the winding turns in this elemental strip would be of the same length
which would be = 2pR.
\ Total length of all the turns in this strip = 2pRNLdR.
\ The total length of the wire required in the complete solenoid is
3 3
l= Ô
3
Q 3/-E3 Q /- Ô3 3E3

3 3
= Q /- Q /- 3 3

ÎÑ 3 ÞÑ -
= Q / Ï ß ¹ 3 ¹ 3
ÐÑ 3
Ñà 3
= Q / B
C ¹ 3 Q 3 3
¹ - ¹ / 7/

5.52 Prove that for a short circular solenoid of radius R and axial length L, with N turns over its
whole length, the m.m.f. along the axis from one end to the other is
Î 3 3 ÞÑ
*/ ÑÏ
ÑÐ -

- ßàÑ
where I is the current per turn of the solenoid.
Sol. We first find the field at a point P on the axis of the short solenoid (of radius R, axial
length L and with N turns uniformly wound over the length L of the solenoid).
The origin of the coordinate system O is taken at the centre (on the axis of) of the solenoid and
the distance OP = x. We consider an elemental section of the solenoid of length d l, located at
a place on the solenoid such that it subtends on angle q at the point P {see Fig. 5.47(a)}.
In expanded form it is shown in Fig. 5.47(b).
dl
dl
A
q2 R
dl
q1 B
q
Axis of the R dq
O x P solenoid
R
q
L P
Fig. 5.47(a) A short circular solenoid. Fig. 5.47(b) Expanded form of Fig. 5.47(a).
È 3 Ø
then, the length AB = d l sin q = É ER
Ê TJO R ÙÚ
\ sin2q d l = R dq
\ The magnetic field at P due to this elemental strip of the solenoid is
*/
E #1 N TJO R ER
-
\ The magnetic field at P due to the complete solenoid is
R
*/
BP = N
- ÔR TJO R ER
*/
= N DPT R DPT R
-
- -
Y Y
*/
= N
- È - Ø

È- Ø

É YÙ 3 É YÙ 3
Ê Ú Ê Ú
The field at either end of the solenoid would be obtained by substituting x = ± L/2, i.e.
*/
#F N
- 3
To find the m.m.f. between the two ends of the solenoid,

-
m.m.f. = Ô ) 1 EY Y
-
Î Þ
- Ñ - - Ñ
Y Y
*/ Ñ Ñ
=
- Ô
-
Ï
Ñ È- Ø

È- Ø
ß EY
Ñ

Ñ ÉÊ Y ÙÚ 3 ÉÊ Y ÙÚ 3 Ñ
o
Ð à
-
Ë Û
Ì
*/ È- Ø È- Ø Ü
= ÉÊ Y ÙÚ 3 ÉÊ Y ÙÚ
3

- Ì Ü
ÍÌ ÝÜ -
=
*/
-
Ë
ÌÍ ^ 3

-

3
` ^ -

3
3

`ÛÜÝ
=
*/ Ë -

3
3 ÛÜ
- ÌÍ Ý
Î 3 3 ÞÑ
= */ ÑÏ
ÑÐ -

- ßàÑ
YEY YEY
Ref: Ô
Y B
=
Y B BOE

Ô Y B

Y B

5.53 A Helmholtz galvanometer consists of two similar circular coils, each of radius R and N
concentrated turns, placed co-axially with their planes R distance apart. Show that the magnetic
field at a point P on the common axis mid-way between the planes of the coils is
/*
#1 N
3
when each turn carries a current I such that the fields in the two coils support each other
magnetically.
Sol. The magnetic field at any point on the axis of a circular coil can be found either by
BiotSavarts law (Ref: ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Ed., PHI Learning,
New Delhi, 2009, Section 7.4.3) or by Amperes law (same textbook, Section 7.10.7), both
methods giving the same answer.
Referring to Fig. 5.48(a), the magnetic field on the axis of a circular coil of N concentrated
turns, carrying I amps per turn is
N /* B B
#BY TJO

R TJO R
B D B C
where
a = radius of the coil
and b = axial distance of the point of the observation from the centre of the coil.
b q
O P
q
df
a
a c dB (^ to AP and lying
in the plane APO)
P
A
Q
Arc PQ = dl; – PAT = p/2
T
Fig. 5.48(a) Field due to circular coil, at a point P on its axis.
For the Helmholtz coil, the radius of the coil (= a) = R, and the point of observation P is at a
distance R/2 from the centre of the either coil, i.e. b = R/2.
O P O¢
R/2
R R
Fig. 5.48(b) Helmholtz coil arrangement {N concentrated turns}.
Since the two coils of the Helmholtz coil are supporting each other, we get from Fig. 5.48(b),

Î Þ
N /* Ñ 3 Ñ
BP = Ï ß
3 Ñ 3 3 Ñà

Ð
/*
= N
3
5.54 (a) A closed rectangular loop of wire has the dimensions 2a ´ 2b. When the current in the loop
is I amperes, show that the magnetic force at the centre of the loop, at right angles to the plane
of the loop is
B C
) *
BC
(b) A circular ring, of non-magnetic material, is of rectangular cross-section, its internal and
external radii being R1 and R2(R2 > R1) respectively, and has its axial thickness equal to D. It
has a uniform, closely wound toroidal winding of N turns of fine wire. Show that the total flux
in the ring, with the current per turn I, is given by
/*% 3
G N MO
Q 3
and then, also find the inductance of the winding.
Sol. (a) The magnetic field at the centre of the rectangular coil (i.e. point O) in its plane can
be found by considering the fields due to four sides AB, BC, CD and DA and superposing the
contributions due to each of the four sides [Fig. 5.49(a)].
r0
f1 P
a0 f2
A I B
2b
O
b0
D
2a C
Fig. 5.49(a) Rectangular loop. Fig. 5.49(b) A short piece of current-carrying conductor.
From Section 7.4.1 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Ed., PHI Learning,
New Delhi, 2009, the magnetic field at a point P due to a finite length piece of a straight
current-carrying conductor [Fig. 5.49(b)] is obtained as
N *
#1 TJO G TJO G
Q S
B C
where G UBO
S
B
and G UBO
S
\ Referring to Fig. 5.49(a) the field at O due to conductors AB and CD is:
N * ÎÑ B B
ÞÑ N * B
#0 Ï ß
Q C Ñ B

C B

C Ñà QC B

C
Ð
and the field at O due to conductors BC and DA is:
N * ÎÑ C C
ÞÑ N * C
#0 Ï ß
Q B ÑÐ B

C B

C Ñà QB B

C
It should be noted that the direction of B at point O, due to all the four sides of the rectangular
coil would be normal to the plane of the paper and into it.
N * ÎÑ B C
ÞÑ
\ Resultant BO = Ï ß
Q ÑÐ C B

C B B

C Ñà

N * B C
= N )
BC
(b) Next, consider the toroidal winding on the circular ring (Fig. 5.50)
D
P dr
r
r
R1
O
R2
Fig. 5.50 Toroidal ring of rectangular cross-section.
Let B0 be the flux-density at a point P in the ring, distant r from the centre of the ring. Then B0
is the flux density at all such points, then,
vÔ # ¹ EM Q S # /* by Amperes law.
/* \ N ) ^
\ B0 = N
Q S

Since the ring has rectangular cross-section, the total flux enclosed in the ring (set up by the
toroidal winding) can be obtained by integrating the value of B0 over the whole cross-sectional
area. Since B0 is a function of r only, the cross-section can be broken up into thin strips of
elemental area D ´ d r (Fig. 5.50).
The flux in such a strip is
EG # %E S
\ The total flux through the coil is

3
/*% ES
f= Ô3 N
Q S

/*% MO 3
= N
Q 3
The inductance of the winding is the flux linked by the total turns of the coil per ampere of
current, i.e.
/G
L=
*
/ ÎÑ /*% È 3 Ø ÞÑ
= Ï N MO
ÉÊ 3 ÙÚ ß
* ÐÑ Q à Ñ
/ % È 3 Ø
= N MO
ÉÊ 3 ÙÚ
Q
Electromagnetic Induction 6
and Quasi-static Magnetic
Fields
6.1 INTRODUCTION
From the problems of static magnetism in free space as well as in magnetic materials, we now proceed
to the consideration of the effects of slowly time-varying currents and magnetic fields. Even though
we have been considering the static electric and magnetic fields in isolation, it should be clearly
understood that the electric and magnetic fields always coexist and these two static fields are the two
limiting cases of the electromagnetic field when such fields are considered in a macroscopic sense.
In fact, when we talk of the electrostatic or magnetostatic field, the other field also exists there,
possibly at the subatomic level, which can be justifiably neglected for the consideration of
macroscopic phenomena.
6.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Now, we shall consider a quasi-stationary or slowly-varying current system in which the changes in
the source and consequent changes in the resulting fields can be considered nearly simultaneous. This
assumption is valid for alternating current frequencies up to the MHz range. It was in 1831 that
Michael Faraday (and Henry independently at about the same time) observed that when a closed
circuit moved across a magnetic field, a current was generated in the circuit even though there were
no batteries in the circuit. The same effect was observed if the coil was kept fixed and the magnetic
field was varied. This effect was found to be independent of the type of the source of the magnetic
field. This phenomenon was named by Faraday as electromagnetic induction. The results of the
brilliant experiments carried out by Faraday could be summarized by the following two laws which
were enunciated in about 1845.
1. Neumanns law: When the magnetic flux linked with a coil (or circuit) is changed in any
manner, then an emf is set up in the circuit such that it (the emf) is proportional to the rate of change
of the flux-linkage with the circuit.
2. Lenzs law: The direction of the induced emf is such that any current which it produces tends
to oppose the change of flux.
In fact, Lenzs law is only a particular case of a very general physical principle which is known
as Le Chateliers Principle. It says that a physical system always reacts to oppose any change which
is imposed from outside. In the present case, the change is the change in the magnetic flux-linkage
and the reaction is the induced emf or back emf, which opposes the change causing it.
423
The mathematical expression for electromagnetic induction is

dφ
vÔ E ¹ dl = −
dt
in integral form,
which in more familiar differential form is

dB
curl E = Ñ × E = –
dt
Since the change in the flux-linkage can be either due to a time-varying magnetic field or due
to a relative motion between the circuit and the magnetic field, the law of electromagnetic induction
can be generalized as
w
E = vÔ E ¹ dl
C
= –
wt ∫∫ B ⋅ dS + ∫∫ ∇ × ( v × B) ⋅ dS
S S
È B Ø
or E = vÔ E ¹ dl = – Ô Ô Ê t Ú ¹ dS vÔ ( v B) ¹ dl
S C
C
In fact, physically
⎛ ∂Φ ⎞ – ⎛⎜
∂Φ ⎞
induced emf = E = – ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎝ ∂t ⎠ varying field ⎝ ∂t ⎠motion in the field
¯ ¯
Transformer emf Motional emf
6.3 APPLICATIONS
Apart from direct calculations of induced emfs and currents, the phenomenon of electromagnetic
induction can also be used for other applications such as inductance calculations. So far, we have
evaluated the inductance of various systems from considerations of flux-linkage or energy storage,
i.e.
φ
Inductance, L =
I
1
and Energy, W = L I2
2
But now, the induced emf,
dφ dI
E = = L for the air-cored circuit
dt dt
and for the systems containing iron, we have
dφ dI dL
E= = L +I
dt dt dt
= ⎛⎜ L + I
dL ⎞ dI
⎟
⎝ dI ⎠ dt
This can also be extended to more complicated systems which contain mutual inductance as
well.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND QUASI-STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS 425
A further extension of this phenomenon is in calculations of forces, displacements and analysis

of moving charged particles under the influence of magnetic and/or electric fields. Use of Lorentz
force equation
F = Q(E + v × B)
can be made for force calculations.
A further point to be noted is that the induced emf problems solved by using the concept of
observers in relative motion (Chapter 20 of Electromagnetism Theory and Applications, 2nd
Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009) have also been included in this chapter for better
comparison, though some of the readers may find the need to study the chapter on special relativity
for a complete understanding of these problems.
6.4 PROBLEMS
6.1 A car with a 2 metre long bumper is travelling at the speed of 100 km/h. Find the potential
difference produced in the bumper due to the earths magnetic field of 3.2 × 105 Wb/m2 and
the angle of dip of 64° 9¢.
6.2 A long water tank has two rails (parallel) running on its either side on which a carriage runs.
The system is used for testing boat models. The rails are 3 metres apart and the carriage has a
maximum speed of 20 m/s. If the vertical component of earths magnetic field is
2.0 × 105 T, find the maximum voltage induced between the rails.
6.3 The differential form of Faradays law can be written as
∂B
Ñ×E = – + Ñ × (v × B).
∂t
A rectangular loop of size a × b is located in the field of a long current-carrying straight wire
such that the side a is parallel to the wire and the nearer side of the loop is at a distance r0 from
the wire. Using the above expression, evaluate:
(i) the induced emf in the loop if it is fixed in space but the current I (in the wire) varies
as I0 cos w t,
(ii) the magnitude and the direction of the induced emf as a function of r when I = I0 and
constant, but the loop moves towards the wire with a constant velocity v0, and
(iii) the induced emf in the loop when it moves towards the long conductor with a velocity
v0 (constant) and the current varies as I = I0 cos w t.
6.4 The electric and magnetic fields in a region are E = iyE0 and B = izB0, respectively where E0
and B0 are constants. A small test charge Q having a mass m starts from rest at the origin at
t = 0.
(i) Using the Lorentz force equation
F = Q (E + v × B)
and the equation of motion, show that the velocity components of the charge will be
E0
vx = (1 – cos ω c t )
B0
E0
vy = sin ω c t ,
B0
where wc = QB0/m.
(ii) What will be the electric field as seen by an observer moving with the test charge?
6.5 An iron cylinder with circular cross-section has two
windings on it as shown in the adjoining figure.
At first, the switch S1 in the exciting winding is
permanently closed, and the switch S2 in the second
winding is opened and closed periodically.
In the second experiment, the switch S2 is permanently
closed, and the switch S1 in the exciting winding is
opened and closed periodically.
How would the galvanometer behave in both these
experiments? Give reasons for your conclusions.
6.6 An iron cylinder of circular cross-section is wound
with an exciting winding as shown in the adjoining
figure.
At first, the steel bar is rotated at a certain speed,
keeping everything else stationary.
In the second experiment, only the wire PQ is made
to revolve round the bar such that PQ is always
parallel to the axis of the bar and the galvanometer
leads are always perpendicular to the bar. Everything
else is now stationary.
How would the galvanometer in the circuit PQG behave in these two experiments? Give reasons
for your conclusions.
6.7 Three identical transformers, having unity turns ratio and which can be regarded as perfect (i.e.
no magnetization current is required to set up the flux, and there is no leakage flux and the
windings are of zero resistance), are connected in series as shown in the figure below, the
central transformer being reverse connected. How much current will flow in the secondary
winding, when it is connected across a 10 W resistor?
6.8 The two transformers shown in the figure below are identical, all the five coils have the same
number of turns, the resistance of each winding being 10 W. The transformers are assumed to
be perfect, in that there is no leakage flux and there is zero magnetizing current.
When the transformers as connected have a source potential of 100 V, what will be the values
of V1, V2, I1, I2 and I?
6.9 A rectangular copper plate of width l is moving with a constant velocity v through a uniform
magnetic field B as shown in the figure below. An electrostatic voltmeter is connected to the
plate by sliding contacts. What will be the voltmeter reading?
6.10 An expanding rectangular loop as shown in the following figure has a sliding conductor moving
with a constant velocity v (normal to its plane but in the plane itself ) in a time-varying uniform
magnetic field Bm cos w t which is normal to the plane of the loop. The length of the sliding
conductor is l. Find the emf induced in the loop.
6.11 If in Problem 6.10, the velocity of the sliding conductor, instead of being constant, varies
exponentially with time and is given by
v = ix fegt,
where the time is measured as zero at the instant the moving conductor leaves the y-axis of
the rectangular loop, find the emf induced in the loop.
6.12 A rectangular loop is made to rotate in a uniform magnetic field B0. The loop rotates with a
uniform angular velocity of w rad/s. The width of the loop is 2R and its axial length is l. Its
orientation is such that when it lies in the horizontal plane, it links maximum flux, i.e. the
direction of the magnetic field is vertical. Find the induced emf in the loop.
What will be the induced emf if the magnetic field was time-varying harmonically with the same
angular velocity as that of the rotation of the coil?
6.13 One of the conductors in a rectangular form of loop lying in the xy-plane is tilted at an angle
a from the y-axis as shown in the following figure. This conductor moves with a constant
y
B
L dl
1
2 P v = v (ixl + iy0 + iz0)
a y
Top view
x
vt
x
z
B = bx(ix sin h + iy0 + iz cos h)
h Front view
x
velocity v in the x-direction, parallel to itself. The flux density field in the region is time-
independent but is a function of space in a manner that it varies linearly in the x-direction and
is tilted from the z-direction by an angle q such that there is no y-component of the field. If the
length of the tilted sliding conductor is L, find the induced emf in the loop.
6.14 In Problem 6.13, the flux density vector B varies spatially as before but in addition is allowed
to vary exponentially with time, so that
B = bxect(ix sin q + iy 0 + iz cos q ).
The velocity of the sliding conductor is also no longer maintained at a constant value, but is
allowed to vary linearly with time so that its acceleration is constant, its direction remaining
unchanged, so that
v = gt(ixl + iy 0 + iz 0).
Find the induced emf in the loop.
6.15 A uniform magnetic field of magnitude B0 is z-directed in the square area b × b in the xy-plane
as shown in the following figure and elsewhere it is zero. A square loop of wire a × a (b > a)
with closely spaced terminals 12 is oriented so that its lower edge is along the x-axis, and
slides in the xy-plane along the x-axis with a constant velocity v in the x-direction such that the
magnetic field is always normal to the plane of the loop.
Find the induced emf E12.
6.16 In Problem 6.15, B is not time-invariant but is a harmonic function of time as specified below
B = izB0 cos w t
with t = 0 as that instant when the edge PQ of the sliding loop just crosses the y-axis and enters
the magnetic field.
6.17 A uniform time-independent magnetic field B = izB0 exists in the xy-plane. In this plane, lies a
rectangular coil whose one side lies on the y-axis and has a semi-circular arc of radius R which
can be rotated at a constant angular velocity w. Find the induced emf in the coil.
6.18 In Problem 6.17, the magnetic field B is spatially uniform but now is a harmonic function of
time given by
B = izB0 cos w t
Now, the angular velocity of the rotating conductor and that of time-variation of B are same,
both being w. The instant of time t = 0 is chosen so that at that instant the semi-circular loop
passes through the xy-plane in the downward direction.
6.19 In Problem 6.18, the time-variation of the magnetic field is now changed to
B = B0 cos 2w t
keeping all other conditions unchanged, i.e. w is the angular velocity of the rotating conductor
and the time-instant t = 0 is same as that of Problem 6.18. Determine the induced emf now.
6.20 A copper rod of length L is made to rotate in xy-plane at angular velocity w where there is a
uniform time-invariant magnetic field B = izB0. Find the induced emf between the two ends of
the rod.
6.21 A plane rectangular conducting loop of dimensions a × b, lying in the xy-plane is moving in the
x-direction with a constant velocity v = ixv, as shown in the figure below. The orientation of the
loop is such that the side b is parallel to y-axis. The magnetic flux density vector B is
perpendicular to the plane of the loop and is a function of both the position in the plane and of
time. In the xy-plane (the plane of the loop), B varies according to the law
B(x, t) = izB0 cos w t cos kx,
where B0, w and k are constants.
Find the emf induced in the loop as a function of time. Assume that at t = 0, x = 0.
6.22 An unsuccessful attempt to design a commutatorless dc machine had been suggested in which
a conducting rod vibrated with a sinusoidal velocity
v = ixv0 sin w t
in a time-varying uniform magnetic field B (z-directed) which varied with the same angular
frequency, i.e. B = izB0 sin w t. It was argued that the motionally induced emf can have a time-
independent (direct) emf.
Show that this explanation is incorrect, as in the total resultant emf the transformer emf will
cancel out the direct emf.
6.23 A Faraday disc as shown in the following figure is to be used as a motor by including a battery
in the circuit. If the current flowing in the circuit is I, and the magnetic flux density across the
disc is uniform (at B), show that the torque exerted on the disc is FI/2p, where F is the flux
crossing the whole disc. Find I, if the battery emf is E0, the resistance of the circuit is R and the
radius of the disc is a.
6.24 By considering the forces exerted on the electrons in the metal, show that the emf induced in
a disc of inner and outer radii r1 and r2, respectively, rotating with an angular velocity w in a
plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic flux density B is
1
ω B (r22 – r12 ) volts
2
Show that the power input to the disc required to maintain it at this speed of rotation, when the
inner and the outer edges are connected by an external circuit is
π
n e d ω 2 B 2 μ (r24 – r14 )
2
where n is number of electrons per cubic metre in the metal,
d is thickness of the disc,
m is mobility of the electrons in the radial direction
( = drift velocity per unit electric field strength, i.e. velocity of the carrier v = m E).
6.25 A brass disc of radius a, thickness b and conductivity s has its plane perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field where the flux density varies (with time) according to
B = B0 sin w t
Assuming that eddy currents flow in concentric circles about the centre of the disc, find the total
current flowing at any instant and the mean power dissipated as heat.
6.26 A Faraday disc, as shown in the following figure, is driven about its axis at a constant angular
velocity w in a uniform normal magnetic field B0. Find the induced emf (= E ) at the terminals,
assuming the radius of the shaft to be Ri and that of the disc to be Ro. If the terminals are now
connected to an external resistance RL and the current through the circuit is I, show that the
terminal voltage is
I R ω B0 2
VT = – ln o + ( Ro – Ri2 )
2πσ d Ri 2
The disc is used to construct a homopolar generator as shown in the following figure. Find the
number of turns N of the exciting coil on the iron core required to make the generator self-
exciting. The exciting coil is assumed to be of zero resistance. Fringing effects and the effects
of the magnetic field due to current flow in the disc are neglected.
l®¥
if F
Ri Ro
z I + N turns
z ir
d V1 a Ri
Ro 2d
RL if l0NI
–
B0 =
2d ir
F
(a) Faraday disc
(b) Homopolar generator
Note: If E¢ and J¢ are quantities in the moving frame of reference and E and J are in the fixed
frame, then
E¢ = E + v × B and J¢ (= J) = s E¢
6.27 The self-excited Faraday disc type generator described in Problem 6.26 has the following
parameters:
Copper disc: s = 5.9 × 107 S/m w = 400 rad/s
d = 0.005 m B0 = 1 Wb/m2
Ri = 0.01 m Ro = 0.1 m
Show that the maximum power that can be delivered from the generator is 8 × 105 W.
6.28 Two discs of conductivity s (both of the same dimensions) rotate with constant angular velocity
W in the air-gaps of two magnetic yokes of infinite permeability. Each disc is connected
symmetrically to slip rings at the inner radii Ri (i.e. radii of shafts) and the outer radii Ro. The
yokes produce uniform magnetic fields in their gaps, over the volumes of the discs. These fields
are produced by the discs which are interconnected with the windings as shown in the following
figure.
(a) Find the terminal voltage equations for the two discs in terms of the currents i1 and i2, B1
and B2 and the angular velocity W.
(b) Find the condition under which the interconnected discs would deliver steady-state
alternating currents to the load resistance RL. Both the discs rotate at the same constant
angular velocity W.
(c) Find the frequency of the alternating current.
6.29 The magnetic field B is uniform over the area of a rectangular loop and has been externally
imposed. There is a switch S in the loop which can make either of the two contacts as shown
in the following figure. When the switch S is instantaneously moved from contact 1 to 2, will
there be any induced emf in any part of the circuit?
6.30 An insulating cylinder C located in a uniform axial magnetic field B, rotates uniformly so as to
wind wire from a drum D. The end of the wire is anchored to a contact ring R fixed to the lower
end of the cylinder.
(a) Will there be an induced emf between R and the end of the incoming wire, as there is an
apparent increase in the flux-linkage due to increasing number of turns?
(b) What happens if a direct current I is fed into the increasing number of turns?
(c) What happens if the direct current I is fed through a tap-changing coil such that the
number of turns per unit length remains constant?
6.31 A ferromagnetic core (cylindrical in shape) has a time-varying magnetic flux given by
F(t) = Fm cos w t
A tightly wound cylindrical coil is placed around the core, the length of the coil being L and
the number of turns N. A sliding contact K moves along the axial length of the coil according
to the law
z = L(1 + cos w1t)/2
What will be the induced emf as a function of time?
6.32 An axi-symmetric cylindrical bar magnet is made to rotate about its axis. A circuit is made by
making sliding contacts with its axis (i.e. the shaft of the magnet) and with its equator
as shown in the following figure. Will there be an induced emf in the external circuit?
V
N
6.33 Find the ratio of the terminal voltages and currents for the peculiarly twisted ideal transformer
as shown in the following figure. If a resistor R is connected across the secondary winding, what
is the impedance as seen by the primary winding?
6.34 A highly conducting iron cylindrical annulus with permeability m and inner and outer radii Ri
and Ro, respectively, is placed concentrically to an infinitely long straight wire carrying a direct
current I, as shown in the following figure.
(a) What is the magnetic flux density everywhere?
(b) A highly conducting circuit abcd is moving downwards with a constant velocity v0. While
making contact with the surfaces of the cylindrical annulus through sliding brushes. The
circuit is completed from c to d through the iron cylinder. Find the induced emf.
(c) Now the circuit remains stationary, while the cylinder moves upwards with the same
velocity v0. Find the induced emf.
(d) A thin axial slot is cut in the cylinder, so that the circuit abcd can be formed completely
by wire and can slide in the slot. The circuit is kept fixed and the cut cylinder moves
upwards with the constant velocity v0. Find the induced emf in the coil.
This problem suggested by Prof. Cullwick, can be solved either directly or by moving frame of
reference. We shall solve it by the direct method.
6.35 A very long permanently magnetized cylindrical annulus of inner and outer radii Ri and Ro,
respectively, rotates with a constant angular speed w as shown in the following figure. The
magnetization has been done in the axial direction as izM0. The cylinder is assumed to be
infinitely long compared to its radii. What are the approximate values of B and H in the
magnet? A circuit is formed, as shown in the figure, through sliding brushes at r = Ri and
r = Ro. What will be the induced emf in the circuit?
6.36 A pipe of radius a is kept under a uniform transverse magnetic field B. A fluid flows along the
pipe, thereby the magnetic field induces an emf dV between the electrodes at the end of a
diameter perpendicular to B. Show that
2QB
dV = ,
πa
where Q = volumetric flow rate which is axi-symmetric (whatever the velocity profile might
be).
The fluid velocity falls to zero at the pipe wall which is non-conducting.
6.37 Is it possible to construct a generator of emf which is constant and does not vary with time by
using the principle of electromagnetic induction?
6.38 Two circular loops of wire are coplanar and concentrically placed. The radius a of the smaller
loop is very small and is much smaller than the radius b of the larger loop (i.e. a << b). A
constant current I is passed in the larger loop which is kept fixed in space and the smaller loop
is rotated about its one of the diameters at a constant angular velocity w. The smaller loop is
assumed to be purely resistive having a resistance R.
(i) Find the current in the smaller loop as a function of time.
(ii) What must be the torque exerted on the smaller loop to rotate it?
(iii) Find the induced emf in the larger loop as a function of time.
6.39 A rectangular loop of conducting wire of dimensions b × H is dropped from rest at time t = 0,
when its bottom edge (of width b) is at a height h from the x-axis ( y = 0 plane). The plane
y = 0 separates a region of no magnetic field above (i.e. B = 0 in y positive) and for y negative
uniform magnetic field B such that B = ixB0, where B0 is a constant quantity. The loop has a
mass m and resistance R. Find the motion of the loop and its velocity v as a function of time
for t = 0 to t1 and t1 to t2 and t > t2 as shown in the following figure.
6.40 A pair of parallel wires, shown in the figure below, carry equal currents I in opposite directions,
the distance between them being d. The current I is not constant but increases at the rate dI/dt.
A rectangular loop of dimensions h × b is coplanar with the conductors and the side h is parallel
to the conductors, such that the shortest distance between this side of the loop and the nearer
conductor is r0. Find the emf induced in the coil.
6.41 A metal vehicle travels round a set of perfectly conducting rails which form a large circle. The
rails are L metres apart and there is a uniform magnetic field B0 normal to their plane as shown
in the following figure. The mass of the vehicle is m and it is driven by a rocket engine having
a constant thrust F0. The system acts as a dc generator whose output is fed into a load resistance
R. Show that the output current I from the system increases exponentially as given by the
equation
V F ⎡ ⎧ ⎛ B02 L2 ⎞ ⎫⎤
I= = 0 ⎢1 – exp ⎨– t ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎥ ,
R B0 L ⎣ ⎩ ⎝ mR ⎠ ⎭⎦
where V is the induced voltage.
Note: Use the equation of motion of the cart
dx 1
and ∫ b – ax = –
a
ln (b – ax) .
6.42 Derive the Lorentz force equation as a consequence of the observation of electromagnetic
phenomena made by two observers in relative motion.
The forces experienced by a test charge of Q coulombs at a point in a region of electric and
magnetic fields E and B, respectively are given as follows for three different velocities.
Velocity Force (N)
1 m/s in direction
ix Qix
iy Q(2ix + iy)
iz Q(ix + iy)
Find E and B at the above point.
6.43 A wire is given the form of a rectangle of sides l × 2b such that l > 2b. This rectangle is made
to revolve with uniform angular velocity w about an axis which passes through the mid-points
of the shorter sides (of length 2b). This axis is parallel to and distant c (c > b) from a long
straight wire which carries a current I. Show that the emf generated in the rectangular loop at
any instance of time is given by
a sin θ
λ
a – cos 2 θ
2
where a and l are constants to be determined and q is the angle between the plane of the loop
and the plane containing the long straight wire and the axis of rotation.
6.44 A circular conducting loop rotates about a diameter at an angular rate w in the presence of a
constant magnetic field B normal to the axis of rotation, as shown in the figure given below.
w
a
B
By making use of Faradays law of induction and the definition of self-inductance, show that
the current flowing in the loop is given by
Q B #X TJO X U G
*

\3 X -
^
where
a = radius of the loop,
R = resistance of the loop
L = self-inductance of the loop
È X-Ø
f= UBO ÉÊ
3 ÙÚ
6.45 Show that in Problem 6.44, the average power dissipated in the resistance R is
Q B #X
3
1 ¹ +T
3 X -

Also, there will be a torque resisting the rotation of the loop, which is given by
Q B
# X

5
TJO X U G
¹ TJO X U
\3 X -
^
6.46 A thin conducting spherical shell (of radius a and thickness t0 << a, conductivity s), rotates
about a diameter (which is considered as the z-axis of the coordinate system) at the rate w
(its angular velocity = 2p f ) in the presence of a constant magnetic field B directed normal to
the axis of rotation and is considered parallel to the y-axis. Find the resultant current-flow in
the spherical shell. Assume that the self-inductance of the sphere is negligible, so that the
current is determined only by the induced electric field and the conductivity s. Since the
thickness t0 << a, each portion of the spherical surface may be considered to be a plane surface
locally.
6.47 In Problem 6.46, the externally applied magnetic field B0 is now made parallel to the axis of
rotation of the conducting spherical shell. Hence, find the resultant currents flowing in the shell
for the changed condition.
6.48 For the configuration described in Problem 6.46, show that the equation for the current flow-
lines on the spherical shell is given by
DPT G TJO R $
where C is the constant which determines a particular member of the family of lines.
6.49 A conducting sphere of radius a moves with a constant velocity ixv (v being constant) through
a uniform magnetic field B directed along the y-axis. Show that an electric dipole field
given by
W#B
& J S DPT R JR TJO R
S
exists around the sphere.
6.50 A conducting sphere of radius R has been charged to a potential V and is made to spin about
one of its diameters at a constant angular velocity w as shown in the following figure.
(a) Show that the surface current density on the spinning sphere is
l = e0wV sin q = M sin q
where M = e0wV
and q is the angle made by the point under consideration with the axis of rotation of the sphere
(i.e. z-axis).
(b) Show that the magnetic flux density at the centre of the sphere is
7X
# N .
D
(c) Show that the dipole moment is

Q 3 . J [

iz being the unit vector and the axis of rotation, and is related to the direction of rotation by the
R.H.S. rule.
z
6.51 The conducting sphere of Problem 6.50 has a radius of 10.0 cm and has been charged to
10 kV and is spinning at 1.00 ´ 104 turns/min.
(a) What is the numerical value for B0 at its centre?
(b) What is the dipole moment of the sphere as in Problem 6.50?
(c) What current flowing through a loop 10.00 cm in diameter would give the same dipole
moment?
6.52 A large conducting sheet of copper (of conductivity s = 5.8 ´ 107 mhos/m) of thickness t, as
shown in the figure below, falls with a velocity v through a uniform magnetic field B directed
horizontally and normal to the thickness t of the sheet. Show that a force |F| = s v t B2 per unit
area resisting the motion of the conductor exists.
x
t
s
z
Copper block
v
6.53 A thin-walled iron cylinder, of mean diameter D, axial length L and wall thickness T (T <<
D, L), as shown in the figure given below, is co-axial with a long thin straight wire carrying a
time-varying current i(t). As i(t) changes, the magnetic flux in the iron cylinder also changes,
causing an induced electric field along the central axis of the cylinder to be
N N S -5 EJ
& ¹
Q% - % EU
D/2
a
b
P
6.54 A go-and-return circuit of two concentric circular tubes of radius Ri and Ro (Ro > Ri),
respectively carries a direct current of I amperes flowing in opposite directions in each tube in
axial direction. The radial thickness of the tubes can be considered to be negligible in
comparison with other dimensions. Find the magnetic field at a point P, in air, at a distance r
from the common axis (Ri < r < Ro), i.e. the point P lies in the annular air-space between the
two tubes.
The concentric main described above forms a closed circuit of axial length L. A single wire
is now located along the common axis A as shown in the following figure and it forms a closed
circuit of the same axial length. The current in the tubular conductors is now varying with time
denoted by i(t) (in opposite directions in the two tubes). Show that the induced emf in the axial
wire on the common axis has the total value
N - ÎÑ È 3P Ø ÞÑ EJ
) ÏMO É Ù ß
Q Ñ
Ð Ê 3J Ú àÑ EU
Ri r
P
A
Ro
6.55 A square coil of side a is rotating in a uniform alternating magnetic field where the flux density
at any instant of time t is given by
B = Bm sin(w1t + a)
where t is measured from the instant q = 0, where q is the angle that the axis of the square coil
makes with the direction of B field as shown in the figure given below. If the angular velocity
of the coil is w2, find an expression for the induced emf. Show that in the present problem, there
will be both the transformer emf and the motional emf, and that their resultant can be resolved
into two different frequency components whose frequencies are in the ratio (w1 + w2)/(w1 w2)
and whose amplitudes will also be in the same ratio.
B
q B
N
B
a
6.56 A homopolar generator, as shown in the figure given below, consists of a circular copper
cylindrical shell (whose radial thickness can be neglected), rotating in a radial magnetic field
between two cylindrical pole-pieces (A and C), of which the central cylinder A is the north pole
and C the cylindrical annulus is the south pole (both at the top end). The circuit of the generator
is completed by means of two brushes sliding on the copper cylinder, one at each of its ends.
The mean flux density of the magnetic field, over the thickness of the cylinder wall is 1 T
(=104 gauss), the mean radius of the copper cylinder is 15 cm (= Rc) its axial length is 0.5 m
(= l), and it rotates at 2000 rpm. Find the magnitude and the direction of emf which appears
between the brushes.
Rotating
V copper cylinder V
S N S
A
North pole
C
le
N S N
po
uth
So
Homopolar generator Section from the front

(top view)
6.57 The homopolar generator described in Problem 6.56 is now so adjusted that it is now possible
to rotate the whole of the external circuit (i.e., the part extending from brush to brush through
the voltmeter), which is now a rotatable rigid structure. This part now rotates in a clockwise
direction at a speed of 1000 rpm, independent of the copper cylinder on which the brushes rest.
Find the magnitude and the direction of the induced emf in the circuit, when the copper cylinder
(a) is at rest,
(b) also rotates in the clockwise direction at a speed of 2000 rpm,
(c) rotates in the anticlockwise direction at a speed of 1000 rpm.
6.58 The same homopolar generator as described and discussed in Problems 6.56 and 6.57 is again
being operated. But now the copper cylindrical shell and the external circuit consisting of the
brushes and the voltmeter are both kept stationary. Now the two magnetic pole pieces
(consisting of the central solid cylinder and the outer cylindrical annulus) are rotated about their
common axis, either with the same or different angular velocities. What is the effect of such
rotations of the magnet poles on the induced emf in the voltmeter circuit?
6.59 A circular copper ring, of rectangular cross-section, of inner radius Ri and outer radius Ro
(Ro > Ri), and of axial thickness d r, is located in a uniform alternating magnetic field normal
to the plane of the ring. The flux density at any instant of time t is given by
B = Bm sin wt
Prove that the mean value of the induced e.m.f. in the ring is same as that induced in a circular
ring of negligible section and of radius Rm which is
3 3 3 3
3 J J P P

N
and placed in the same magnetic field.

6.60 In a Betatron, an electron is accelerated along a circular orbit, by an increasing magnetic field
(= B) whose direction is at right angles to the plane of the orbit and is symmetrical about the
axis of the orbit. Show that the electron will continue to move in a path of constant radius
(i.e. in a circular orbit), if the flux density at the path is always one-half of the mean flux density
enclosed by the path.
6.61 A circular cylindrical solenoid of finite axial length and having two circular slip rings, as shown
in the figure below, is made to rotate about its axis at a constant angular speed. A constant
current I is fed into the solenoid by means of a stationary battery which is connected to contacts
sliding on the slip rings at each end of the solenoid. The current in this circuit is measured by
an ammeter (A1) located in the stationary part of the circuit. A second ammeter (A2) is
connected to the solenoid directly and is mounted and fixed in position so that it can rotate
along with the solenoid. What would be the readings of the two ammeters?
A2
A1
6.5 SOLUTIONS
6.1 A car with a 2 metre long bumper is travelling at the speed of 100 km/h. Find the potential
difference produced in the bumper due to the earths magnetic field of 3.2 × 105 Wb/m2 and
the angle of dip of 64° 9¢.
Sol. Induced emf, E = l(v × B)
⎛ 100 × 103 ⎞
= 2⎜ × 3.2 × 10 –5 ⎟ sin δ
⎝ 3600 ⎠
Dip. angle, d = 64° 9¢
\ cos d = 0.4358, sin d = 0.9001
3.2
Hence E = 2× ⋅ sin δ V
3600
= 2 × 0.88 × 0.9001 V
Fig. 6.1 Directions of v and
= 1.6 mV, i.e. 0.8 mV/m earth's magnetic field.
6.2 A long water tank has two rails (parallel) running on its either side on which a carriage runs.
The system is used for testing boat models. The rails are 3 metres apart and the carriage has a
maximum speed of 20 m/s. If the vertical component of earths magnetic field is
2.0 × 105 T, find the maximum voltage induced between the rails.
Sol. In this problem,
the induced emf, E = l ( v × B)
= (3 m × 20 m/s × 2.0 × 105 T) V
= 120 × 105 V
= 1.2 mV
6.3 The differential form of Faradays law can be written as
∂B
Ñ×E = – + Ñ × (v × B)
∂t
A rectangular loop of size a × b is located in the field of a long current-carrying straight wire
such that the side a is parallel to the wire and the nearer side of the loop is at a distance r0 from
the wire. Using the above expression, evaluate:
(i) the induced emf in the loop if it is fixed in space but the current I (in the wire) varies
as I0 cos w t,
(ii) the magnitude and the direction of the induced emf as a function of r when I = I0 and
constant, but the loop moves towards the wire with a constant velocity v0 and
(iii) the induced emf in the loop when it moves towards the long conductor with a velocity
v0 (constant) and the current varies as I = I0 cos w t.
Sol. The emf induced in the circuit (Fig. 6.2) is
E = vÔloop
E ¹ dl ÔÔ Area of the loop
(³ E) ¹ dS (Stokes theorem)
∫∫ {− ∂t }
∂B
= + ∇ × ( v × B ) ⋅ dS
The cylindrical polar coordinate system (r, f, z) with unit vectors ir, if , iz is being used.
Fig. 6.2 A straight wire carrying current I and a coplanar rectangular loop.
(i) Velocity v = 0 and I = I0 cos wt

μ0 I 0 cos ω t
\ B = i f Bf = i f
2π r
∂B μ ω I sin ω t
Ñ×E = – = +if 0 0
∂t 2π r
and dS = if dr dz, area of an element of the loop
μ0ω I 0 sin ω t
\ (Ñ × E) × dS = dr dz
2π r
z=a r = r0 + b
μ ω I sin ω t dr μ ωI r +b
Hence, E = 0 0
2π ∫
z=0
dz ∫
r = r0
r
= 0 0 a ln 0
2π r0
sin ω t
μ0 I 0
(ii) v = ir v0, B = if , independent of time
2π r
∂B
\ =0
∂t
μ0 v 0 I 0
\ v × B = iz
2π r
\ Ñ × E = Ñ × (v × B) = iφ – { ∂ ⎛ μ0 v 0 I 0 ⎞
⎜–
∂r ⎝ 2π r ⎠
⎟ }
μ0 v0 I 0
= – iφ
2π r 2
and dS = if dr dz
μ0 v0 I 0
\ (Ñ × E) × dS = – dr dz
2π r 2
a r0 + b
μ v I dr μ v I ⎛1 1 ⎞
Hence E = – 0 0 0
2π ∫ dz ∫
0 r0
r 2
= – 0 0 0 a⎜ –
2π ⎟
⎝ r0 r0 + b ⎠
(iii) In this case, there is both the movement of the coil and the time variation of the current.
μ0 I 0 cos ω t
\ B = iφ
2π r
∂B μ ωI
and = – iφ 0 0 sin ω t
∂t 2π r
\ v = irv0
μ0 v 0 I 0
\ v × B = – iz cos ω t
2π r
Hence Ñ × (v × B) = iφ – { ∂
∂r
⎛ – μ0 v0 I 0 cos ω t ⎞
⎜
⎝ 2π r
⎟
⎠}
μ0 v0 I 0
= – iφ cos ω t
2π r 2
dS = if dr dz
\ (Ñ × E) × dS = – { ∂B
∂t
+ ∇ × ( v × B ) ⋅ dS }
=
μ0 I 0 ω
2π r { v
sin ω t – 20 cos ω t dr dz
r }
⎧ r0 + b r0 + b
dr ⎫⎪
a a
μ I ⎪ dr
\ E= ∫ E ⋅ dr = 0 0
2π
⎨ω sin ω t dz
⎪⎩
∫ ∫r
– v0 cos ω t dr ∫ ∫ r2 ⎪
⎬
0 r0 0 r0 ⎭
μ0 I 0 a ⎧ r0 + b ⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎫
= ⎨ω ln sin ω t – v 0 ⎜ – ⎟ cos ω t ⎬
2π ⎩ r0 ⎝ r0 r0 + b ⎠ ⎭
6.4 The electric and magnetic fields in a region are E = iy E0 and B = iz B0, respectively where E0
and B0 are constants. A small test charge Q having a mass m starts from rest at the origin at
t = 0.
(i) Using the Lorentz force equation
F = Q (E + v × B)
and the equation of motion, show that the velocity components of the charge will be
E0
vx = (1 – cos ω c t )
B0
E0
vy = sin ω c t ,
B0
where wc = QB0/m.
(ii) What will be the electric field as seen by an observer moving with the test charge?
Sol. (i) From Lorentz force equation, we have
F = Q(E + v × B) = Q{iy E0 + (ix vx + iy vy + iz vz) × iz B0}
= Q{ix vyB0 + iy(E0 vxB0)} (i)
The equation of motion is
m × a = F, where a = acceleration
= ix ax + iy ay + iz az
dvx dv y
= ix + iy + iz 0
dt dt
dv x
\ Substituting, m = Q v y B0 (ii)
dt
dv y
and m = Q(E0 vxB0) (iii)
dt
Eliminating vy from (ii) and (iii), we get
d 2vx dvy Q2
m = Q B 0 = B (E vxB0)
dt 2 dt m 0 0
d 2 v x ⎛ QB0 ⎞ 2 ⎛Q⎞
2
or +⎜ ⎟ v x = ⎜ ⎟ B0 E0 (iv)
dt 2
⎝ m ⎠ ⎝m⎠
d 2 vx E
or 2
+ ω c2 v x = ω c2 0 (v)
dt B0
E0
\ vx = + C1 cos ω c t + C2 sin ω c t .... (vidjdkkdkdkdkdk(vi)
B0
↑ ↑
P.I. C.F.
From Eq. (ii), we have
m dv x 1 dv x
vy = =
QB0 dt ω c dt
= C1 sin wct + C2 cos wct

To evaluate C1 and C2,
the initial condition is at t = 0, vx = 0, vy = 0
E0
\ C1 = – , C2 = 0
B0
E0 E
\ vx = (1 cos wct) and vy = 0 sin wc t
B0 B0
(ii) The electric field E¢ as seen by the observer moving with Q is given by
E¢ = E + v × B
E E
E = iy E0, B = iz B0 and v = ix 0 (1 cos wct) + iy 0 sin wct
B0 B0
⎧ E E ⎫
\ E¢ = iy E0 + ⎨i x 0 (1 – cos ωc t ) + i y 0 sin ωc t ⎬ × i z B0
⎩ B0 B0 ⎭
= iy E0 iy E0(1 cos wct) + ix E0 sin wct
= iy E0 cos wct + ix E0 sin wct,
a time-varying electric field having x and y components.
6.5 An iron cylinder with circular cross-section has two
windings on it as shown in Fig. 6.3.
At first, the switch S1 in the exciting winding is
permanently closed, and the switch S2 in the second
winding is opened and closed periodically.
In the second experiment, the switch S2 is permanently
closed, and the switch S1 in the exciting winding is
opened and closed periodically.
How would the galvanometer behave in both these
experiments? Give reasons for your conclusions. Fig. 6.3 An iron cylinder with two windings.
Sol. (a) The switch S1 is permanently closed.
The switch S2 is opened and closed at periodic intervals. The galvanometer will show no
reading because any action on the switch S2 has absolutely no effect on the flux generated by
the circuit of switch S1 and on the flux linking the secondary coil containing the switch S2. If
only there was a changing flux linking the secondary coil, then the closing of S2 would produce
a current in it. But since the primary circuit has a battery source, the current flowing is a steady
one, and so the flux linking the secondary coil is not changed for the present experiment.
(b) Now the switch S2 is permanently closed. When the switch S1 is closed, a current starts
flowing in the primary circuit and magnetic flux will be set up in the iron cylinder. This flux
will link the secondary coil of S2 and is also changing (i.e. starting from zero to a finite value),
and during this change in linkage, there will be a current in the secondary circuit. Again when
the switch S1 is opened, there will be a decay of magnetic flux in the iron and so again a current
will flow in the secondary coil during this period of change. So during both the actions, the
galvanometer will show deflection, but in opposite directions.
6.6 An iron cylinder of circular cross-section is wound
with an exciting winding as shown in Fig. 6.4.
At first, the steel bar is rotated at a certain speed,
keeping everything else stationary.
In the second experiment, only the wire PQ is made to
revolve round the bar such that PQ is always parallel
to the axis of the bar and the galvanometer leads are
always perpendicular to the bar. Everything else is now
stationary.
How would the galvanometer in the circuit PQG
behave in these two experiments? Give reasons for
your conclusions. Fig. 6.4 An iron cylinder with an exciting winding.
Sol. (a) The steel bar is rotated, keeping everything else stationary. In this case, the
galvanometer will show no deflection as mere rotation of the iron bar does not change the flux
linkage in the circuit PQG.
(b) Now the circuit PQG revolves round the bar such that PQ is always parallel to the axis of the
cylinder and the galvanometer leads from the points P and Q are kept perpendicular to the bar.
As P and Q move with the bar, keeping the galvanometer stationary, two coils will be wrapped
round the bar. Thus, this change in the linking flux with the moving circuit will be responsible
for an induced emf in the secondary circuit.
6.7 Three identical transformers, having unity turns ratio and which can be regarded as perfect (i.e.
no magnetization current is required to set up the flux, and there is no leakage flux and the
windings are of zero resistance) are connected in series as shown in Fig. 6.5, the central
transformer being reverse connected. How much current will flow in the secondary winding,
when it is connected across a 10 W resistor?
Fig. 6.5 Three identical perfect transformers connected in series, the centre transformer being reverse-connected.
Sol. Since the transformers are perfect, with no magnetizing currents, the primary and the
secondary amp-turns must balance. Since the transformers 1 and 2 are reverse connected, no
current can flow in the secondary windings. So no current can flow in any windings.
The equivalent circuit of the system will be a 3 : 1 step-down transformer with infinite reactance
in series with the secondary winding.
6.8 The two transformers shown in Fig. 6.6 are identical, all the five coils have the same number
of turns, the resistance of each winding being 10 W. The transformers are assumed to be perfect,
in that there is no leakage flux and there is zero magnetizing current.
When the transformers as connected have a source potential of 100 V, what will be the values
of V1, V2, I1, I2 and I?
Fig. 6.6 Two transformers with five identical coils (the winding resistances of 10 W each are shown).
Sol. Since the L.H. transformer is perfect, the secondary current I2 must equal the primary
current. Hence, there will be amp-turn balance in the R.H. transformer as well, in which case
the third winding can carry no current, i.e. I = 0, and no induced emf.
\ There will be no flux in the R.H. core and so V2 = 0.
The equivalent circuit is therefore of a 1 : 1 transformer with 20 W resistance in each winding.
\ I1 = I2 = 2.5 A and V1 = 50 V.
Note: Problems 6.7 and 6.8 are both due to Prof. E.R. Laithwate.
6.9 A rectangular copper plate of width l is moving with a constant velocity v through a uniform
magnetic field B as shown in Fig. 6.7. An electrostatic voltmeter is connected to the plate by
sliding contacts. What will be the voltmeter reading?
Fig. 6.7 A rectangular plate type unipolar generator.
Sol. The force per unit charge, F = E + v × B

In this case, v = izv and B = iyB
\ F = (iz × iy)vB = ixvB
This causes the electrons to flow in the x-direction with the positively charged region near the
top of the plate and the negatively charged region near the bottom. The equilibrium is reached
when the electrostatic forces balance the motional forces.
The voltmeter reading then = Blv
In this case, there is no transformer emf.
6.10 An expanding rectangular loop, as shown in Fig. 6.8, has a sliding conductor moving with a
constant velocity v (normal to its plane but in the plane itself ) in a time-varying uniform magnetic
field Bm cos w t which is normal to the plane of the loop. The length of the sliding conductor
is l. Find the emf induced in the loop.
Fig. 6.8 An expanding rectangular loop in a uniform time-varying magnetic field.
Sol. In this problem B = iz Bm cos wt and v = ixv
È B Ø
\ E12 = – Ô Ô Ê t Ú ¹ dS vÔ ( v B) ¹ dl
S C
Transformer emf:
∂B
= iz w Bm sin wt and dS = iz dxdy
∂t
\ ⎛ ∂B ⎞ ⋅ dS = w B sin w t dxdy
⎜ ⎟ m
⎝ ∂t ⎠
y =l x = vt
⎛ ∂B ⎞ ⋅ dS
Hence – ∫∫ ⎜ ⎟ = +w Bm sin wt ∫ dy ∫ dx = +w Bmlvt sin wt
⎝ ∂t ⎠
y=0 x=0
Motional emf:
(v × B) = iy vBm cos w t, the only contribution is from the sliding conductor,
i.e. dl = iy dy and (v × B) × dl = (vBm cos w t)dy
y=l
\ vÔ ( v B) ¹ dl = vBm cos wt ∫ dy = vBm l cos wt
C y=0
\ E12 = Bml(w t sin w t cos w t)

6.11 If in Problem 6.10, the velocity of the sliding conductor, instead of being constant, varies
exponentially with time and is given by
v = ix fegt,
where the time is measured as zero at the instant the moving conductor leaves the y-axis of
Fig. 6.8, find the emf induced in the loop.
dx
Sol. In this case, v = ix fegt = ix
dt
t t
⎛ f ⎞ gt ⎤ ⎛ f ⎞ gt
\ x =
∫ fe dt = ⎜ ⎟ e ⎥ = ⎜ ⎟ (e – 1)
gt
⎝ ⎠ ⎦0 ⎝ g ⎠
g
t=0
Transformer emf:
∂B
= iz w Bm sin wt and dS = iz dxdy
∂t
y =l x = ( e gt – 1) f /g
⎛ ∂B ⎞ ⋅ dS = +w B sin wt
\ – ∫∫ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂t ⎠
m ∫
y =0
dy
x=0
∫ dx
⎛ f ⎞ gt
= ω t ⎜ ⎟ (e – 1) Bm sin wt
⎝g⎠
Motional emf: (v × B) = iy fegt Bm cos wt and dl = iy dy
\ (v × B) × dl = ( fegt Bm cos w t)dy
y=l
Hence vÔ ( v B) ¹ dl = fegt Bm cos wt ∫ dy = f lBm egt cos wt

C y=0
⎧ ω gt ⎫
E12 = f lBm ⎨ (e – 1) sin ω t – e cos ω t ⎬
gt
\
⎩ g ⎭
6.12 A rectangular loop is made to rotate in a uniform magnetic field B0. The loop rotates with a
uniform angular velocity of w rad/s. The width of the loop is 2R and its axial length is l. Its
orientation is such that when it lies in the horizontal plane, it links maximum flux, i.e. the
direction of the magnetic field is vertical. Find the induced emf in the loop.
What will be the induced emf if the magnetic field was time-varying harmonically with the same
angular velocity as that of the rotation of the coil?
Sol. This is a case of motion only and hence the total induced emf will be given by
E = vÔ ( v B) ¹ dl = 2vB0 l sin q
C
Since q = w t, E = 2wRlB0 sin wt

The factor 2 is due to two conductors of length l moving through the B field and the
electromotive forces in both supporting each other.
Also 2Rl = A, the area enclosed by the loop
\ E = wB0A sin w t
∂B 0
Also, since = 0, there is no transformer emf, and the above equation gives the total
∂t
induced emf.
This is the basis for an ac generator as illustrated in Fig. 6.9.
Fig. 6.9 A coil rotated within a constant magnetic field generates a sinusoidal voltage.
Next, we have B = B0 sin wt

\ When t = 0, we have B = 0 and q=0
The induced emf now will have both the components, i.e. motional as well as the transformer.
We evaluate the motional emf first.
Emotional = vÔ ( v B) ¹ dl = 2wRlB0 sin2w t

C
= w RlB0 wRlB0 cos 2w t

Next, due to the time-varying B,
⎛ ∂B ⎞
Etransformer = – ∫∫ ⎜⎝ ∂t ⎟⎠ ⋅ dS = 2wRlB0 cos2w t
= wRlB0 wRlB0 cos 2w t

\ The resultant induced emf,
E = )motional )transformer
= 2wRlB0 cos 2w t
Thus, the resultant induced emf has a frequency which is twice that of the rotation of the coil
or of the magnetic field. Though each component of the induced emf has in it a time-
independent component, the resultant induced emf has only the double frequency time-varying
component, because the time-independent parts being of opposite polarity cancel each other out.
Alt. Sol. This problem can also be solved by using the concept of the change in flux linkage
of the rotating coil.
When the coil is normal to B,
the flux linked by the coil = Bl × 2R
When the coil makes an angle q with the direction of B,
the flux linked = Bl2R × cos q,
where q = w t, w being the angular velocity of the coil.
\ F = Bl2R cos w t = BA cos w t, A = 2lR
dΦ
\ E = = +BA w sin 2w t
dt
When B is varying harmonically with time, i.e.
B = B0 sin wt
F = B0A sin w t cos w t
dφ
\ Induced emf, E = = B0A(cos2w t sin2w t)
dt
= B0A cos 2w t
The negative sign indicates the sense of direction of the induced emf.
6.13 One of the conductors in a rectangular form of loop lying in the xy-plane is tilted at an angle
a from the y-axis as shown in Fig. 6.10. This conductor moves with a constant velocity v in the
x-direction, parallel to itself. The flux density field in the region is time-independent but is a
function of space in a manner that it varies linearly in the x-direction and is tilted from the
z-direction by an angle q such that there is no y-component of the field. If the length of the tilted
sliding conductor is L, find the induced emf in the loop.
y
B
L dl
1
2 P v = v (ixl + iy0 + iz0)
a y
Top view
x
vt
x
z
B = bx(ix sin h + iy0 + iz cos h)
h Front view
x
Fig. 6.10 A tilted moving conductor in a time-independent magnetic field varying spatially and is not
normal to the plane of the loop.
Sol. The induced emf in the loop is

B
E12 = Ô Ô t ¹ dS vÔ (v B) ¹ dl
S C
Since B is time-independent, the first term of the above equation, i.e. the transformer emf is
zero.
So, only the motional emf will contribute to the induced emf.
The velocity vector is
v = v(ix 1 + iy 0 + iz 0)
and the flux density at any point is
B = bx(ix sin q + iy 0 + iz cos q )
A point P(x, y) on the sliding conductor will be specified as
x = vt + y tan a,
if the lower tip of the sliding conductor is assumed to be at the origin at the instant of time
t = 0. This is also taken as the origin of the coordinate system.
\ B = ix(bvt + by tan a)sin q + iy 0 + iz(bvt + by tan a)cos q

\ v × B = ix 0 + iy( btv 2
+ byv tan a) cos q + iz 0
The differential length, dl = ix dx + iy dy + iz 0
\ (v × B) × dl = {bv(vt + y tan a)cos q }dy
Now, this component length of the sliding conductor has to be integrated in y-direction only (the
non-zero component), over the length L cos a for motional component of the induced emf.
L cos α L cos α
\ E12 = vÔ ( v B) ¹ dl 2
= bv + cos q ∫ dy – bv cos θ tan α ∫ y dy
C 0 0
bL2 v
= bLv × vt cos q cos a cos q tan a cos2a
2
= bLv cos q cos a ⎛⎜ vt + sin α ⎞⎟ , the total induced emf.

L
⎝ 2 ⎠
6.14 In Problem 6.13, the flux density vector B varies spatially as before but in addition is allowed
to vary exponentially with time, so that
B = bxect(ix sin q + iy 0 + iz cos q ).
The velocity of the sliding conductor is also no longer maintained at a constant value, but is
allowed to vary linearly with time so that its acceleration is constant, its direction remaining
unchanged, so that
v = gt(ix 1 + iy 0 + iz 0).
Find the induced emf in the loop.
Sol. The transformer emf is no longer zero, as B is now a function of time.
∂B
\
∂t
= bc x ect(ix sin q + iy × 0 + iz cos q )
The differential vector area dS = iz dxdy
\ ⎛ ∂B ⎞ ⋅ dS = (bcxect cos q )dxdy

⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂t ⎠
Fig. 6.11 Parameters to evaluate the variables when the conductor is moving with constant acceleration.
1 2
Note that the x-position of the lower tip of the sliding conductor is now gt .
2
\ Transformer emf is now:
1 2
x= gt + y tan α
y = L cos α 2
∂B
– ∫∫ ∂t ⋅ dS = – bcect cos θ ∫ ∫ x dx dy
y=0 x=0
1
y = L cos α gt 2 + y tan α
⎡ x2 ⎤ 2
= – bce cos θ ∫
ct
⎢2 ⎥ dy
y=0 ⎣ ⎦0
y = L cos α
bcect cos θ
2
⎛ 1 gt 2 + y tan α ⎞ dy
= −
2 ∫
y=0
⎜
⎝2
⎟
⎠
y = L cos α
bcect cos θ ⎡ 1 2 4 1 2 2 1 3 2 ⎤
= –
2 ⎢⎣ 4 g t y + 2 gt y tan α + 3 y tan α ⎦⎥ y = 0
bL cect cos θ cos α ⎛ 1 2 4 1 2 1 2 2 ⎞

= − ⎜ g t + gt L sin α + L sin α ⎟
2 ⎝4 2 3 ⎠
This is the transformer emf induced in the coil.

Next, we calculate the motionl emf. This will be obtained by integrating (v × B) × dl along the
length of the moving conductor. For their purpose, B has to be expressed as a function of t and
of the y-dimension along the length of the conductor. The coordinate x along the length of the
moving conductor is related to t and its y-coordinate by the functional relationship
1 2
x = gt + y tan α (refer to Fig. 6.11)
2
\ B = ix(bec t sin q ) ⎛⎜ 1 gt 2 + y tan α ⎞⎟ + iy 0 + iz(bec t cos q ) ⎛⎜ 1 gt 2 + y tan α ⎞⎟

⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
and v = ix gt + iy 0 + iz 0
\ (v × B) = ix 0 iy(bgtec t cos q ) ⎛⎜ 1 gt 2 + y tan α ⎞⎟ + iz 0

⎝2 ⎠
and (v × B) × dl = (bgtec t cos q ) ⎛⎜ 1 gt 2 + y tan α ⎞⎟ dy

⎝2 ⎠
y = L cos α
⎛ 1 gt 2 + y tan α ⎞ dy
\
vÔ ( v B) ¹ d l = – (bgtect cos θ ) ∫
y=0
⎜
⎝2
⎟
⎠
C
y = L cos α
⎡1 1 ⎤
= – (bgtect cos θ ) ⎢ gt 2 y + y 2 tan α ⎥
⎣2 2 ⎦y =0
(bL gtect cos θ cos α )

= − ( gt 2 + L sin α )
2
The total induced emf will be the sum of these two components, i.e.
bL cect cos θ cos α ⎛ 1 2 4 1 2 1 2 2 ⎞

E12 = − ⎜ g t + g t L sin α + L sin α ⎟
2 ⎝4 2 3 ⎠
bL gtect cos θ cos α

– ( gt 2 + L sin α )
2
bLect cos θ cos α ⎛ 1 2 4 1 1 2 ⎞

= – ⎜ c g t + c g t sin α + c L sin α + g t + g t L sin α ⎟
2 2 2 3
2 ⎝4 2 3 ⎠
6.15 A uniform magnetic field of magnitude B0 is z-directed in the square area b × b in the xy-plane
as shown in Fig. 6.12 and elsewhere it is zero. A square loop of wire a × a (b > a) with closely
spaced terminals 12 is oriented so that its lower edge is along the x-axis, and slides in the
xy-plane along the x-axis with a constant velocity v in the x-direction such that the magnetic
field is always normal to the plane of the loop.
Fig. 6.12 A square area with uniform magnetic field iz B0 and a coplanar square loop (a × a) moving with constant velocity ix v.
Sol. In this case, v = ix v + iy 0 + iz 0

and B = 0 for x < 0
= iz B0 for 0 < x b
Since in the specified region, the field is uniform over the area 0 < x a, and the motion of the coil is along the x-axis only, the whole of the vertical
sides of the moving coil are in the uniform field and the y-variation of B will not affect our
calculations.
The induced emf is given by
È B Ø
E12 = – Ô Ô Ê t Ú ¹ dS vÔ ( v B) ¹ dl
S C
∂B
Since B is time-independent, = 0.
∂t
Hence, there will be no contribution of transformer emf.
The only contribution to induced emf is of motional emf.
We will take the instant t = 0 as the edge PQ crosses the y-axis.
\ x = vt ⎛ v = dx ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠
The side PQ is moving across the magnetic field over the time period given by t = 0 to
t = b/v
and the side RS is moving across this field over the time period given by t = a/v to
t = (a + b)/v.
For each side PQ or RS, we have
(v × B) = (ix v) × (iz B0) = iy vB0
y=a
\ ∫ (v × B) ⋅ dl = B
∫
y=0
vB0 dy, as dl = iy dy for PQ and iy dy for RS
= B vB0l for PQ and RS, respectively.

During the time interval t = 0 to t = a/v, the motional emf will be induced in PQ only, during
the time interval t = a/v to t = b/v, the induced emf in the two branches PQ and RS will cancel
each other out, and during the interval t = b/v to t = (a + b)/v, the induced emf will be due to
RS only in the sense opposite to that of PQ at the earlier interval.
Hence, the emf induced as a function of time will be as shown in Fig. 6.13(a), and the flux
linked by the coil as a function of time is shown in Fig. 6.13(b).
+v B0a
x=a
t= a
v
0 t, x
t= b
v t= a+ b
a v
x=b x= a+b
–vB0l
(a) Induced emf as a function of time and also x.
a 2B0
t, x
a
0 t= v t= bv t=
a+b
x= a v
x=b x= a+b
(b) Flux v linked by the coil as a function of time and also x.
Fig. 6.13.
The induced emf can also be obtained from the flux linkage by differentiating it, i.e.
dΦ d Φ dx dΦ
E = − = − ⋅ = − ⋅ v,
dt dx dt dx
dΦ
where is the slope of the Fx curve shown in Fig. 6.13(b).
dx
⎛ x = 0 to x = a ⎞ ⎛ x = a to x = b, ⎞
⎜ ⎟
From ⎜ ⎟
a ⎟ , F is B0 lx, b ⎟ , F is B0 l a,
from ⎜
⎜ a
⎜ t = 0 to t = ⎟ ⎜ t = to t = ⎟
⎝ v ⎠ ⎝ v v ⎠
↓ ↓
coil entering the B-field coil entirely in the B-field
⎛ x = b to x = a + b ⎞
⎜ ⎟
and from ⎜ b a + b ⎟ , F is B0l(a + b x).
⎜t = to t = ⎟
⎝ v v ⎠
↓
coil leaving the field
6.16 In Problem 6.15, B is not time-invariant but is a harmonic function of time as specified below:
B = iz B0 cos w t,
with t = 0 as that instant when the edge PQ of the sliding loop just crosses the y-axis and enters
the magnetic field.
Sol. For convenience, we redraw Fig. 6.13(b) as Fig. 6.14.
Fig. 6.14 Flux linked F and the induced emf as functions of x.
We have F = axB0 coswt over the length x = 0 to x = a

= a B0 cos w t
2
over the length x = a to x = b
a (a + b x)B0 cos w t over the length x = b to x = a + b
dΦ ∂Φ ∂Φ dx ∂Φ ∂Φ
E = =− – ⋅ = – ⋅v
dt ∂t ∂x dt ∂t ∂x
∂Φ
The contribution from will have the similar shape as the Fx curve, except that the time
∂t
variation will be sin w t and the amplitude will be multiplied by w. The contribution due to the
second term will contain cos w t, instead of sin w t, i.e. the two emf components will be 90°
out-of-phase.
6.17 A uniform time-independent magnetic field B = izB0 exists in the xy-plane. In this plane, lies a
rectangular coil whose one side lies on the y-axis and has a semi-circular arc of radius R which
can be rotated at a constant angular velocity w. Find the induced emf in the coil.
Sol. From Problem 6.12, we consider the flux-linking solution.
Fig. 6.15 Rectangular loop with a rotating side having a semi-circular arc.
The flux linked by the coil (Fig. 6.15), as a function of time is

F = BA cos wt (assuming that the arc makes an angle q = w t
with the direction of B).
π R2
In the present case, the maximum area, A = .
2
dΦ π R2
\ The induced emf, E12 = – = +B ω sin ω t
dt 2
= p2 R2f B sin w t, where w = 2p f
6.18 In Problem 6.17, the magnetic field B is spatially uniform but now is a harmonic function of
time given by
B = izB0 cos w t
Now, the angular velocity of the rotating conductor and that of time-variation of B are same,
both being w. The instant of time t = 0 is chosen so that at that instant the semi-circular loop
passes through the xy-plane in the downward direction.
Sol. Since at the instant t = 0, the flux linked by the arc will be maximum, as the arc would
be in the xy-plane in its downward motion, so
π R2 π R2
A(t) = A0 cos wt = cos w t, A0 =
2 2
\ F = B(t) × A(t), where B(t) = izB0 cos w t
w t) ⎛⎜ π R ⎞
2
Hence F = (B0 cos cos ω t ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
π R 2 B0
= cos 2 ω t
2
dΦ π R 2 B0
\ Induced emf = E12 = – =– {(2 cos ω t ) (– sin ω t ) ω}
dt 2
2 π R 2 B0 ω
= sin ω t cos ω t
2
π R 2 B0 ω
= sin 2ω t
2
6.19 In Problem 6.18, the time-variation of the magnetic field is now changed to
B = B0 cos 2w t,
keeping all other conditions unchanged, i.e. w is the angular velocity of the rotating conductor
and the time-instant t = 0 is same as that of Problem 6.18. Determine the induced emf now.
Sol. Now, B = izB0 cos 2w t
π R 2 B0
\ F= cos w t cos 2w t
2
π R 2 B0
= cos w t (2 cos2w t 1)
2
π R 2 B0
= (2 cos3w t cos w t)
2
dΦ π R 2 B0
\ E12 = – = {(2 × 3 × cos2w t)( sin w t)w ( sin w t)w}
dt 2
π R 2 B0ω
= {6(1 sin2w t)sin w t sin w t}
2
π R 2ω B0
= (5 sin w t 6 sin3w t)
2
π R 2ω B0 6 ⎛ 10
= ⋅ sin ω t – 4 sin 3ω t ⎞
2 4⎝ 3 ⎠
3 π R 2ω B0 ⎛ 1
= sin ω t + (3 sin ω t – 4 sin 3ω t ) ⎞
4 ⎝3 ⎠
3 π R 2ω B0 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= ⎜ sin ω t + sin 3ω t ⎟
4 ⎝3 ⎠
π R 2ω B0
= (sin ω t + 3 sin 3ω t )
4
i.e. the induced emf contains two frequencies w and 3w and the amplitude of the third harmonic
is three times the fundamental frequency output.
6.20 A copper rod of length L is made to rotate in xy-plane at angular velocity w where there is a
uniform time-invariant magnetic field B = izB0. Find the induced emf between the two ends of
the rod.
Sol. We consider an element of length dl at a distance l from the centre of rotation
(Fig. 6.16). It is moving at right angles to B. This will generate a motional emf. Now v for this
element has the magnitude v = w l.
Fig. 6.16 Rotating rod in a uniform magnetic field.
\ The emf induced in the element, d E = Bvdl = Bw ldl

Hence the total induced emf in the rod,
L
1
) Ô d ) Ô BX l dl
0
2
BX L2
Note that while the rod is moving at constant angular velocity, the linear velocity at different
lengths will be w l, where l varies from 0 to L.
The same answer can also be obtained by time-differentiation of the flux linked by the sector
OPQ, i.e.
Fsector = BA = B ⎛⎜ L2θ ⎞⎟
1
⎝2 ⎠
dΦ 1 dθ 1
Hence, E = = BL2 = BL2ω
dt 2 dt 2
6.21 A plane rectangular conducting loop of dimensions a × b, lying in the xy-plane is moving in the
x-direction with a constant velocity v = ixv, as shown in Fig. 6.17. The orientation of the loop
is such that the side b is parallel to y-axis. The magnetic flux density vector B is perpendicular
to the plane of the loop and is a function of both the position in the plane and of time. In the
xy-plane (the plane of the loop), B varies according to the law
B(x, t) = izB0 cos w t cos kx,
where B0, w and k are constants.
Find the emf induced in the loop as a function of time. Assume that at t = 0, x = 0.
Fig. 6.17 Rectangular coil moving in a time-varying magnetic field B.
Sol. We evaluate the induced emf from the consideration of flux linkage
\ E= –
dΦ
dt
=–
∂t {
∂Φ ∂Φ dx
+ ⋅
∂x dt
=–
∂Φ ∂Φ
∂t
–
∂x
v }
The flux through the contour at any instant of time is
x+a x+a
F(x, t) = ∫x
B ( x, t )b dx = ∫x
B0 b cos ω t cos kx dx
B0 b
= {sin k ( x + a) – sin kx}cos ω t
k
∂Φ B bω
\ = – 0 {sin k ( x + a) – sin kx}sin ω t
∂t k
∂Φ B0 b k
= {cos k ( x + a) – cos kx}cos ω t
∂x k
\ The total emf induced in the loop is
B0 b ω
E= {sin k ( x + a) – sin kx}sin ω t − B0 b {cos k ( x + a) – cos kx}cos ω t
k
The first part of the above expression is the transformer emf, and the second part is the motional
emf and the two parts are 90° out-of-phase in time.
6.22 An unsuccessful attempt to design a commutatorless dc machine had been suggested in which
a conducting rod vibrated with a sinusoidal velocity
v = ixv0 sin wt
in a time-varying uniform magnetic field B (z-directed) which varied with the same angular
frequency, i.e. B = izB0 sin w t. It was argued that the motionally induced emf can have a time-
independent (direct) emf.
Show that this explanation is incorrect as in the total resultant emf, the transformer emf will
cancel out the direct emf.
Sol. From Fig. 6.18, we get
μ0 NI 0
B = iz
S
sin ω t = izB0 sin wt
and v = ixv0 sin wt
Faraday's law applied to a

stationary contour (dashed)
instantaneously within a
v – 4 vibrating wire.
1 +
x L–x
L
3
vx = v0 sin zt
N l0NI0
I0 sin zt B2 = x
S
2
l
v
Fig. 6.18 A conducting rod vibrating sinusoidally in a time-varying magnetic field which
also varies with the same angular frequency.
Let the length of the rod be l.

We apply Faradays law to a stationary contour as shown in Fig. 6.18.
2 3 4 1
d
vÔ E ¹ dl
L
= ∫
1= 0
+ ∫
2 (– v × B )
+ ∫
3=0
+ ∫
4 (– v)
= –
dt ∫∫ B ⋅ dS
S
(i)
where the E field within the conductor as seen by an observer moving with the conductor itself
is zero.
Now, the terminal voltage due to (v × B) is
V = vxBzl = v0B0l · sin2w t
1 – cos 2ω t
This will have a time-independent voltage in it as sin2w t = .
2
This analysis so far is incomplete.
This is because (as seen from Fig. 6.18) as the flux in the magnetic core turns through 90° in
the top corner, it passes normally through the contour L (which we are considering) and its
effect has been overlooked in Eq. (i). This amount of the flux is the fraction
L–x
Φ of the total flux F
L
\ The corrected equation will be
d
V + vxBzl = + {( L – x) Bz l}
dt
The positive sign on R.H.S. is because the direction of the flux is in the direction opposite to
that of the R.H. rule.
d dB
\ V = vxBzl – {( L – x) Bz l} = vxBzl (L x)l × z (ii)
dt dt
where the position of the conductor (i.e. x) is obtained as
v
x=
ÔW EU o DPT X U o
Y
Y
X
x0 being the position of the wire at the time t = 0.
\ From Eq. (ii), we get
d dB
V = l ( x Bz ) – Ll z
dt dt
ÎÑÈ Y X Ø ÞÑ
= # M v ÏÉ Ù DPT X U DPT X U ß o -M# X DPT X U
ÐÑÊ v Ú àÑ
where there is no time-independent component.
6.23 A Faraday disc (as shown in Fig. 6.19) is to be used as a motor by including a battery in the
circuit. If the current flowing in the circuit is I, and the magnetic flux density across the disc is
uniform (at B), show that the torque exerted on the disc is FI/2p, where F is the flux crossing
the whole disc. Find I, if the battery emf is E0, the resistance of the circuit is R and the radius
of the disc is a.
Fig. 6.19 Faraday disc operating as a motor.

Sol. Induced emf in a Faraday disc generator,

a
dΦ 1
E= –
dt 2 ∫
= ω B r dr = ω Ba 2
0
where
F = flux coming out of the whole disc = p a2B
w = angular velocity of the disc (rads/s) = 2p n, n is in revs/s
Induced emf for the generator or back emf for the motor,
1 Ba 2
E= ω Ba 2 = 2π n = n(p a2B) = nF
2 2
2π n Φ ω Φ
= =
2π 2π
EI n ΦI ΦI
\ Torque exerted = = =
2 π n 2π n 2 π
The emf of the battery = E0
)0 –
X)
\ E0 E = IR or I = 2Q
R
6.24 By considering the forces exerted on the electrons in the metal, show that the emf induced in
a disc of inner and outer radii r1 and r2, respectively, rotating with an angular velocity w in a
plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic flux density B is
1
ω B (r22 – r12 ) volts
2
Show that the power input to the disc required to maintain it at this speed of rotation, when the
inner and the outer edges are connected by an external circuit, is
π
n e d ω 2 B 2 μ (r24 – r14 )
2
where
n = number of electrons per cubic metre in the metal
d = thickness of the disc
m = mobility of the electrons in the radial direction
(= drift velocity per unit electric field strength, i.e. velocity of the carrier v = mE).
Sol. Induced emf, E = ∫ E ⋅ dr

Now E= v×B= wr × B
r=r2
\ E=
∫
r = r1
(ω r × B) dr (Note: B and r are at right angles)
r2 r2
r2 ⎤ 1
= ωB
r1
∫ r dr = ω B
2 ⎥⎦ r
1
= ω B (r22 – r12 )
2
Power input: Consider an element of volume from the ring, at a radius r and width dr
(Fig. 6.20).
Fig. 6.20 An element of the volume of the annular disc.
Cross-sectional area of the element = (r dq )d

\ Element volume of the element = (r dq )d × d r
Next, Current density, J = n e v
where
e = charge of the carrier particles (electrons)
n = number of electrons per unit volume.
∂V ⎞
In this element of volume, v = m E ⎛⎜⎝ – μ
⎟
∂r ⎠
and also E = v × B = wr × B
\ E = w rB, magnitude only
and v = mw rB, magnitude only
\ Current density in the element of volume,
J = ne{(r dq )d}mw rB
Hence potential drop across the radial length dr of this element,
d V = E × dr = w rBdr
\ Energy to be dissipated in this element of volume
= {ne (r dθ ) d μω rB}{ω rB dr}
= nemw2 B2d dq r3 dr
Hence the total power required by the annular disc
2π r2
= n eμ ω B d ∫ dθ ∫ r dr
2 2 3
0 r1
1 4
= neμ ω B d (2π – 0 )
2 2
( r2 – r14 )
4
π
= n eμ ω 2 B 2 d (r24 – r14 )
2
6.25 A brass disc of radius a, thickness b and conductivity s has its plane perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field where the flux density varies (with time) according to
B = B0 sin wt
Assuming that eddy currents flow in concentric circles about the centre of the disc, find the total
current flowing at any instant and the mean power dissipated as heat.
Sol. The induced emf from flux linkage considerations is
dΦ
E = –
dt
So, we consider the emf induced in a circular element of the disc (Fig. 6.21), at a radius r, width d r,
d Φc
E = –
dt
where
Fc = flux linked by the circular element
= (B0 sin w t) × area linked by this element
= (B0 sin w t) × p r2
Fig. 6.21 (a) A circular metal disc placed in a time-varying magnetic field and (b) an element of the disc used for calculations.
d
\ E = p r 2B0 sin w t = p r2B0w cos w t
dt
ρl 2π r
Resistance of this element = = (cross-sectional area)
area σ (b δ r )
) Q r 2 B0X cos X t T X B0 b
\ Current in this element, i = = = (cos X t ) r E r
R 2Q r 2
T bE r
a
σ ω B0 b σ ω B0 ba 2
Hence, total current in the disc, I =
2
(cos ω t ) ∫
0
r dr =
4
cos ω t
Power dissipated in this element, E i = (π r 2ω B0 cos ω t ) {σ ω 2

B0 b
(cos ω t ) r δ r }
π σω 2 B02 b
= (cos 2 ω t ) r 3 dr
2
a
π σ ω 2 B02 b π σ ω 2 B02 ba 4
ω = ∫ cos 2 ω t
2 3
Total power dissipated = (cos t ) r dr
2 8
0
π σ ω 2 B02 ba 4
\ Mean power dissipated =
8
Note: The problem can also be solved by using the element r dq.
⎛ π r 2ω B0 cos ω t ⎞ ω B0
\ E = ⎜ ⎟ r δθ = (cos ω t ) r 2 δθ
⎝ 2π r ⎠ 2
⎛ σ ω B0 cos ω t ⎞ r δθ
I = ⎜ ⎟ (same as before)
⎝ 2 ⎠
a π
σ ω 2 B02 b
Total power = ∫ r dr ∫ dθ , and so on.
3
2
0 0
This problem really deals with eddy currents which will be covered later. But it has been
included in this chapter because of the evaluation of the induced emf.
6.26 A Faraday disc, as shown in Fig. 6.22, is driven about its axis at a constant angular velocity w in
a uniform normal magnetic field B0. Find the induced emf (= E ) at the terminals, assuming the
radius of the shaft to be Ri and that of the disc to be Ro. If the terminals are now connected to an
external resistance RL and the current through the circuit is I, show that the terminal voltage is
I R ω B0 2
VT = – ln o + ( Ro – Ri2 )
2πσ d Ri 2
The disc is used to construct a homopolar generator as shown in Fig. 6.22(b). Find the number
of turns N of the exciting coil on the iron core required to make the generator self-exciting. The
exciting coil is assumed to be of zero resistance. Fringing effects and the effects of the magnetic
field due to current flow in the disc are neglected.
l®¥
if F
Ri Ro
z I + N turns
z ir
d V1 a Ri
Ro 2d
RL if l0NI
–
B0 =
2d ir
F
(a) Faraday disc
(b) Homopolar generator

Fig. 6.22 Faraday disc and the self-excited homopolar generator.
Note: If E¢ and J¢ are quantities in the moving frame of reference and E and J are in the fixed
frame, then
E¢ = E + v × B and J¢ (= J) = s E¢
Sol. In the Faradays disc, E x′ = 0, E y′ = 0, Bz = B0
When the terminals are open-circuited,
E y′ = Ey vBz Þ Ey = vBz = w rB0, v= wr
The direction for v × B for the given non-zero component will produce the negative sign. This
is obtained by considering the moving x¢, y¢, z¢ coordinates at the point r.
(Note: The x-direction is circumferential and the y-direction is radial.)

Ro
1
\ The emf across the terminals, E = ∫ ω rB
Ri
0 dr =
2
ω B0 ( Ro2 – Ri2 )
When a load resistance RL is connected externally at the terminals causing a current I to flow,
then
J¢ = J = s E¢ = s (E + v × B)
Now, I = 2p rd Jr , where Jr is the radial current density at radius r.
I
\ Jr = = σ (Er + ω rB0 )
2π rd
I
Hence Er = – ω rB0
2πσ rd
Ro
I Ro ω B0 2
\ Terminal voltage, VT =
∫ E ⋅ dr = – 2πσ d ln R
Ri
r
i
+
2
( Ro – Ri2 )
When the disc is connected as the self-excited generator, as shown in Fig. 6.22(b), then B0 is
produced by N turns of the coil, i.e.
NI
B0 = μ 0
2d
, because for the iron, m r®¥
Since the external resistance of the circuit is now zero,
I R ω ( Ro2 – Ri2 ) NI
\ VT = 0 = – ln o + μ0
2πσ d Ri 2 2d
2 ln ( Ro /Ri )
Since for self-excitation I ¹ 0, N= .
μ0πσω ( Ro2 – Ri2 )
6.27 The self-excited Faraday disc type generator described in Problem 6.26 has the following
parameters:
Copper disc: s = 5.9 × 107 S/m w = 400 rad/s
d = 0.005 m B0 = 1 Wb/m2
Ri = 0.01 m Ro = 0.1 m
Show that the maximum power that can be delivered from the generator is 8 × 105 W.
Sol. For the generator,

1
Open circuit emf, Voc = ω B0 ( Ro2 – Ri2 )
2
1
= × 400 × 1 × (0.01 – 0.0001) 2 V
2
ln ( Ro /Ri )
Internal resistance, Rint =
2πσ d
ln (0.1/0.01)
= = 1.25 × 10 6 W
2π × 5.9 × 107 × 0.005
Voc 2
\ Short-circuit current, Isc = = = 1.6 × 106 A
Rint 1.25 × 10 – 6
Hence, the theoretical maximum power that can be delivered from the generator
Voc I sc
Pmax = = 8 × 105 W
4
Note: But for steady-state operation, the output power will be restricted to a much lower value
because of the permissible I2Rint heating of the disc. Though, of course, it can be used for
supplying large pulses of power (for example, kinetic energy storage for resistance welding).
6.28 Two discs of conductivity s (both of the same dimensions) rotate with constant angular velocity
W in the air-gaps of magnetic yokes of infinite permeability. Each disc is connected
symmetrically to slip rings at the inner radii Ri (i.e. radii of shafts) and the outer radii Ro. The
yokes produce uniform magnetic fields in their gaps, over the volumes of the discs. These fields
are produced by the discs which are interconnected with the windings as shown in
Fig. 6.23.
(a) Find the terminal voltage equations for the two discs in terms of the currents i1 and i2,
B1 and B2 and the angular velocity W.
(b) Find the condition under which the interconnected discs would deliver steady-state
alternating currents to the load resistance RL. Both the discs rotate at the same constant
angular velocity W.
(c) Find the frequency of the alternating current.
Fig. 6.23 Two interconnected Faraday discs to generate alternating current.
Sol. In this problem, each disc can be treated as in Problem 6.26. (We assume the flux
densities to be positive upwards.)
The L.H. yoke is denoted as 1 and the R.H. yoke as 2.
Each of the four windings has same N turns.
The two currents are denoted by i1 and i2.
The resistance in each circuit is RL.
The flux densities in the two gaps will be
μ0 N
B1 = (i1 – i2 ) (i) ⎫⎪
l ⎪
⎬ l is the gap-length
μ0 N ⎪
B2 = – (i1 + i2 ) (ii) ⎪
l ⎭
For the potential drop, around the loop carrying the current i1,
dB2 dB i ln ( Ri /Ro ) Ω B1 2
− N π Ro2 − N π Ro2 1 + i1 RL = 1 + ( Ro − Ri2 ) (iii)
dt dt 2πσ h 2
and for the loop carrying the current i2,
dB2 dB i ln ( Ri /Ro ) Ω B2
N π Ro2 + N π Ro2 1 + i2 RL = 2 + ( Ro2 − Ri2 ) (iv)
dt dt 2πσ h 2
(signs on the R.H.S. are due to current directions as shown).
Substituting for B1 and B2 in these equations and rearranging the terms, we get
2 μ0 N 2π Ro2 di1
l dt {
+ i1 RL +
ln ( Ri /Ro )
2πσ h
μ N
}
+ 0 Ω ( Ri2 − Ro2 ) ( − i1 + i2 ) = 0
2l
(v)
2 μ 0 N 2π Ro2 di2
l dt {
+ i2 R L +
ln ( Ri /Ro )
2πσ h
μ N
}
+ 0 Ω ( Ri2 – Ro2 ) (– i1 – i2 ) = 0
2l
(vi)
If the currents are to be alternating currents, i.e.

i1 = I1est and i2 = I2est,
then Eqs. (v) and (vi) become
⎡ 2 μ0 N 2π Ro2 ⎧ ln ( Ri /Ro ) ⎫ μ0 N ( Ri2 – Ro2 ) ⎤ μ N ( Ri2 – Ro2 )

⎢ s + ⎨ RL + ⎬– Ω ⎥ I1 + 0 Ω I2 = 0
⎣ l ⎩ 2 πσ h ⎭ 2l ⎦ 2l
⎡ 2 μ0 N 2π Ro2 ⎧ ln ( Ri /Ro ) ⎫ μ0 N ( Ri2 – Ro2 ) ⎤ μ N ( Ri2 – Ro2 )

and ⎢ s + ⎨ RL + ⎬– Ω⎥ I2 – 0 Ω I1 = 0
⎣ l ⎩ 2 πσ h ⎭ 2l ⎦ 2l
Eliminating I1 between these two equations, we get
⎡ ⎡ 2 μ N 2π R 2 ⎧ ln ( Ri /Ro ) ⎫ μ0 N ( Ri2 – Ro2 ⎤

2
μ 2 N 2 ( Ri2 – Ro2 ) 2 2 ⎤
⎢⎢ 0 o
+ ⎨ RL + ⎬– Ω⎥ + 0 Ω ⎥ I2 = 0
⎢⎣ ⎣ l ⎩ 2 πσ h ⎭ 2l ⎦ 4l 2 ⎥⎦
Since I2 is not zero (as the currents are being supplied to the load resistances), then the
coefficient of I2 in the above equation is zero, i.e.
{ }
2
⎡ 2 μ0 N 2π Ro2 ln ( Ri /Ro ) μ0 N ( Ri2 – Ro2 ) ⎤ μ02 N 2 ( Ri2 – Ro2 )2 2
⎢ s + R + – Ω ⎥ + Ω = 0
⎣ l L
2πσ h 2l ⎦ 4l 2
For steady-state time-harmonic operation, s must be purely imaginary.
⎧ ln ( Ri /Ro ) ⎫ μ0 N ( Ri2 – Ro2 )

\ ⎨ RL + ⎬– Ω = 0
⎩ 2 πσ h ⎭ 2l
ln ( Ri /Ro )
RL +
μ0 N ( Ri2 – Ro2 ) 2 πσ h
or =
2l Ω
is the required condition.

(c) The frequency of the alternating current is given by
2
⎛ 2μ0 N 2π Ro2 ⎞ μ 2 N 2 ( Ri2 – Ro2 ) 2 2
⎜ jω ⎟ = 0 Ω
⎝ l ⎠ 4l 2
2μ0 N 2π Ro2 μ N ( Ri2 – Ro2 )

or j ω = j 0 Ω
l 2l
È Ri2 Ø
ÉÊ R 2 – 1ÙÚ :
\ w = o
4Q N
6.29 The magnetic field B is uniform over the area of a rectangular loop and has been externally
imposed. There is a switch S in the loop which can make either of the two contacts as shown
in Fig. 6.24(a). When the switch S is instantaneously moved from contact 1 to 2, will there be
any induced emf in any part of the circuit?
B B
B S
S I
1 2 1 2
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.24 Effect of switching action.
Sol. The position of the switch S has no effect on the imposed magnetic field. So moving the
switch from position 1 to 2 will not induce an emf because the magnetic field (flux) through
any surface remains unchanged.
If, however, a direct current source is connected to a circuit through a switch S which is moved
from contact 1 to 2 instantaneously as shown in Fig. 6.24(b), then the magnetic field due to the
source current I changes. In this case, the flux through any fixed area gets changed and so an
emf is induced.
6.30 An insulating cylinder C located in a uniform axial magnetic field B, rotates uniformly so as to
wind wire from a drum D. The end of the wire is anchored to a contact ring R fixed to the lower
end of the cylinder.
(a) Will there be an induced emf between R and the end of the incoming wire, as there is an
apparent increase in the flux-linkage due to increasing number of turns?
(b) What happens if a direct current I is fed into the increasing number of turns?
(c) What happens if the direct current I is fed through a tap-changing coil such that the
number of turns per unit length remains constant?
F F
C
+
D
V N(t)
N(t)
1 –
I0, N0
+
V V
Moving
– contact
z
2 l(t) N(t)
R =
I0 N0
F F
(a)
l0N(t) I(t)A l0N(t) I(t)A l0N0AI(t)

F= F= =
l(t) l0
l
Area A
+
D +
I V N(t)
–
V I I0, N0
I(t) –
z
l(t) N(t)
=
I0 N0
dF l0N(t)A d[N(t)I] dF l0N0AN(t) dl(t)

E = N(t) = E = N(t) =
dt l dt dt l0 dt
(b) (c)
A A¢
P P¢
Q Q¢
B¢
B
(d) (e)
(a) If the number of turns on a coil is changing with time, the induced votage is E = N(t) dF/dt.
A constant flux does not generate any voltage. (b) If the flux itself is proportional to the number of
turns, a dc current can generate a voltage. (c) With the tap changing coil, the number of turns per unit
length remains constant so that a dc current generates no voltage because the flux does not
change with time. (d, e) The contributory circuits.
Fig. 6.25 Time-varying number of turns on a coil in a uniform steady magnetic field.
Sol. (a) In fact, no emf is induced and the voltmeter V connected between 1 and 2 shows no
reading. The result can be explained by a correct definition of the flux linkage. In this
experiment, the resultant emf is due to the emf of contributory circuits [Fig. 6.25(d) and (e)],
i.e.
(i) a lengthening spiral (helix) joined to the central axis by a radius AP which is fixed and a
radius BQ which rotates
(ii) a shaft A¢B¢ joined to the external circuit by a radius A¢P¢ which is fixed in direction and a
radius B¢Q¢ which rotates as a spoke of the bottom contact ring.
So, each time a turn is added, the linkage in the circuit (a) is increased by the flux through the
extra convolution, but equal flux is swept by the moving radius of the circuit (b) and the
connections of the two are such that the induced emfs are in opposition, leaving zero resultant.
This superficial argument takes account of (i) only, leading to a wrong result.
So, for a constant flux in the cylinder,
F = (BA) per turn,
even though the number of turns are changing, no flux is generated, i.e.
⎛ dΦ ⎞
E = N(t) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠
Since F is constant, independent of time, then even with increasing N(t) (i.e. a function of time),
E = 0.
(b) When F (= the flux per turn) itself is proportional to the number of turns, i.e. a direct current
is being fed into the increasing number of turns [Fig. 6.25(b)], we have
A
F = m0N(t)I
l
where l is the axial length of the wound cylinder and A is its cross-sectional area.
N / U
" E
\ E= / U
E Φ ¹
E
^ / U
* ` N / U
" / U
EU M EU EU
Hence, even for direct current, there will be an induced emf.
Note that the contribution from motional emf here is zero.
(c) Next, now the direct current is being supplied through a tap-changing coil for which the
number of turns per unit length remains constant. In this case, the flux does not change with
time. So, now there will be no induced emf.
6.31 A ferromagnetic core (cylindrical in shape) has a time-varying magnetic flux given by
F(t) = Fm cos wt
A tightly wound cylindrical coil is placed around the core, the length of the coil being L and
the number of turns N. A sliding contact K moves along the axial length of the coil according
to the law
z = L(1 + cos w1t)/2
What will be the induced emf as a function of time?
Sol. The induced emf in each turn of the coil is (Fig. 6.26)
dΦ
E1 = – = Φm ω sin ω t
dt
Fig. 6.26 Wound ferromagnetic core with a time-varying magnetic field.
Between the contacts A and K, at the same instant the number of turns will be
Nz N
n = = (1 + cos ω1t )
L 2
\ The emf induced in all these turns will be
Φmω N
E = nE1 = (1 + cos ω1t ) sin ωt
2
Note that the flux linkage equation cannot be used in the form
d Φtotal d (n Φ ) dΦ dn
E = − =– =–n –Φ
dt dt dt dt
The second term gives the emf induced as a result of increase in the number of turns, which
emf cannot be used as per the arguments of Problem 6.30.
6.32 An axi-symmetric cylindrical bar magnet is made to rotate about its axis. A circuit is made by
making sliding contacts with its axis (i.e. the shaft of the magnet) and with its equator
as shown in Fig. 6.27. Will there be an induced emf in the external circuit?
Fig. 6.27 A rotating cylindrical bar magnet.
Sol. An induced emf is observed in the circuit. Since the cylindrical bar magnet is
axi-symmetric, the magnetic field inside and outside the bar is same whether the magnet rotates
or not. But the electrons inside the magnet are moving in the magnetic field and hence are being
acted upon by the electromagnetic force which causes the current to flow.
Until recently, this Faraday problem was posed in the following form:
Do the magnetic field lines rotate with the magnet or not?
The question, in fact, is a meaningless one, because these lines are a figment of our imagination
and have no physical existence.
6.33 Find the ratio of the terminal voltages and currents for the peculiarly twisted ideal transformer
as shown in Fig. 6.28. If a resistor R is connected across the secondary winding, what is the
impedance as seen by the primary winding?
Fig. 6.28 An ideal transformer with a twisted core.

Sol. Since the same flux passes through all the four limbs of the ideal core,
V1 2N1
=
V2 N2
i1 N2
and = , because of amp-turn balance.
i2 2 N1
When the resistance R is connected across the secondary terminals, from the primary winding,
2
⎛ 2N ⎞
it will appear as R ⎜ 1 ⎟ .
⎝ N2 ⎠
If we wish to wind the primary coils round the limbs 1, 2 and 3, how will it be done ?
6.34 A highly conducting iron cylindrical annulus with permeability m and inner and outer radii Ri
and Ro, respectively, is placed concentrically to an infinitely long straight wire carrying a direct
current I as shown in Fig. 6.29.
(a) What is the magnetic flux density everywhere?
(b) A highly conducting circuit abcd is moving downwards with a constant velocity v0, while
making contact with the surfaces of the cylindrical annulus through sliding brushes. The
circuit is completed from c to d through the iron cylinder. Find the induced emf.
(c) Now the circuit remains stationary, while the cylinder moves upwards with the same
velocity v0. Find the induced emf.
(d) A thin axial slot is cut in the cylinder, so that the circuit abcd can be formed completely
by wire and can slide in the slot. The circuit is kept fixed and the cut cylinder moves
upwards with the constant velocity v0. Find the induced emf in the coil.
dy
=? -v0
dt I I
a b
b v0
y v0 a
l l
R2 R2
l0 R1 l0 R1
l
c l0 l0
d d
r®¥
I I
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.29 Cylindrical annulus excited by a line current I along its axis.
This problem, suggested by Prof. Cullwick, can be solved either directly or by moving frame
of reference. We shall use the direct method.
μ0 I
Sol. (a) The magnetic field: B= for r < Ri
2π r
μI
and B= for Ri < r < Ro, in the steel tubing
2π r
(b) Suppose the circuit has fallen through a height l in the time T,
l
i.e. = v0
T
μ0 Il Ro
\ Extra flux linked in this time = ln
2π Ri
This fall has taken time T.
μ0 Il ⎛ Ro ⎞ μ Iv R
\ The induced emf = – ln ⎜ ⎟ = – 0 0 ln o
2π T ⎝ Ri ⎠ 2π Ri
(The negative sign is to indicate the opposing of increasing flux in the circuit)
And the current in the loop is given by
μ0 Iv0 R
ln o
2π R Ri
where R is the resistance of the loop.
(c) Now, the circuit remains stationary and the cylinder moves up. In this case, the relative
movement between the circuit and the cylindrical annulus is same as in (b) and hence the
induced emf in the circuit will also be the same, i.e.
μ0 Iv0 R
induced emf = – ln o ,
2π Ri
(In both the cases (b) and (c), the induced emf is independent of the material of the cylinder.)
(d) In this case, a thin slot has been cut in the cylindrical annulus and the circuit is now a
complete loop. The cylinder moves upwards with constant velocity v0. Since the loop and the
cylinder are in relative movement and the coil is gliding by the side of the cut wall (in the slot),
the change in flux linkage will be
μ Il Ro μ0 Il Ro
ln – ln
2π Ri 2π Ri
( μ – μ0 ) Il R ( μ – μ0 ) Iv0 R
\ The induced emf = ln o = ln o
2π T Ri 2π Ri
6.35 A very long permanently magnetized cylindrical annulus of inner and outer radii Ri and Ro,
respectively, rotates with a constant angular speed w as shown in Fig. 6.30. The magnetization
has been done in the axial direction as izM0. The cylinder is assumed to be infinitely long
compared to its radii. What are the approximate values of B and H in the magnet. A circuit is
formed, as shown in the figure, through sliding brushes at r = Ri and r = Ro. What will be the
induced emf in the circuit?
z + V – Top view
I
z
Ri z b¢
z
Ro y r a¢
B = iz m0 M0 v
O x
a b
Ri
i z M0
Ro
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.30 Rotating magnetized cylindrical annulus.
Sol. The magnetic field in the annulus is

H = 0, B = iz m0 M 0
We use the flux-cutting rule as the flux-linking rule would give zero emf (i.e. moving frame of
reference).
We take a frame of reference moving with the radial section ab which is moving at angular
velocity w. The emf induced across the brushes will be given by the flux traversed by ab, i.e.
r = Ro Ro
1
∫
r = Ri
(v × B ) ⋅ dl = ∫ ω rB
Ri
z dr =
2
ω Bz ( Ro2 – Ri2 )
Note: The circuit under consideration should be such that at no place the material particles
move across it.
6.36 A pipe of radius a is kept under a uniform transverse magnetic field B. A fluid flows along the
pipe, thereby the magnetic field induces an emf dV between the two electrodes at the end of a
diameter perpendicular to B. Show that
2QB
πa
, dV =
where Q = volumetric flow rate which is axi-symmetric (whatever the velocity profile
might be).
The fluid velocity falls to zero at the pipe wall which is non-conducting.
Sol. We take the origin of the coordinate system at the centre of the pipe, x-axis in the
direction of the magnetic field B = ixB and the z-axis in the direction of motion (Fig. 6.31).
The brushes are at AA, a diameter along the y-axis.
This is a two-dimensional problem with no z-dependence.
A
A
Flow
r
O v
a
x
O
A x
z
B
A Current loops
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.31 (a) Electromagnetic flowmeter and (b) current circulation in a cross-section.
The induced emf (v × B) is in the y-direction and the induced currents flow in xy-plane.
By Ohms law, the potential drop is
s J = grad V + v × B, this has x and y components only.
∂V ∂V
\ s Jx = ∂x
– and s Jy = –
∂y
+ vB,
V being the electric potential.
By Kirchhoff s law, Ñ×J = 0
∂J x ∂J y ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂v
\ + = 0 Þ Ñ 2V = + 2 =B
∂x ∂y ∂x 2
∂y ∂y
This is Poissons equation in V.
Since the velocity v has an axi-symmetric profile,
v = v(r)
and rewriting the Poissons equation in the cylindrical coordinate system,
⎛ ∂2 1 ∂ 1 ∂ ⎞ dv
Ñ 2V = ⎜ 2 + + 2 2 ⎟V = B sin f, (r, f) being the polar coordinates.
⎝ ∂r r ∂ r r ∂φ ⎠ dr
We write a solution for V as
V = U(r) sin q
by the method of separation of variables.
\ The Poissons equation simplifies to (after removal of f terms)

2
d U 1 dU U dv
+ – 2 = B
dr 2 r dr r dr
We rewrite it as
⎛ 2 d 2U dU ⎞ ⎛ dU
+ U ⎞⎟ = B ⎛⎜ r 2 + 2rv – 2rv ⎞⎟
dv
⎜r + 2r ⎟ – ⎜r
⎝ dr 2
dr ⎠ ⎝ dr ⎠ ⎝ dr ⎠
We integrate from r = 0 to r = a (for the whole pipe cross-section)
a a
⎡ r 2 dU – rU ⎤ = ⎡ Br 2 v ⎤ a – 2 B r v dr
⎢⎣ dr ⎥⎦ 0 ⎣ ⎦0 ∫
0
a
or
∫
aU(a) = 2 B r v dr ,
0
dU
by using the boundary conditions at the wall, i.e. r = a, = 0 and also v = 0,
dr
the radial components of J and v × B, vanish and therefore,
∂V ∂U
=0= sin f
∂r ∂r
a
But Q = 2π ∫ vr dr
0
Also the potentials at the electrodes are

At r = a, ÿÿf = ±p/2, V = ±U(a)
2BQ
\ dV = 2U(a) =
πa
This is the basis for the design of an electromagnetic flowmeter. The output signal from such
a flowmeter can be independent of the velocity profile provided the flow rate is axi-symmetric.
6.37 Is it possible to construct a generator of emf which is constant and does not vary with time by
using the principle of electromagnetic induction?
Sol. Let E be the desired constant emf.
dΦ
Now, Faradays law of electromagnetic induction states that the induced emf E = –
dt
\ For the present requirement,
dΦ
= E = constant
dt
Integrating with respect to time, we get
F = F0 Et
where F0 = the magnetic flux at the instant of time t = 0.
\ A generator of constant emf, based on the principle of electromagnetic induction, can be

made, provided a source of magnetic flux which increases linearly with time for an arbitrary
period of time, can be made.
Since this is not possible, such a generator cannot be constructed.
6.38 Two circular loops of wire are coplanar and concentrically placed. The radius a of the smaller
loop is very small and is much smaller than the radius b of the larger loop (i.e. a << b). A
constant current I is passed in the larger loop which is kept fixed in space and the smaller loop
is rotated about its one of the diameters at a constant angular velocity w. The smaller loop is
assumed to be purely resistive having a resistance R.
(i) Find the current in the smaller loop as a function of time.
(ii) What must be the torque exerted on the smaller loop to rotate it?
(iii) Find the induced emf in the larger loop as a function of time.
Sol. The magnetic field B at the centre of the larger loop of radius b due to a current I in it
is (Fig. 6.32)
μ I
B at O = 0
2b
Since the radius of the smaller loop is very small compared with that of the larger loop, i.e.
a << b, we can assume that the field is constant over the area of the smaller loop.
I (constant)
O
a
w (constant)
Fig. 6.32 Two concentric coplanar loops, the larger one fixed in space and the smaller
one rotating at a constant angular velocity w.
μ0 I π a 2
\ The total flux linked, F = B × A = cos θ ,
2b
where q is the angle between the two loops (as the smaller loop is rotating about its diameter).
Since the velocity of the loop is w, we have q = w t.
d Φ μ0π a 2 I ω
\ The emf induced in the smaller loop, – = sin ω t
dt 2b
μ0 π a 2 I ω
\ The current in the smaller loop, I1 = sin ω t
2bR
Let T be the mechanical torque required to rotate the smaller loop.
dθ
\ The input mechanical power = T
dt
= the induced electrical energy
dΦ
= I1
dt
d Φ ⎛ μ0 π a 2 I ω ⎞ d ⎛ μ0 I π a 2 ⎞
Hence T = I1 =⎜ sin ω t ⎟ ⎜ cos ω t ⎟
dθ ⎝ 2bR ⎠ dθ ⎝ 2 b ⎠
2 2
⎛ μ0 I π a 2 ⎞ (ω sin ω t ) d ⎛ μ I π a 2 ⎞ ω sin 2 ω t
= ⎜ ⎟ cos θ = ⎜ 0 ⎟
⎝ 2b ⎠ R dθ ⎝ 2b ⎠ R
To find the induced emf in the larger loop, we need to find the mutual inductance between the
loops.
dΦ d ⎧ μ0 I π a 2 ⎫ μ π a2
M = = ⎨ cos ω t ⎬ = 0 cos ωt
dI dI ⎩ 2b ⎭ 2b
dI1 ⎛ μ π a2 ⎞ d ⎛ μ π a2 Iω ⎞
The induced emf in the larger loop, El = − M = −⎜ 0 cos ωt ⎟ ⎜ 0 sin ωt ⎟
dt ⎝ 2b ⎠ dt ⎝ 2bR ⎠
2
⎛ μ0π a 2ω ⎞ I cos 2 ω t
= ⎜
– ⎟
⎝ 2b ⎠ R
2
⎛ μ π a 2ω cos ω t ⎞ I
= –⎜ 0 ⎟
⎝ 2b ⎠ R
6.39 A rectangular loop of conducting wire of dimensions b × H is dropped from rest at time t = 0,
when its bottom edge (of width b) is at a height h from the x-axis (y = 0 plane). The plane
y = 0 separates a region of no magnetic field above (i.e. B = 0 in y positive) and for y negative
uniform magnetic field B such that B = ixB0, where B0 is a constant quantity. The loop has a
mass m and resistance R. Find the motion of the loop and its velocity v as a function of time
for t = 0 to t1 and t1 to t2 and t > t2 as shown in Fig. 6.33.
Fig. 6.33 Rectangular conducting loop falling through a uniform magnetic field.
Sol. Up to the time t = t1, the velocity of the loop is that of a freely falling body as there is
no magnetic field in this region, i.e. v = gt, 0 < t < t1.
\ At t = t1, v1 = gt1 = 2hg
For the time t1 £ t £ t2,

dΦ dA
the induced emf in the loop, E = – =–B = – Bvb ,
dt dt
where A is the area of the loop in the quadrant y < 0.
Bvb
The induced current in the loop, I = – (clockwise).
R
B 2 vb 2
The magnetic force on the loop, F = bIB = – upwards
R
and the equation of motion is
B 2 vb 2 dy
mv = mg – , where v =
R dt
⎛ B 2 b 2 ⎞ dy
or ⎜m + ⎟ = mg
⎝ R ⎠ dt
Solving and using the boundary condition for t = t1, we get y and hence v as
⎞ exp ⎧ – B b (t – t ) ⎫
2 2
mgR ⎛ mgR
v= + ⎜ gt1 – 2 2 ⎟ ⎨ 1 ⎬
2 2
B b ⎝ B b ⎠ ⎩ mR ⎭
For t ³ t2, the only force on the loop is again the gravitational force.
\ The velocity of the loop will be found to be
⎞ exp ⎧ − B b (t − t ) ⎫ + g (t − t )
2 2
mgR ⎛ mgR
v= + ⎜ gt1 − 2 2 ⎟ ⎨ 2 1 ⎬ 2
B 2b 2 ⎝ B b ⎠ ⎩ mR ⎭
Solving of the differential equations and the evaluation of the constants using the initial
conditions is left as an exercise for the students.
6.40 A pair of parallel wires, shown in Fig. 6.34, carry equal currents I in opposite directions, the
distance between them being d. The current I is not constant but increases at the rate dI/dt. A
rectangular loop of dimensions h × b is coplanar with the conductors and the side h is parallel
to the conductors, such that the shortest distance between this side of the loop and the nearer
conductor is r0. Find the emf induced in the coil.
Fig. 6.34 Pair of parallel conductors carrying currents (equal) in opposite directions.
The current I is variable with time.
Sol. A current I in a straight long conductor produces a B field in its vicinity given by
μ0 I
B=
2π r
Since there are parallel conductors in this system, the total flux F through the loop is
ra = r0 + b rb = d + r0 + b
μ0 I ⎛⎜ h dra h drb ⎞⎟
F=
2π ⎜ ∫ ra
– ∫ rb ⎟
⎝ a 0
r = r rb = d + r0 ⎠
μ0 Ih ⎧ (d + r0 ) (r0 + b) ⎫
= ln ⎨ ⎬
2π ⎩ r0 ( d + r0 + b ) ⎭
This flux F is normal to the plane of the paper and is directed into it. Since the current is time-
varying, i.e. increasing with time,
∂Φ
The induced emf, E = vÔ E ¹ dl =
∂t
μ0 h dI ⎧ (d + r0 ) (r0 + b) ⎫
=
ln ⎨ ⎬
2π dt ⎩ r0 (d + r0 + b) ⎭
Note that the induced current is in the negative direction with respect to B and F and hence
must flow in the counterclockwise direction.
6.41 A metal vehicle travels round a set of perfectly conducting rails which form a large circle. The
rails are L metres apart and there is a uniform magnetic field B0 normal to their plane as shown
in Fig. 6.35. The mass of the vehicle is m and it is driven by a rocket engine having a constant
thrust F0. The system acts as a dc generator whose output is fed into a load resistance R. Show
that the output current I from the system increases exponentially as given by the equation
V F ⎡ ⎧ ⎛ B02 L2 ⎞ ⎫⎤
I= = 0 ⎢1 – exp ⎨ – t ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎥ ,
R B0 L ⎣ ⎩ ⎝ mR ⎠ ⎭⎦
where V is the induced voltage.
Note: Use the equation of motion of the cart
dx 1
and ∫ b – ax = –
a
ln (b – ax) .
Fig. 6.35 Rocket engine system operating as a dc generator.
Sol. If the cart is considered as a metal element of length L (in the radial direction) moving
with a velocity v0 at right angles to the magnetic field B0, thus producing the current I due to
the induced voltage V, then
L
V
the thrust F= I ∫B
0
0 dl = B0 IL , I =
R
V = B0Lv0
V B Lv B 2 L2 v0
\ F = B0LI = B0L = B0L 0 0 = 0
R R R
The equation of motion for the cart is
dv 0 B 2 L2 v0
m = F0 – 0
dt R
dv0 B02 L2
or m + v0 = F0
dt R
dv 0
or = dt
F0 B02 L2
– v0
m mR
dv0 F B02 L2
\ = dt Notation 0 = a, =b
a – bv 0 m mR
On integrating, we get
1
− log e (a − bv0 ) = t + C
b
or a bv0 = exp{ b(t + c)}
To evaluate c, the initial condition is: at t = 0, v0 = 0
\ a = exp( bc)
Hence, a bv0 = exp( bt) exp( bc) = a exp( bt)
a F0 R ⎡ ⎧ ⎛ B02 L2 ⎞ ⎫ ⎤
So v0 = {1 – exp(– bt )} = ⎢1 – exp ⎨– t ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎥
b B02 L2 ⎣ ⎩ ⎝ mR ⎠ ⎭ ⎦
V B0 L F ⎡ ⎧ ⎛ B 2 L2 ⎞ ⎫ ⎤
\ I= = v0 = 0 ⎢1 – exp ⎨ – t ⎜ 0 ⎟ ⎬ ⎥
R R B0 L ⎣ ⎩ ⎝ mR ⎠ ⎭ ⎦
6.42 Derive the Lorentz force equation as a consequence of the observation of electromagnetic
phenomena made by two observers in relative motion.
The forces experienced by a test charge of Q coulombs at a point in a region of electric and
magnetic fields E and B, respectively are given as follows for three different velocities.
Velocity Force (N)
1 m/s in direction
ix Q ix
iy Q(2ix + iy)
iz Q(ix + iy)
Find E and B at the above point.
Sol. Part 1. Bookwork. (see Chapter 20 of Electromagnetism Theory and Applications,
2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009.)
Part 2. The Lorentz force equation is
F = Q(E + v × B)
Let E = ix Ex + iy Ey + iz Ez and B = ix Bx + iy By + iz Bz
\ ix Q = Q[(ix Ex + iy Ey + iz Ez) + ix × (ix Bx + iy By + iz Bz)] (i)
(2ix + iy)Q = Q[(ix Ex + iy Ey + iz Ez) + iy × (ix Bx + iy By + iz Bz)] (ii)
(ix + iy)Q = Q[(ix Ex + iy Ey + iz Ez) + iz × (ix Bx + iy By + iz Bz)] (iii)
From (i), we have ix ® 1 = Ex, iy ® 0 = Ey Bz and i z ® 0 = Ez + By

From (ii), we have ix ® 2 = Ex + Bz, i y ® 1 = Ey and i z ® 0 = Ez Bx
From (iii), we have ix ® 1 = Ex By, i y ® 1 = E y + Bz and i z ® 0 = Ez
\ Ex = 1, Ey = 1, Ez = 0, By = 0, Bx = 0, Bz = 1
\ E = ix + iy and B = iz
6.43 A wire is given the form of a rectangle of sides l × 2b such that l > 2b. This rectangle is made
to revolve with a uniform angular velocity w about an axis which passes through the mid-point
of the shorter sides (of length 2b). This axis is parallel to and at distant c (c > b) from a long
straight wire which carries a current I. Show that the emf generated in the rectangular loop at
any instance of time is given by
a sin θ
λ ,
a 2 – cos 2 θ
where a and l are constants to be determined and q is the angle between the plane of the loop
and the plane containing the long straight wire and the axis of rotation.
Sol. The flux density B at any point, due to the current-carrying wire is
μ0 I
B=
2π r
To find the flux linked by the rectangle in any arbitrary position making an angle q with the
plane containing the straight conductor and the axis of rotation (Fig. 6.36), we get
OQ
F= ∫ Bldr
OP
Fig. 6.36 A straight long wire carrying a current I and a rectangular loop rotating about its own axis parallel to the wire.
OP2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos q

and OQ2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos(p q) = b2 + c2 + 2bc cos q
1/ 2
⎛ b2 + c 2 ⎞
– cos θ ⎟ 2 bc (a − cos θ )
1/ 2
\ OP = 2bc ⎜ =
⎝ 2bc ⎠
2 bc (a + cos θ )
1/ 2
and OQ =
OQ
μ0 Il ⎡ ⎤
\ F= ⎢ ln r ⎥
2π ⎣ ⎦ OP
μ0 Il
=
2π ⎣
⎡ln { 2 bc (a + cos θ )1/ 2 – ln } { }
2 bc (a – cos θ )1/ 2 ⎤⎦
μ0 Il
= {ln (a + cos θ ) – ln (a – cos θ )}
4π
\ The induced emf
dΦ μ Il ⎧ – sin θ + sin θ ⎫ dθ
E= – =– 0 ⎨ – ⎬
dt 4π ⎩ a + cos θ a – cos θ ⎭ dt
μ0 Il ⎧ a – cos θ + a + cos θ ⎫
= ⎨ ⎬ ω sin θ
4π ⎩ a 2 – cos 2 θ ⎭
μ0 Il ⋅2 aω sin θ
=
4π (a 2 – cos 2 θ )
μ0 Ilω a sin θ
=
2π a 2 – cos 2 θ
a sin θ
= λ⋅
a 2 – cos 2 θ
μ0 Ilω b2 + c2
Thus l= and a =
2π 2bc
6.44 A circular conducting loop rotates about a diameter at an angular rate w in the presence of a
constant magnetic field B normal to the axis of rotation, as shown in Fig. 6.37.
w
a
B
Fig. 6.37 Loop of radius a rotating in a constant magnetic field.

By making use of Faradays law of induction and the definition of self-inductance, show that
the current flowing in the loop is given by
Q B #X TJO X U G
*
3 X -

where
a = radius of the loop,
R = resistance of the loop,
L = self-inductance of the loop
È X-Ø
f= UBO ÉÊ
3 ÙÚ
Sol. The magnetic field B here has constant magnitude and is uniformly distributed, and not
a function of time. But the circular loop is rotating at a constant angular velocity w such that
its axis of rotation (which is its diameter) is normal to the direction of the magnetic field and,
hence, the flux linked by the loop varies with its position related to the direction of the magnetic
field and, therefore, is a function of time as well.
Maximum flux linked by the loop = pa2B, and it occurs when the plane of the loop is normal
to the direction of B.
Zero flux is linked by the loop when the plane of the loop is parallel to the field (= B) direction.
We get maximum flux linkage (in opposite sense) twice during every rotation and also zero flux
linkage twice.
\ Flux linked by the loop at any instant, F = pa2B cos
wt
\ Emf induced in the loop (magnitude only)= pa w B sin w t 2
The loop has an impedance = 3 X -

and it is inductive. So the current will be lagging
the induced emf and it is given as
Q B X # Î È X - Ø Þ
* TJO ÏX U UBO ÉÊ Ùß

3 X -
Ð 3 Úà
Q BX # TJO X U G
or
*
3 X -

6.45 Show that in Problem 6.44, the average power dissipated in the resistance R is
Q B #X
3

1 ¹ +T
3 X -

Also, there will be a torque resisting the rotation of the loop, which is given by
Q B
# X

5
X U G
¹ TJO X U
TJO
\3 X -
^
Sol. From the expression of the current through the loop as derived in Problem 6.44, the
instantaneous power dissipated in the coil resistance (= R) is
Pi = I 2R
Q B #X

= ¹ 3 ¹ TJO X U G
3 X -

where G È X-Ø
ÉÊ
3 ÙÚ
UBO
To obtain the average power dissipated in the resistance R of the coil, it is necessary to integrate
the above expression over one time-period, i.e.
5

Ô TJO X G
EU =

U

Q B #X
3
\ Average dissipated power = ¹ +T
3 X -

Next, the torque on the rotating coil in the magnetic field is to be evaluated (This has been
explained and the method described in Sections 11.5 and 11.5.2, of ElectromagnetismTheory
and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009). The torque is obtained from
the potential energy (= U ) of the circuit (a circular coil in the present case) located in the
magnetic field B in the region where the circuit is located, i.e.
U = IF
I = the current in the loop, and
F = magnetic flux linked by the loop.
When the circuit is rotating, the torque is given by
6 )
5R *
R R
In the present problem, q = w t.
Q BX #
\ Tq = ¹ TJO X U G
¹ Q B # DPT X U

3 X -
X U
Q B
# X

=
TJO X U G
TJO X U
\3 X -
^
The negative sign indicates that the torque tends to reduce the angle q, i.e. it is the restraining
torque.
Q B #
It is to be noted that as R goes to zero, the peak value of the current I becomes = which
-
is a constant independent of w, and the average value of Tq (the resisting torque) vanishes.
6.46 A thin conducting spherical shell (of radius a and thickness t0 << a, conductivity s), rotates
about a diameter (which is considered as the z-axis of the coordinate system) at the rate w (its
angular velocity = 2p f ) in the presence of a constant magnetic field B directed normal to the
axis of rotation and is considered parallel to the y-axis. Find the resultant current-flow in
the spherical shell. Assume that the self-inductance of the sphere is negligible, so that the
current is determined only by the induced electric field and the conductivity s. Since the
thickness t 0 << a, each portion of the spherical surface may be considered to be a plane
surface locally.
Sol. Hints: 1. Express the velocity of an arbitrary point on the surface of the sphere and the
field B in spherical components, and find the induced electric field along the surface of the
sphere.
S
2. Note that the divergence equation ³ ¹ + (the equation of continuity) must hold on the

U
sphere. This condition determines Q (the total charge) on the sphere and, hence, If in the
stationary coordinate frame.
In this problem, since the magnetic field B is not varying with time, the induced E field on the
surface of the spherical shell will be of motional type and it will have no transformer type
component. The induced E field on the shell (and the associated current flowing in the shell
nearly of the surface current type since the shell thickness t0 is << a, the radius of the shell)
will be orthogonal to the components of the B field (which is in the y-direction in the Cartesian
coordinate system) and the velocity v (in the f-direction due to the rotational motion of the
spherical shell).
z-axis ¨ the axis of rotation
B = By = iy B0 thickness of the shell

= t0 << a
Fig. 6.38 The rotating conducting spherical shell of radius a and

thickness t0 (<<a) in the magnetic field B = iy By = iy B0.
Using the spherical polar coordinate system, a point on the surface of the shell is given by
(r, q, f).
Expressing the magnetic field B in terms of spherical coordinates,
B = B y = i y B0
= B0(ir sin q sin f + iq cos q sin f + if cos f) (i)
and since the shell rotates about the z-axis, the velocity of any point on the surface of the shell
is given as
WG JG
X Q B TJO R
(ii)
Q
In the present problem, B has all the three components, and the velocity has only the
f-component. Hence B multiplied by vfÿ would give the q-component of the induced E field,
and Bq multiplied by vf would give the r-component of the induced E field which, since this
component of the induced current cannot flow out of the shell in r-direction, gives rise to the
surface charge on the shell surface (function of time and space). And Bf together with vf does
not produce any component of induced E field.
From the induced Eq, the q component of the induced current (or current density Jq) on the shell
surface can be obtained directly. The f-component of the current (i.e. Jf) and the surface charge
density rS (or even the total charge Q) can be obtained from the Jq by using the divergence
equation (or the equation of continuity),

S4
³¹+ (iii)
U
rS being the surface charge density on the shell. We now derive these equations, i.e. the
q-component of the induced E field,
Eqÿ = # S WG
J S # TJO R TJO G
JG X B TJO R
= JR X B # TJO R TJO G

(iv)
= iq (Product of Jq and resistance of unit length of shell surface)
Resistance of unit area on shell surface (in the q-direction)

= (iva)
T U
\ Jq = w a t0 s B0 sin2 q sin f (v)
Next, the r-component of the induced E on the shell,
Erÿ = #R WG J # DPT R TJO G
JG X B TJO R
= JS X B # TJO R DPT R TJO G (vi)

Now, considering the continuity equation, i.e
S4
Ñ×J= (vii)
U
Ë Û
where Ñ×J= Ì \ S TJO R
+ S ^ \ S TJO R
+ R ^ S +G
Ü (viia)
S TJO R Í S

R G Ý
Î + S +S Þ Î +R DPU R Þ Î +G Þ
= Ï ßÏ +R ß Ï ß (viib)
Ð S S à Ð S R S à Ð S TJO R G à
in spherical polar coordinates.
It is obvious from Eqs. (iii), (viia and viib) that the terms in the first bracket of Eq. (viib) which
are due to Jr, would contribute to the charge distribution on the shell surface. This is due to the
R.H.S. of the Eq. (iii). Also, the Jr term would be obtained from the r-component of induced
E (= Er) as derived in Eq. (vi).
However, before deriving the expressions for the surface charge distribution (= rS) and the total
charge (= Q) on the shell, we now go on to evaluate the expression for the f -component of the
induced current (If), from the expression for Jq as obtained from Eq. (v) and the second and
the third bracketted terms of Eqs. (viia and viib), and (iii).
Î S4 Þ
Since the contribution to the surface charge distribution Ï ß comes from the terms
Ð U à
containing Jr of Eqs. (viia and viib), Eqs. (iii) and (viia and viib) can be rewritten as
Î + S +S Þ S 4
¹ \ S TJO R
+ S ^ = Ï ß (viiia)
S TJO R S Ð S S à U

and
R
^ S TJO R
+R ` G S +G
=0 (viiib)
Equation (viiib) can now be used to evaluate Jf, i.e.

S +G
= \ S TJO R
+R ^
G R

=

B U XT # TJO

R TJO G
R
after substituting for r = a and Jq from Eq. (v).
Integrating the above equation w.r.t. f, and dividing both sides by a,
\ +G BUXT # TJO R DPT R DPT G (ix)
Thus, Jq and Jf (as obtained in Eqs. (v) and (ix) respectively) are the q- and f-components of
the induced current on the shell, as seen by an observer sitting outside the shell, i.e. an observer
in a fixed frame of reference.
Note: r = radial distance from the origin, and
s = conductivity of the shell material.
If on the other hand, the observer was sitting on the rotating spherical shell (i.e. if he was in the
moving frame of reference), then the f-coordinate would not be moving relative to him
(i.e. f is now fixed relative to the observer on the rotating shellas the shell is rotating in
the f-direction as also the observer on the shell), and, hence, the observer would see
no component of current in the f-direction and thus would see only the current in the
q-direction, which would be
+R X BU T # TJO R TJO XU ' G XU
(x)
Next going back to the evaluation of surface charge, as seen by the observer in the fixed frame
of reference, from Eq. (viiia)
S4 Î + S + S Þ
= Ï ß
U Ð S S à
+ S
= ' PO UIF TIFMM TVSGBDF
S S

= \X B# TJO R DPT R TJO G^ ´ cross-sectional area of unit value normal to
B the direction of current-flow ´ Resistance of
this volume element.
= X R DPT R TJO X G X
U
TJO U
'
T ¹
# U
X U TJO R ¹ DPT R ¹ TJO X U

=
T
\ Integrating with respect to t,
X U DPT X U U
S4 TJO R ¹ DPT R ¹ TJO R DPT R ¹ DPT X U
T X T
To obtain the total charge on the surface of the shell, we integrate over the limits of q and f as
q varies from 0 to p and f from 0 to 2p and get
Q
U
Q=
T Ô
¹ Q B TJO R DPT R ER

Q
Q BU TJO R Û
= Ü
T Ý
Q BU
i.e. each hemisphere is oppositely charged, this being = on upper and lower
T
hemispheres.
6.47 In Problem 6.46, the externally applied magnetic field B0 is now made parallel to the axis of
rotation of the conducting spherical shell. Hence, find the resultant currents flowing in the shell
for the changed condition.
Sol. The problem looks very similar to Problem 6.46 but by turning the direction of the
uniform magnetic field through 90° and making it parallel to the axis of rotation of the
conducting sphere, a very significant change has taken place, which alters the result. One
might be tempted to use the same method (as in Problem 6.46) based on the spherical
coordinate system (with its origin at the centre of the sphere) and follow similar steps to arrive
at the answer to the problem. But a blind following of that method would overlook the changed
nature of the present problem.
It should be noted that now the time-invariant uniform magnetic field has its direction parallel
to the axis of rotation of the conducting sphere and this geometry of the problem has made it
an axi-symmetric problem (in spherical coordinate systemas used in Problem 6.46). Even
though the sphere is rotating (at constant angular speed w), there is no change in the nature of
the environmental magnetic field. This amounts to saying that whether an observer is sitting in
the uniform magnetic field fixed in space or the observer is sitting on the rotating sphere, neither
of the observers see a changing magnetic field, i.e. whether the observer is in a fixed frame of
reference or in a moving frame of reference, neither observes the presence of any changing
magnetic field. Hence there would be no induced E or current on the rotating spherical
shell. [Ref: ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New
Delhi, 2009, Section 20.18.4. ...... If no frame exists in which the field is changing, the concept
of a moving field is a snare, Sections 20.18.3.1, 20.18.3.2; Section 10.7.2).
z
B = Bz
= iz B0 y
w
Fig. 6.39 The rotating conducting shell of radius a and thickness t0 (<<a)
in the uniform time-invariant magnetic field B = Bz = izB0.
The problem would be more easily appreciated if instead of the rotating conducting spherical
shell, we have a circular coil loop with its axis parallel to the direction of B (Fig. 6.39). If this
coil is made to rotate about its normal axis, then no induced e.m.f. would be found in the loop
because there is no change in the flux-linkage of the loop. In fact, whatever the orientation of
the plane of the loop, so long it is made to rotate around the z-axis, the same result would be
obtained. The present spherical shell can be considered to be made up of circular loops of
varying radii and then the final result becomes obvious.
6.48 For the configuration described in Problem 6.46, show that the equation for the current-flow
lines on the spherical shell is given by
DPT G TJO R $
where C is the constant which determines a particular member of the family of lines.
Sol. (Refer to Fig. 6.38 of Problem 6.46 for the geometry of the configuration of the spherical
shell and the surrounding magnetic field.)
In Problem 6.46, the equations to the current-density components on the conducting spherical
shell have been obtained as
Jq = w at0 s B0 sin2 q sin f
and Jf = BUX T # TJO R DPT R DPT G

The equation for the current-flow lines would be given by
ES SER S TJO R EG
+S +R +G
In the present problem
Jr = 0
and r=a
\ We have
BER B TJO R EG
=
X B U T # TJO R ¹ TJO G
B UX T # TJO R DPT R DPT G
Ô Ô

or TJO R DPT R ER
DPT G = TJO G EG
TJOR X BUT #
L
k being the constant of integration.

Integrating sin3q cos f = sin3q cos f + C1
or sin3q cos f = C is the equation to the current-flow lines.
6.49 A conducting sphere of radius a moves with a constant velocity ixv (v being constant) through
a uniform magnetic field B directed along the y-axis. Show that an electric dipole field given
by
W#B
& J S DPT R JR TJO R
S
exists around the sphere.
Sol. In spherical polar coordinates,
By = # J S TJO R TJO G JR DPT R TJO G JG DPT G
(i)
v = ixv
= W J S TJO R DPT G JR DPT R DPT G JG TJO G
(ii)
In this problem, the conducting solid sphere is not rotating, but moving linearly in x-direction
at a constant velocity v, in a uniform, time-invariant magnetic field of strength B0 directed in
the y-direction. Since the conducting body is a sphere (of radius a), we use the spherical polar
coordinate system with its origin coincident with the centre of the sphere (Fig. 6.40). Then both
B and v have to be expressed in terms of this coordinate system, which has been done above
in Eqs. (i) and (ii).
Since the magnetic field is time-invariant, the linear motion of the conducting sphere in the
uniform magnetic field (of non-time-varying type) will cause an induced E-field in this medium,
which will be of motional type only and there will be no transformer component in it, i.e.
referring to the Faradays law of induction, the induced E-field is due to the v ´ B term and the
# U term contribution will be zero, i.e. from Faradays law of induction, the induced E-field
due to the linear motion of the conducting sphere is obtained as

induced emf, ) v$Ô & ¹ EM = ÔÔ # ¹ E4 ÔÔ DVSM W #
¹ E4
U
4 4
#
= ÔÔ DVSM W #
¹ E4
4
BT
U
(iii)
B = By = iy B0
z x
ixv
a
(a) xy-plane
z
B = By = iy B0
y x
ixv
a
(b) xz-plane
Fig. 6.40 Conducting sphere of radius a, moving in a linear direction (along x-axis) with constant
velocity v in a uniform magnetic field (of constant value, not varying with time).
\ In the spherical polar coordinate system, the components of (v ´ B) can be obtained as

[from Eqs. (i) and (ii)]
Þ
(v ´ B)r = J S WR #G WG #R
Ñ
ß (iva)
= J S \DPT R DPT G DPT G TJO G
DPT R TJO G^ # W Ñà
= J S # W DPT R
(v ´ B)q = JR WG #S WS #G
Þ
Ñ
ß (ivb)
= JR # W \ TJO G
TJO R TJO G TJO R DPT G DPT G^ Ñ
à
= iq B0v sin q
(v ´ B)f = JG W S #R WR #S
Þ
Ñ (ivc)
ß
= JG # W \TJO R DPT G DPT R TJO G DPT R DPT G TJO R TJO G^ Ñ
à
=0
From the above, the r-component of the motional induced emf will contribute to the surface
charge distribution on the linearly moving conducting sphere. The potential caused by this
charge distribution will give a measure of the electric dipole field around this sphere, by the
following relationships, i.e.
E = grad V (v)
where V is the potential on the sphere surface and Ñ × E = 0 both inside and outside the sphere,
i.e. r < a and r > a, except on the surface r = a, where E and V must satisfy the interface
continuity condition.
\ Both for r < a and r > a, V satisfies the Laplaces equation, i.e.
Ñ2 V = 0 (vi)
Since the spherical polar coordinate system is used, and as there is no f variation, the Laplacian
operator simplifies to:
È 7 Ø È 7 Ø
³7 ÉS Ù É TJO R Ù =0 (vii)
S Ê S Ú TJO R R Ê R Ú
7 7 7 DPU R 7
or = 0, on r < a and r > a
S
S S S R

S R
and on r = a, Ñ2V = vB0 cos q (viii)
The solution of the above equation is
$S DPT R SB
Vi = (ixa)
B
$B DPT R S!B
Vo = (ixb)
S
È 7P 7J Ø
on r = a, ÉÊ Ù W# DPT R (ixc)
S S Ú S B
i.e. discontinuity of the normal component of E due to the surface charge.

Using the above relationship to evaluate the constant of integration C, we get
È B Ø
$ É Ù = vB0
Ê S BÚS B
W# B
or C= (x)

\ For a value of r, r > a, the electric field E is given by
È 7 7 Ø
E = grad V = É J S JR (xi)
Ê S S R ÙÚ
W# B Î Þ
= ÏJ S S
DPT R JR ¹ TJO R
ß
Ð S S à
W# B
= J S DPT R JR TJO R
(xii)
S
6.50 A conducting sphere of radius R has been charged to a potential V and is made to spin about
one of its diameters at a constant angular velocity wÿ (Fig. 6.41).
(a) Show that the surface current density on the spinning sphere is
l = e0wV sin q = M sin q
where M =ÿe0wV and q is the angle made by the point under consideration with the axis of
rotation of the sphere (i.e. z-axis).
(b) Show that the magnetic flux density at the centre of the sphere is
7X
#
N .
D
(c) Show that the dipole moment is

Q 3 . J [

iz being the unit vector and the axis of rotation, and is related to the direction of rotation by the
R.H.S. rule.
z
Fig. 6.41 Conducting sphere of radius R, charged to a potential V, and made to spin at a constant angular velocity w.
Sol. (a) Since the sphere is conducting, the charge will collect on the surface. Let the total
charge on the sphere be = Q.
\ Surface charge density, T4

2 (i)
Q 3
2
The potential V of the sphere = (ii)
QF 3
F 7
\ Surface charge density, sS = 3 (iii)
Since the sphere is made to rotate at a constant angular velocity w about the diameter of the
sphere coinciding with the z-axis, therefore, velocity of any point on the surface of the sphere
is given by
WG
X Q 3 TJO R X 3 TJO R
(iv)
Q
To an observer, sitting outside the sphere, these moving charges will appear as a current.
\ The surface current density l = sS vf
È F 7 Ø
= É
Ê 3 ÙÚ
X 3 TJO R
= e0w V sin q (v)
(b) To find the magnetic induction (= B0) at the centre of the sphere, we divide the surface of
the current-carrying sphere into thin circular elemental strips, normal to the axis of rotation
(i.e. z-axis) and consider the magnetic field at a point on the axis of such circular elements. In
the present case, this point would be the centre of the sphere and one of such elemental circular
strips is shown in Fig. 6.42.
O¢
Elemental circular strip of
width Rdq and radius R sin q,
R q
at a distance R cos q from the
O centre of the sphere
R
Fig. 6.42 Elemental circular strip on the sphere surface for calculating B at the centre of the sphere.
We know from Section 7.4.3 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition,

PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, that the magnetic field on the axis of a circular coil of radius a
and carrying a current I is given by
N *
# TJO R (vi)
B
where the point O on the axis is at a distance b from the plane of the coil such that b/a =
tan q. For the present circular element shown in Fig. 6.42,
a = R sin q, b = R cos q and I = (e0w V sin q) (Rdq)
\ Due to this circular element,
N F X7 TJO R
3ER
B0 = ¹ TJO R
3 TJO R
N F X7
R ER

= UBO R TJO (vii)

\ Due to the complete spherical surface,

R Q
N F X7
#05 = Ô R ER

TJO (viii)

R

Ô TJO R ER

Now, = DPT R TJO R
(ix)

Q
#05 = N F X7 ÎÏ DPT R TJO R
Þß
Ð à
N F X7
= \

^

X7
= N F X7 N F X 7
N . (x)
D
(c) Next, to evaluate the dipole moment, we consider again similar elemental circular strips
normal to the rotating axis (i.e. z-axis) and, hence, for a typical disc of this type of radius
R sin q, its circumference will be 2pR sin qÿ and its cross-sectional area will be p R2sin2 q and
its radial (or in this orientation) thickness = dr. The current density (i.e. the surface current
density along its periphery) will be e0w V sin q.
\ The dipole moment of this strip = Current ´ Area of the loop
= IS
® = (e0wV sin q) (p R2 sin2 q) dr
It is to be noted that since these discs have finite thickness, we consider their volume
(= cross-sectional area ´ thickness this being dr). The total dipole moment will be the sum
of all such moments over the whole range of q from q = 0 to q = p.
S 3 R Q
m TD = Q 3 F X7 Ô ES ÔR TJO R ER

\
S
Q

= Q 3 F X7

3 ÎÏ DPT R TJO R
Þß ¬ as derived in Eq. (x)
Ð à

= Q 3 F X 7 Q3 .

and this will be directed along the z-axis

(Note: The ve sign of the q integral has been neglected)
6.51 The conducting sphere of Problem 6.50 has a radius of 10.0 cm and has been charged to
10 kV and is spinning at 1.00 ´ 104 turns/min.
(a) What is the numerical value for B0 at its centre?
(b) What is the dipole moment of the sphere as in Problem 6.50?
(c) What current flowing through a loop 10.00 cm in diameter would give the same dipole
moment?
Sol. Since problem is merely the numerical evaluation of Problem 6.50, we will not repeat
any of the derivations and use the results of that problem to obtain the numerical results from
the derived expressions.
7X
(a) B0 at the centre of the sphere =
N . XIFSF . F X 7
D
For this problem, V = 10 kV = 10 ´ 103 V;

w = Q SBET

c2 = NT

N F
\ #05 = 7 X
Q

5
Q

D

Q
= 5 5

(b) | mD | = Q 3 . . F X7

ÎÑ Q Þ
Ñ
= Q
Ï
ß
ÑÐ Q àÑ
Q Q
= "N

(c) |m D| = * ¹ Q B the radius of the dipole loop being = 10/2 = 5 cm.
N%
"
\ I=
Q Q
6.52 A large conducting sheet of copper (of conductivity s = 5.8 ´ 107 mhos/m) of thickness t, as
shown in Fig. 6.43, falls with a velocity v through a uniform magnetic field B directed
horizontally and normal to the thickness t of the sheet. Show that a force |F| = s vt B2 per unit
area resisting the motion of the conductor exists (Fig. 6.43).
x
t
s
z
Copper block
v
Fig. 6.43 A copper block of thickness t falling vertically with a constant velocity v, through
a uniform magnetic field of magnitude B directed horizontally and normal to the plane surface
of the block, i.e. B is in the direction of the thickness of the block.
Sol. Since the copper block is falling vertically downwards along z-axis and the magnetic field is
horizontal in y-direction (also the direction of the thickness of the strip), this relative motion
between B and the conducting block, will produce an electric field (= E) mutually perpendicular
to both B and v, i.e. in the x-direction. Its magnitude will be
| E| = | v ´ B| = vB
Its direction will be such that the current produced by this induced E field will oppose the cause
producing it.
The magnitude of this current
= |Jx| = s vB
This current will interact with the source magnetic field
B = i y By ,
and produce a force mutually perpendicular to both the current (in the x-direction) and B
(i.e. y-direction), i.e. in the z-direction such that it opposes the motion producing the current
and hence this force will be directed vertically upwards (i.e. z-direction), opposing the
downward motion of the conductor strip.
\ Force upwards per unit surface area of the conductor block = s v B × B (1 × t)
= s vt B2
6.53 A thin-walled iron cylinder, of mean diameter D, axial length L and wall thickness T (T << D, L),
as shown in Fig. 6.44, is co-axial with a long thin straight wire carrying a time-varying current
i(t). As i(t) changes, the magnetic flux in the iron cylinder also changes, causing an induced
electric field along the central axis of the cylinder to be
N N S -5 EJ U
& ¹
Q % - % EU
D/2
a
b
P
Fig. 6.44 A thin-walled iron cylinder with a co-axial conductor carrying time-varying current.
Sol. The problem of induced e.m.f. (or the electric field) is in fact a dual of the magnetic
field produced by a finite length (of equal length L of the iron cylinder in the present problem)
and air-cored solenoid of same radius (i.e. Rs = D/2 of the cylinder). The magnetic field in the
thin-walled iron cylinder (its radial thickness T being negligible compared with other
dimensions L and D) is in the peripheral direction with no variation over its thickness T so that
the cross-sectional area over which the flux gets linked in the cylinder wall can be justifiably
written as
BD ´ (TL)
where BD is the flux density produced by the time-varying axial conductor carrying current i(t).
J U
\ Total flux linked by the iron cylinder = N N S 5-

Q
%
However, since the present arrangement is dual of a cylindrical solenoid of radius D/2 and axial
length L, what we shall do is to evaluate the magnetic field on the axis of such a solenoid at a
point P on the axis of the solenoid which makes angles a and b with the axis at the two ends
of the solenoid. See Fig. 6.44.
From Section 7.4.4 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning,
New Delhi, 2009, the magnetic field at the point P comes out to be
N O *
#1 DPT C DPT B

Now, we shift the point P to the centre of the solenoid, then

- -
a = b and DPT B
Þ
ÎÑÈ - Ø
È %Ø Ñ - %

ÏÉÊ ÙÚ ÉÊ ÙÚ ß
ÑÐ Ñà
N O *-
\ #$
- %
This is the magnetic field at the centre of the equivalent solenoid.
\ The induced E field at a point at the centre (i.e. mid-point on the axis of the iron cylinder
of length L, thickness T and diameter D) is
N N S -5
EJ U
&
Q % - % EU
which is the required answer.
6.54 A go-and-return circuit of two concentric circular tubes of radius Ri and Ro (Ro > Ri),
respectively carries a direct current of I amperes flowing in opposite directions in each tube in
axial direction. The radial thickness of the tubes can be considered to be negligible in
comparison with other dimensions. Find the magnetic field at a point P, in air, at a distance r
from the common axis (Ri < r < Ro), i.e. the point P lies in the annular air-space between the
two tubes.
The concentric main described above forms a closed circuit of axial length L. A single wire
is now located along the common axis A, as shown in Fig. 6.45, and it forms a closed circuit
of the same axial length. The current in the tubular conductors is now varying with time denoted
by i(t) (in opposite directions in the two tubes). Show that the induced emf in the axial wire on
the common axis has the total value
N - ÑÎ È 3P Ø ÑÞ EJ
) ÏMO É Ù ß
Q Ñ
Ð Ê 3J Ú Ñà EU
Ri r
P
A
Ro
Fig. 6.45 Concentric circular tubes and a central conductor.

Sol. The magnetic field at the point P for all positions of P, at distance r from the central axis
of the co-axial current-carrying tubular conductors, where r ranges from 0 to ¥, can be found
out by taking suitable contours (all of which will be concentric circles) for applying Amperes
law to evaluate the magnetic field at P due to the oppositely directed currents in the concentric
tube. The result comes out as
B0 = 0 for 0 < r < Ri inside the smaller tube.
N *
B0 = for Ri < r < Ro in the annular space between the two tubes. It is so
Q S
as the current in the inner tube is concentrated in a
line current located at the central axis.
and B0 = 0 for Ro < r < ¥ i.e. the two oppositely directed currents cancell out
the field due each current
Part II A wire is now placed on the axis of the tubes. The total flux is in the peripheral
direction, constrained in the annular space between the two tubes.
Considering a cylindrical strip (in this space) of radius r, and radial thickness d r, its axial length
being L, the flux in this elemental strip is given by
N *
EG E S-
Q S
where d rL is the cross-sectional area of the elemental strip under consideration.

\ The total flux linked in the annular space between the tubes is
S 3P
N *- ES N *- È 3P Ø
) Ô
S 3
Q S Q
MO
ÉÊ 3 ÙÚ
J
J
The current in the two tubes I is now replaced by a time varying current, i.e.
Î 3P Þ
Ñ N - ES Ñ ÎÑ N - È 3P Ø ÞÑ
) U
Ï Ô ß J U
ÑÐ 3J Q S Ñà
Ï
ÐÑ Q
MO
ÉÊ 3 ÙÚ ß J U
J à Ñ
\ The induced emf,

E)
E=
EU
N - ÑÎ È 3P Ø ÑÞ EJ
= ÏMO É Ù ß
Q Ñ
Ð Ê 3J Ú Ñà EU
6.55 A square coil of side a is rotating in a uniform alternating magnetic field where the flux density
at any instant of time t is given by
B = Bm sin(w1t + a)
where t is measured from the instant q = 0, where q is the angle that the axis of the square coil
makes with the direction of B field (Fig. 6.46). If the angular velocity of the coil is w2, find an
expression for the induced emf. Show that in the present problem, there will be both the
transformer emf and the motional emf, and that their resultant can be resolved into two different
frequency components whose frequencies are in the ratio
X X
X X
and whose amplitudes will also be in the same ratio.
q B
N
B
a
Fig. 6.46 Square coil rotating in a uniform alternating magnetic field.
Sol. Suppose q = angle between the direction of B and the normal to the square coil.
Given that at t = 0, q = 0, i.e. it is the instant of maximum flux linkage in the coil, because at
that instant, the plane of the coil is normal to the direction of B.
\ At any instant t, the flux linking the coil F = a2B cos w2t
= a2 Bm sin (w1t + a) cos w2t
\ The induced emf,
E)
) BX #N DPT XU B
DPT X U B #NX TJO XU B
TJO X U
EU
5SBOTGPSNFS FNG .PUJPOBM FNG
Manipulating and rearranging the terms of the emf,

B #N Ë
E=
Í
^
X DPT \ X X
U B^ DPT \ X X
U B^ `
^
X DPT \ X X
U B^ DPT \ X X
U B^ Û
Ý `
B #N
= Ë X X
DPT \ X X
U B^ X X
DPT \ X X
U B^ÛÝ
Í
i.e. there are two components of different frequencies whose ratio is given by
X X
X X
And the ratio of their amplitudes is given by
B #N
X
X

B #N
X
X
6.56 A homopolar generator (Fig. 6.47) consists of a circular copper cylindrical shell (whose radial
thickness can be neglected), rotating in a radial magnetic field between two cylindrical pole-
pieces (A and C), of which the central cylinder A is the north pole and C the cylindrical annulus
is the south pole (both at the top end). The circuit of the generator is completed by means of
two brushes sliding on the copper cylinder, one at each of its ends. The mean flux density
of the magnetic field over the thickness of the cylinder wall is 1 T (=104 gauss), the mean radius
of the copper cylinder is 15 cm (= Rc), its axial length is 0.5 m (= l ), and it rotates at
2000 rpm. Find the magnitude and the direction of emf which appears between the brushes.
Rotating
V copper cylinder V
S N S
A
North pole
C
le
N S N
po
uth
So
Homopolar generator Section from the front

(top view)
Fig. 6.47 A tubular homopolar generator.
Sol. This is a homopolar generator with a geometry somewhat different from the usual
Faraday disc type generator. Here a cylindrical copper shell is rotating in a radial, steady
magnetic field, produced by two co-axial cylindrical magnets, the north pole on the top by a
cylindrical magnet located co-axially with the copper tube and the south pole at the same end
is produced by the cylindrically annulus magnet, also positioned co-axially with the tube and
the solid cylindrical magnet.
For solving this problem, we use the flux cutting law (e = Blv) for motion of conductors
through constant magnetic field where the circuit consists of two or more sections of constant
shape between which there is relative motion, the sections being connected by sliding contacts.
It should be obvious in the present case that the emf measured by the voltmeter is induced
entirely in the rotating copper cylinder.
The peripheral speed of the copper cylindrical shell, relative to the fixed voltmeter is

v= Q Q NT

Also l = 0.5 m
and B=1T
\ Induced emf = Blv = 1 ´ 0.5 ´ 10p = 5p V.
6.57 The homopolar generator described in Problem 6.56 is now so adjusted that it is now possible
to rotate the whole of the external circuit (i.e. the part extending from brush to brush through
the voltmeter), which is now a rotatable rigid structure. This part now rotates in a clockwise
direction at a speed of 1000 rpm., independent of the copper cylinder on which the brushes rest.
Find the magnitude and the direction of the induced emf in the circuit, when the copper cylinder
(a) is at rest,
(b) also rotates in the clockwise direction at a speed of 2000 rpm.,
(c) rotates in the anticlockwise direction at a speed of 1000 rpm.
Sol. In this problem as well, the flux cutting rule should be applied to solve the problem, and
the relative velocity between the two parts of the circuit should be used to calculate the induced
e.m.f. of the generator.
(a) When the external circuit (consisting of the brushes with the voltmeter on a rigid mounting)
is rotating in the clockwise direction at 1000 rpm, keeping the copper cylindrical shell
stationary, then this situation is equivalent to the copper cylindrical shell rotating at 1000 rpm
in the counterclockwise direction with respect to the stationary external circuit.
Q
\ Now v= NT Q NT

Q
and hence E= Q 7

in a direction opposite to that of the previous problem
(b) In this case, the external circuit is rotating at 1000 rpm in the clockwise direction with
respect to the stationary magnet system and the copper cylindrical shell is also rotating at
2000 rpm in the clockwise sense with respect to the stationary magnets. Hence this is equivalent
to the situation that the copper shell is rotating at the speed of 1000 rpm in the clockwise sense
relative to the external circuit (comprised of sliding brushes with the voltmeter in the circuit).
\ v = 5p m/s
in the clockwise sense relative to the external circuit.
\ The induced emf in the external circuit,
E = 2.5p V
in the same direction as in Problem 6.56 and is in the opposite sense to that of Part (a) of this
problem.
(c) The copper cylinder is now made to rotate at 1000 rpm in the anticlockwise direction
relative to stationary parts, whilst the external circuit is rotating at 1000 rpm in the clockwise
direction with respect to the stationary part of the system. The result of these motions is that
the speed of the copper cylinder, relative to the external circuit is now 2000 rpm in the
counterclockwise sense.
\ v = 10p m/s
in the counterclockwise sense with respect to the voltmeter.
\ Induced emf, E = 5p V
in a direction opposite to that of Problem 6.56, and, hence, is in the same direction as that
of Part (a) of this problem, and also in opposite direction to that happening in Part (b) of this
problem.
6.58 The same homopolar generator as described and discussed in Problems 6.56 and 6.57 is again
being operated. But now the copper cylindrical shell and the external circuit consisting of the
brushes and the voltmeter are both kept stationary. Now the two magnetic pole pieces
(consisting of the central solid cylinder and the outer cylindrical annulus) are rotated about their
common axis, either with the same or different angular velocities. What is the effect of such
rotations of the magnetic poles on the induced emf in the voltmeter circuit?
Sol. In the present arrangement, there is no relative motion between the copper cylindrical
shell and the external voltmeter circuit. The magnet system, consisting of the central cylindrical
magnet and the cylindrical annulus magnet of opposite polarity, constitutes an axisymmetric
magnetic field system. The rotation of the two magnet members (whether both are rotated at
the same speed or at different speeds) makes no change in the pattern of the radial magnetic
field in which the copper cylindrical shell is located. Hence no e.m.f. would be induced in the
cylindrical shell and the external circuit due to any rotations of the two magnets. So the
voltmeter will not indicate any induced emf in the circuit and consequently no deflection in the
voltmeter needle.
6.59 A circular copper ring, of rectangular cross-section, of inner radius Ri and outer radius Ro
(Ro > Ri), and of axial thickness d r, is located in a uniform alternating magnetic field normal to
the plane of the ring. The flux density at any instant of time t is given by
B = Bm sin wt
Prove that the mean value of the induced e.m.f. in the ring is same as that induced in a circular
ring of negligible section and of radius Rm which is
3 3 3 3
3N J J P P

and placed in the same magnetic field.
Sol. Consider a circular section of the ring (Fig. 6.48) at a radius r where Ri < r < Ro. The
total flux linked by this ring is given by
Fr = p r2 Bm sin w t
\ The e.m.f. induced in this ring
E )S
Er =
EU
= QX #N S DPT X U

(i)
Ro
Ri
dr
Fig. 6.48 Circular copper ring of rectangular cross-section.
\ e.m.f. induced in the innermost ring section = QX #N 3 DPT X U

J
and e.m.f. induced in the outermost ring section = QX #N 3P DPT X U

It should be noted that the induced e.m.f. in the ring sections increases not linearly as a function
of r, but instead increases as a function of r2, i.e. parabolically. So to find the mean e.m.f., we
cannot simply add the two limiting values and divide by the radial depth (Ro = Ri), i.e.
QX #N 3P 3J
)N DPT X U (ii)

B 3P 3J
because such an expression assumes a linear variation of r (see Fig. 6.49).

Er μ F
Linear
variation
Parabolic
variation
r
Ri Ro
Fig. 6.49 Variation of f as a function of the radius.
So the expression (ii) would give incorrect values for both the mean value of the e.m.f. and the
radius for this value.
Since the variable in the expression for e.m.f. [i.e. Eq. (i)] is r2, we have to consider a thin ring
at r of infinitesimal radial thickness d r (which is the limit and would vanish to zero) and
integrate it over the limit Ri to Ro, i.e.
3P
3P 3J
Ô S ES

3J
is the expression for e.m.f. to sum up all such e.m.fs. of all the rings from Ri to Ro.
Hence the corresponding mean radius Rm will be
3P 3J 3P 3P 3J 3J

3N =
3P 3J

i.e. Rm = 3 3P 3J 3J

P

6.60 In a Betatron, an electron is accelerated along a circular orbit, by an increasing magnetic field
(= B) whose direction is at right angles to the plane of the orbit and is symmetrical about the
axis of the orbit. Show that the electron will continue to move in a path of constant radius
(i.e. in a circular orbit), if the flux density at the path is always one-half of the mean flux density
enclosed by the path.
Sol. Let
R = radius of the orbit
B = mean flux density over the orbit
F = flux linking the orbit.
Then an e.m.f. is induced around the orbit (= E).
The magnitude of this e.m.f. is
E) E#
) Q 3 (i)
EU EU
and since the magnetic field is symmetrical about the axis of the orbit, the induced electric field
(E, say) is concentric with the axis (of the orbit) and has the same magnitude at all points of the
orbit.
The induced emf is hence given by
E = 2p RE, (ii)
and therefore from the Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
3 E#
& (iii)
EU
If now, at the orbital path, the magnetic flux density is denoted by B¢, and the velocity of the
electron = v, then the electron would experience a radial force which is given by
'3 2 W# (iv)
where Q = the charge of the electron (= electronic charge).
If the mass of the electron (= electronic mass) is me, then
QvB¢ =
NF W (v)
3
NF W
and hence B¢ = (vi)
23
The force accelerating the electron = QE (vii)

and this force = rate of change of momentum.
3 E# E
\ 2& 2 ¹ N W
(viii)
EU EU F
Assume that the electron starts from rest when B = 0 and then doing a time integration of the
rate of change of momentum,
23# (ix)
mev =

NF W
\ B= # (x)
23
The above is the necessary relationship between B and B¢.
Note: There has been no assumption that the electronic mass me is a constant, because
Eq. (viii) is valid even if me is a function of velocity.
\ The above Eq. (x) holds if the electron is accelerated to velocities comparable to c
(= the velocity of light) in which case its mass is gives by

ÑÎ W ÑÞ
NF NP Ï ß
ÐÑ D Ñà
So, we have not used the relation
force = mass ´ acceleration
6.61 A circular cylindrical solenoid of finite axial length and having two circular slip-rings, as shown
in Fig. 6.50, is made to rotate about its axis at a constant angular speed. A constant current I is
fed into the solenoid by means of a stationary battery which is connected to contacts sliding
on the slip-rings at each end of the solenoid. The current in this circuit is measured by an
ammeter A1 located in the stationary part of the circuit. A second ammeter A2 is connected to
the solenoid directly and is mounted and fixed in position so that it can rotate along with the
solenoid. What would be the readings of the two ammeters?
A2
A1
Fig. 6.50 Rotating solenoid.

Sol. It is obvious that the current in the solenoid is independent of any motion which the
solenoid may possess relative to an observer (in the present situation, the ammeter can be
considered as the observer).
So, it is expected that the two meters A1 and A2 would indicate the same value.
Furthermore, if we consider the magnetic field of the solenoid (produced by the current in it),
at any stationary point P, it follows that this (i.e. the magnetic field) would also be independent
of any rotation of the coil.
The induced electric field due to a rotating solenoid:
It has been experimentally observed that no detectable electric field is induced inside a rotating
solenoid which carries a constant current. This is consistent with the accepted electromagnetic
theory because the necessary conditions for the electromagnetic induction of an electric field
are not present in such experiments.
The present arrangement (i.e. the rotating solenoid) is not comparable with that of a rotating
cylindrical bar magnet because each element of such a bar can be considered to be a complete
magnetic field source, which is the condition required for the motional induction of an electric
field. And there is no such magnetic field source inside the solenoid.
Forces and Energy in Static 7
and Quasi-static Magnetic Systems
(with inductance calculations)
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Even though the concepts of magnetic vector potential A will be introduced later (in a rigorous sense),
in this chapter we shall use this concept for solving some of the problems. For this reason, in the
chapter dealing with the magnetic vector potential, we shall again include some more problems on
magnetostatics fields. A strictly rigid classification of problems in magnetostatics is not possible for
the simple reason that a comprehensive definition of inductance requires consideration of energy
(potential as well as stored) and magnetic vector potential as well.
For convenience, we shall state some of the relevant results required for solving the problems
dealing with forces, energy (and inductance) related to magnetic systems.
1. The power of the external forces acting on the free charges in a magnetic system is
J2 æ ¶A ö
òòò
v
Ei × J dv = òòò
v
s
dv + òòò J × çè ¶t ÷ø dv + òòò (J × ÑV ) dv
v
Time varying Joule's heat Part of the power of the external forces
imposed used against the electric field created
electric field by quasi-stationary charge
Time-varying current distribution
produced by this field
Power of the external forces used against the
forces of the quasi-stationary electric
field created by all the varying
currents of the system
and the energy required to set up the magnetic field,

1
Wm =
2 ∫∫∫ J ⋅ A dv
v
Potential energy of a circuit in a magnetic field,

U = I × Flux through the extensive circuit
520
FORCES AND ENERGY IN STATIC AND QUASI-STATIC MAGNETIC SYSTEMS 521
Force on a current-carrying circuit in a magnetic field,

dF = JB ⋅ sinq ⋅ dv
Force on a moving unit charge in a magnetic field,
Fm = v × B
Calculation of forces of circuits based on potential energy,
∂Φ ∂U
Fx = I =−
∂x ∂x
∂Φ ∂U
Tθ = I =−
∂θ ∂θ
AmpereLaplaces law of forces (between stationary current systems),
µ0 dl1 (dl 2 u12 )

Fm12
4Q
I1 I 2 vÔ vÔ
C1 C2
r2
Force due to time-varying currents in two parallel conductors

µ 0 I 2 1 − cos 2ωt
F= per unit length
2π d 2
Torque on a circular coil placed in a uniform magnetic field B,
T = I(S × B),
where S is the area of the coil.
1 2
Energy stored in the field of a coil = LI .
2
Energy stored in the field of several coils,
∑ iΦ
1
W=
2
Potential energy = LI = IF
∑ IΦ
1
Stored energy = W =
2
Force between two circuits in terms of mutual inductance,
∂U ∂M 12
Fx = − = I1 I 2
∂x ∂x
Stored energy in terms of magnetic field vectors,
∑ iΦ = 2 ∫∫∫ BH δ v
1 1
W=
2
Energy storage in a region containing iron,

BS
energy density = ∫ H dB J/m3

0
Forces on circuits with associated iron,
∂Φ ∂W
Fx = i −
∂x ∂x
∂Φ ∂W
Tθ = i −
∂θ ∂θ
Inductance in terms of stored energy,
1
L=
I2 ∫∫∫ B ⋅ H dv
v
1
and M12 =
I1 I 2 ∫∫∫ B ⋅ H dv
v
1 2
Internal self-inductance of a straight cylindrical conductor,

µ0
Li = H/m of the conductor.
8π
7.2 PROBLEMS
7.1 A large metal strip of conductivity s and small thickness t, is moving with a uniform
velocity v between the poles of a permanent magnet as shown in the figure below. The pole
faces are of circular cross-section, their radii being a which is much smaller than the dimensions
of the strip, except t (<< a) and width of the strip (>> a). The flux density B0 over the
cross-sectional area of the magnet can be considered to be zero, outside this area. Find the
induced currents in the strip and the force on the strip as result of the interaction between the
magnetic field of the magnet and the induced currents in the strip.
7.2 A U-shaped glass tube is filled with a paramagnetic fluid of susceptibility ce. A part of the tube
inside the square is subjected to a uniform magnetic field of intensity H, directed as shown in
the figure below. The magnetic field produces a difference h in the levels of the fluid in the
two sections of the tube. If rm is the mass density of the fluid, evaluate cm.
l0
h
H
l
7.3 Two parallel circular loops of radii a and b (a >> b), are coaxially located and carry currents
I1 and I2, respectively. The axial distance between the centres of the loops is z. Find
approximately the force between the loops.
7.4 A two-wire line as shown in the figure below, consists of two conductors of circular cross-
section of radius a, and the distance between them is d. The line is short-circuited by a straight
conducting bar. If the current through the line is I, what is the force on the bar? (Assume the
line to the left of the short-circuit to be infinitely long and the medium to be air.)
7.5 A metal ring R of negligible resistance is placed above a short cylindrical electromagnet,
parallel to the pole-face and coaxial with it, as shown in the following figure. A current passing
through the electromagnet is of the form i = Im cos w t. Find, qualitatively, how does the total
force on the ring, behave as a function of time.
B dFR FR Ring R
i = Im cos zt
7.6 Find the mutual inductance between two parallel thin conductors each of length b and separated
by a distance d. (Assume the same positive direction along the conductors.)
7.7 Find the external self-inductance of a thin straight conductor of length b and radius a.
7.8 Find the self-inductance of a section of a two-wire line of length b, if the distance between the
conductors is d (d << b) and their radius is a, where d >> a.
7.9 Show that the total self-inductance of a rectangular loop of sides a and b is given by
µ0 ⎧ 2ab 2ab ⎫ µ
L = ⎨b ln + a ln − 2( a + b − d ) ⎬ + 0 ( a + b),
π ⎩ R (b + d ) R(a + d ) ⎭ 4π
where d = (a2 + b2)1/2 and the radius of the conductor R << a or b.
7.10 Show that the mutual inductance between two parallel square loops of equal sides a at a
distance b from each other, and coinciding with two opposite sides of a rectangular
parallelepiped is
⎧ a + 2a 2 + b 2 a + a 2 + b2 ⎫
2µ ⎪ ⎪
M12 = 0 ⎨− a ln + a ln + 2a 2 + b 2 − 2 a 2 + b 2 + b ⎬ .
π ⎪⎩ 2
a +b 2 b ⎪⎭
7.11 A small magnet of magnetic moment m, as shown in the following figure, is placed at a
distance z along the axis of a circular loop of wire of radius a carrying a current i. The axis
of the magnet makes an angle a with the axis of the coil. Find the couple experienced by the
magnet.
If the centre of the magnet is fixed on the axis, but is free to rotate about that point, find the
equation of motion of the magnet, given that the angle of oscillation a is small and I is the
moment of inertia of the magnet.
7.12 Under the influence of ultraviolet light, electrons are emitted with negligible velocities from the
negative plate of a parallel plate capacitor of separation d, which is situated in a magnetic field
with B parallel to the plates and across which a potential difference V is applied. Taking suitable
axes, write down the equations of motion of an electron, and prove that no electron current will
reach the positive plate unless V exceeds ed2B2/2m.
7.13 The electrodes of a diode are coaxial cylinders, radii a and b, with a < b, as shown in the
following figure. A potential difference V is maintained between them and their common axis
is parallel to a uniform magnetic field B. The inner cylinder is the cathode, electrons leave it
radially with negligible velocity. Show that they will reach the anode at grazing incidence if
2
eB 2 b 2 ⎛ a2 ⎞
V = ⎜⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟⎟ .
8m ⎝ b ⎠
7.14 Positive ions q are entering a region at a small aperture which is taken as the origin of
coordinates. The velocity of injection is u0 and its direction lies in the plane OXY at an angle
q (< 90°) to OX. The region contains uniform electric and magnetic fields E and B, respectively
parallel to OY and OZ.
(a) Show that whenever the ions recross the plane OZX, they must do so with velocity u0.
(b) Write down the equations of motion, and hence prove that the velocities of the ions are
given by
E
x = u 0 cos(θ − ω t ) + (1 − cos ω t )
B
E
y = u 0 sin(θ − ω t ) + sin ω t ,
B
where w is to be determined.
(c) Show that the recrossing of the plane OZX occurs at times given by
ωt u 0 sin θ
tan = .
2 u 0 cos θ − ( E/B )
7.15 When ions move through a gas under the influence of an electric field, their mean velocity is
found to be given by an equation of the form
u = km E,
where km is a constant. If the positive ions are emitted uniformly over a plane electrode at
x = 0 and move through a gas towards a parallel electrode at x = l under the influence of a field
between the electrodes, show that the electric force under the steady state must obey a law of
the form
Ex = (ax + b)1/2,
where a and b are constants of integration.
Hence, deduce in terms of these constants:
(a) the potential difference
(b) the current per unit area of the electrode and
(c) the time of transit of an ion between the electrodes.
(The magnetic forces are negligible.)
7.16 In an infinite mass of iron of permeability m (= m0 mr), a right-circular cylindrical hole of radius
a, has been drilled. In this hole a current-carrying wire (the current being I) has been so located
that it is parallel to the axis of the cylindrical cavity. Show that the wire will be attracted to the
nearest part of the surface of the cavity with a force
μr − 1 1
μ0 I 2 per unit length,
μr + 1 2π d
where d is the distance between the wire and its image in the cylindrical hole.
7.17 Two square circuits, each of side a and carrying currents I and I ¢ are placed in two parallel
planes with their edges parallel to each other, and the line joining the centres of the two squares
normal to these parallel planes. If this shortest distance between the squares is c, show that the
force of attraction between the squares is
2 μ0 I I ′ ⎧⎪ c (c 2 + 2a 2 ) 2c 2 + a 2 ⎫⎪
⎨1 + − ⎬.
π ⎪⎩ (c 2 + a 2 ) c (c 2 + a 2 ) ⎪⎭
7.18 A co-axial cable is made up of a solid circular cylindrical conductor of radius a and a co-axial
circular cylindrical annular conductor of inner and outer radii b and c, respectively (a < b < c).
Equal currents are made to flow, in opposite directions, in the core and the annulus. By
considering the total energy stored in the magnetic field of the cable, show that the self-
inductance of the cable per unit axial length is
- N C ÑÎ D MO D D C ÑÞÛÜ
Ë
Ì MO
Q ÍÌ B D C ÏÐÑ D C C
ß
àÑÝÜ
7.19 Explain the phenomenon of Pinch Effect shown in a current-carrying conductor. Derive the
expression for the magnitude of this effect in a conductor of cylindrical cross-section (or radius R)
and, hence, show that whilst the total axial force depends only on the magnitude of
the current, the total pressure at any point of the conductor is a function of the conductor radius
as well.
7.20 A conducting sphere of radius R and carrying a charge Q is moving in free space (or air) with
a velocity v (v << cthe velocity of light). Find the energy stored in the magnetic field of this
moving charged sphere by using the energy expression

8 ÔÔÔ )#EW
-*
7.21 An iron ring of uniform circular cross-section of area A and of mean peripheral length L (of the
iron part only), has an air-gap of length g. The mean flux density in the air-gap is kB, where B
is the flux density in the iron, and k is a constant < 1.
If the BH curve for the iron is given by the Fröhlichs equation
B)
#
C)
whose asymptotes are B = a and H = b, show that the flux density in iron (= B) due to a
magnetizing m.m.f. (= m) is given by the smaller root of the equation,
# ÎÏ N C-
N 2 Þß # BNN
Ð LH à LH
7.22 A permanent magnet steel has a demagnetization curve whose equation is given by
Î C Þ
# B Ï ß (i)
Ð D )à
and whose asymptotes are B = a and H = (Hc + b) = c, Hc being the coercive value of H.
A magnet made of this steel has to maintain a useful external field in which the stored energy
is W. If the flux in the magnet is equal to kL times the useful flux, show that the minimum
volume of the magnet material required is
8L-
BD ÑÎ
Ï
C ÑÞß
ÐÑ D àÑ
7.23 The relationship between the m.m.f. (= m) of the magnetizing winding of, and the flux (= F)
in a closed circular iron ring is given by the Fröhlichs equation
BN
)
CN
where Fÿ = a and m = b are the asymptotes of the above-mentioned rectangular hyperbola.
A direct current m.m.f. (= m0) is applied to the above ring and this produces a time-independent
flux (= Fd) in the ring. Then an alternating m.m.f. (= ma) is superposed on m0 such that the flux
in the ring now has a sinusoidal alternating component of the value ) TJO X U If the hysteresis
and eddy current losses are negligible, and if the direct current component of the m.m.f. still
remains to be m0, show that the superposition of the alternating flux (= F sin w t) causes the
constant component of the flux to decrease to a new value Fd1, which is
) E B B ) E
)
~ QSPWJEFE UIBU )
~ ) E
Hence, show that the direct current m.m.f. necessary to cause a constant component of flux Fd1,
when a sinusoidal flux component = F sin w t is present is
Î B Þ
Ñ Ñ
N CÏ ß
~
ÑÐ B ) E
)
Ñà
7.3 SOLUTIONS
7.1 A large metal strip of conductivity s and small thickness t, is moving with a uniform velocity
v between the poles of a permanent magnet as shown in Fig. 7.1. The pole faces are of circular
cross-section, their radii being a which is much smaller than the dimensions of the strip, except
t (<< a) and width of the strip (>> a). The flux density B0 over the cross-sectional area of the
magnet can be considered to be zero, outside this area. Find the induced currents in the strip
and the force on the strip as result of the interaction between the magnetic field of the magnet
and the induced currents in the strip.
Fig. 7.1 Moving strip and the permanent magnet.
Sol. The motion of the strip causes the free charges in the circular region (facing the circular
poles of the permanent magnet) to be acted upon by the magnetic force.
This force can be represented by an equivalent imposed electric field which is

Ei = v × B
The current density in the circular region where the impressed field exists, is constant and is
given by
σ Ei σ
J= = ( v × B)
2 2
The magnetic force per unit volume acting on these currents is
dF σ
= J × B = ( v × B) × B
dv 2
The force over the circular cross-sectional area covered by the pole face region would be
constant.
This force is directed opposite to the direction of the motion of the strip. The total force is
hence given by
dF 1
F = π a 2b = σπ a 2 bvB 2
dv 2
7.2 A U-shaped glass tube is filled with a paramagnetic fluid of susceptibility ce. A part of the tube
inside the square is subjected to a uniform magnetic field of intensity H, directed as shown in
Fig. 7.2. The magnetic field produces a difference h in the levels of the fluid in the two sections
of the tube. If rm is the mass density of the fluid, evaluate cm.
l0
h
H
l
Fig. 7.2 U-tube with paramagnetic fluid.
Sol. The expression for magnetic pressure is
dFn 1 ⎛ B2 ⎞
p= = ( µ 2 – µ1 ) ⎜ H t2 +
⎜ ⎟⎟ , directed from 2 to 1.
dS 2 ⎝ µ1µ 2 ⎠
The derivation of this expression is exactly similar to that of electrostatic pressure and is left as
an exercise for the students.
In this problem, there is only the tangential component of H.

1 1
\ p= ( µ 2 − µ1 ) H t2 = ( µ − µ 0 ) H 2
2 2
Let S be the cross-sectional area of the tube.
Then, the force pulling the liquid upwards is
1
Fm = ( µ − µ0 ) H 2 S
2
When in equilibrium this force is compensated by the weight of liquid column above the lower
level in the other side of the U tube, i.e. by hS rmg.
\ µ µ0 = µ0(µr 1) = µ0.cm = 2rm ghS
2 ρ m ghS
\ cm = ,
µ0
where g is strength of the earths gravitational field.
7.3 Two parallel circular loops of radii a and b (a >> b), are coaxially located and carry currents
I1 and I2, respectively. The axial distance between the centres of the loops is z. Find
approximately the force between the loops.
Sol. Since a >> b, for approximation, we can consider the flux, linking the smaller loop,
produced by the current I1 in the larger loop to be equal to B1 on the axis multiplied by p b2
(area of the smaller loop).
µ 0 I1a 2
Now B1 = B1z =
2( a 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
2009, p. 241.)
Since F12 = B1p b2,
Φ12 µ 0π a 2 b 2
\ M12 = I =
1 2( a 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
The force by the principle of virtual displacement along the z-axis is obtained by considering
the variation of the mutual inductance.
∂Wm ∂M12 3µ 0π a 2 b 2 z
\ Fz = = I1 I 2 =−
∂z ∂z 2( a 2 + z 2 )5/ 2
7.4 A two-wire line as shown in Fig. 7.3, consists of two conductors of circular cross-section of
radius a and the distance between them is d. The line is short-circuited by a straight conducting
bar. If the current through the line is I, what is the force on the bar? (Assume the line to the left
of the short-circuit to be infinitely long and the medium to be air.)
Fig. 7.3 Two-wire line short-circuited by a bar.
Sol. Since the bar short-circuits the line, it creates a set of semi-infinite parallel current-
carrying conductors from the line. Hence, the total flux density at the element dx due to the two
currents is
µ I µ0 I
B= 0 +
4π x 4π ( d − x )
\ The elemental force on the element dx is
µ0 I 2 ⎛ dx dx ⎞
dF = I dx B = ⎜ + ⎟
4π ⎝ x d − x ⎠
\ The total force on the bar is
d −a
µ0 I 2 d −a
F= ∫a
dF =
4π
ln
a
7.5 A metal ring R of negligible resistance is placed above a short cylindrical electromagnet,
parallel to the pole-face and coaxial with it, as shown in Fig. 7.4. A current passing through the
electromagnet is of the form i = Im cos w t. Find, qualitatively, how does the total force on the
ring behave as a function of time.
B dFR FR Ring R
i = Im cos zt
Fig. 7.4 Conducting ring placed above a cylindrical electromagnet excited by an alternating current.
Sol. The ring is placed in a time-varying magnetic field.

(Nonlinearity of the core of the magnet is ignored.) Since the magnetic field is proportional to
the current producing it,
B = Bm cos w t, where Bm is a function of space.
d)
\ The emf induced in the ring, ) )m X sin X t )m sin X t .
–
dt
Since the resistance of the ring is ignored, this emf will be balanced by the emf due to the
time-varying current in the ring. If L is the self-inductance of the ring, then
diR
L )(t ) )m sin X t
dt
\ The current in the ring is of the form, iR = IRm cos w t.
The elements of the ring are acted upon by the magnetic force (as shown in Fig. 7.4). Due to
the non-uniformity of the magnetic field, the total force will have an axial resultant
FR = kiRB = FRm cos2w t, k = constant
7.6 Find the mutual inductance between two parallel thin conductors each of length b and separated
by a distance d. (Assume the same positive direction along the conductors.)
Sol. We use the Neumanns formula for mutual inductance, i.e.

µ0 dl1 ¹ dl 2
M12
4Q vÔ vÔ
l1 l2
r
Fig. 7.5 Two parallel conductors of finite length.
dl1 ⋅ dl 2 dy1dy2
In this case, the integrand = .
r {d + ( y1 − y2 ) 2 }1/ 2
2
b b b y1 − b
dy2
∫ ∫ {d
dz
\
0
dy1
0
2
+ ( y1 − y2 ) 2 }1/ 2
=
∫
0
dy1 ∫
y1
( d + z 2 )1/ 2
2
, using the substitution (y1 y2) = z
b y1 − b b
⎛ y1 − b y ⎞
∫ ∫ ⎜⎝ − sinh
−1 −1
= − sinh ( z/d ) dy1 = + sinh −1 1 ⎟ dy1
d d ⎠
0 y1 0
b b
⎧ 2⎫ ⎧ 2⎫
⎪ y1 −1 ⎛ y1 ⎞ ⎛ y1 ⎞ ⎪ ⎪ y1 − b −1 ⎛ y1 − b ⎞ ⎛ y1 − b ⎞ ⎪
= ⎨
d sinh ⎜d ⎟ − 1 + ⎜d ⎟ ⎬ − d ⎨ sinh ⎜ d ⎟ − 1 + ⎜ d ⎟ ⎬
⎪⎩ d ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪ ⎪⎩ d ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪
⎭0 ⎭0
dl1 ¹ dl 2 ÎÑ 2
d ÞÑ
µ0 µ 0b 1 È b Ø ÈdØ
\ M12 =
4Q vÔ vÔ
1 2
r 2Q
Ïsinh Ê Ú 1 Ê Ú ß
ÐÑ
d b bÑ
à
Now (
sinh −1 x = ln x + 1 + x 2 )
⎡ ⎤
µ 0b ⎢ ⎧⎪ b
2⎫ 2
⎛b⎞ ⎪ ⎛d⎞ d
\ M12 = ln ⎨ + 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ − 1 + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎥
2π ⎢ ⎪ d ⎝d ⎠ ⎪ ⎝b⎠ b⎥
⎣⎢ ⎩ ⎭ ⎥⎦
7.7 Find the external self-inductance of a thin straight conductor of length b and radius a.
Sol. This is the case of evaluating the external inductance of a quasi-filamentary conductor
(or loop). What is done is to consider two loops (or two conductors) which produce the linking
magnetic flux. The two loops are allowed to come closer and closer, till finally they coincide.
The corresponding expression for M12 then becomes L11. But then the integral (in the Neumann
formula) becomes an improper one, i.e. it has an infinitely large value as r ® 0. However, a
reasonable practical approximation is to consider the current to be concentrated along the loop
axis (or the conductor axis) and then determine the flux created by this filamentary current
through any filamentary current on the conductor surface. If the conductor is very thin, then this
is a very good approximation.
In this case (from the Neumanns formula), the integrand is
dl1 ⋅ dl 2 dy1dy2
=
r {a + ( y1 − y2 ) 2 }1/ 2
2
b b b y1 − b
dy2 dz
\ ∫ dy ∫ {a
0
1
0
2
+ ( y1 − y2 ) } 2 1/ 2
= ∫ dy ∫ 1
( a + z 2 )1/ 2
2
, using the substitution ( y1 y2) = z.
0 y1
b y1 − b b
z ⎛ y1 − b y⎞
∫ − sinh −1 ∫ ⎜⎝ − sinh
−1
= dy1 = + sinh −1 ⎟ dy1
a a a⎠
0 y1 0
b b
⎧ 2⎫ ⎧ 2⎫
⎪ y1 −1 ⎛ y1 ⎞ ⎛ y1 ⎞ ⎪ ⎪ y1 − b y −b ⎛ y −b⎞ ⎪
= a ⎨ sinh ⎜ ⎟ − 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ − a ⎨ sinh −1 1 − 1+ ⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎬
⎪⎩ a ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎪ ⎪ a a ⎝ a ⎠ ⎪
⎭0 ⎩ ⎭0
\ L11e
µ0
4Q vÔ vÔ
1 2
dl1 ¹ dl 2
r
µ 0b
2Q ^
sinh 1 È Ø 1 ( a/b) 2
Ê
b
a Ú
a
b `
after substituting the limits and some algebraic manipulations.
Now sinh −1 x = ln x + ( x2 − 1 )
⎡ ⎤
µ 0b ⎢ ⎧⎪ b
2⎫ 2
⎛b⎞ ⎪ ⎛a⎞ a
\ L11e = ln ⎨ + 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ − 1 + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎥
2π ⎢ ⎪ a ⎝a⎠ ⎪ ⎝b⎠ b⎥
⎣⎢ ⎩ ⎭ ⎥⎦
If b >> a,
µ 0b ⎧ ⎛ b b ⎞ ⎫
L11e l ⎨ln ⎜ + ⎟ − 1 + 0 ⎬
2π ⎩ ⎝ a a ⎠ ⎭
µ0b ⎧ ⎛ b ⎞ ⎫
= ⎨ln + ln 2 − 1⎬
2π ⎩ ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠ ⎭
µ 0b ⎧ ⎛ b ⎞ ⎫
= ⎨ln + 0.693 − 1⎬
2π ⎩ ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠ ⎭
µ 0b ⎧ ⎛ b ⎞ ⎫
= ⎨ln − 0.3⎬
2π ⎩ ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠ ⎭
7.8 Find the self-inductance of a section of a two-wire line of length b, if the distance between the
conductors is d (d << b) and their radius is a, where d >> a.
Sol. In this case, we can use the results of Problems 7.6 and 7.7 and write them down for the
two-wire line made up of quasi-filamentary conductors.
Hence, the total self-inductance is
L = 2Le + 2M12 + Li,
where
Le = external inductance of each of the two conductors
M12 = mutual inductance between the two conductors
⎛μ ⎞
Li = total internal inductance for the line = 2 ⎜ 0 ⎟ b .
⎝ 8π ⎠
µ0 b ⎧ ⎛ b ⎞ ⎫
Now 2 Le = 2 ⎨ln ⎜ ⎟ − 0.3⎬ (from Problem 7.7)
2π ⎩ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎭
Also from Problem 7.6, for the two conductors, when b >> d, we have
µ 0b ⎧ ⎛ 2b ⎞ ⎫ µ 0b ⎧ ⎛ b ⎞ ⎫
2 M 12 − 2 ⎨ln ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎬ − ⎨ln ⎜ ⎟ − 0.3⎬
2π ⎩ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎭ π ⎩ ⎝d ⎠ ⎭
\ Adding up all the three components,
µ0b ⎧ ⎛b⎞ ⎛ b ⎞ ⎫ 2 µ 0b µ b ⎧ ⎛d ⎞ µ ⎫
L = ⎨ln ⎜ ⎟ − ln ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ + = 0 ⎨ln ⎜ ⎟ + r ⎬
π ⎩ ⎝a⎠ ⎝ d ⎠⎭ 8π π ⎩ ⎝a⎠ 4 ⎭
7.9 Show that the total self-inductance of a rectangular loop of sides a and b is given by
µ0 ⎧ 2ab 2ab ⎫ µ
L = ⎨b ln + a ln − 2( a + b − d ) ⎬ + 0 ( a + b),
π ⎩ R (b + d ) R(a + d ) ⎭ 4π
where d = (a2 + b2)1/2 and the radius of the conductor R << a or b.

Sol. This is again a problem involving the determination of self-inductance of a quasi-
filamentary circuit, shown in Fig. 7.6.
Fig. 7.6 Quasi-filamentary rectangular loop of sides a and b and conductor radius R.
To calculate the total self-inductance of the loop, we need to evaluate both the external as well
as the internal self-inductance. So, we calculate the external self-inductance first. For this
purpose, it is necessary to calculate the integral of Neumanns formula for the part of C ¢ from
the point P1 to P2 and from P2 to P3. Then these two are to be added and doubled for the total
self-inductance. Since P1P2 is perpendicular to P2P3, we need to consider the two parallel sets.
First, we consider the integration from P1 to P2 and P3 to P4.
⎧b b dx dx′
b b
dx dx′ ⎫
µ0 ⎪ ⎪
\ L11b = 2
4π
⎨∫∫
⎪⎩ 0 0 R 2 + ( x − x′) 2
− ∫∫
0 0
⎬
a + ( x − x′) ⎪⎭
2 2
The second integral above has negative sign because dl along P3P4 and dl¢ along P1P2 are
oppositely directed. The two integrals are of the same type.
Integrating the first integral w.r.t. x, we get
b b − x′
dx d ( x − x ′)
∫
0
2
( x − x′) + R 2
= ∫
0 − x′ ( x − x′ ) 2 + R 2
^
= ln (b x ) (b x )2 R2 ln x x 2 R2` ^ `
⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎨'
⎪⎩
∫
dx
x2 + a2
(
= ln x + x 2 + a 2 ) ⎛ x ⎞⎪
or sinh −1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎝ a ⎠⎪
⎭
Next, we have to integrate the above w.r.t. x¢. Note that if f (x¢) is an arbitrary function of x¢,
then we get by using integration by parts,
1 df ( x′)
∫ ln ( f ( x′)) dx′ = x′ ln f ( x′) − ∫ x′ f ( x′) · dx′
dx′
We take the second ln first for simplicity, i.e. in this case
f ( x′) = − x′ +( x ′2 + R 2 )
df ( x′) 1 1 − x ′2 + R 2 + x ′ − f ′( x )
\ = −1 + · 2 x′ = =
dx ′ 2 x ′2 + R 2 x ′2 + R 2 x ′2 + R 2
b
⎡ ⎤
∫ ln {− x′ + } ( )
b
− x ′dx′ ⎥
\ x ′2 + R 2 dx ′ = ⎢ x′ ln − x′ + x′2 + R 2 −
⎢ ∫ x ′2 + R 2 ⎥⎦
0 ⎣ 0
( )
b
⎡ 2⎤
= ⎢ x′ ln − x ′ + x ′ + R + x ′ + R ⎥
2 2 2
⎣ ⎦0
( )
= b ln − b + b 2 + R 2 + b 2 + R 2 − R
Similarly,
{ } ∫ ln (− z + )
b 0
∫
0
ln (b − x ′) + (b − x ′) 2 + R 2 dx ′ =
−b
z 2 + R 2 dz
(Letting b x¢ = z, \ dx¢ = dz)
( )
0
= ⎡⎢ z ln − z + z 2 + R 2 + z 2 + R 2 ⎤⎥
⎣ ⎦−b
{
= ⎡⎢0 + b ln b + b 2 + R 2 + R − b 2 + R 2 ⎤⎥
⎣ ⎦
}
b b
dx dx ′
\ ∫∫
0 0 R + ( x − x ′)2
2
∫ ⎢⎣ln {(b − x′) + } { }

b
= ⎡ (b − x′) 2 + R 2 − ln − x ′ + x′2 + R 2 ⎤⎥ dx′
⎦
0
{ ( ) }{ (
= b ln b + b 2 + R 2 + R − b 2 + R 2 − b ln − b + b 2 + R 2 + b 2 + R 2 − R ) }
= b ln
b + b2 + R 2
b− b +R 2 2 (
+ 2 R − b2 + R 2 )
( )
b b
dx dx ′ b + b2 + a 2
and
∫∫ 0 0 a + ( x − x ′)
2 2
= b ln
b− b +a 2 2
+ 2 a − a 2 + b2
\ For the parallel sides P1P2 and P3P4, the external self-inductance is
⎡⎧ ⎫
( )
2 2
L1133 =
µ0 ⎢ ⎪⎨b ln b + b + R + 2 R − b2 + R 2 ⎪
⎬
2π ⎢⎪ b − b2 + R 2 ⎪⎭
⎣⎩
⎧ ⎫⎤
⎪
− ⎨b ln
⎪⎩
b + b2 + a2
b− b +a
2 2
+ 2 a − a 2 + b2 ( ) ⎪⎥
⎬⎥
⎭⎪⎥⎦
Similarly, for the parallel sides P2P3 and P4P1, the external self-inductance is
⎡⎧ ⎫
( )
2 2
L2244 =
µ0 ⎢ ⎪⎨ a ln a + a + R + 2 R − a 2 + R 2 ⎪
⎬
2π ⎢⎪ a − a2 + R2 ⎪⎭
⎣⎢ ⎩
⎧ ⎫⎤
⎪
− ⎨ a ln
⎪⎩
a + a2 + R2
a− a +R
2 2
+ 2 b − a2 + b2 ( ) ⎪⎥
⎬
⎪⎭⎥⎥⎦
Since a and b are both >> R, we can make the following approximations:
( ) ⎧
( ) ⎫⎪⎬
2 2
2 2 b + b2 + R 2 ⎪ b + b2 + R 2
b+ b +R ⎨
ln = ln = ln ⎪− ⎪⎭
b − b2 + R 2 b 2 − (b 2 + R 2 ) ⎩ R2
b + b2 + R 2 2b
= ln (−1) + 2 ln = ln ( −1) + 2 ln
R R
Similarly,
a + a2 + R2 2a
ln = ln ( −1) + 2 ln
a− a +R2 2 R
b − a 2 + b2 b 2 − (a 2 + b2 ) a
ln = ln = ln ( −1) + 2 ln , where d = a 2 + b 2
(b + ) b+d
2 2 2
b+ a +b a 2 + b2
a − a 2 + b2 b
ln = ln ( −1) + 2 ln
a + a 2 + b2 a+d
R − b 2 + R 2 ≈ − b, R − a 2 + R 2 ≈ − a
\ The total external self-inductance is
µ0 ⎧ 2b a 2a b ⎫
Le j ⎨2b ln + 2b ln + 2a ln + 2 a ln − 2b − 2( a − d ) − 2a − 2(b − d ) + 0 ⎬
2π ⎩ R b+d R a+d ⎭
⎧
µ0 2ab 2ab ⎫
= ⎨b ln + a ln − 2( a + b − d ) ⎬
π⎩ R (b + d ) R(a + d ) ⎭
and the internal self-inductance is
µ µ
Li = 2 · 0 ( a + b ) = 0 ( a + b )
8π 4π
7.10 Show that the mutual inductance between two parallel square loops of equal sides a at a
distance b from each other, and coinciding with two opposite sides of a rectangular
parallelepiped is
⎧ a + 2a 2 + b 2 a + a 2 + b2 ⎫
2µ0 ⎪ 2 2 2 2 ⎪
M12 = ⎨ − a ln + a ln + 2 a + b − 2 a + b + b ⎬.
π ⎪⎩ 2
a +b 2 b
⎭⎪
Sol. In this case, we use the Neumanns formula for the inductance between two parallel
conductors of finite length, i.e. if the conductors are of length l and the distance between them
is b, then
µ 0l ⎧⎪ ⎫
2
−1 ⎛ l ⎞ ⎛b⎞ b⎪
M12 = ⎨sinh ⎜ ⎟ − 1 + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎬
2π ⎪ ⎝b⎠ ⎝l⎠ l⎪
⎩ ⎭
and (
sinh −1 x = ln x + 1 + x 2 )
Since the square loops are in two parallel planes and their sides are parallel, we need to consider
only one set of four parallel conductors, and then multiply the result by 4, as there are four such
sets, and remember that the orthogonal conductors do not contribute to the mutual inductance.
Taking any such side of length a, it has three parallel conductors to be considered, as follows:
(i) Two parallel conductors of length a, at a distance a, i.e.
µ 0 a ⎧⎪ 1 + a 2 ⎛ a ⎞ ⎫⎪
M13 =
2π ⎪
⎨sinh −1
1 + (
2 −
a 2 )
+ ⎜ ⎟⎬
⎝ a ⎠ ⎪⎭
⎩
=
µ0 a
2π
{ (
ln 1 + 1 + 1 − 2 + 1 ) } (Negligible)
(ii) Two parallel conductors of length a, at a distance b, i.e.
µ 0 a ⎧⎪ ⎫
2
−1 a ⎛b⎞ b⎪
M15 = ⎨sinh − 1 + ⎜a⎟ + ⎬
2π ⎪ b ⎝ ⎠ a⎪
⎩ ⎭
(iii) Two parallel conductors of length a, at a distance a 2 + b2 ,
µ a ⎧⎪ a a 2 + b2 a 2 + b 2 ⎫⎪
M17 = 0 ⎨sinh −1 − 1+ + ⎬
2π ⎪ 2
+ 2 a2 a
⎩ a b ⎭⎪
Mutual inductance for one set of parallel conductors
⎧ b 2 a 2 + b2 2a 2 + b2 ⎫
⎪ µ 0a a a ⎪
=⎨ − + + sinh −1 − sinh −1 ⎬,
2π
⎪⎩ a a a b a 2 + b2 ⎪⎭
taking account of the relative directions of currents in the conductors.
⎧ a + a 2 + b2 a + 2a 2 + b 2 ⎫⎪
⎪
2µ0 2 2 2 2
\ M12 = ⎨ b − 2 a + b + 2 a + b + a ln − a ln ⎬
π
⎪⎩ b a 2 + b 2 ⎭⎪
7.11 A small magnet of magnetic moment m, as shown in Fig. 7.7, is placed at a distance z along the
axis of a circular loop of wire of radius a carrying a current i. The axis of the magnet makes
an angle a with the axis of the coil. Find the couple experienced by the magnet.
If the centre of the magnet is fixed on the axis, but is free to rotate about that point, find the
equation of motion of the magnet, given that the angle of oscillation a is small and I is the
moment of inertia of the magnet.
Fig. 7.7 A small magnet on the axis of a circular coil. [(i) Fig. not to scale. (ii) Plane of coil is perpendicular to z-axis.]
Sol. Field at the point P due to the current i in the coil of radius a is
i a 2i
H= sin 3 θ =
2a 2( a 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
mia 2
\ Couple on the magnet at the point P = sin α
2( a 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
Since the centre of the magnet is fixed at P, its moment of inertia is I, and the angle of
oscillation is a, the equation of motion is given by
mia 2
Iα = Couple = − sin α
2( a 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
If a is small, then sin a ® a, then the equation of motion becomes
mia 2
α + n 2α = 0, where n 2 = I,
2( a 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
i.e. the oscillations are simple harmonic with period 2p/n.
If m is along the axis OP, then the force on the magnet is
∂H 3 ia 2 mz
F =m = (No couple for this orientation.)
∂z 2 ( a 2 + z 2 )5/ 2
7.12 Under the influence of ultraviolet light, electrons are emitted with negligible velocities from the
negative plate of a parallel plate capacitor of separation d, which is situated in a magnetic field
with B parallel to the plates and across which a potential difference V is applied. Taking suitable
axes, write down the equations of motion of an electron, and prove that no electron current will
reach the positive plate unless V exceeds ed2B2/2m.
Fig. 7.8 Parallel plate capacitor with transverse magnetic field.
Sol. We start with the Lorentz equation for force on the electrons, and then write the equations of
motion as
mx = − eBy (i)
eV cB
and my = + x (ii)
d m
eB
from (i)
x=− y
m
Integrating w.r.t. time,
eB
x = − y,
m
the constant of integration being zero, as obtained by applying the initial condition x = 0 when
y = 0 (at the negative electrode).
When the electrons reach the positive plate,
eB
x = − d
m
1
But the whole velocity at this point is u, where mu 2 = eV
2
2eV
or u2 =
m
2
2eV ⎛ eBd ⎞
\ Velocity is wholly tangential, if =⎜ ⎟
m ⎝ m ⎠
ed 2 B 2
or V=
2m
ed 2 B 2
\ If V < , no electrons reach the positive plate.
2m
7.13 The electrodes of a diode are coaxial cylinders, radii a and b, with a < b, as shown in Fig. 7.9.
A potential difference V is maintained between them and their common axis is parallel to a
uniform magnetic field B. The inner cylinder is the cathode, electrons leave it radially with
negligible velocity. Show that they will reach the anode at grazing incidence if
2
eB 2b 2 ⎛ a2 ⎞
V = ⎜⎜ 1 − ⎟ .
8m ⎝ b 2 ⎟⎠
Fig. 7.9 Electrodes (cylindrical) of the diode.

Sol. Circumferential force on the electron = eB r , in the direction of q increasing.

\ The equation of force is
m( rθ + 2rθ) = eBr
d 2 eB eB d 2
or (r θ ) = rr = r
dt m 2 m dt
Integrating w.r.t. t,
eB 2
r 2θ = ( r − a 2 ),
2m
by evaluating the constant of integration using the condition θ = 0, where r = a.
eB ⎛ a2 ⎞
At r = b, θ = ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
2m ⎝ b ⎠
If the electrons graze the anode (r = b), then as in Problem 7.12, we get
2
2eV e 2 B 2b 2 ⎛ a2 ⎞
= u 2 = b 2θ 2 = ⎜⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟⎟
m 4m2 ⎝ b ⎠
2
eB 2 b 2 ⎛ a2 ⎞
or V= ⎜⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟⎟
8m ⎝ b ⎠
7.14 Positive ions q are entering a region at a small aperture which is taken as the origin of
coordinates. The velocity of injection is u0 and its direction lies in the plane OXY at an angle
q (< 90°) to OX. The region contains uniform electric and magnetic fields E and B, respectively
parallel to OY and OZ.
(a) Show that whenever the ions recross the plane OZX, they must do so with velocity u0.
(b) Write down the equations of motion, and hence prove that the velocities of the ions are
given by
E
x = u 0 cos(θ − ω t ) + (1 − cos ω t )
B
E
y = u 0 sin(θ − ω t ) + sin ω t ,
B
where w is to be determined.
(c) Show that the recrossing of the plane OZX occurs at times given by
ωt u 0 sin θ
tan =
2 u 0 cos θ − ( E/B )
Fig. 7.10 Movement of positive ions in OXY plane.
Sol. (a) Ions acquire no energy from B and on OX they have acquired none from E.
\ Velocity on OX = u0
(b) and (c) For force, starting from Lorentz equation
F = q{E + (u × B)},
the equations of motion are:
⎛ qB ⎞ ⎛ qr ⎞ ⎛ qB ⎞

x=⎜ ⎟ y and
y = ⎜ ⎟E − ⎜ ⎟ x
⎝ m ⎠ ⎝m⎠ ⎝ m ⎠
or
x − ω y = 0 ⎫
⎪ qB
ω E ⎬ where ω = .
and
y + ωx = ⎪ m
B ⎭
Writing u, v for x and y , respectively, and U, V for their Laplace transforms, we get
sU − ωV = u 0 cos θ ⎫
⎪
ωE
and ωU − sV = + u 0 sin θ ⎬⎪
Bs ⎭
ω2E ⎫
Thus ( s 2 + ω 2 )U = u 0 ( s cos θ + ω sin θ ) + ⎪
Bs ⎪⎬
ωE ⎪
and ( s 2 + ω 2 )V = u 0 ( s sin θ − ω cos θ ) +
B ⎪⎭
E ⎫
Whence u = u 0 cos(θ − ωt ) + (1 − cos ωt ) ⎪
B
E ⎬
and v = u 0 sin(θ − ωt ) + sin ω t ⎪
B ⎭
E 2E 2
u 2 + v 2 = u 02 + 2u 0 {cos (θ − ωt ) − cos θ } + 2 (1 − cos ω t )
B B
E
So u 2 + v 2 = u 02 , when u 0 {cos (θ − ωt ) − cos θ } + (1 − cos ωt ) = 0
B
⎛ ωt ωt ωt ⎞ E ωt
or u 0 ⎜ sin θ ⋅ 2 sin cos − cos θ ⋅ 2sin 2 ⎟ + 2sin 2 =0
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠ B 2
ωt u 0 sin θ
or tan =
2 u 0 cos θ − ( E/B )
7.15 When ions move through a gas under the influence of an electric field, their mean velocity is
found to be given by an equation of the form
u = km E
where km is a constant. If the positive ions are emitted uniformly over a plane electrode at
x = 0 and move through a gas towards a parallel electrode at x = l under the influence of a field
between the electrodes, show that the electric force under the steady state must obey a law of
the form
Ex = (ax + b)1/2,
where a and b are constants of integration.
Hence, deduce in terms of these constants:
(a) the potential difference
(b) the current per unit area of the electrode, and
(c) the time of transit of an ion between the electrodes.
(The magnetic forces are negligible.)
Sol. The problem is treated as a one-dimensional situation, as shown in Fig. 7.11.
Since r = div D = Ñ·D,
in one-dimension, it becomes
dD
ρ=
dx
But r u = constant in steady state.
d ⎛ dE ⎞
Thus ⎜ E dx ⎟ = 0
dx ⎝ ⎠
dE a d ⎛1 2⎞
or = constant = (say) = E ⎟,
dx ⎜⎝ 2
E
dx 2 ⎠
Fig. 7.11 Parallel electrodes with ionized gas in between.

i.e. E2 = ax + b
\ E = (ax + b)1/2
l
(a) Potential difference between the electrodes, V = E dx ∫ 0
2 ⎡ l
= ( ax + b)3/ 2 ⎤
3a ⎣ ⎦0
=
2
3a
{
( al + b )3/ 2 − b3/ 2 }
dE ε 0 a
(b) ρ = ε 0 = ( ax + b) −1/ 2 , u = km ( ax + b )1/ 2
dx 2
1
\ J (current density) = r u = ε 0 km a
2
l l
dx 1 dx 2 ⎡ l
(c) The transit time, T = ∫
0
u
=
km ∫ (ax + b)
0
1/ 2
=
k a⎣
m
( ax + b)1/ 2 ⎤
⎦0
=
km a
2
{(al + b) 1/ 2
− b1/ 2 }
7.16 In an infinite mass of iron of permeability m (= m0 mr), a right-circular cylindrical hole of radius
a, has been drilled. In this hole a current-carrying wire (the current being I) has been so located
that it is parallel to the axis of the cylindrical cavity. Show that the wire will be attracted to the
nearest part of the surface of the cavity with a force
μr − 1 1
μ0 I 2 per unit length,
μr + 1 2π d
where d is the distance between the wire and its image in the cylindrical hole.
Sol.
Infinite mass
Hole of
a m0 iron, m2 = m0mr
I
O A C B
(a1 < a)
OA = a1
a2
OB = a
1
Fig. 7.12 Cylindrical hole in iron, with current-carrying conductor located at A in the hole.
Let the conductor be located at the point A, such that its distance from the centre is OA = a1,
where a1 < a (the radius of the circular hole). If OA is extended to meet the surface of the hole
at C, then this is the nearest point of the circular surface to the point A where the wire is located.
The wire will be attracted to the point C, because the effect of the hole on the current-carrying
wire would be reproduced by the image of the wire with respect to the circular surface. The
image will be at the point B on the line OAC, such that
a2
OA . OB = a2 \ OB =
a1
a2 1 2
and AB = a1 ( a a12 ) d
a1 a1
The magnitude of the image current at the point B,

μ 0 μ r − μ0 μ −1
Im = I= r I
μ0 μr + μ0 μr + 1
and it will be in the same direction as the source current I at A.
\ The force of attraction between I and Im is
I Im ⎛ μ − 1⎞ I 2
μ0 = μ0 ⎜ r per unit length*
2π d ⎝ μr + 1⎟⎠ 2π d
along the line AB.
\ The wire will be attracted towards the point C on the surface of the hole.
7.17 Two square circuits, each of side a and carrying currents I and I¢ are placed in two parallel
planes with their edges parallel to each other, and the line joining the centres of the two squares
normal to these parallel planes. If this shortest distance between the squares is c, show that the
force of attraction between the squares is
2 μ0 I I ′ ⎧⎪ c c 2 + 2a 2 2c 2 + a 2 ⎫⎪
⎨1 + − ⎬.
π c2 + a2 c c2 + a2
⎩⎪ ⎭⎪
Sol. Since the two squares lie in parallel planes and their edges are also parallel, it is obvious
that we can consider four vertical parallel conductors, each of length a, and also four horizontal
parallel conductors of length a each (Fig. 7.13). The resulting attractive force would be the sum
of the attractive forces between the four vertical conductors and between the four horizontal
conductors, e.g. the attractive force on (say) AB would be due to EF and GH. We repeat this
for each of the three remaining conductor CD, EF and GH. Similarly for the four horizontal
conductors BC, DA, FG and HE.
* Refer to AmpereLaplaces law in Section 11.5.1 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition,
PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009.
y
B F
C G
I I¢
O O¢
A E
D H
z
Fig. 7.13 Two square circuits in parallel planes with parallel edges.
AB = BC = CD = DA = a = EF = FG = GH = HE
AE = DH = CG = BF = c = OO¢
We use AmpereLaplaces law to calculate the force on AB and then multiply it by a factor of
4 to get the resulting attractive force between the circuits. Note that the distance between AB
and EF is c and that between AB and GH is c 2 + a 2 . So we calculate the force between two
parallel conductors of length a and distance d and then substitute the relevant values for d.
(Fig. 7.14).
a a
y2
y1
u 21 dy2
r q
q u 12
dy1
I I¢
0 d 0
Fig. 7.14 Two parallel conductors of finite length.
By AmpereLaplaces law,
μ I I′ dy 2 × (dy1 × u12 )
F=
4π ∫∫ r2
r= {( y 2 − y1 ) 2 + d 2 }
d
and sin q =
r
Consider the first integral,
a
dy1 . d
I1 = Ô {( y2 y1 ) 2 d 2 }3
0
Use the substitution y2 y1 = z \ dy1 = dz
Limits y1 = 0 ® z = y2 and y1 = a ® z = y2 a
y −a
y −a
2 −dz z ⎤ 2
\ I1 = d ∫ = −d ⎥
y
2
( z 2 + d 2 )3 d2 z 2 + d 2 ⎥⎦
y
2
1Ë y2 a y2 Û
= Ì Ü
d Ì ( y2 a ) 2 d 2 y22 d 2 ÜÝ
Í
N 0 I I a ËÌ y2 a y2 Û
Ü dy2
\ F= Ô
4Q d 0 Ì ( y a) 2 d 2

y22 d 2 ÜÝ
Í 2
For the first term, use the substitution y2 a = z (\ dy2 = dz), and the limits y2 = 0 ® z = a,
and y2 = a ® z = 0.
μ0 I I ′ ⎡⎢ 0 z dz
a
y2 dy2 ⎤
⎥
4π d ⎢ −∫a
\ F= −∫
2 ⎥
⎣ z2 + d 2 0 y2 + d ⎦
2
μ0 I I ′ ⎡ 2 0 a⎤
= ⎢ z +d
2
− y22 + d 2 ⎥
4π d ⎣ −a 0⎦
=
μ0 I I ′ ⎡
4π d ⎣⎢ (
d− a2 + d 2 − ) ( a2 + d 2 − d ⎤
⎦⎥ )
=
μ0 I I ′
2π d {
d− a2 + d 2 }
Now, we consider the conductors AB and EF. In this case d = c.
μ0 I I ′ ⎧⎪ ⎫⎪
\ F=
μ0 I I ′
2π c {
c− a2 + c2 = } 2π ⎪
⎨1 −
⎩
a2 + c2
c
⎬
⎪⎭
Next, we consider AB and GH and in this case d = a2 + c2 .
μ0 I I ′ ⎧⎪ c 2 + 2a 2 ⎫⎪
\ F′ =
2π
μ0 I I ′
c2 + a2
{ c2 + a2 − }
c 2 + 2a 2 =
2π ⎪
⎨1 −
⎩
⎬
c 2 + a 2 ⎪⎭
It should be noted that the force F is in the direction of AE (= c) and the force F ¢ is in the
direction of AH = ( a2 + c2 ) and of opposite nature, i.e. F is attractive between AB and EF

whereas F ¢ is repulsive between AB and GH.
\ The resultant attractive force between the two circuit planes
⎧⎪ c ⎫⎪
= ( F − F ′ cos ∠ EAH )4 = ⎨ F − F ′ ⎬.4
⎩⎪ c + a ⎭⎪
2 2
N0 I I ËÌÎÑ a 2 c 2 ÞÑ ÎÑ c 2 2a 2 ÞÑ c
Û
Ü.4
Ï 1 ß Ï 1 ß 2
2Q Ì Ñ c Ñ Ñ c 2
a 2
Ñ c a 2 Ü
ÍÐ à Ð à Ý
μ0 I I ′ ⎡ a2 + c2 c c c 2 + 2a 2 ⎤
= ⎢1 − − + ⎥.4
2π ⎢ c a2 + c2 c2 + a2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
μ0 I I ′ ⎡ a 2 + 2c 2 c c 2 + 2a 2 ⎤
= ⎢1 − + ⎥.2
π ⎢ c a2 + c2 c2 + a2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2 μ0 I I ′ ⎡ a 2 + 2c 2 c c 2 + 2a 2 ⎤
= ⎢1 − + ⎥
π ⎢ c a2 + c2 c2 + a2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
7.18 A co-axial cable (Fig. 7.15) is made up of a solid circular cylindrical conductor of radius a and
a co-axial circular cylindrical annular conductor of inner and outer radii b and c, respectively
(a < b < c). Equal currents are made to flow, in opposite directions, in the core and the annulus.
By considering the total energy stored in the magnetic field of the cable, show that the self-
inductance of the cable per unit axial length is
N Ë C ÎÑ D Û
D D C Þ
Ñ
- Ì MO Ï MO ßÜ
Q ÍÌ B D C ÐÑ D C

C àÑ ÝÜ
I a
Fig. 7.15 Co-axial cable.
Sol. The total energy in the magnetic field which can be non-uniform can be expressed as

8 ÔÔÔ )#E7
where the whole volume has been divided into small elements d V such that over each volume
element the field may be considered to be sensibly uniform. Also, it should be noted that the
above expression assumes the permeability m to be constant which is true for air spaces but not
for fields in ferromagnetic materials. When m is not constant, the energy stored per unit volume
is given by
#
8 Ô )E#

So when the field is uniform and m is constant, the stored energy per unit volume is
# N)
8 N N N S
N
In the present problem, the magnetic field in various parts of the cable can be obtained by using
the Amperes law and this has been solved both in ElectromagnetismTheory and
Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009 as well as in this book on Problems
and Solutions. Hence, the results are reproduced here.
Î * Þ
\ B = N Ï ß S r£a
Ð Q B à
*
B = N a£r£b
Q S

* D S
B = N ¹ b£r£c
Q D C S
B=0 c£r
We now use the expression for the stored energy in various parts to evaluate the self-inductance,
i.e.

8 ÔÔÔ #)E7
The elemental volume for all sections is taken as an elemental cylinder at a radius r of radial
thickness d r and axial length of one unit.
\ d V = 2p r × dr × 1
B B
*

N * N * B N *
Ô N Ô

\ For r £ a, W1 = S ¹ Q S ES S ES ¹
Q B
Q B Q B Q

C C
*

N * ES N * C
For a £ r £ b, W2 =

B
Ô
N Q S ES
Q S Q Ô
B
S Q
MO
B
D D
N * D S
N * D

S

Ô Q Ô
For b £ r £ c, W3 =
¹
Q
S ES

ES
C
D C
S DQ C
C
S
D
N * ÎÑ S

S
ÞÑ
= ÏD MO S D ß
Q D C
ÐÑ
àÑC
N * ÎÑ D D

C ÞÑ
= ÏD MO D D C
ß
Q D C
ÐÑ C
àÑ
N * ÑÎ D

D D

C ÑÞ
= Ï MO D ß
Q D C
ÑÐ D C

C Ñà
N * ÎÑ D D D C ÞÑ
= Ï MO ß
Q D C
ÑÐ D C C Ñà

\ W= -* 8 8 8

N * Ë C ÑÎ D

D D C ÑÞÛ
= Ì MO Ï MO ßÜ
Q ÌÍ B D

C ÑÐ D C

C ÑàÜÝ
N Ë C ÑÎ D
ÞÛ
D D C Ñ
\ L= Ì MO Ï MO ßÜ
Q ÍÌ B D C Ñ
ÐD C

C ÑàÝÜ
7.19 Explain the phenomenon of Pinch Effect shown in a current-carrying conductor. Derive
the expression for the magnitude of this effect in a conductor of cylindrical cross-section
(or radius R) and, hence, show that whilst the total axial force depends only on the magnitude
of the current, the total pressure at any point of the conductor is a function of the conductor
radius as well.
Sol. Consider a conductor of circular cross-section carrying a current I (Fig. 7.16). If R is the
radius of the conductor, a cylindrical shell section (of radial thickness d r) at radius r (r < R),
where the magnetic flux density Br (in the peripheral direction) will be
N N S *
Br = ¹S by Amperes law
Q 3
v$Ô ) ¹ EM = Q
*
i.e.
¹ Q S
3
S
*
or 2p r Hr =
S
3
* S
\ Hr =
Q 3
r
dr
R
Fig. 7.16 Circular conductor section to analyse the Pinch Effect.
The moving charges, which make up the current flowing axially in the conductor, at this point
will be moving in the magnetic field, and will experience a force directed towards the axis of
the conductor. This force is transmitted to the material structure of the conductor in such a way
as to tend to decrease its section. Hence it is called the Pinch Effect and is easily shown
experimentally in a column of liquid conductor, i.e. that of mercury.
To evaluate this effect, consider the total inward force on the current flowing in an elementary
cylindrical shell of radius r and radial thickness d r. The current in this elementary shell is
* *
E* Q S E S

S ES
Q3 3
The force on this elemental current (acting radially inwards) is equal to

Br d I per unit of axial length
and this force acts uniformly over the whole periphery of the cylindrical shell (2pÿ r × 1)
\ The inward pressure due to the element is
#S¹E* N N S *
EQ S ES
Q S ¹ Q 3
and the total pressure (= pa) at a point distant a from the axis of the conductor is
3
N N S *
ÔE Q

QB

3 B
Q 3

i.e. a function of R and I.

In a column of mercury, this acts as a hydrostatic pressure, and acts equally in all directions at
any point. If this column is in contact at both ends with metal plates, these plates will experience
a force due to axial pressure.
\ The total axial force acting upon the cross-section of the elementary cylindrical shell is
N N S *
E' QS Q S E S
3 S S
E S
Q 3
\ The total axial force over the complete cross-section is
S 3
N N S *
1
S
Ô E'
Q
7.20 A conducting sphere of radius R and carrying a charge Q is moving in free space (or air) with
a velocity v (v << cthe velocity of light). Find the energy stored in the magnetic field of this
moving charged sphere by using the energy expression

8 ÔÔÔ )#E7
-*
Sol. The whole space surrounding such a moving sphere can be split up into elementary rings
of radius r sin q and sectional area r dq dr (as shown in Fig. 7.17), which of course are sections
of a spherical shell (of radius r), concentric with the conducting sphere.
The magnetic field at a point P inside such a ring is
2W TJO R
# N
Q S
(provided v << c) and has the same value at all points inside the ring.
# N 2 W
And since ) #) TJO R
N N Q S
The volume of the elementary ring = (2p r sin q) (r d r dq)
Charge r
Q
v q
R
q
Conducting r sin q
sphere
dq dr
P
rdq
Fig. 7.17 Moving charged sphere and surrounding space.
\ The energy stored in the magnetic field in the ring

#)
= dW = 7PMVNF

2 W TJO R
E S ER
= N
Q S
Thus, the total energy stored in the whole of the space surrounding the charged sphere is,
therefore, given by

2 W R Q S
TJO R
= W = N
Q ÔR Ô3 S ES ER
S

Q
2 W ÑÎ DPT R DPT R ÑÞ Î Þ
= N Ï ß Ï ß
Q ÑÐ Ñà Ð S à 3
2 W
= N
Q 3
Because of the term v 2 in the above expression, this energy can be considered to be the kinetic
energy owing to the motion of the electromagnetic mass of the moving charge, denoted by
me. We then have

NF W N
2 W
W=
Q 3
N 2
or me =
Q 3
Thus this mass of the field (i.e. e.m. mass of the moving charged sphere) is inversely
proportional to its radius. According to this theory, a point charge is a physical impossibility,
since its mass would be infinite, i.e.
N 2
3 NF
Q 3
7.21 An iron ring of uniform circular cross-section of area A and of mean peripheral length L (of the
iron part only), has an air-gap of length g [Fig. 7.18(a)]. The mean flux density in the air-gap
is kB, where B is the flux density in the iron, and k is a constant < 1.
If the BH curve [Fig. 7.18(b)] for the iron is given by the Fröhlichs equation
B)
#
C)
whose asymptotes are B = a and H = b, show that the flux density in iron (= B) due to a
magnetizing m.m.f. (= m) is given by the smaller root of the equation
# ÎÏ N C-
N BÞß # BNN
Ð LH à LH
B
g a
L b
(a) Iron ring with air gap. (b) Rectangular hyperbola representation
of B–H curve as per Fröhlich’s equation.
Fig. 7.18
Sol. Given: Mean length of iron ring (peripherally) = L

Flux density in iron = B
m.m.f. gradient (= magnetic intensity vector) in iron = Hi
B)
\ By Fröhlichs equation, the flux-density in iron = B = J
C) J
\ B (b + Hi) = aHi or (a B)Hi = bB

C#
\ Hi =
Bo#
Also, air-gap length = g

and the mean flux density in the air-gap = Bg = kB, k < 1.
L#
\ air-gap m.m.f. gradient = Hg =
N
\ Total magnetizing m.m.f. = m = m.m.f. in air-gap + m.m.f. in iron
= vÔ ) ¹ EM
= Hg g + Hi L
L# C#
= H -
N B#
\ To find the flux density.
N B #
N L#H B #
N C-#
Rearranging, LH# N N LHB N C-
# N BN = 0
or # ÎÏ N N C-
BÞß # N BN =0 (a quadratic equation in B.)
Ð LH à LH
\ Its roots are:
Î N N C-
Ë Î N N C-
N BN Û

Þ Þ
Ï Bß ÌÏ
Bß Ü
Ð LH à ÌÍ Ð LH à LH ÜÝ
#

It should be noted that both the values of B are +ve, because the quantity under the sign
is smaller than the quantity outside the sign. Hence, we need to consider the smaller root
of the above quadratic equation for B.
7.22 A permanent magnet steel has a demagnetization curve whose equation is given by
Î C Þ
# B Ï ß (i)
Ð D )à
and whose asymptotes are B = a and H = (Hc + b) = c, Hc being the coercive value of H.
A magnet made of this steel has to maintain a useful external field in which the stored energy
is W. If the flux in the magnet is equal to kL times the useful flux, show that the minimum
volume of the magnet material required is
8L-
BD ÎÑ
Ï
C ÞÑß
ÐÑ D àÑ
Sol. See Fig. 7.19. In this problem, the magnet has to maintain a useful external field. The
energy stored in the field is specified to be W. The useful flux is the (total) flux at the pole face
of the magnet.
c
bc
D R
a
P H¢
a
Br = c Hc
b B¢
c
O
Hc
Fig. 7.19 Demagnetization curve represented by rectangular hyperbola as in Eq. (i).
Let this useful flux be denoted by Fu

The flux in the magnet = Fm = kL Fu
\ The energy stored in the magnet = WkL

=
ÔÔÔ )#E7
WPM PG UIF NBHOFU

=)# 7PMVNF PG UIF NBHOFU

expressing the energy in terms of the field vectors. The last step makes the simplifying
assumption that within the magnet material, the magnetic flux density and the magnetic intensity
vector are uniformly distributed throughout.
From the demagnetization curve [Eq. (i)], we get
Î C) Þ
B Ï) #) ß
Ð D)à
For the volume of the magnet to be minimum, the product BH must be maximum, i.e.
E #)
=0 Eversheds criterion
E)
E E Ë Î C) Þ Û
\ #)
= ÌB Ï) ßÜ
E) E) Í Ð D ) àÝ
BC BC)
= B
D ) D )

B D )
BC D )
BC)
=
D )

B) BD) BD D C
=
D )

For BH to be a maximum, the above numerator = 0.
i.e. aH2 + 2acH + ac(c b) = 0
\ The roots of this quadratic equation are:
BD BD B
BD D C
H=
B
= D CD
Since c > b, for B to be +ve, the +ve sign above has to be taken.
\ Hmax = D CD
ÎÑ C ÞÑ
= D Ï ß
ÐÑ D àÑ
Î C Þ
and Bmax = B Ï ß
Ð D )à
ÑÎ C ÑÞ ÑÎ C ÑÞ
= B Ï ß B Ï ß
ÑÐ D D CD Ñà ÑÐ D Ñà

Now, WkL = #) 7PMVNF

Since max (BH), i.e. (Bmax Hmax) gives the minimum volume, the minimum volume of the
magnetic material is
=
8L-

#NBY ) NBY
=
8L-
B ÑÎÏ C ÑÞß D ÑÎÏ C ÑÞß
ÑÐ D Ñà ÑÐ D Ñà
=
8L-

BD ÎÑÏ CD ÞÑß

ÐÑ àÑ
7.23 The relationship between the m.m.f. (= m) of the magnetizing winding of, and the flux (= F)
in a closed circular iron ring is given by the Fröhlichs equation:
BN
)
CN
where Fÿ = a and m = b are the asymptotes of the above-mentioned rectangular hyperbola.
A direct current m.m.f. (= m0) is applied to the above ring and this produces a time-independent
flux (= Fd) in the ring. Then an alternating m.m.f. (= ma) is superposed on m0 such that the flux
in the ring now has a sinusoidal alternating component of the value ) ~ sin wt. If the hysteresis
and eddy current losses are negligible, and if the direct current component of the m.m.f. still
remains to be m0, show that the superposition of the alternating flux (= F sin w t) causes the
constant component of the flux to decrease to a new value Fd1, which is
) E B B ) E
)
~ QSPWJEFE UIBU )
~ ) E
Hence, show that the direct current m.m.f. necessary to cause a constant component of flux fd1,
when a sinusoidal flux component = F sin w t is present is
Î B Þ
Ñ Ñ
N CÏ ß
~
ÐÑ B ) E
) Ñà
Sol. See Fig. 7.20. The Fröhlichs equation for the ring is
BN
) (i)
CN
F F = a ¨ asymptote
F sin wt
b
A
Fd
A¢ a
Fd Fd1
Fd1
m
O m0 (m.m.f.)
m=b
asymptote
Flux
Fig. 7.20 Rectangular hyperbola of the Frohlichs equation for the ring. (Note: )~ < Fd1)
The superimposition of the alternating flux ) ~ sin w L on the steady flux Fd (time-invariant,
constant magnitude) in the ring, lowers the level of the steady flux to a new value Fd1 (Fd1 < Fd).
But this does imply that the difference between the initial value of the steady flux
(= Fd) and the peak value of the alternating flux ~

would be algebraically equal to the new
)
reduced value of the steady flux (= Fd1), i.e.
)E )
~ )
E
It should also be noted that ) E )

~
B because the alternating flux ~ TJO X U
retains its
)
sinusoidal pattern after the superposition which implies that the flux wave shows no saturation
effect and, hence, the superposed flux waves amplitude must be below the asymptotic
saturation level of F = a. However, the m.m.f. wave after superposition (i.e. steady value m0
together with the alternating wave (= ma) would show harmonic distortion due to non-linear
nature of the (F m) relationship.
When the direct current m.m.f. (= m0) has been applied to the closed ring, the time independent
flux (= Fd) is given by the relationship of Fröhlich equation, i.e.
BN
Fd =
C N
C )E
\ m0 = (ii)
B )E
Because of superimposition of a time-harmonically varying flux pattern on a time-independent
constant value flux, the resultant flux pattern has now become a harmonically varying time-
dependent flux pattern and, hence, the final value at which the time-independent flux settles
down (i.e. Fd1) will depend on the total energy of the system, i.e. initial energy due to steady
flux and the injected energy of the alternating flux, whose sum should equate with the energy
of the final value of the flux at which Fd settles down, i.e. Fd1. Thus, the equality relationship
will be in terms of the effective r.m.s. values.
Also, we are operating not in the linear part of the BH curve, i.e. in the non-linear part, its
upper bound being F = a. Hence, the time-oscillations of the flux waves would be in the region
a Fd initially to a Fd1 finally. Furthermore, for the new operating point at A¢, Fd1 must be
> )~ , because otherwise for ve swings of ~ we move into the 4th quadrant of the BH curve
)
which would then make the return to the operating point A¢ impossible.
The energy balance equation can be then written in terms of the squares of three amplitudes,
B )E )~ BOE B ) as the common 1/2 due to square of the r.m.s. quantities would cancel
E
out from all the terms of the balance equation.
Hence, we get
~
(a Fd1)2 = B )E
)
or a Fd1 = B ) E
)
~
\ Fd1 = B B ) E
)
~ ) E ! )
~ (iii)
Thus, the direct current flux (time-invariant) reduces to the above value, given by Eq. (iii) as
Fd1, when there exists a superposed a.c. flux )
~ sin w t in the ring. Hence, the corresponding
d.c. m.m.f. (m0) from Eq. (ii) will be

C )E
m0 = (iv)
B )E
From Eq. (iii),
a Fd1 = B ) E
)
~
Squaring the above equation, then rearranging and taking the square root again,
B )E B )E
)
~ (v)
\ Substituting in Eq. (iv),
C ËÌ B B ~Û
) E
) ÜÝ
Í
m0 =
B ) E
)
~
Ë B Û
= CÌ Ü (vi)
Ì B )
)
~ Ü
Í E Ý
8
Maxwells Equations
8.1 INTRODUCTION
We shall now formally use Maxwells equations to solve problems. So, we will start by reminding
ourselves of these equations written in integral form:
w
ÔÔ D ¹ dS Ô Ô Ô S
S v
C dv Gauss theorem
w
ÔÔ B ¹ dS
S
0 solenoidal property of B
d
vÔ E ¹ dl
C
dt ÔÔ B ¹ dS
S
generalized Faradays law of induction
È D Ø
vÔ H ¹ dl ÔÔ Ê J +
C S
t Ú
¹ d S generalized Amperes Magnetic Circuit law
The equation of continuity is implicit in the last equation, since it can take the form:
⎛ ∂D ⎞
div ⎜ J + = 0,
⎝ ∂t ⎟⎠
which is another way of writing
∂ρ C
∇⋅J = −
∂t
The constitutive relations for a linear medium are:
D = ε 0ε r E = ε E
B = µ0 µ r H = µ H
and E = ρJ or J =σE
In differential form, these equations are:
div D = Ñ · D = rC
div B = Ñ · B = 0
562
MAXWELLS EQUATIONS 563
∂B
curl E = Ñ × E =
∂t
∂D
and curl H = Ñ × H = J +
∂t
The equation of continuity is a consequence of the last equation. Maxwells discovery was the
concept of displacement current ¶D/¶t, which he predicted twenty years before it was discovered
experimentally by Heinrich Hertz.
8.2 PROBLEMS
8.1 From the equations
∂D
∇×H=J +
∂t
∂B
∇×E= −
∂t
∂ρ C
and ∇⋅J =−
∂t
prove that for time-varying fields, ∇ ⋅ B = 0 and ∇⋅ D = rC.
⎛ ∂D ⎞
8.2 Prove that the flux of the sum ⎜ J + through any closed surface is zero.
⎝ ∂t ⎟⎠
8.3 In a parallel plate capacitor, a time-varying current i(t) = Im cos w t flows through its leads. The
plates have the surface area S and the distance between them is d. Show that the displacement
current through the capacitor is exactly Im cos w t. Ignore the fringing effects.
8.4 A spherically symmetrical charge distribution disperses under the influence of mutually
repulsive forces. Suppose that the charge density rC(r, t) as a function of the distance r from
the centre of the spherical system and of time is known. Show that the total current density at
any point is zero.
8.5 An isotropic dielectric medium is non-uniform, so that e is a function of position. Show that E
satisfies the equation
⎛ ∇ε ⎞
∇2E + k 2E = − ∇ ⎜ E ·
⎝ ε ⎟⎠
where k 2 = ω 2 µ 0ε 0 = (ω /c) 2 .
8.6 By taking the divergence of one of the Maxwells equations, show that
∂ρ C
∇·J + = 0.
∂t
8.7 State Maxwells equations and prove that they are satisfied by
∂A
E=− , B =∇×A
∂t
1 ∂2A
provided that ∇·A = 0, ∇ 2 A = .
c 2 ∂t 2
Derive E and H when
A = i x a cos 2π k ( z − ct ) + i y b sin 2π k ( z − ct ) + i z 0.
Verify that E and H are orthogonal and their directions rotate about the z-axis with the
frequency kc.
8.8 Scaled modelling is a normal engineering practice. But since all parameters (physical as well
as geometrical) cannot be scaled (up or down) to the same numerical value in a required model,
it is necessary to use some figures of merit. Hence, for an electromagnetic model, starting from
Maxwells equations, derive the necessary conditions for an electromagnetic field in a small-
scale model which has to be similar to a real n times larger device. (These conditions are often
referred to as the conditions of electrodynamic similitude.)
8.9 When ions move through a gas under the electric field E, their mean velocity is given by the
vector equation v = kE, where k is a constant. Negative ions are emitted uniformly over the area
of a plane electrode at x = 0 and move through a gas towards a parallel electrode at
x = l, the potential difference between the electrodes being V1. Prove that the electric force
between the electrodes must obey a law of the form
| E | = (ax + b)1/2
and deduce, in terms of a and b:
(i) the potential difference V1
(ii) the current per unit area of the electrode
(iii) the time of transit of an ion between the electrodes.
(Neglect all magnetic forces.)
8.10 A parallel plate capacitor has circular plates at spacing d, separated by air. A potential difference
of V1 sin w t is applied between them. Find the magnitude and direction of the magnetic flux
density at a point between the plates and distant r from the centre.
8.11 A long straight iron tube of mean diameter d, wall thickness w and permeability µ/µ0 is wound
toroidally with N turns of wire through which flows an alternating current of rms value I and
frequency w. By considering an analogue suggested by Maxwells equations, show that there
will be an electric field along the axis of the tube and then find its value (a) in the middle of
the tube and (b) at the centre of one end.
8.12 The maximum electric field at a point near a high frequency transmitter is 104 V/m and the
wavelength is 10 cm. Calculate the maximum value of the displacement current density and of
the magnetic flux density at the point.
Note: The relationships proved for the plane waves hold good here as well.
8.13 A square loop of side l is oriented to lie in the xy-plane such that its two sides are along the
x- and y-axes with the origin of the coordinate system at one corner of the loop. The magnetic
vector in this region is given by
H = i z sin β x x sin β y y cos ωt.
(a) Show that this magnetic field satisfies the Maxwells equations, if
β x2 + β y2 = ω 2 µε
(b) Also show that the emf induced in the loop is
ωµ
(1 − cos β x l ) (1 − cos β y l ) sin ω t ,
βx β y
(i) by using the Faradays law of induction and
(ii) by taking the line integral of E around the periphery of the loop.
8.14 An electromagnetic wave in free space is represented by the equations
E = E0 e j (ω t − kz ) , B = B0 e j (ω t − kz )
where E0 and B0 are independent of z and t. If the component Eoy of E0 is zero, and Eox and Eoz
are functions of x only, show by using Maxwells equations that
k ∂E z
Bx = Bz = 0, E x = − j ,
β 2 ∂x
where b 2 = {(w /c)2 k2} and c is the velocity of light. Hence or otherwise show that
∂ 2 Ez
2
+ β 2 E z = 0.
∂x
8.15 Write down the vector equation (derived from Maxwells equations) which determines the
magnetostatic field of a system of steady currents specified at every point by a current density
vector J. Explain the physical significance of each equation.
A straight conductor of rectangular cross-section lies along the axis of z, its side faces occupy
the planes x = ±a/2, y = ±b/2. It is formed as a bundle of many insulated strands, so that the
current density Jz can be made to vary across the section in any prescribed manner, in this case,
at a point (x, y) of the cross-section such that
πx πy
J x = J 0 cos cos .
a b
Show that the component of the magnetic field at points within the conductor must take the form
πx πy πx πy
H x = H1 cos sin , H y = H 2 sin cos
a b a b
where H1 and H2 are constants. Evaluate H1 and H2 and hence verify that the line integral of H
around the periphery of the rectangular cross-section is equal to the total current in the
conductor.
8.16 Show that the elementary form of the magnetic circuit law, expressed by the vector equation
Ñ×H=J
cannot hold good in a time-varying field. Establish the modification by which Maxwell
remedied this deficiency.
The following figure shows a cross-section of an air-capacitor having circular plates P of radius
a and spacing h, surrounded by a ring-shaped iron core of mean radius b (> a), small radial
depth d, axial height h and relative permeability µ/µ0. An alternating voltage V1 sin w t is
applied across the plates of the capacitor.
Neglecting the edge effects, show that the magnetic flux in the core is
a2d
φ = ε0µ ωV1 cos ω t.
2b
Hence, prove that a winding of N turns wound toroidally on the core will be the seat of an emf
proportional to the capacitor voltage and find the ratio of one to the other. Assume that the
winding is open-circuited.
8.17 Two circular metal discs of radius R are fixed at a separation of d to form an air-insulated
parallel plate capacitor. A rectangular loop of fine wire of dimensions d × b (where b < R ) is
inserted between the plates with its plane at right angles to them and one of its edges of length
d coinciding with the axis of the capacitor. Show that when an alternating emf V of frequency
b 2ω 2
w /2p is applied across the plates, an emf of V will be induced in the loop.
4c 2
8.18 Cartesian axes are taken within a non-magnetic conductor, J is parallel to the z-axis at every
point and B is perpendicular to it. The current distribution is such that B has the x-component
Bx as
Bx = k(x + y)2.
Prove that the form of the other component By must be
By = f (x) k(x + y)2,
where f (x) is some function of x only. From these expressions for Bx, By, deduce an expression
for Jz, the single component of J and prove that if Jz is a function of y only, then
f (x) = 2kx2.
8.19 A long straight magnetic core of small cross-section carries an alternating flux F. Find the
magnitude and the direction of the electric field outside the core at a distance r from the centre
which is large compared with the dimensions of the section and prove that the electric flux
density can be expressed in the form D = curl C, where C is a vector of magnitude
(e0/2p ) jw F ln r, parallel to the flux.
8.3 SOLUTIONS
8.1 From the equations:
∂D
∇×H=J +
∂t
∂B
∇×E= −
∂t
∂ρ C
and ∇⋅J =−
∂t
prove that for time-varying fields, ∇ ⋅ B = 0 and ∇⋅ D = rC.
Sol. Note: The divergence of a curl of any vector function is zero-vector identity. So, we take
the divergence of the two curl equations stated above, i.e.
⎛ ∂D ⎞ ∂
∇ ⋅ (∇ × H ) = 0 = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ J + ⎟ = ∇⋅J + (∇ ⋅ D ) (i)
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t
⎛ ∂B ⎞ ∂
∇ ⋅ (∇ × E ) = 0 = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ − ⎟ = − ∂t (∇ ⋅ B ) (ii)
⎝ ∂t ⎠
According to Eq. (ii), ∇ ⋅ B cannot be a function of time at any point. Now, either B has
changed in the past or will change in future and even be zero, since physical systems, which
remain the same forever, do not exist. So, div B cannot be a function of time, and so it
follows that it must be zero always, if it was zero at any time, i.e.
∇⋅B = 0 (iii)
From Eq. (i) and the continuity equation which is
∂ρ C
∇⋅J + =0 (iv)
∂t
∂ρ C ∂ ∂
we get − + ( ∇ ⋅ D) = (∇ ⋅ D − ρ C ) = 0 (v)
∂t ∂t ∂t
By exactly the same arguments as given, we conclude that div D must be equal to rC, since at
least once, there were no fields or charges at the point considered.
\ ∇⋅ D = rC (vi)
⎛ ∂D ⎞
8.2 Prove that the flux of the sum ⎜ J + through any closed surface is zero.
⎝ ∂t ⎟⎠
Sol. We start with the Maxwells equation
∂D
∇×H = J +
∂t
By integrating over a surface S bounded by a contour C and applying Stokes theorem
È D Ø
vÔ H ¹ dl ÔÔ Ê J t Ú ¹ dS
C S
⎛ ∂D ⎞
According to this equation, the flux of ⎜ J + is equal through all the surfaces limited by
⎝ ∂t ⎟⎠
a common contour. If the above equation is applied to two surfaces S1 and S2 shown in Fig. 8.1,
we have
È D Ø È D Ø
vÔ H ¹ d l ÔÔ Ê J
C S1
t Ú
¹dS ÔÔ Ê J t Ú ¹ d S
S2
(i)
Fig. 8.1 Closed surface formed by S1 and S2.
The surfaces S1 and S2 together form a closed surface. According to the accepted convention,
the positive normal to a closed surface is always directed outwards. Hence, we have to change
dS into dS in the last integral, if it is considered with respect to the outward positive normal.
So, we obtain
È J D Ø
S1
w
ÔÔ
S2
Ê t Ú
0 (ii)
⎛ ∂D ⎞
Notes: 1. The sum ⎜ J + is frequently referred to as the total current density, though in
⎝ ∂t ⎟⎠
∂E
the strictly rigorous sense, it is somewhat misleading as ε 0 does not represent a real
∂t
(conducting) current. It follows from Eq. (ii) that the lines of the total current always close on
themselves.
2. Equation (ii) also follows from the continuity equation and from the generalized form of
Gauss law, i.e.
∂ρ C
div J + = 0 and Ñ × D = rC, from which
∂t
⎛ ∂D ⎞
∇ ⋅⎜ J + =0 (iii)
⎝ ∂t ⎟⎠
which is the differential form of Eq. (ii).
3. A proof of Stokes theorem
This can be derived from the curl of a vector function (as given below):
v'Ô B ¹ dl
The component of Ñ × B in the direction of u n lim C
,
'S 0 'S
where DS is perpendicular to un.
Fig. 8.2 An arbitrary closed surface.
Consider an arbitrary surface S limited by a contour C. See Fig. 8.2. Also, let us imagine that
the surface S is divided into a large number of small surfaces d S limited by small contours d C.
Amperes law applied to planar contour DC is
v'Ô B ¹ dl
C
µ 0 J ¹ 'S
vÔ B ¹ dl
\ lim 'C µ0 J ¹ u n

'S 0 'S
In differential form, Ñ ´ B = µ0J

From these equations, it follows that for any of the small contours, we can write
vÔ B ¹ dl
dC
µ0 J ¹ dS (³ B) ¹ dS (iv)
Note that for pairs of adjacent sides of two small contours, the line elements d l are oppositely
directed and that B is same for both. By adding these equations of the type (iv) for all elemental
surfaces, we thus obtain
vÔ B ¹ dl ÔÔ (³ B) ¹ dS ,
dC S
which is known as Stokes theorem.
8.3 In a parallel plate capacitor, a time-varying current i(t) = Im cos w t flows through its leads. The
plates have the surface area S and the distance between them is d. Show that the displacement
current through the capacitor is exactly Im cos w t. Ignore the fringing effects.
Sol. This proof is a direct consequence of the generally valid Eq. (i) of Problem 8.2 and it
should be noted that the positive normals to S1 and S2 are determined by the right-hand screw
rule with respect to the indicated positive direction around the contour C.
⎛ ∂D ⎞
Through S2, the flux of ⎜ J + is simply i(t), since D = 0 (refer to Fig. 8.3).
⎝ ∂t ⎟⎠
∂D
J is zero at all parts of S1, but not .
∂t
In this case, the proof is possible (also) without the use of the general conclusion, since the
electric field in the capacitor is known.
Fig. 8.3 Closed surface and contour around the plate of a parallel plate capacitor.
The charge on the capacitor plates is given by

Im
∫ ∫
Q = i dt = I m cos ω t dt =
ω
sin ω t
Hence the electric field in the capacitor is

Q I
= m sin ω t
|E|=
ε S εω S
and the displacement current through the capacitor is
∂D ∂E I
S = Sε = S ε m ω cos ω t = I m cos ω t
∂t ∂t εω S
8.4 A spherically symmetrical charge distribution disperses under the influence of mutually
repulsive forces. Suppose that the charge density rC(r, t) as a function of the distance r from
the centre of the spherical system and of time is known. Show that the total current density at
any point is zero.
Sol. Let us consider a sphere S of radius R. The total convection current through S (i.e. the
real current) is
R
∂ ∂
iC ( R, t ) = −
∂t
Q( R, t ) = −
∂t ∫ρ 0
C (r , t )4π r 2 dr ,
so that the density of the current will be

R
iC 1 ⎧∂ ⎫
J C ( R, t ) =
4π r 2
= −
R 2 ∫ ⎨⎩ ∂t ρ
0
C (r, t ) ⎬ r 2 dr
⎭
The density JD of the displacement current is given by
R
∂D ∂ Q( R, t ) 1 ⎧∂ ⎫
∫ ⎨⎩ ∂t ρ
2
JD = = = 2 C (r , t ) ⎬ r dr
∂t ∂t 4π R 2
R ⎭
0
This is one of the rare examples in which the macroscopic magnetic field is not created by the
electric current. The magnetic field is zero since it is created by both the real and the
displacement current densities and the sum of the two is zero at all points.
8.5 An isotropic dielectric medium is non-uniform, so that e is a function of position. Show that E
satisfies the equation
⎛ ∇ε ⎞
∇2E + k 2E = − ∇ ⎜ E ·
⎝ ε ⎟⎠
where k 2 = ω 2 µ 0ε 0 = (ω /c) 2 .
Sol. The Maxwells equations are:
∂B
∇×E=−
∂t
∂D
∇×H=J +
∂t
∇ ⋅B = 0
∇ ⋅ D = rC
and B = µ H, E = ρJ , D = ε E, where e is a function of position and not time.
∂B ∂ ∂
Ñ×Ñ×E =Ñ× = (Ñ × B) = µ (Ñ × H)
∂t ∂t ∂t
∂ ⎛ ∂D ⎞ ∂ ⎧1 ∂ ⎫
= −µ
∂t ⎜ J + ∂t ⎟ = − µ ∂t ⎨ ρ E + ∂t (ε E) ⎬
⎝ ⎠ ⎩ ⎭
µ ∂E ∂2E ωµ
= − − µε 2 = − j E + ω 2 µε E,
ρ ∂t ∂t ρ
for time-harmonic variation of field vectors.
In the dielectric medium, r ® ¥ (large enough)

\ Ñ × Ñ × E = w2me E = k2E (i)
2
L.H.S. = Ñ × Ñ × E = grad (div E) Ñ E
Note: div(sA) = s · div A + A · grad s.
In a charge-free region, Ñ·D = 0 and D = eE.
\ Ñ · (eE) = e div E + E · grad e = eÿ (Ñ · E) + E · (Ñe) = 0
E ⋅ (∇ ε )
\ ∇ ⋅E = −
ε
⎛ ∇ε ⎞
\ grad (div E) = −∇ ⎜ E ⋅
⎝ ε ⎟⎠
\ From Eq. (i), we have
⎛ ∇ε ⎞
∇2E + k 2E = − ∇ ⎜ E ·
⎝ ε ⎟⎠
8.6 By taking the divergence of one of the Maxwells equations, show that
∂ρ C
∇⋅J + = 0.
∂t
Sol. We start from the equation
∂D
∇×H =J +
∂t
Taking divergence of this equation, we get
⎛ ∂D ⎞
∇ ⋅ (∇ × H ) = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ J + =0 (a vector identity)
⎝ ∂t ⎟⎠
⎛ ∂D ⎞
\ ∇⋅J + ∇⎜ ⎟=0
⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂
or ∇⋅J + (∇ ⋅ D) = 0
∂t
But another Maxwells equation is ∇ ⋅ D = rC.

∂ρ C
\ ∇⋅J + = 0 (an equation of continuity)
∂t
8.7 State Maxwells equations and prove that they are satisfied by
∂A
E=− , B =∇×A
∂t
1 ∂2 A
provided that ∇ ⋅ A = 0, ∇ 2 A = .
c 2 ∂t 2
Derive E and H when

A = i x a cos 2π k ( z − ct ) + i y b sin 2π k ( z − ct ) + i z 0.
Verify that E and H are orthogonal and their directions rotate about the z-axis with the
frequency kc.
Sol. The Maxwells equations are:
∂B
∇×E=− (i)
∂t
∂D
∇×H =J + (ii)
∂t
Ñ·B = 0 (iii)
Ñ · D = rC (iv)
The constitutive relations are:
B = µ H, D = ε E and E = ρ J
∂A
Given E=− and B = ∇ × A
∂t
⎛ ∂A ⎞ ∂
∇ × E = ∇ ×⎜− ⎟ = − ∂t ( ∇ × A )
⎝ ∂ t ⎠
∂B ∂
and − = − (∇ × A) (Proved)
∂t ∂t
From Eq. (ii), we get
1 1 1
∇×H = ∇ × B = ∇ × ∇ × A = (grad div A − ∇ 2 A )
µ µ µ
∂D 1 ∂E 1 ∂A ∂2 A
J+ = E+ε =− −ε 2 In free space r ® ¥.
∂t ρ ∂t ρ ∂t ∂t
∂2A 1
\ If Ñ × A = 0, then Eq. (ii) is satisfied provided ∇ 2 A = µ 0ε 0 and µ 0ε 0 = .
∂t 2
c2
From Eq. (iii), we get
Ñ · B = Ñ · (Ñ × A) = 0 (a vector identity)
From Eq. (iv), we get
⎛ ∂A ⎞ ∂
∇ ⋅ D = ε∇ ⋅ E = ε∇ ⋅ ⎜ − ⎟ = − ε (∇ ⋅ A ) = 0
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t
In free space, rC = 0.
Given A = i x a cos 2π k ( z − ct ) + i y b sin 2π k ( z − ct ) + i z 0
∂A
\ E=− = − i x 2π kca sin 2π k ( z − ct ) + i y 2π kcb cos 2π k ( z − ct ) + i z 0
∂t
ix iy iz
1 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
H= (∇ × A ) =
µ µ ∂x ∂y ∂z
a cos 2π k ( z − ct ) b sin 2π k ( z − ct ) 0
2π kb 2π ka
= − ix cos 2π k ( z − ct ) − i y sin 2π k ( z − ct ) + i z 0
µ µ
bca
E × H = + (2π k ) 2 sin 2π k ( z − ct ) cos 2π k ( z − ct ) −
µ
cba
(2π k ) 2 cos 2π k ( z − ct ) sin 2π k ( z − ct )
µ
= 0
\ E and H are orthogonal and the frequency of rotation about the z-axis is kc.
8.8 Scaled modelling is a normal engineering practice. But since all parameters (physical as well
as geometrical) cannot be scaled (up or down) to the same numerical value in a required model,
it is necessary to use some figures of merit. Hence, for an electromagnetic model, starting from
Maxwells equations, derive the necessary conditions for an electromagnetic field in a small-
scale model which has to be similar to a real n times larger device. (These conditions are often
referred to as the conditions of electrodynamic similitude.)
Sol. We assume a small scale model which is geometrically similar to a real system
(Fig. 8.4). The parameters e, µ, s of the real system (full scale) are known functions of the
coordinates. The frequency f = w /2p of the generators in the full-scale system is also known.
z
z¢
e, m, r Generating
Generating part
part e¢, m¢, r¢
x¢ y¢
x y
Full-scale device n times smaller model

Frequency, f = z/2o Frequency, f ¢= z ¢/2o
Fig. 8.4 An electromagnetic device and its scaled model.

We have to determine the parameters e¢, µ¢, sÿ ¢ as functions of the coordinates in the small-
scale model and also the corresponding frequency f ¢ = w ¢/2p of the generators so that the
electromagnetic field in the two cases are similar.
For the F.S. system, the two Maxwells curl equations are:
Ñ × E = jwµH (i)
and Ñ × H = s E + jweE (ii)
Now in the S.S. system, all the lengths are n times smaller. Since the curls in S.S. model must
be the same as in the original F.S. device, the length coordinates w.r.t. which the differentiations
are performed, must be n times small, e.g.
∂Ex′ ∂Ex′ ∂E ′
= = n x , and so on.
∂y ′ ∂ ( y/n) ∂y
Hence, the Maxwells equations for the S.S. model will be
n∇ × E′ = − ω ′µ ′H′ (iii)
and n∇ × H ′ = σ ′E′ + jω ′ε ′ E′ (iv)
The differentiations as implied by these equations are performed w.r.t. coordinates of the same
size as in Eqs. (i) and (ii). The boundary conditions in the two cases are identical.
Therefore, the solutions will be equal, if the pairs (i), (ii) and (iii), (iv) of the basic equations
are equal. This is the case, if
ω ′µ ′ = nω µ , σ ′ = nσ and ω ′ε ′ = nωε (v)
However, in practice, e and µ cannot have the desired value. Models are made of the same
materials, in which case e¢ = e and µ¢ = µ.
Hence, the first and the third conditions of Eq. (v) will be satisfied if w ¢ = nw, i.e. the frequency
of the generators in the S.S. system which is n times smaller, must be n times as large.
The second condition of Eq. (v) also cannot be satisfied in the general case, e.g. if the
conductors in the F.S. system are made of silver, it is impossible to satisfy the condition
s ¢ = ns, since at room temperature silver is the best conductor.
Hence, practical constraints made it impossible to obtain an exact electrodynamic similitude in
the S.S. model.
When conductivity is not a decisive parameter, the condition s ¢ = ns is not very important.
In general, for a practically similar system, it is sufficient to use an n times higher frequency in
a n times S.S. model.
8.9 When ions move through a gas under the electric field E, their mean velocity is given by
the vector equation v = kE, where k is a constant. Negative ions are emitted uniformly over
the area of a plane electrode at x = 0 and move through a gas towards a parallel electrode at
x = l, the potential difference between the electrodes being V1. Prove that the electric force
between the electrodes must obey a law of the form
E ( ax b)1/ 2
and deduce, in terms of a and b:
(i) the potential difference V1, (ii) the current per unit area of the electrode, and
(iii) the time of transit of an ion between the electrodes.
(Neglect all magnetic forces.)
Sol. The velocity v will increase if the charge moves from x = 0 to x = l in a steady state (see
Fig. 8.5). This means that when the charge density rC diminishes, the current density is
J = rCv
Fig. 8.5 Path of ions between the parallel electrodes at x = 0 and x = l.
and the equation of continuity in this case is

div J = 0
dv dρ
or ρC +v C = 0 (i)
dx dx
Also, from Gauss theorem
dE ρ
= C
dx ε0
and it is given that v = kE.
Substituting for rC and v in Eq. (i),
d ⎛ dE ⎞
ε0 + kE ⎟ = 0
dx ⎜⎝ dx ⎠
d ⎛ dE ⎞
or E = 0
dx ⎜⎝ dx ⎟⎠
dE
\ E = constant
dx
d 2
or E = a
dx
\ E2 = ax + b
i.e. E = (ax + b)1/2
l
\ ∫
V1 = ( ax + b )1/ 2 dx =
2
3
{
( al + b )3/2 – b3/2 }
0
dE ε 0 a
Also, v = kE and ρC = ε 0 = ( ax + b) –1/2
dx 2
1
So, J = ρC v = ε 0 ak
2
l l
dx dx
Also, the time T = ∫
0
v
= ∫ k (ax + b)
0
1/ 2
or T=
2
ak
{
( al + b )1/ 2 − b1/ 2 }
8.10 A parallel plate capacitor has circular plates at spacing d, separated by air. A potential difference
of V1 sin w t is applied between them. Find the magnitude and direction of the magnetic flux
density at a point between the plates and distant r from the centre.
Sol. The parallel plate capacitor with circular plates is shown in Fig. 8.6.
Fig. 8.6 A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates.
V1
We have E = sin ω t
d
ε 0V1
and so D = sin ω t
d
∂D ε Vω
\ = 0 1 cos ω t
∂t d
At a distance r from the centre,
ε 0ω V1
H ⋅ 2π r = π r 2 cos ω t
d
ε 0ω V1r
\ H= cos ω t
2d
and its direction is in the sense shown, when D is increasing.
8.11 A long straight iron tube of mean diameter d, wall thickness w and permeability µ/µ0 is wound
toroidally with N turns of wire through which flows an alternating current of rms value I and
frequency w. By considering an analogue suggested by Maxwells equations, show that there
will be an electric field along the axis of the tube and then find its value (a) in the middle of
the tube and (b) at the centre of one end.
Sol. The tube shown in Fig. 8.7 is wound toroidally with N turns, each turn carrying a current
I (of frequency w).
Fig. 8.7 Straight long iron tube.
\ Circumferential flux in the wall of the toroidally wound tube (per metre length in the axial
direction)
µNIw
=
πd
µω NIw
and the rate of change of flux = .
πd
∂B
The comparison between Ñ × E = and Ñ × H = J shows the same relation (but for the
∂t
∂B ∂Φ
sign) between E and and between H and J or E and as between H and I. If we have
∂t ∂t
1
a coil carrying a current I per unit length, then H = I in the middle or I in the centre of the
2
end.
µω NIw µω NIw
Hence, here E = at the middle and E = at the centre of the end.
πd 2π d
8.12 The maximum electric field at a point near a high frequency transmitter is 104 V/m and the
wavelength is 10 cm. Calculate the maximum value of the displacement current density and of
the magnetic flux density at the point.
Note: The relationships proved for the plane waves hold good here as well.
Sol. Given Emax = 104 V/m
and f = 3 × 109 Hz
\ Maximum displacement current density

10−9
= × 2π × 3 × 109
36π
= 1670 A/m2
Emax 104
Also Bmax = = = 33.3 mT
c 3 × 108
8.13 A square loop of side l is oriented to lie in the xy-plane such that its two sides are along the x-
and y-axes with the origin of the coordinate system at one corner of the loop. The magnetic
vector in this region is given by
H = i z sin β x x sin β y y cos ω t.
(a) Show that this magnetic field satisfies the Maxwells equations, if
β x2 + β y2 = ω 2 µε .
(b) Also show that the emf induced in the loop is
ωµ
(1 − cos β x l ) (1 − cos β y l ) sin ω t ,
βx β y
(i) by using the Faradays law of induction and
(ii) by taking the line integral of E around the periphery of the loop.
Sol. The square loop is shown in Fig. 8.8.
Fig. 8.8 A square loop in a time-varying magnetic field.
(a) The Maxwells equations are (J in this case does not exist):
∂D
∇×H =
∂t
∂B
∇×E = −
∂t
and Ñ·B = 0
Ñ·D = 0 as there is no charge density.

B = µH and D = eE
Only the z-component of H (and hence of B as well) exists and has x and y variations only
∂D ∂ ∂ ⎛ ∂B ⎞ ∂2H ∂2 H z
∇×∇×H = ∇× = ε (∇ × E ) = ε ⎜ − ⎟ = − µε 2 = − i z µε
∂t ∂t ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ∂t 2
L.H.S. = Ñ × Ñ × H = grad div H Ñ2H = Ñ2H = izÑ2Hz
⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ⎞ ∂2 H z
\ ∇2 H z = ⎜ 2 + 2
⎜ ∂x ⎟⎟ H z = µε and H z = sin β x x sin β y y cos ω t
⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂t 2
Hence (− β x − β y ) sin β x x sin β y y cos ω t = − µεω sin β x x sin β y y cos ω t

2 2 2
\ β x2 + β y2 = ω 2 µε is the required condition.

l l
∂Φ ∂ ∂
(b) (i) ( = −
∂t
= −
∂t ∫∫ B ⋅ dS = −
∂t ∫ ∫
µ dx dy sin β x x sin β y y cos ω t
0 0
l l
∂ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
= µ cos ω t ⎢ − cos β x x ⎥ ⎢ − cos β y y ⎥
∂t ⎣ βx ⎦ 0 ⎣⎢ β y ⎦⎥ 0
ωµ
= (1 − cos β x l )(1 − cos β y l ) sin ω t
βxβy
∂D ∂E ∂H z ∂H z
(b) (ii) From Ñ × H = ⇒ ε = ix − iy
∂t ∂t ∂y ∂x
= i x β y sin β x x cos β y y cos ω t − i y β x cos β x x sin β y y cos ω t
βy βx
\ E = ix sin β x x cos β y y sin ω t − i y cos β x x sin β y y sin ω t
ωε ωε
l
βy ⎡ 1 ⎤ βy
∫
Along OA( y = 0), E ⋅ dl =
ωε
sin ω t cos 0 ⎢ −
⎣ βx
cos β x x ⎥ =
⎦ 0 ωεβ x
sin ω t (1 − cos β x l ),
βx
Similarly, along AB (x = l), ∫ E ⋅ dl = − ωεβ y
sin ω t (1 − cos β y l ) cos β x l ,
βy
along BC ( y = l ), ∫ E ⋅ dl =
ωεβ x
sin ω t ( −1 + cos β x l ) cos β y l ,
βx
and along CO (x = 0), ∫ E ⋅ dl = ωεβ y
sin ω t ( − 1 + cos β y l ).
Adding all these equations, we get

C x2 C y2
vÔ
OABC
E ¹ dl
C x C yXF
sin X t (1 cos C x l )(1 cos C y l )
and β x2 + β y2 = ω 2 µε
Xµ sin X t (1 cos C x l )(1 cos C y l )

Hence ) vÔ
OABC
E ¹ dl
CxCy
8.14 An electromagnetic wave in free space is represented by the equations
E = E0 e j (ω t − kz ) , B = B 0 e j (ω t − kz )
where E0 and B0 are independent of z and t. If the component Eoy of E0 is zero, and Eox and Eoz
are functions of x only, show by using Maxwells equations that
k Ez
Bx Bz 0, E x j ,
C 2 x
where b2 = {(w /c)2 k2} and c is the velocity of light. Hence or otherwise show that
∂ 2 Ez
+ β 2 Ez = 0
∂x 2
Sol. Given E = E0 e j (ω t − kz ) , B = B 0 e j (ω t − kz ) , where E0 and B0 are independent of z and t.
\ i x Ex + i y E y + i z Ez = (i x Eox + i y Eoy + i z Eoz ) e j (ω t − kz )
and i x Bx + i y By + i z Bz = (i x Box + i y Boy + i z Boz ) e j (ωt − kz )
Further given that Eoy = 0 and Eox and Eoz are functions of x only.
\ Ex = Eox ( x ) e j (ωt − kz ) , E y = 0, Ez = Eoz ( x) e j (ω t − kz )
⎛ ∂E ∂E y ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ex ∂Ez ⎞ ⎛ ∂E y ∂Ex ⎞

Now ∇ × E = i x ⎜⎜ z − ⎟⎟ + i y ⎜ − ⎟ + i z ⎜⎜ − ⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎠
\ From Maxwells equation
È E Ez Ø B
³E ix 0 iy É x iz 0 jX (i x Bx i y B y i z Bz )
Ê z x ÙÚ t
\ Bx = 0, Bz = 0 (i)
Ex Ez Ez
and jX By – – jkEx – (ii)
z x x
∂D B ∂E ∂E 1 ∂E
From ∇×H = ⇒ ∇× = ε0 ⇒ ∇ × B = µ 0ε 0 = 2 (iii)
∂t µ0 ∂t ∂t c ∂t
⎛ ∂By ⎞ ⎛ ∂By ⎞ jω
∇ × B = i x ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ + i y 0 + i z ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 2 (i x Ex + i y 0 + i z Ez ) (iv)
⎝ ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ⎠ c
jX By
\ Ex jkB y
c 2
z
ω
Hence By = Ex (v)
c2 k
From Eqs. (ii) and (v), we get
⎛ ω2 ⎞ ∂E
⎜⎜ − j + jk ⎟ Ex = − z
2 ⎟ ∂x
⎝ c k ⎠
1 k ∂E z k ∂E z
\ Ex = = −j 2 (vi)
j ω /c − k ∂x
2 2 2
β ∂x
From Eqs. (v) and (vi), we get
∂Ez β2 β 2 c2 k β 2c2
= j Ex = j By = j By
∂x k k ω ω
∂ 2 Ez β 2 c 2 ∂B y β 2 c2 ω
\ = j = j · j 2 Ez {From Eq. (iv)}
∂x 2 ω ∂x ω c
= bÿ 2Ez
∂ 2 Ez
\ + β 2 Ez = 0
∂x 2
8.15 Write down the vector equation (derived from Maxwells equations) which determines the
magnetostatic field of a system of steady currents specified at every point by a current density
vector J. Explain the physical significance of each equation.
A straight conductor of rectangular cross-section lies along the axis of z, its side faces occupy
the planes x = ±a/2, y = ±b/2. It is formed as a bundle of many insulated strands, so that the
current density Jz can be made to vary across the section in any prescribed manner, in this case,
at a point (x, y) of the cross-section, such that
QY QZ
+[ + DPT DPT
B C
Show that the component of the magnetic field at points within the conductor must take the form
πx πy πx πy
H x = H1 cos sin , H y = H 2 sin cos ,
a b a b
where H1 and H2 are constants. Evaluate H1 and H2 and hence verify that the line integral of H
around the periphery of the rectangular cross-section is equal to the total current in the
conductor.
Sol. The given straight conductor of rectangular cross-section is shown in Fig. 8.9.
y
Current density patterns
on x = 0, y = 0 lines
J0
y = + b/2
J0
x
O
y = – b/2
x = – a/2 x = + a/2
Fig. 8.9 A conductor of rectangular cross-section.
πx πy
Now, given J = i z J 0 cos cos (i)
a b
Since J has z-component only, then we get from
Ñ×H=J (ii)
that H can have x and y components only. Then, the above equation becomes
∂H y ∂H x πx πy
− = J z = J 0 cos cos (iii)
∂x ∂y a b
\ Hx and Hy can take the form of
πx πy πx πy
cos sin and sin cos ,
a b a b
respectively, so that the Eq. (iii) becomes
∂ ⎛ πx πy⎞ ∂ ⎛ πx πy⎞ πx πy
⎜ H 2 sin cos ⎟ − ⎜ H1 cos sin ⎟ = J 0 cos cos (iv)
∂x ⎝ a b ⎠ ∂y ⎝ a b ⎠ a b
where H1 and H2 are constants.
\ H in the conductor becomes
πx πy πx πy
H = i x H1 cos sin + i y H 2 sin cos (v)
a b a b
To evaluate H1 and H2 from Eq. (iv),
π π
H2 − H1 = J 0 (vi)
a b
and we have Ñ·B=0 (vii)
π π
\ µ 0 H1 + µ0 H 2 = 0
a b
b
or H2 = − H1 (viii)
a
\ Substituting the value of H2 in Eq. (vi), we get
⎛ b 1⎞
π ⎜ − 2 − ⎟ H1 = J 0
⎝ a b⎠
This gives
a 2b
H1 = − J0
π (a 2 + b2 )
ab 2
and H2 = J0
π (a 2 + b2 )
abJ 0 ⎧ ⎛ πx πy⎞ ⎛ πx π y ⎞⎫
\ H= ⎨i x ⎜ − a cos sin ⎟ + i y ⎜ b sin cos ⎬
π (a + b ) ⎩ ⎝
2 2
a b ⎠ ⎝ a b ⎟⎠ ⎭
Next, we evaluate the line-integral of H around the periphery of the rectangular conductor.
\ vÔ H ¹ dl around the periphery
+a / 2 +b / 2 −a / 2
= ∫
−a / 2
H x ( y = − b/ 2) dx + ∫
−b / 2
H y ( x = a/ 2) dy + ∫
+a / 2
H x ( y = b/ 2) dx
−b / 2
+ ∫
+b / 2
H y ( x = − a/ 2) dy
abJ 0 ⎡+a / 2 πx
+b / 2
πy
−a / 2
πx
= ⎢
π ( a + b ) ⎢⎣ − a / 2
2 2
a ∫
cos
a
( − 1) dx +
−b / 2
b (1) ∫
cos
b
dy +
+a / 2
− a cos
a ∫
( −1) dx
−b / 2
πy ⎤
+ ∫ b( −1) cos
b
dy ⎥
⎥
+b / 2 ⎦
abJ 0⎡ a b a b ⎤
= ⎢ {1 − ( −1)} + {1 − (−1)} − {( −1) − 1} − {( −1) − 1}⎥
π (a + b ) ⎣ π /a
2 2
π /b π /a π /b ⎦
abJ 0 ⎡ 2a 2 2b 2 2a 2 2b 2 ⎤
= ⎢ + + + ⎥
π (a 2 + b 2 ) ⎣⎢ π π π π ⎥⎦
4abJ 0 ( a 2 + b 2 ) 4abJ 0
=
π (a + b )
2 2 2
=
π2
= Total current ∫∫ J ⋅ dS
S
Check:
x = +a / 2 y = +b / 2
πx πy
∫∫ J ⋅ dS =
∫ ∫ J 0 cos
a
cos
b
dx dy
S x = − a / 2 y = −b / 2
+a / 2 +b / 2
a ⎡ πx⎤ b ⎡ π y⎤
= J0 ⎢sin a ⎥ ⎢ sin
π ⎣ ⎦−a / 2 π ⎣ b ⎥⎦ − b / 2
abJ 0
= {1 − (−1)}{1 − (−1)}
π2
4abJ 0
=
π2
8.16 Show that the elementary form of the magnetic circuit law, expressed by the vector equation
Ñ×H=J
cannot hold good in a time-varying field. Establish the modification by which Maxwell
remedied this deficiency.
Figure 8.10 shows a cross-section of an air-capacitor having circular plates P of radius a and
spacing h, surrounded by a ring-shaped iron core of mean radius b (> a), small radial depth d,
axial height h and relative permeability µ/µ0. An alternating voltage V1 sin w t is applied across
the plates of the capacitor.
Neglecting the edge effects, show that the magnetic flux in the core is
a2d
Φ = ε0µ ωV1 cos ω t
2b
Hence, prove that a winding of N turns wound toroidally on the core will be the seat of an emf
proportional to the capacitor voltage and find the ratio of one to the other. Assume that the
winding is open-circuited.
Fig. 8.10 A parallel plate air-capacitor and the surrounding magnetic ring.
Sol. The first part of the problem is bookwork.

In a time-varying field,
∂D
∇×H = J +
∂t
In the given problem, there is no conduction current.
∂D
\ ∇×H =
∂t
D E
or
vÔ H ¹ dl ÔÔ t · dS ÔÔ F
C S S
0
t
· dS
In the space between the plates P,

V1
E = iz sin ω t ,
h
which is independent of r.
To find H or B in the core, consider a circular contour of radius r, where b d/2 < r
< b + d/2, as shown.
E
\
vÔ H ¹ dl ÔÔ F
C S
0
t
· dS
Since the fringing is neglected, the only E field exists up to the radius r = a.
⎛ ε ωV ⎞
\ 2π rH = ⎜ 0 1 cos ω t ⎟ π a 2 ,
⎝ h ⎠
which is independent of the radius.
Hence
a 2 ωV1
H = ε0 cos ωt
2h r
a 2 ωV1
and B = µε 0 cos ω t
2h r
d
b+
2 2
a h dr
\ Φ = µε 0
2h
ωV1 cos ω t ∫ d
r
b−
2
d
a2 b+
= µε 0 ωV1 cos ω t [ln r ] d2
2 b−
2
⎡ d⎤
µε 0 a 2 ⎢ b+ 2⎥
= ωV1 cos ω t ⎢ln ⎥
2 ⎢ b− d ⎥
⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥
⎡ d ⎤
µε 0 a 2 ⎢ 1+ 2b ⎥
= ωV1 cos ω t ⎢ln ⎥
2 ⎢ 1− d ⎥
⎣⎢ 2b ⎦⎥
µε 0 a 2 ⎧ ⎛ d ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞⎫
= ωV1 cos ω t ⎨ln ⎜1 + ⎟ − ln ⎜1 − ⎬
2 ⎩ ⎝ 2b ⎠ ⎝ 2b ⎟⎠ ⎭
x 2 x3 x 4
Note: ln (1 + x ) = x − + − +" x <1
2 3 4
x 2 x3 x 4
ln (1 − x ) = − x − − − −" x <1
2 3 4
µε 0 a 2
\F = ωV1 cos ω t
2
⎡ ⎧⎪ d 1 d2 1 d3 1 d4 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ d 1 d2 1 d3 1 d4 ⎫⎪⎤
× ⎢⎨ − 2
+ 3
− 4
+ " −
⎬ ⎨ − − 2
− 3
− 4
− "⎬⎥
⎣⎢ ⎩⎪ 2b 2 4b 3 8b 4 16b ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪ 2b 2 4b 3 8b 4 16b ⎭⎪⎦⎥
µε 0 a 2 ⎡ d 2 d3 ⎤
= ωV1 cos ω t ⎢ + 3
+ …⎥
2 ⎢⎣ b 3 8b ⎥⎦
Since d << b,
a2d
Φ ≈ µε 0 ωV1 cos ω t
2b
The emf induced in the toroidal winding of N turns around the core,
dΦ a2d 2
V = −N = µε 0 ω NV1 sin ω t
dt 2b
V a2d 2
\ = µε 0 ω N
V1 2b
8.17 Two circular metal discs of radius R are fixed at a separation of d to form an air-insulated
parallel plate capacitor. A rectangular loop of fine wire of dimensions d × b (where b < R ) is
inserted between the plates with its plane at right angles to them and one of its edges of length
d coinciding with the axis of the capacitor. Show that when an alternating emf V of frequency
b 2ω 2
w /2p is applied across the plates, an emf of V will be induced in the loop.
4c 2
Sol. The given parallel plate capacitor is shown in Fig. 8.11.
Fig. 8.11 A parallel plate capacitor of two circular metal plates.
Since the applied emf across the plates is V of frequency w /2p,

V ε 0V
E = and D =
d d
∂D ε ωV
\ = 0
∂t d
⎛ ε ωV ⎞ 2
At an arbitrary radius r, H ⋅ 2π r = ⎜ 0 ⎟π r .
⎝ d ⎠
ε 0ωVr µ ε ωVr ωVr 1
\ H = , B = 0 0 = , c (velocity of light) =
2d 2d 2c2 d µ0ε 0
b
ωVb 2 b 2ω 2V
∫
Hence, flux in the loop = d B ⋅ dr =
0
4c2
and the emf = ω Φ =
4c2
Note: This problem, which has appeared before, is presented again in this chapter to emphasize
the application and understanding of Maxwells equations.
8.18 Cartesian axes are taken within a non-magnetic conductor, J is parallel to the z-axis at every
point and B is perpendicular to it. The current distribution is such that B has the x-component
Bx as
Bx = k(x + y)2
Prove that the form of the other component By must be
By = f (x) k(x + y)2,
where f (x) is some function of x only. From these expressions for Bx, By, deduce an expression
for Jz, the single component of J and prove that if Jz is a function of y only, then
f (x) = 2kx2
Sol. Given J = iz J z
and B = ix Bx + iy By
∂Bx ∂B y
Since Ñ·B = 0, + = 0
∂x ∂y
Given that Bx = k(x + y)2
∂By
\ 2k(x + y) + =0
∂y
Since it is given that Bz = 0, By and Bx must be a function of x and y.
\ Integrating, we get By = f (x) k(x + y)2
1 ⎛ ∂By ∂Bx ⎞
Now, Jz = (Curl H)z = ⎜⎜ − ⎟
µ0 ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎠
1
= { f ′( x) − 4k ( x + y )}
µ0
If this is to be a function of y only, then
f ¢(x) = 4kx
or f (x) = 2kx2 + C
8.19 A long straight magnetic core of small cross-section carries an alternating flux F. Find the
magnitude and the direction of the electric field outside the core at a distance r from the centre
which is large compared with the dimensions of the section and prove that the electric flux
density can be expressed in the form D = curl C, where C is a vector of magnitude
(e0/2p ) jw F ln r, parallel to the flux.
Sol. The resistivity of the core material may be assumed to be very high.
∂B
Analogue: ∇×E = − ⇒ ∇ × H = J,
∂t
i.e. by analogy with the current filament,
− jω Φ
E= (circumferentially)
2π r
In magnetic field,
µ0 I
B = Ñ × A, where A = ln r
2π
\ By analogy
D = curl C = Ñ × C,
ε0
where C= jω Φ ln r
2π
Vector Potentials and 9
Applications
9.1 INTRODUCTION
It is a common practice to introduce the concept of the magnetic vector potential A as a mathematical
adjunct to the Ñ × B equation of the set of Maxwells equations. However, it should be noted that
A can also be introduced through the electric field vector E for time-varying fields, in which case
it makes it easier to give A a physical interpretation, as in this case, it is seen that A has the same
direction as E for time-varying magnetic fields. It should be further noted that Maxwell himself had
introduced his equation for the electromagnetic induction in terms of A and not in terms of E. He
had called A the electrokinetic momentum vector. In comparison with this approach, if we consider
a test charge e moving with a velocity v in an electromagnetic field (E, B), then the test particle not
only possesses a mechanical momentum mv (m being the mass of the particle), but it also possesses
an electromagnetic momentum eA so that the total momentum (= p) of the particle can be written
as
p = mv + eA
so that the electromagnetic momentum per unit charge of the test charge is the magnetic vector
potential A of the electromagnetic field at the point under consideration. It is thus associated with
the electric potential energy per unit charge of the test charge which is known as the electric scalar
potential V of the electromagnetic field at that point.
The magnetic field B is associated with this vector by the relationship
B=Ñ×A
This, however, does not define A uniquely and another constraint has to be impressed on it, which in
a number of times is
Ñ×A=0 (This is known as the Coulomb gauge.)
When this condition is imposed on the vector potential, the associated electric scalar potential
V becomes the electrostatic potential based on the potential energy distribution of the field. A is very
useful for the magnetic field calculations as well as for the energy, force and inductance calculations.
This will now be illustrated in the problems considered hereafter. It should be noted that on account
of the usefulness of A for magnetic field calculations, some of the problems discussed hereafter would
also be of magnetostatic fields.
590
VECTOR POTENTIALS AND APPLICATIONS 591
9.2 PROBLEMS
9.1 Find the vector potential Az due to two parallel straight currents I flowing in the +z and z
directions, respectively. Find the equations for the equipotentials and evaluate B. Show that B
satisfies the equation B × grad Az = 0, and thus the lines of B are the curves Az = constant.
9.2 Define the gradient of a scalar and the curl of a vector and give their differential notations in
the Cartesian notation system.
The scalar magnetic potential in a region is
Ω = C ln x2 + y2 .
Find the magnetic vector potential which produces the same magnetic field, assuming that
(a) the z-component of the vector potential is zero everywhere and (b) only the z-component of
the vector potential exists.
9.3 Three parallel conductors intersect a plane perpendicularly at points (a, 0), (0, 0) and (a, 0)
and carry currents 1, +2 and 1 units, respectively. Find the equation of a line of force in terms
of some parameter which distinguishes one line from another and prove that a particular line is
the rectangular hyperbola
2 ( x2 − y2 ) = a2 .
9.4 Two parallel wire circuits have a conductor P in common. The distances PQ, PR, QR and b, c,
d, respectively, and all conductors have a radius a, which is much smaller than b, c or d. Prove
that the mutual inductance per unit length between the circuits PQ, PR is
μ0 bc
ln .
2π ad
9.5 A straight metal ribbon of width 2a and negligible thickness, carries a uniformly distributed
current I. Calculate the vector potential at any point on the ribbon and deduce the density of
the flux which traverses the ribbon at right angles to its plane at any point. Find also the vector
potential at any point on the perpendicular bisector of the ribbon and deduce the location of
the points where the bisector is intersected by the line of force which grazes the edges of the
ribbon.
9.6 Starting from the definition of the magnetic vector potential A as
B = Ñ × A,
show that its unit is Wb/m. Hence, in a time-varying field, express the electric field vector E in
terms of A and show that
1 ∂2A
∇2 A − = − μJ
μ 2 ∂t 2
Show that the vector potential (in Cartesian coordinates) associated with a uniform magnetic
field B = izB0 has only two components and is given by
A = − i xα yB0 + i y (1 − α ) xB0 ,
where a is any arbitrary number. Derive the expression for A in cylindrical coordinates.
Comment on the shape of lines of A.
Note: In cylindrical coordinates:
⎧ 1 ∂Az ∂Aφ ⎫
∇ × A = ir ⎨
⎩ r ∂φ
−
∂z
⎬ + iφ
⎭
∂Ar ∂Az
∂z
−
∂r { 1⎧∂
r ⎩ ∂r }
∂A ⎫
+ i z ⎨ (rAφ ) − r ⎬
∂φ ⎭
9.7 (a) In a magnetic field, show that the flux through any closed circuit C is equal to the line
integral of the vector potential A around C.
(b) State the boundary conditions in terms of B and H between two media of different
permeabilities and express these conditions in terms of A.
(c) Show that when all the currents in a region flow in the z-direction only, the vector potential
A satisfies a scalar Poissons equation.
9.8 A sinusoidal alternating magnetic field is acting in a conducting medium of conductivity s. The
vector potential A is of the form
A = i y A ( x) ⋅ exp { j (ωt − α z )}.
∂A
If A satisfies the equation Ñ2A = ms , find the differential equation satisfied by A(x). Hence,
∂t
find the expression for A(x), if A(x) = A0 at x = 0 and A(x) ® 0 as x ® ¥.
Determine E and H at any point in the field and show that the ratio of z- and x-components of
the magnetic field is
1/ 4
⎛ μ 2σ 2ω 2 ⎞
⎜1 + ⎟ .
⎝ α4 ⎠
9.9 The walls of an infinitely long pipe of rectangular cross-section are given by x = 0, x = a and
y = 0, y = b. A wire carrying a current I, lies at x = c, y = d where 0 < c < a and 0 < d < b.
Show that the vector potential inside the pipe is
∞
2μ I mπ b mπ (b − d ) mπ y mπ c mπ x
∑ m cosech
1
0 < y < d, Az = cosh cosh cos cos
π m =1
a a a a a
∞
2μ I mπ b mπ d mπ (b − y ) mπ c mπ x
∑ m cosech
1
d < y < b, Az = cosh cosh cos cos .
π m =1
a a a a a
9.10 Show that the components of force per unit length in Problem 9.9 are
∞
μ I z2 mπ b mπ mπ c
Fy =
a ∑ cosech
m =1
a
sinh
a
(2d − b) cos 2
a
∞
μ I z2 mπ a mπ mπ d
and Fx =
a ∑ cosech
m =1
b
sinh
b
(2c − a) cos 2
b
.
9.11 The direction of a vector A is radially outwards from the origin and its magnitude is krn, where
r 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
Find the value of n for which Ñ × A = 0.
9.12 Find the magnetic vector potential and the magnetic field at any point due to a current I in a
long straight conductor of rectangular cross-section (2a × 2b).
9.13 Find the vector potential and the magnetic field at any arbitrary point due to a current I in a
metal ribbon of width 2a.
9.14 Find the vector potential distribution due to a current I in a ferromagnetic rectangular conductor
of dimensions (2a × 2b). The relative permeability mr is constant but mr >> 1.
9.15 Find the vector potential distribution and the magnetic field distribution highly permeable in a
current-carrying conductor of equilateral triangular shape altitude 3a and carrying a current I.
9.16 Find the vector potential and the magnetic field distribution due to a current I in a highly
permeable conductor of elliptical cross-section, the equation of the ellipse being
x2 y2
+ = 1.
a 2 b2
9.17 The magnetic vector potential A is made to satisfy the constraint Ñ × A = 0. Then, the general
expression for the vector potential, giving zero divergence, is
A = Ñ × W,
where W is a vector which should be derivable from two scalar functions. So, W can be split
up into two orthogonal components (i.e. normal to each other), i.e.
W = uW1 + u + ÑW2,
where u is an arbitrary vector chosen so that
Ñ2A = Ñ2 (Ñ × W) = Ñ × (Ñ2W) = 0
Ñ2W1 = 0 and Ñ2W2 = 0
Hence, verify in rectangular Cartesian coordinates, that
Ñ2uW1 = uÑ2W1
or Ñ2uW1 = uÑ2W1 + 2ÑW1
and Ñ2 (u × ÑW2) = u × Ñ (Ñ2W2),
where u = ix, iy, iz or r (i.e. unit vector in the direction of r).
Hence, for a magnetostatic field show that the part of A derived from W2 is the gradient of a
scalar and contributes nothing to B.
9.18 (a) Starting from the definition of the magnetic vector potential A
B=Ñ×A
show that A satisfies the equation

Ñ 2 A = mJ
for static fields, provided A satisfies a further condition.
(Use the vector identity Ñ × Ñ × A = Ñ (Ñ × A) Ñ2A for the proof.)
(b) Show that the following potentials represent the same magnetic field and satisfy all the
required conditions:
A1 = iy xB0,
A2 = ix yB0,
and
⎛ yB ⎞ ⎛ xB ⎞
A3 = i x ⎜ z − 0 ⎟ + i y ⎜ z + 0 ⎟ + i z ( x + y ),
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
where B0 is a constant.
(c) Derive the components of the magnetic field. Does the following vector potential satisfy
the above conditions?
3z
A = i x yB0 + i y 2 xB0 + i z
2
9.19 In the absence of time variation, two of the Maxwells equations can be expressed as
Ñ × E = 0 and Ñ×D= rC.
Show that these two equations can be reduced to a single equation by using a scalar potential.
State the Maxwells equations involving the magnetic field vectors in static conditions and show
that a vector potential function can be used to reduce them to a single equation.
9.20 A spherical capacitor of inner radius Ri and outer radius Ro contains a slightly conducting
dielectric of permittivity e and conductivity s. Find the magnetic field B when the capacitor
discharges through its dielectric.
Hint: Use Lorentz condition.
9.21 A long, isolated, metal conductor of circular cross-section of radius a carries a current whose
distribution is
J = J0 r 2 .
Show that the vector potential inside the conductor varies as the fourth power of the radius and
the magnetic flux density as the third power of the radius.
9.22 A current I flows in a circular loop of radius a. Find the vector potential and the magnetic field
at a point P (not on the axis of the loop) due to this current. Express the result in terms of
elliptic integrals.
9.23 State the boundary conditions between two media of different permeabilities and express these
in terms of the magnetic vector potential A.
When all the currents in a region flow in the z-direction only, the vector potential A satisfies a
scalar Poissons equation. Prove this.
9.24 The divergence and curl of a vector field A are specified as div A = Q and curl A = P, where
Q and P are finite systems of sources and vertices, and also A ® 0 towards infinity. If A1 and
A2 are two vector fields which satisfy the above conditions, then show that A1 = A2.
9.25 Find the vector potential Az due to two parallel infinite straight currents I flowing in the +z and
z directions. Hence show that the cross-sections through the equipotential surfaces are same
as those of V in the Problem 1.30. Show that the equation of lines of B are B grad Az = 0 and,
thus, the lines of B are the curves Az = constant.
9.3 SOLUTIONS
9.1 Find the vector potential Az due to two parallel straight currents I flowing in the +z and z
directions, respectively. Find the equations for the equipotentials and evaluate B. Show that B
satisfies the equation B × grad Az = 0, and thus the lines of B are the curves Az = constant.
Sol. The vector potential due to two parallel infinite straight currents I flowing in the
±z directions, as shown in Fig. 9.1, is
Fig. 9.1 Two parallel straight conductors carrying currents in opposite directions
(the +z direction is normal to the plane of the paper).
μ0 I r
A = i z Az = i z ln 2 ,
2π r1
where r12 = ( x − a)2 + y 2 , r22 = ( x + a)2 + y 2

1/ 2
μ0 I ⎧ ( x + a ) 2 + y 2 ⎫
\ A = i z Az = ln ⎨ 2⎬
2π ⎩ ( x − a) + y ⎭
2
∂Az ∂A
B = ∇ × A = ix − i y z = i x Bx + i y B y
∂y ∂x
∂Az μ 0 I ( x − a ) 2 + y 2 2 y{( x − a ) 2 + y 2 } − 2 y{( x + a ) 2 + y 2 }

\ Bx = = ⋅
∂y 4π ( x + a ) 2 + y 2 {( x − a ) 2 + y 2 }2
μ0 I −8 xya μ I (−8 xya )

= = 0
4π {( x + a ) + y }{( x − a ) + y }
2 2 2 2 4π (r1r2 ) 2
∂Az μ I ( x − a ) 2 + y 2 2 ( x + a) {( x − a) 2 + y 2 } − 2 ( x − a ) {( x + a ) 2 + y 2 }
By = − = − 0 ⋅
∂x 4π ( x + a ) 2 + y 2 {( x − a ) 2 + y 2 }2
μ0 I − 4a ( x 2 − a 2 ) + 4ay 2 μ0 I 4a {( x 2 − a 2 ) + y 2 }
= − =
4π {( x + a ) 2 + y 2 }{( x − a ) 2 + y 2 } 4π ( r1r2 ) 2
∂Az ∂Az
grad Az = ∇Az = i x + iy
∂x ∂y
⎧ ∂Az ∂A ⎞ ⎫ ⋅ ⎧i ∂Az + i ∂Az ⎫

\ B × grad Az = ⎨i x + i y ⎛⎜ − z ⎟⎬ ⎨ x y ⎬
⎩ ∂y ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎭ ⎩ ∂x ∂y ⎭
∂Az ∂Az ⎛ ∂Az ⎞ ∂Az

= + ⎜− ⎟ = 0
∂y ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y
Hence, B and grad Az are orthogonal, i.e. mutually perpendicular. In other words, B is at right
angles to the direction of maximum rate of change of Az.
\ B is in the direction of Az = constant.
9.2 Define the gradient of a scalar and the curl of a vector and give their differential notations in
the Cartesian notation system.
The scalar magnetic potential in a region is
Ω = C ln x2 + y2 .
Find the magnetic vector potential which produces the same magnetic field, assuming that
(a) the z-component of the vector potential is zero everywhere and (b) only the z-component of
the vector potential exists.
∂Ω ∂Ω ∂Ω
Sol. Now, ∇Ω = i x + iy + iz
∂x ∂y ∂z
⎛ ∂A ∂Ay ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ax − ∂Az ⎞ + i ⎛ ∂Ay − ∂Ax ⎞

∇ × A = ix ⎜ z − ⎟ + iy ⎜ ⎟ z⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
(a) We assume Az = 0.
C
Now, H = − ∇Ω and Ω = C ln x2 + y 2 = ln ( x 2 + y 2 )
2
∂Ω ∂Ω ∂Ω
= − ix − iy and = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Ω μC 2 x ∂Ω μC 2 y
\ Bx = − μ = − , By = − μ = −
∂x 2 x2 + y 2 ∂y 2 x2 + y2
⎛ ∂Ay ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ax ⎞
Also, B = ∇ × A = i x Bx + i y B y = i x ⎜ − ⎟ + iy ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ⎠
∂Ay μ Cx
\ Bx = − = − 2
∂z x + y2
μCxz
\ Ay = + C1(x, y)
x2 + y 2
∂Ax μ Cy
and By = = − 2
∂z x + y2
μ Cyz
Hence, Ax = − + C2(x, y)
x2 + y2
∂Ay ∂Ax
and Bz = − =0
∂x ∂y
∂Ay ∂Ax
\ =
∂x ∂y
μ Cxz
Ay = + C1 ( x, y )
x2 + y 2
N$Z[
Ax = $ Y Z

Y Z
∂Ay ∂Ax
Bz = − =0
∂x ∂y
∂Ay ⎧ 1 x(− 1) ⎫
= μC ⎨ 2 + 2 2 x ⎬ + C1x ( x, y )
∂x ⎩x + y
2
(x + y )
2 2
⎭
N$
= Y Z Y
$Y Y Z
Y
Z

N$ Y Z
= $Y Y Z
Y Z

"Y ÎÑ Z
ÞÑ
= N$ Ï Zß $ Z Y Z
Z ÐÑ Y Z

Y Z

àÑ
N$
= Y Z Z
$ Z Y Z
Y
Z

N$ Y Z
= $ Z Y Z
Y Z

"Z "Y
\ Bz =
Y Z
N$ Y Z
ÎÑ N$ Y Z
ÞÑ
= Ï ß $Y Y Z
$ Z Y Z
Y Z
ÐÑ Y Z
àÑ
= $Y Y Z
$ Z Y Z
for all x, y
\ C1 and C2 must be constant = 0.
− μ Cyz μ Czx
Hence, Ax = 2 and Ay =
x + y2 x2 + y 2
(b) If only Az exists, then
∂Az μ Cx
Bx = = − 2
∂y x + y2
1 y y
\ Az = − μ Cx ⋅ tan −1 + C1 ( x) = − μ C ⋅ tan −1 + C1 ( x)
x x x
∂Az μ Cy
and By = − = − 2
∂x x + y2
1 x x
\ Az = + μCy tan −1 + C2 ( y ) = μC tan −1 + C2 ( y )
y y y
y x
Hence, − μ C tan −1 + C1 ( x) = μ C tan −1 + C2 ( y )
x y
⎛ x y⎞
or C1 ( x) − C2 ( y ) = μ C ⎜ tan −1 + tan −1 ⎟
⎝ y x⎠
x y
+
y x
= μ C tan −1 = μ C tan −1 ∞
x y
1−
y x
π
= μC
2
π
\ These are constants differing by μ C .
2
x ⎛π y⎞
Hence, Az = μ C tan −1 = μ C ⎜ − tan −1 ⎟
y ⎝2 x⎠
9.3 Three parallel conductors intersect a plane perpendicularly at points ( a, 0), (0, 0) and (a, 0)
and carry currents 1, +2, 1 units, respectively. Find the equation of a line of force in terms
of some parameter which distinguishes one line from another and prove that a particular line is
the rectangular hyperbola.
2 ( x2 − y2 ) = a2 .
Sol. Vector potential due to a single infinitely long conductor carrying a current I is
μ0 I
|A| = − ln r
2π
For the three parallel conductors, shown in Fig. 9.2,
μ0 I rr
|A| = − ln 1 23
2π r2
A = constant is a line of force (for proof, see Problem 9.1).
Fig. 9.2 Three collinear infinite parallel conductors carrying different currents.
\ The general equation of a line (in this case) is

r1r3 = k 2 r22
or, in Cartesian coordinates,
{( x + a)2 + y 2 }{( x − a)2 + y 2 } = k 2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2

or ( x 2 + y 2 + a 2 ) 2 − 4a 2 x 2 = k 2 ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2
or (1 − k 2 ) ( x 2 + y 2 )2 + 2a 2 ( x 2 − y 2 ) + a 4 = 0
and k = 1 gives 2(x2 + y2) = a2, which is a rectangular hyperbola as a particular line.
9.4 Two parallel wire circuits have a conductor P in common. The distances PQ, PR, QR are b, c,
d, respectively, and all conductors have a radius a, which is much smaller than b, c or d. Prove
that the mutual inductance per unit length between the circuits PQ, PR is
μ0 bc
ln .
2π ad
Sol. Each conductor is of radius a such that a << b or c or d.
The vector potential at an arbitrary point X, due to the circuit PQ (Fig. 9.3) is
μ0 I r′
AXPQ = ln
2π r
If, now the point X moves to the surface of the conductor P, then
μ I b
AP = 0 ln
2π a
Fig. 9.3 Two parallel-wire circuits.
or if the point X moves to the surface of the conductor R, then

μ0 I d
AR = ln
2π c
AP − AR
\ Mutual inductance = per unit length
I
μ0 bc
= ln
2π ad
9.5 A straight metal ribbon of width 2a and negligible thickness, carries a uniformly distributed
current I. Calculate the vector potential at any point on the ribbon and deduce the density of
the flux which traverses the ribbon at right angles to its plane at any point. Find also the vector
potential at any point on the perpendicular bisector of the ribbon and deduce the location of
the points where the bisector is intersected by the line of force which grazes the edges of the
ribbon.
Sol. (a) Consider a differential element d x of the ribbon, at a distance x from its centre (Fig. 9.4).
Iδ x
Current in the element =
2a
\ Potential at any point A(x0, 0) on the metal ribbon itself, due to the element dx at x is
μ0 I
− ln ( x − x0 ) δ x, if x > x0
4π a
μ I
and − 0 ln ( x0 − x ) δ x, if x0 > x
4π a
\ Due to the whole ribbon,
a x0
μ I μ I
−|A| = 0
4π a ∫
x0
ln ( x − x0 ) dx + 0
4π a ∫a
ln ( x0 − x) dx
Fig. 9.4 Metal ribbon of width 2a, carrying a total current I distributed uniformly.
In the first integral, let x x0 = x.

a − x0 a − x0
⎡ ⎤
\ First integral = ∫
0
ln ξ dξ = ⎢ξ ln ξ − ξ ⎥
⎣ ⎦0
= (a − x0 ) ln ( a − x0 ) − (a − x0 )
In the second integral, x0 x = x.

0
\ Second integral = −
∫
x0 + a
ln ξ dξ = (a + x0 ) ln (a + x0 ) − ( a + x0 )
μ0 I
\ The resultant A = − {( a + x0 ) ln ( a + x0 ) + ( a − x0 ) ln ( x − x0 ) − 2a} (i)
4π a
dA μ I
= − 0 {1 + ln (a + x0 ) − 1 − ln (a − x0 )}
dx0 4π a
\ At any point x,
μ0 I a+x
B = ln
4π a a − x
(b) On the perpendicular bisector of the ribbon [Fig. 9.4(b)], we have

+a
μ0 I
A= −
4π a ∫
−a
ln x 2 + y 2 dx
Let x = y tan q.
\ dx = y sec2 q dq
Limits, x = a = y tan a.
⎛a⎞
\ a = tan1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ y⎠
and x = a = y tan ( a)
⎛−a⎞
\ a = tan1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ y ⎠
⎛ +α ⎞ μ I
A = ⎜ ln ( y sec θ ) ⋅ y sec 2 θ dθ ⎟ ⎛⎜ − 0 ⎞⎟
Hence,
⎜
⎝ −α
∫ ⎟ ⎝ 4π a ⎠
⎠
+α +α
μ0 Iy ⎡ ⎤
= − ∫ ∫
⎢ (ln y ) sec θ dθ + (ln sec θ ) sec 2 θ dθ ⎥
2
4π a ⎢ ⎥⎦
⎣ −α −α
First integral = (ln y ) [tan θ ]+−αα = 2 (ln y ) tan α
+α +α
⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎤ sec θ tan θ
Second integral = ⎢⎜ ln (sec θ ) ⎟ tan θ ⎥ −
⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ −α ∫α
−
sec θ
tan θ dθ (integrating by parts)
+α
⎡ ⎤
= ⎢(ln sec θ ) tan θ − (tan θ − θ ) ⎥
⎣ ⎦ −α
= 2 {(ln sec α − 1) tan α + α }
μ0 Iy
\ A= − [(tan α ) {ln ( y sec α ) − 1} + α ] (ii)
2π a
μ0 I ⎡ α ⎤
= ⎢ ln (a cosec α ) − 1 + (iii)
2π ⎣ tan α ⎥⎦
(c) Location of points of intersection of the bisector with the lines of force grazing the edges
of the ribbon:
From Eq. (i) (for the vector potential at any point on the ribbon) the value x0 on the edge of the
ribbon is x0 = a.
Then, the potential will be
μ0 I μ I
A = − 2a {ln (2a ) − 1} = − 0 {ln (2a ) − 1} (iv)
4π a 2π
Thus, the point required is y from Eqs. (ii) or (iii), such that the line representing Eq. (iv) passes
through it, i.e.
y [α + (tan α ) {ln ( y sec α ) − 1}] = a {ln (2a) − 1}
But y tan a = a.
Hence, y {α + (tan α ) ln ( y sec α )} = a ln (2a )
yα + a ln ⎛⎜ sec α ⎞⎟ = 0
y
or
⎝ 2a ⎠
α
or α cot α + a ln ⎛⎜ sin ⎞⎟ = 0
⎝ 2⎠
α ⎛ sin α ⎞
Solving this equation graphically, i.e. finding a, , ln ⎜ ⎟ , gives a = 62°
tan α ⎝ 2 ⎠
approximately and y = 0.532a.
9.6 Starting from the definition of the magnetic vector potential A as
B = Ñ × A,
show that its unit is Wb/m. Hence, in a time-varying field, express the electric field vector E in
terms of A and show that
1 ∂2A
∇2 A − = − μJ
μ 2 ∂t 2
Show that the vector potential (in Cartesian coordinates) associated with a uniform magnetic
field B = izB0 has only two components and is given by
A = − i xα y B0 + i y (1 − α ) xB0 ,
where a is any arbitrary number. Derive the expression for A in cylindrical coordinates.
Comment on the shape of lines of A.
Note: In cylindrical coordinates:
⎧ 1 ∂Az ∂Aφ ⎫
∇ × A = ir ⎨
⎩ r ∂φ
− ⎬ + iφ
∂z ⎭ ∂z
− {
∂Ar ∂Az
∂r
1⎧∂
} ∂A ⎫
+ i z ⎨ (rAφ ) − r ⎬
r ⎩ ∂r ∂φ ⎭
Sol. The first part of the problem is bookwork.

B = izB0 = Ñ × A
⎛ ∂Ay ∂Ax ⎞
= iz ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
\ Az = 0 and A has no z-component and hence has only two components.
∂Ay ∂Ax
Hence, − = B0 (i)
∂x ∂y
∂Ax ∂Ay
and ∇⋅A = + = 0 (ii)
∂x ∂y
From (i), we get
1 ∂Ay 1 ∂Ax
−1 = = constant (a), say
B0 ∂x B0 ∂y
\ By integrating,
Ax = a yB0
and Ay = (1 a)xB0
In cylindrical coordinates,
1⎧∂ ∂Ar ⎫
⎨ (rAφ ) − ⎬ = B0
r ⎩ ∂r ∂φ ⎭
1 ∂ 1 ∂Aφ
and ∇⋅A = ( rAr ) + = 0.
r ∂r r ∂φ
Since, the origin of the system can be chosen arbitrarily, let Ar = 0.
r2
\ rAf = ∫ rB0 dr + C =
2
B0 + constant of integration
rB0
Hence, Af = , i.e. lines of A are circles.
2
9.7 (a) In a magnetic field, show that the flux through any closed circuit C is equal to the line
integral of the vector potential A around C.
(b) State the boundary conditions in terms of B and H between two media of different
permeabilities and express these conditions in terms of A.
(c) Show that when all the currents in a region flow in the z-direction only, the vector potential
A satisfies a scalar Poissons equation.
Sol. (a) Bookwork
(b) Boundary conditions:
(i) Bn1 = Bn2 and
(ii) Ht1 Ht2 = surface current density
(i) B = Ñ × A
\ B n1 Bn 2 À vÔ A t1 ¹ dl vÔ A t2 ¹ dl
where the paths (or contours) are taken in the media 1 and 2, respectively, and are
parallel to and close to the interface between the two media.
This will be true for any path.
\ At1 = At 2
i.e. the tangential component of A will be continuous on the interface.
(ii) H t1 − H t 2 = J S ,
curl A
i.e. equivalent discontinuity of on the interface.
ur
(c) In this case J has only one component, i.e. J = iz Jz.
\ A will have only one component, i.e. A = iz Az.
⎛ ∂Az ∂Ay ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ax − ∂Az ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ay ∂Ax ⎞

⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟
\ B = Ñ × A = i x ∂y ∂z ⎟ + i y ⎜ ∂z ∂x ⎟ + i z ⎜ ∂x ∂y ⎟
⎜⎜ =0⎠⎟ ⎜ =0
⎝
⎟
⎠ ⎜ = 0 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎝
⎛ ∂A ⎞ ⎛ ∂A ⎞
= ix ⎜ z − 0⎟ + i y ⎜ 0 − z ⎟ + i z (0 − 0)
⎝ ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ⎠
∂Az ∂Az
= ix − iy = i x Bx + i y B y , no z-variation.
∂y ∂x
1
Now, Ñ × H = J Þ Ñ×H= (Ñ × B)
μ
⎡ ⎛ ∂B ∂B ⎞ ⎛ ∂Bx − ∂Bz ⎞ ⎤
1 ⎢ ⎜ z − y⎟ ⎛ ∂B y ∂Bx ⎞ ⎥
= i ∂y +
∂z ⎟ y ∂z
i ⎜ ∂x ⎟ + i −
μ ⎢ x ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜ = 0 = 0 ⎟ z ⎜⎝ ∂x ⎟
∂y ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ = 0 = 0⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
1 ⎡ ⎛ ∂B y ∂Bx ⎞ ⎤
=
μ ⎢ i x (0 − 0) + i y (0 − 0) + i z ⎜ ∂x − ∂y ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
= iz Jz
∂ ⎛ ∂Az ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Az ⎞ ⎛ ∂ 2 Az ∂ 2 Az ⎞
\ ⎜− ⎟− = − ⎜ 2 + ⎟ = J z Scalar Poissons equation.
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎜⎝ ∂y ⎟⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y 2 ⎠
9.8 A sinusoidal alternating magnetic field is acting in a conducting medium of conductivity s. The
vector potential A is of the form
A = i y A ( x) ⋅ exp { j (ωt − α z )}.
∂A
If A satisfies the equation Ñ2A = ms , find the differential equation satisfied by A(x). Hence,
∂t
find the expression for A(x), if A(x) = A0 at x = 0 and A(x) ® 0 as x ® ¥.
Determine E and H at any point in the field and show that the ratio of z- and x-components of
the magnetic field is
1/ 4
⎛ μ 2σ 2ω 2 ⎞
⎜1 + ⎟ .
⎝ α4 ⎠
Sol. A has y-component only and is a function of x, z and t.
∂A ∂ 2 Ay ∂ 2 Ay ∂Ay
∇ 2 A = μσ reduces to + = μσ
∂t ∂x 2
∂z 2 ∂t
(in Cartesian coordinates, the detailed steps are left as an exercise for the readers.)
Now, Ay = A(x) exp { j(w t a z)}
Substituting in the above equation,
Î 2 A( x) Þ
Ï ( jB ) 2 A( x) ß exp ^ j (X t B z )` jXNT A( x ) exp ^ j (X t B z )`
Ð x
2
à
∂ 2 A( x)
or − (α 2 + jωμσ ) A( x) = 0
∂x 2
\ A( x ) = A1 exp {(α 2 + jωμσ )1/ 2 x} + A2 exp {− (α 2 + jωμσ )1/ 2 x}
To evaluate A1 and A2:
(i) At x = 0, A(x) = A0 = A1 + A2
(ii) As x ® ¥, A(x) ® 0 = A1 exp (+¥) + A2 exp (¥)
\ A1 = 0
Hence, (
A( x) = A0 exp − x α 2 + jωμσ )
{α } {α }
1 1/ 2 1 1/ 2
Let α 2 + jωμσ = a + jb = 4
+ (ωμσ ) 2 + α 2 + j 4
+ (ωμσ ) 2 − α 2
2 2
\ Ay = i y A0 exp ( ax) exp { j (X t B z bx)}
∂Ay ∂Ay
Hence, B = ∇ × A = − ix + iz
∂z ∂x
= i x B A0 exp ( ax) exp { j (X t B z bx)}
i z (a jb) A0 exp ( ax) exp { j (X t B z bx)}
= i x Bx + i z Bz
\ Bx = α A0 exp (− ax) exp { j (ω t − α z − bx)}
Bz = (a jb) A0 exp ( ax) exp { j (X t B z bx)}
{α }
1/ 2
Bz a + jb a 2 + b2
4
+ (ωμσ ) 2
\ = = =
Bx α α α
1/ 4
⎛ ω 2 μ 2σ 2 ⎞
= ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ α4 ⎠
∂A Ay
E= = iy jX A0 exp ( ax) exp { j (X t B z bx)}
∂t t
Physical interpretation
The electric and the magnetic fields are produced by imposing a travelling wave pattern of a
current sheet on the surface of a semi-infinite block of conducting metal. The surface is the
plane x = 0. The conducting medium extends to x ® ¥. The current in the sheet flows in the
y-direction and the sheet travels in the z-direction. This produces the field patterns in the metal
which travel in the z-direction and diffuse in the x-direction. The E field has only the
y-component (parallel to the applied current sheet) whereas B has both x- and z-components,
the peak values being on the x = 0 plane.
9.9 The walls of an infinitely long pipe of rectangular cross-section are given by x = 0, x = a and
y = 0, y = b. A wire carrying a current I in the z-direction, lies at x = c, y = d where 0 < c < a
and 0 < d < b. Show that the vector potential inside the pipe is
∞
2μ I mπ b mπ (b − d ) mπ y mπ c mπ x
∑ m cosech
1
0 < y < d, Az = cosh cosh cos cos
π m =1
a a a a a
∞
2μ I mπ b mπ d mπ (b − y ) mπ c mπ x
∑ m cosech
1
d < y < b, Az = cosh cosh cos cos .
π m =1
a a a a a
Sol. This is a two-dimensional problem in magnetic vector potential, similar to the two-
dimensional problem of Electrostatics, as given in Problem 3.15. Instead of the line charge, we
have a line current which has only the z-component. Hence, even though we are using the
magnetic vector potential A, this will have only one component, i.e. z-component or A = iz Az.
So, the potential will satisfy the Laplacian field at all points except where the line current is
located. Hence, the field equation can be written in terms of the Dirac-delta function.
∂Az ∂Az
B = ∇ × A = ix − iy = i x Bx + i y B y
∂y ∂x
and Ñ×H=J (with no variation in the z-direction)
1 ⎡ ⎛ ∂Ay ∂Bx ⎞ ⎤
⎢i z ⎜ − ⎟ = i z J z ¬ Line current at x = c, y = d.
μ ⎣ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ⎦⎥
Substituting for B in terms of A, we get
∂ 2 Az ∂ 2 Az
+ = − μ I z δ ( x − c) δ ( y − d ) ,
∂x 2 ∂y 2
which is Poissons equation in terms of delta function.
As in Problems 3.15, 3.16 and 3.17, this is a composite Laplacian/Poissonian field problem and
we write the solution in terms of a double infinite series of orthogonal functions of the
independent variables x and y. In this case, they are trigonometric functions, because this is a
Cartesian geometry problem.
The outer boundary conditions are:
(i) and (ii) On x = 0 and x = a, only the normal flux exists, i.e. only Bx exists and
Az
By 0
x
(iii) and (iv) On y = 0 and y = b, again only the normal flux exists and
∂Az
Bx = = 0
∂y
So as shown in Appendix I, we can write the solution in terms of double infinite series (of four
terms each) of trigonometric functions of x/a, y/b and applying the above boundary conditions,
the solution reduces to (as can be easily checked).
mπ x nπ y
Az = ∑∑A
m n
mn cos
a
cos
b
Substituting this value in the composite equation, we get
⎧⎪ mπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ nπ ⎞ 2 ⎫⎪ mπ x nπ y
∑∑ Amn ⎨⎛⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬ cos cos = + μ I z δ ( x − c) δ ( y − d ) ,
m n ⎩⎪ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ a b
where Amn has to be evaluated.
mπ x nπ y
So, multiplying both sides of the above equation by cos cos and integrating over
a b
the limits x = 0 to x = a and y = 0 to y = b, respectively, we get
⎪⎧ mπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎪⎫ ab = μ I cos mπ c cos nπ d
2 2
Amn ⎨⎛⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ z
⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ 4 a b
as obtained by the integration of the Dirac-delta function (and only one term of the series
remains non-zero on the L.H.S.).
−1
4 ⎪⎧⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎪⎫ mπ c nπ d
\ Amn = μ I z ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬ cos cos
ab ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ a b
−1
⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ nπ ⎞ 2 ⎫⎪ mπ c mπ x nπ d nπ y
∑∑
4
Hence, Az = μIz ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬ cos cos cos cos
m n
ab ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ a a b b
for the whole cross-section of the rectangular pipe.
Thus, we have obtained the requisite potential distribution inside the rectangular pipe in terms
of a double infinite series of orthogonal (trigonometric in this case) functions.
Since the required expression is a single infinite series in terms of the trigonometric (cosine)
function in x-variable, we now have to reduce the y-series to a single term by summation.
Hence, the y-series can be written as
−1
⎪⎧⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎪⎫ nπ d nπ y
2 2
Y = ∑ n
⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜
⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠
⎟ ⎬
⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭
cos
b
cos
b
and we use the following relationships:
∞
∑n
1
= −
n =1
2
+α 2
2α sinh θπ 2α 2
and cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

1
\ cos A × cos B = {cos(A + B) + cos(A B)}
2
First, we consider the range y < d.
nπ d nπ y
In this case, = A, = B in the above expression.
b b
−1
{ }
∞
⎪⎧⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎪⎫ nπ nπ
2 2
∑
1
\ Y= ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬ cos (d + y ) + cos (d − y)
2 n =1 ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ b b
−1
{ } { }
−2 ∞
1 ⎛π ⎞ ⎪⎧ 2 ⎛ mb ⎞ ⎪⎫ ⎡cos n π ( d + y ) + cos n π ( d − y ) ⎤
2
= ⎜ ⎟
2⎝b⎠ ∑
n =1
⎨n + ⎜
⎩⎪
⎟ ⎬
⎝ a ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎢⎣ b b ⎥⎦
mb π π
So the corresponding equivalence is a= , q1 = (d + y), q2 = (d y).
a b b
\ Y=
b2
⋅
π ⎢
⎢
a {
⎡ cosh mb π − π (d + y )
b
+
}
cosh
mb
a
π
b {
π − (d − y ) ⎤⎥
⎥
}
2π 2 2 mb ⎢ sinh
mb
π sinh
mb
π ⎥
a ⎣⎢ a a ⎥⎦
mπ mπ y
2 cosh (b − d ) cos
ab a a
=
4mπ mπ b
sinh
a
mπ mπ y
cosh (b − d ) cos
ab a a
=
2mπ mπ b
sinh
a
Similarly for y > d, the double infinite series can be reduced to the form of the required single
mπ x
infinite series of cos terms.
a
∑α
1
Note: 2 is a constant term series and can be ignored.
9.10 Show that the components of force per unit length in Problem 9.9 are
∞
μ I z2 mπ b mπ mπ c
Fy =
a ∑ cosech
m =1
a
sinh
a
(2d − b) cos 2
a
∞
μ I z2 mπ a mπ mπ d
and Fx =
a ∑ cosech
m =1
b
sinh
b
(2c − a) cos 2
b
.
Sol. Now, the force on the line current is

F = i x Fx + i y Fy and Fx = I z By and Fy = I z Bx
∂Az ∂Az
where B = i x Bx + i y B y and Bx = and B y = −
∂y ∂x
So, the first step in evaluating the forces is to evaluate the potential distribution inside the pipe
cross-section due to the line current.
∂Az ∂Az
\ Fx = − I z and Fy = I z
∂x ∂y
Az has already been evaluated in Problem 9.9. Once again, in this case for the calculation of
force components, the double infinite series for Az has to be used and it must be understood
that the single infinite series cannot be used for this purpose. (The reason is left as an exercise.)
So, for A, we have
−1
⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ nπ ⎞ 2 ⎫⎪ mπ c mπ x nπ d nπ y
∑∑
4
Az = μIz ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬ cos cos cos cos
m n
ab ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ a a b b
We consider Fy first.
∂Az
Fy = Iz
∂y
−1
4 ⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎪⎫
2 2
mπ c mπ x nπ d ⎛ nπ nπ y ⎞
= μ I z2 ∑∑
m n
⎨⎜
ab ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠
⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪
cos
a
cos
a
cos ⎜−
b ⎝ b
sin
b ⎠
⎟
mπ x
Since the final result is in terms of cos series, we sum the y-series which we write down as
a
∞ −1
⎪⎧ mπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎪⎫ nπ nπ d nπ y
2 2
Yseries = ∑ − ⎨⎛⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ cos sin
n =1 ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ b b b
∞ −1
π ⎛ π ⎞−2 ⎛ 2 m2b 2 ⎞ nπ y nπ d
= ∑
n =1
⎜ ⎟
b ⎝b⎠
⎜n + 2 ⎟
⎝ a ⎠
n sin
b
cos
b
4
Note: We have left out the factor , as it is a constant.
ab
At the point (x = c, y = d ), this series becomes
∞ −1
⎪⎧ 2 ⎛ mb ⎞ ⎪⎫ 2nπ d
2
∑
b
Yd = ⎨n + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ n sin
n =1
2π ⎪⎩ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎪⎭ b
∞
n sin nθ π sinh α (π − θ )
Note: ∑
m =1,2,... n 2
+ α 2
=
2 sinh απ
In this case, a = mb and q = 2π d .

a b
mb ⎛ π − 2π d ⎞ mπ
sinh ⎜ ⎟ sinh (2d − b)
π b a ⎝ b ⎠ a
\ Yd = = −b
2 2π mb mπ b
sinh π sinh
a a
Hence, at the point (x = c, y = d ), the y-component of the force is
mπ mπ c
∞ sinh (2d − b) cos 2
μ I z2
Fy =
a ∑
m =1
a
mπ b
a
sinh
a
Similarly, the x-component of the force at the wire can be calculated. (It is left as an exercise
for the students.)
A point that should be carefully noted is that for Fx, the series that has to be added is the
mπ x nπ
x-series, i.e. sin . The final answer in the form of single infinite series is, in fact, the
a b
series of the double infinite series solution and when the solution has been reduced to the form
of single infinite series, it does not matter whether the harmonic term is written in terms of
m or n.
9.11 The direction of a vector A is radially outwards from the origin and its magnitude is krn,
where
r 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
Find the value of n for which Ñ × A = 0.
Sol. In the Cartesian coordinate system, the components of A are:

k xr n −1 , k yr n −1 , k zr n −1
⎧∂ ∂ ∂ ⎫
and ∇ ⋅ A = k ⎨ ( xr n −1 ) + ( yr n −1 ) + ( zr n −1 ) ⎬
⎩ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭
This is to be 0, when
{r n −1 + x (n − 1) r n − 2
∂r
∂x } ⎧
+ ⎨r n −1 + y (n − 1) r n − 2
⎩
∂r ⎫
⎬+ r
∂y ⎭
n −1
{+ z (n − 1) r n − 2
∂r
∂z } =0
From r2 = x2 + y2 + z2, we get

∂r
2r = 2x, and so on.
∂x
{r n −1 + x 2 (n − 1) r n − 3 } + {r n −1 + y 2 (n − 1) r n − 3 } + {r n −1 + z 2 (n − 1) r n − 3 } = 0
or 3r n −1 + (n − 1) r n − 3 ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = 0
or 3 + ( n − 1) = 0
\ n = 2
9.12 Find the magnetic vector potential and the magnetic field at any point due to a current I in a
long straight conductor of rectangular cross-section (2a × 2b).
I
Sol. The current density in the conductor = .
4ab
Consider an element (dx0, dy0) at a point Q (x0, y0) in the conductor (Fig. 9.5).
The vector potential at a point chosen arbitrarily at P(x, y) due to the element Q is
μ0 I
A = − ln {( x − x0 ) 2 + ( y − y0 ) 2 }dx0 dy0
8π ab
Fig. 9.5 A rectangular conductor of cross-section (2a ´ 2b).
\ The vector potential at P due to the whole conductor is

+ a +b
μ0 I
AP = − ∫ ∫ ln {( x − x ) }
+ ( y − y0 ) 2 dx0 dy0
2
0
8π ab
− a −b
+ x 2 ) dx = x ln (a 2 + x 2 ) − 2 x + 2a tan −1 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ,
x
Since
∫ ln (a
2
⎝a⎠
on completing the double integral, the final answer comes out to be:
μ0 I ⎡
A = −
8π ab
{
⎢ ( a − x) (b − y ) ln ( a − x) + (b − y )
2 2
}
⎣
{
+ ( a + x) (b − y ) ln (a + x) 2 + (b − y ) 2 }
+ ( a − x) (b + y ) ln {(a − x) 2 + (b + y ) 2 }
+ ( a + x) (b + y ) ln {( a + x) 2 + (b + y ) 2 }
⎛ b− y b+ y⎞ ⎛ b− y b+ y⎞
+ ( a − x) 2 ⎜ tan −1 + tan −1 ⎟ + ( a + x ) 2 ⎜ tan −1 + tan −1
⎝ a−x a−x⎠ ⎝ a+x a + x ⎟⎠
⎛ a−x a+ x⎞ ⎛ −1 a − x −1 a + x ⎞ ⎤
+ (b − y ) 2 ⎜ tan −1 + tan −1 + (b + y ) 2 ⎜ tan b + y + tan b + y ⎟⎥
⎝ b − y b − y ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
And the magnetic field components are obtained from the integrals
+ a +b
I y − y0
Hx = −
8π ab ∫ ∫ {( x − x )
− a −b 0
2
+ ( y − y0 ) 2
dx0 dy0
}
+ a +b
I x − x0
and Hy =
8π ab ∫ ∫ {( x − x )
− a −b 0
2
+ ( y − y0 )2
dx0 dy0
}
Note: A = constant will give the lines of force. Since the relative permeability of the conductor
is unity, the lines of force will cross the outer boundaries of the conductor.
9.13 Find the vector potential and the magnetic field at any arbitrary point due to a current I in a
metal ribbon of width 2a.
I
Sol. Surface current density in the strip, JS = .
2a
The vector potential expression for the point P is (Fig. 9.6)
+a
μ J
Az = − 0 S
2π ∫ ln {( x
−a
0 }
− x) 2 + y 2 dx0
Fig. 9.6 A current-carrying metal strip of width 2a, carrying a current I.
On integrating, the expression for the vector potential becomes

μ0 JS ⎡
Az = −
2π
{ }
⎢ (a + x) ln (a + x) + y + ( a − x) ln (a − x) + y
2 2 2 2
{ }
⎣
⎛ a+x a−x⎞ ⎤
+ 2 y ⎜ tan −1 + tan −1 ⎟ − 4a ⎥
⎝ y y ⎠ ⎦
If the vector potential at the origin of the coordinate system is to be made equal to zero, then
it is sufficient to add the following constant value to the above expression, i.e.
− (a + x) ln a 2 − (a − x) ln a 2 + 4a
in which case the expression for the vector potential becomes
μ0 J S ⎧⎪ (a + x) 2 + y 2 ( a − x) 2 + y 2
Az = − ⎨ ( a + x ) ln + ( a − x ) ln
2π ⎪⎩ a2 a2
⎛ a+x a − x ⎞⎫
+ 2 y ⎜ tan −1 + tan −1 ⎬
⎝ y y ⎟⎠⎭
The equations of lines of force follow from the equation
A = constant
To obtain the expressions for the magnetic field,
1
H = ∇×A
μ
1 ∂Az J ⎛ a+x a− x⎞
\ Hx = = − S ⎜ tan −1 + tan −1
μ ∂y π ⎝ y y ⎟⎠
1 ∂Az J S ⎧ (a + x)2 + y 2 (a − x) 2 + y 2 ⎫
and Hy = − = ⎨ln + ln ⎬
μ ∂x π ⎩ a2 a2 ⎭
as derived in Problem 9.12.
9.14 Find the vector potential distribution due to a current I in a ferromagnetic rectangular conductor
of dimensions (2a × 2b). The relative permeability mr is constant but mr >> 1.
Sol. See Fig. 9.7. Since the conductor is ferromagnetic, no flux lines will cross the outer
boundaries of the conductor, i.e.
on x = ±a, Bx = 0 and for y = ±b, By = 0
Since the current is only in the z-direction, i.e.
I
J = ,
4ab
Fig. 9.7 Ferromagetic rectangular conductor of dimensions (2a × 2b).

A will have only the z-component and the flux density components in terms of the vector
potential will be
∂Az ∂A
Bx = and B y = − z
∂y ∂x
And Az will satisfy the Poissons equation
∂ 2 Az ∂ 2 Az
∇2 Az = + = − μJ
∂x 2 ∂y 2
The solution will be of the form
⎛ 2
μJ ⎞
A = − ⎜⎜ x +
2⎝ k
∑
Ck cosh ky cos kx ⎟
⎟
⎠
To satisfy the boundary condition of x = ±a, Bx = 0, we must have
∑C k sinh ky cos ka = 0 for − b < y < b
mπ
\ ka = , where m is an odd integer.
2
π
\ k = (2n + 1) , n = 1, 2, ...
2a
By using the boundary condition on y = ±b, we get
(2n + 1) π (2n + 1) π b (2n + 1) π x
2x = Cn cosh sin
2a 2a 2a
Expressing the L.H.S. by a Fourier series, we get
(2n + 1) π x
2x = ∑D n
n sin
2a
(2n + 1) π x
To evaluate Dn, multiply both sides of the above equation by sin and integrate
2a
within the limits x = a to x = +a. Thus,
+a
(2n + 1) π x 16a 2
L.H.S. = ∫
−a
2 x sin
2a
dx = (−1) n
(2n + 1)2 π 2
+a
(2n + 1) π x
and R.H.S. = ∫
−a
Dn sin 2
2a
dx = aDn
16a
\ Dn = (− 1)n
(2n + 1)2 π 2
Substituting these in the equation for Cn, these constants come out as
32a 2
Cn = (− 1) n
(2n + 1) π b
(2n + 1)3 π 3 cosh
2a
and hence the vector potential is
⎡ (2n + 1) π y (2n + 1) π x ⎤
⎢ 2
∞ 32a 2 cosh cos ⎥
μJ
A=
2
⎢x +
⎢
∑( − 1) n 2 a 2a
(2n + 1) π b ⎥
⎥
n=0 (2n + 1) π cosh
3 3
⎣ 2a ⎦
Hence the flux density components are:
∂Az
Bx =
∂y
(2n + 1) π y (2n + 1) π x
∞ 16a sinh cos
μJ
= −
2 ∑ (− 1) n 2a
(2 n + 1)
2a
πb
n =0 (2n + 1) 2 π 2 cosh
2a
∂Az
and By = −
∂x
⎡ (2n + 1) π y (2n + 1) π x ⎤
∞ 16a cosh sin
μJ ⎢ ⎥
= −
2
⎢2x −
⎢
∑ ( − 1) n 2a 2a
(2n + 1) π b ⎥
⎥
n =0 (2n + 1) 2 π 2 cosh
⎣ 2a ⎦
From these expressions, it is obvious that Bx has a maximum at x = 0, y = ±b and By has a
maximum at y = 0, x = ±a.
9.15 Find the vector potential distribution and the magnetic field distribution in a highly permeable
current-carrying conductor of equilateral triangular shape of altitude 3a and carrying a current I.
Sol. See Fig. 9.8.
Fig. 9.8 Magnetic field inside a highly permeable conductor of equilateral triangular section.
The field inside the conductor is Poissonian (as in Problem 9.14), i.e.
∂ 2 Az ∂ 2 Az
∇ 2 Az = + = − μJz
∂x 2 ∂y 2
I
where Jz = .2
a 3 3
As in Problem 9.14, here also all the three boundaries (the outer walls) are flux lines. But now
because of its shape, only one boundary can be made parallel to the coordinate axes which, in
this case, is side 1-2, parallel to y-axis. The other two sides, since they are not orthogonal to
the side 1-2, cannot be parallel to either x- or y-axis.
Since 1-2 is a flux line, as it is parallel to y-axis, it will be By and hence on 1-2, i.e. x = a,
∂Az
Bx = =0
∂y
Next, we have to find the equation for the sides 2-3 and 3-1. For the side 2-3, it is represented
by the equation
x 2a
y = +
3 3
Since this is a flux line, and is inclined to both the coordinate axes, it must satisfy the condition
∂Az
By −
= ∂x = 1 (= m or y = mx + c)
Bx ∂Az 3
∂y
x 2a
And for the side 3-1, y = − − , which is a flux line, we have
3 3
∂Az
By −
= ∂x = − 1
Bx ∂Az 3
∂y
The solution of the Poissons equation which will satisfy these equations will be
μ J ⎛ x3 ⎞
Az = − ⎜ − y 2 ( x − a ) + ax 2 ⎟
4a ⎝ 3 ⎠
The flux density lines are given by Az = constant, which gives
x3
− y 2 ( x − a ) + ax 2 = C (constant)
3
The magnetic field components are given by
∂Az μJ μJ
Bx = = + 2 y ( x − a) = y ( x − a)
∂y 4a 2a
∂Az μJ 2
and By = − = + ( x − y 2 + 2ax)
∂x 4a
3
The maximum flux density is at the middle of a side and Bmax = m Ja.
4
9.16 Find the vector potential and the magnetic field distribution due to a current I in a highly
permeable conductor of elliptical cross-section, the equation of the ellipse being
x2 y2
+ = 1.
a 2 b2
Sol. See Fig. 9.9. The field inside the conductor is again Poissonian, i.e.
∂ 2 Az ∂ 2 Az
∇ 2 Az = + = − μ Jz
∂x 2 ∂y 2
Fig. 9.9 A highly permeable conductor of elliptical cross-section.
In this case, the outer boundary of the conductor is a smooth closed curve (an ellipse), no finite
part of which is parallel to the coordinate axes. So, there are no boundary conditions on lines
parallel to the coordinate directions. But there are points on the boundary where the field
components have specific values related to coordinate directions. They are:
(i) At x = ±a, y = 0, Bx = 0 and
(ii) At y = ±b, x = 0, By = 0.
It can be verified that these conditions are satisfied by
μ J z ⎧ x2 y2 ⎫
A = − ⎪ + 2⎪
2 ⎨ ⎛a⎞ 2
b ⎬
⎪1 + ⎜ ⎟ 1 + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎪
⎩ ⎝b⎠ ⎝a⎠ ⎭
The induction lines are given by constant value of A or by the equation
x2 y 2
+ = constant
a2 b2
The flux density components are
y
Bx = − μ J z 2
1 + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
b
⎝a⎠
x
and By = μ J z 2
1 + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
a
⎝b⎠
The maximum value of Bx is at the points (x = 0, y = ±b).
b
\ Bx max = B μ J z 2
1 + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
b
⎝a⎠
The maximum value of By is at the points (x = ±a, y = 0).
a
\ By max = ± μ J z 2
1 + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
a
⎝b⎠
If a = b, the cross-section of the conductor becomes circular, in which case
μJz 2
A= − ( x + y2 )
4
I
For this case, Jz = and x2 + y2 = r2.
π a2
μI
\ A= − ⋅ r2
4π a 2
is the vector potential for a ferromagnetic circular conductor (for r < a).
9.17 The magnetic vector potential A is made to satisfy the constraint Ñ × A = 0. Then, the general
expression for the vector potential, giving zero divergence, is
A = Ñ × W,
where W is a vector which should be derivable from two scalar functions. So, W can be split
up into two orthogonal components (i.e. normal to each other), i.e.
W = uW1 + u + ÑW2
where u is an arbitrary vector chosen so that
Ñ2A = Ñ2 (Ñ × W) = Ñ × (Ñ2W) = 0
Ñ2W1 = 0 and Ñ2W2 = 0
Hence, verify in rectangular Cartesian coordinates, that
Ñ2uW1 = u Ñ2W1
or Ñ2uW1 = u Ñ2W1 + 2ÑW1
and Ñ2(u × ÑW2) = u × Ñ (Ñ2W2),
where u = ix, iy, iz or r (i.e. unit vector in the direction of r).
Hence for a magnetostatic field, show that the part of A derived from W2 is the gradient of a
scalar and contributes nothing to B.
Sol. Given A = Ñ × W, where W = uW1 + u × ÑW2,

and where u = ix + iy + iz (say) and W1 and W2 are scalars.
\ uW1 = ixW1 + iyW1 + izW1
⎛ ∂W2 ∂W2 ∂W2 ⎞

and u × ÑW2 = (i x + i y + i z ) × ⎜ i x + iy + iz
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎟⎠
⎛ ∂W ∂W2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂W2 ∂W2 ⎞ + i ⎛ ∂W2 − ∂W2 ⎞

= ix ⎜ 2 − ⎟ + i y ⎜ ∂x − ∂z ⎟ z⎜
⎝ ∂z ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ∂x ⎟⎠
A = ixAx + iyAy + izAz
= ∇ × W = ∇ × (i zWx + i yWy + i zWz )
⎛ ∂Wz ∂W y ⎞ ⎛ ∂Wx − ∂Wz ⎞+i ⎛ ∂W y ∂Wx ⎞

= ix ⎜ − ⎟ + iy ⎜ ⎟ z ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
and since W = uW1 + u × ÑW2.
⎛ ∂W ∂W2 ⎞ ∂W ∂W2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂W2 ∂W2 ⎞

\ Wx = W1 + ⎜ 2 − ⎟ , Wy = W1 + ⎛⎜ 2 − ⎟ and Wz = W1 + ⎜ −
⎝ ∂z ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ∂x ⎟⎠
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
Ñ2A = i x ∇ 2 Ax + i y ∇ 2 Ay + i z ∇ 2 Az , where ∇ 2 ≡ + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
= Ñ2 (Ñ × W)
⎛ ∂Wz ∂W y ⎞ 2 ⎛ ∂Wx ∂Wz ⎞ 2 ⎛ ∂W y ∂Wx ⎞
= i x ∇2 ⎜ − ⎟ + iy ∇ ⎜ − ⎟ + iz ∇ ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
⎧∂
= i x ⎨ (∇ 2Wz ) −
⎩ ∂y
∂
∂z
⎫
(∇ 2Wy ) ⎬ + i y
⎭
∂
∂z {
(∇ 2Wx ) −
∂
∂x
(∇ 2Wz ) }
⎧∂ ∂ ⎫
+ i z ⎨ (∇ 2Wy ) − (∇ 2Wx ) ⎬
⎩ ∂x ∂y ⎭
= ∇ × (i x ∇ 2Wx + i y ∇ 2W y + i z ∇ 2Wz )
= ∇ × (∇ 2 W) .
Given
∂ 2W1 ∂ 2W1 ∂ 2W1 ∂ 2W2 ∂ 2W2 ∂ 2W2

Ñ2W1 = + + = ∇ = + + = 0
2
0 and W2
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∇ 2 (uW1 ) = ∇ 2 (i xW1 + i yW1 + i zW1 )
2 ⎧ ⎛ ∂W2 ∂W2 ∂W2 ⎞⎫

∇ 2 (u × ∇W2 ) = ∇ ⎨(i x + i y + i z ) × ⎜ i x + iy + iz ⎟⎬
⎩ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠⎭
⎧ ⎛ ∂W2 ∂W2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂W2 − ∂W2 ⎞ + i ⎛ ∂W2 − ∂W2 ⎞⎫

= ∇ 2 ⎨i x ⎜ − ⎟ + iy ⎜ ⎟ z⎜ ⎟⎬
⎩ ⎝ ∂z ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ∂x ⎠⎭
⎧ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎫
= ( i x + i y + i z ) × ⎨i x (∇ 2W2 ) + i y (∇ 2W2 ) + i z (∇ 2W2 ) ⎬
⎩ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭
= u × ∇ (∇ W2 )
2
A = ∇ × W = ∇ × (uW1 + u × ∇W2 )
= ∇ × (uW1 ) + ∇ × (u × ∇W2 )
\ Part of A derived from W2 = ∇ × (u × ∇W2 )
Note: We consider the vector identity

Ñ × (P × Q) = P div Q Q div P + (Q × grad) P (P × grad) Q
= P (∇ ⋅ Q) − Q (∇ ⋅ P) + (Q ⋅ ∇) P − (P ⋅ ∇) Q
\ ∇ × (u × ∇W2 ) = u(∇ ⋅ ∇W2 ) − (∇W2 )(∇ ⋅ u) + {(∇W2 ) ⋅ ∇}u − {(u ⋅ ∇) (∇W2 )}
First term = u(∇ ⋅ ∇W2 ) = u∇ 2W2 = 0, as ∇ 2W2 = 0

Second term = (∇W2 ) (∇ ⋅ u) = 0, as ∇ ⋅ u = 0 because u is a constant vector.
Third term = {(∇W2 ) ⋅ ∇}u
⎡⎛ ∂W2 ∂W2 ∂W2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞⎤

= ⎢⎜ i x + iy + iz ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ i x ∂x + i y ∂y + i z ∂z ⎟ ⎥ (i x + i y + i z )
⎣⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
=0
Fourth term = {(u ⋅ ∇) (∇W2 )}
⎧ ⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ ⎫ ⎛ ∂W2 ∂W2 ∂W2 ⎞

= ⎨( i x + i y + i z ) ⎜ i x + iy + iz ⎟ ⎬ ⎜ i x ∂x + i y ∂y + i z ∂z ⎟
⎩ ⎝ ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z ⎠⎭ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ ⎛ ∂W2 ∂W2 ∂W2 ⎞
= ⎜ + + ⎟ ⎜ ix + iy + iz
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎟⎠
⎛ ∂ 2W2 ∂ 2W2 ∂ 2W2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂ 2W2 ∂ 2W2 ∂ 2W2 ⎞

= ix ⎜ + + ⎟ + i y ⎜ + + ⎟
⎝ ∂x
2
∂x∂y ∂x∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x∂y ∂y 2 ∂y∂z ⎠
⎛ ∂ 2W2 ∂ 2W2 ∂ 2W2 ⎞

+ iz ⎜ + + ⎟
⎝ ∂z∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z 2 ⎠
⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ ⎛ ∂W2 ⎞ + ⎛ i ∂ + i ∂ + i ∂ ⎞ ⎛ ∂W2 ⎞
= ⎜ ix + iy + iz ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ x
∂z ⎟⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ∂y ⎟⎠
y z
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y
⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ ⎛ ∂W2 ⎞
+ ⎜ ix + iy + iz ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎟⎠ ⎝ ∂z ⎠
⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ ⎛ ∂W2 ∂W2 ∂W2 ⎞

= ⎜ ix + iy + iz + +
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎟⎠
⎛ ∂W ∂W2 ∂W2 ⎞
= ∇⎜ 2 + +
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎟⎠
⎛ ∂W2 ∂W2 ∂W2 ⎞

Note that ⎜ + + is a scalar.
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎟⎠
\ Part of A derived from W2 is
⎛ ∂W ∂W2 ∂W2 ⎞
−∇⎜ 2 + +
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎟⎠
As seen above, this is gradient of a scalar.
The magnetic field from this part of A is
B=Ñ×A
Contribution Ñ × A is
⎛ ∂W ∂W2 ∂W2 ⎞
∇×∇⎜ 2 + +
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎟⎠
i.e. it is curl of a gradient and we know that Ñ × ÑW = 0 for a scalar function.
\ The contribution to B from W2 is zero.
9.18 (a) Starting from the definition of the magnetic vector potential A
B = Ñ × A,
show that A satisfies the equation
Ñ 2A = m J,
for static fields, provided that A satisfies a further condition.
(Use the vector identity Ñ × Ñ × A = Ñ (Ñ × A) Ñ2A for the proof.)
(b) Show that the following potentials represent the same magnetic field and satisfy all the
required conditions:
A1 = iy xB0,
A2 = ix yB0
⎛ yB ⎞ ⎛ xB ⎞
and A3 = i x ⎜ z − 0 ⎟ + i y ⎜ z + 0 ⎟ + i z ( x + y )
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
where B0 is a constant.
(c) Derive the components of the magnetic field. Does the following vector potential satisfy
the above conditions?
3z
A = i x yB0 + i y 2 xB0 + i z
2
Sol. (a) Bookwork.

(b) Ñ × A = B and Ñ × A = 0
⎛ dA ∂Ay ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ax − ∂Az ⎞ + i ⎛ ∂Ay − ∂Ax ⎞
B = ix ⎜ z − ⎟ + iy ⎜ ⎟ z⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
A1 = iyxB0 \ B = izB0 and Ñ × A1 = 0

A2 = ixyB0 \ B = +izB0 and Ñ × A2 = 0
i x ⎛⎜ z − 0 ⎞⎟ + i y ⎛⎜ z + 0 ⎞⎟ + i z ( x + y )
yB xB
A3 =
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ B B ⎞
\ B = i x (1 − 1) + i y (1 − 1) + i z ⎜ + 0 + 0 ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
= izB0
and Ñ × A3 = 0
Hence all the three vector potentials represent the same magnetic field, i.e.
B = i z B0
(c) Next, consider
3z
A = i x yB0 + i y 2 xB0 + i z
2
\ B = i x (0 − 0) + i y (0 − 0) + i z (2 − 1) B0 = i z B0
3 3
But ∇⋅A = 0+0+ = ≠ 0
2 2
Hence this vector potential does not represent the above magnetic field.
9.19 In the absence of time variation, two of the Maxwells equations can be expressed as
Ñ × E = 0 and Ñ×D= rC
Show that these two equations can be reduced to a single equation by using a scalar potential.
State the Maxwells equations involving the magnetic field vectors in static conditions and show
that a vector potential function can be used to reduce them to a single equation.
Sol. Since Ñ × E = 0, under static conditions, we can express E as the gradient of a scalar
field, i.e.
E = ÑV
Combining this with Ñ × D = rC, we get
ρC
∇ ⋅ (∇V ) = ∇ 2V = −
ε
The magnetic field equations of Maxwell are
Ñ × H = J and Ñ × B = 0 (under static conditions)
Since the divergence of B is zero, it can be expressed as the curl of another vector field, i.e.
B=Ñ×A
\ Ñ×Ñ×A= mJ
Since Ñ × Ñ × A = Ñ (Ñ × A) Ñ2A, we get
Ñ 2A = m J + Ñ (Ñ × A)
We can choose Ñ × A = 0 and hence
Ñ 2A = mJ
9.20 A spherical capacitor of inner radius Ri and outer radius Ro contains a slightly conducting
dielectric of permittivity e and conductivity s. Find the magnetic field B when the capacitor
discharges through its dielectric.
Hint: Use Lorentz condition.
Sol. We use the spherical polar coordinate system for the problem which has q and f
symmetry and hence the only variation is in the r-direction.
Let the outer sphere be at zero potential and the inner sphere be at V1. Also let the leakage
current be I.
The capacitor has a capacitance C (say) and a leakage resistance R so that
I = I 0 exp ⎛⎜ −
t ⎞
⎟,
⎝ RC ⎠
where I0 = initial value of the current at t = 0 before the discharge gets started.
If V is the P.D. at any radius r of the dielectric shell, then
∂V J I
− = E = = , where J = current density
∂r σ 4π r 2σ
Ro
I0 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
exp ⎛⎜ −
t ⎞
\ V1 = ∫
Ri
| E | dr = −
4πσ ⎜⎝ Ri Ro ⎟⎠ ⎝ RC
⎟
⎠
V1
The resistance, R =
I
\ At any radius r in the dielectric,
I0 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
exp ⎛⎜ −
t ⎞
V = − ⎟
4πσ ⎜⎝ r Ro ⎟⎠ ⎝ RC ⎠
The Lorentz gauge is
∂V I0 ⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ t ⎞
∇ ⋅ A = − με = με ⎜ − ⎟ exp ⎜ − RC ⎟
∂t 4πσ RC ⎝ r Ro ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Since Aq = 0 and Af = 0, the above equation simplifies to
1 ∂ 2 ⎛1 1 ⎞
(r Ar ) = K ⎜ − ⎟,
r ∂r
2
⎝ r Ro ⎠
με I 0
exp ⎛⎜ −
t ⎞
where K = ⎟.
4πσ RC ⎝ RC ⎠
By integrating,
K ⎛ r2 r3 ⎞
Ar = ⎜ − ⎟
r 2 ⎝ 2 3Ro ⎠
i.e. the constants of integration can be neglected. (Why?)
\ B=Ñ×A=0
This is a case of an electric current without a magnetic field, a surprising result.
∂B
Comment: Check this result, either by w
ÔÔ B ¹ dS
S
0 or by ∇ × E = −
∂t
.
(E is radial only and Eq = 0, Ef = 0.)
9.21 A long, isolated, metal conductor of circular cross-section of radius a carries a current whose
distribution is
J = J0 r 2 .
Show that the vector potential inside the conductor varies as the fourth power of the radius and
the magnetic flux density as the third power of the radius.
Sol. This is again a cylindrical geometry problem with variation only in r. In cylindrical polar
coordinate system, the current is z-directed. Hence the vector potential will also have only the
z-component, and the magnetic flux density circumferential.
The relevant equations are
B=∇×A
and ∇×H=J
\ ∇ × ∇ × A = μJ
Since there is only r variation and J and A have z-component only, the equation above would
simplify to (in cylindrical polar coordinate system)
d 2Az 1 dAz
2
N0 J 0 r 2
dr r dr
N0 J 0 r 4
\ Az :–
12
where W = C + D ln r
Since the current is finite along the z-axis,
\ D=0
For simplicity, we can assume that Az = 0 at r = 0.

\ C=0
N0 J 0 r 4
\ Az =
12
E"[ S
and B iG iG N +
ES
\ B varies as the third power of r, and Az varies as the fourth power of r (both inside the
conductor).
9.22 A current I flows in a circular loop of radius a. Find the vector potential and the magnetic field
at a point P (not on the axis of the loop) due to this current. Express the result in terms of
elliptic integrals.
Sol. See Fig. 9.10.
P(r, q, f)
AP = BP = R
y z OP = r
B
dl
+f
x
O Q
–f
dl
A I
Fig. 9.10 Circular coil carrying a current I.
We use the spherical polar coordinate system and chose the coordinate axes such that the point
P lies in the x-z plane. (This has been done for mathematical simplicity.)
Then for the point P, OP = r, f = 0 and PQ = z, and let OQ = r.
From symmetry considerations, the magnitude of A (the vector potential) is independent of f.
When two elements of length d l, equidistant from f = 0 axis (i.e. z-axis) are considered (at A
which is at f and at B which is at +f), the resultant will be normal to r z. Thus A will have
only the f component. Let dlf be the component of dl in this direction, then
π
μ0 I dlφ μ0 I a cos φ dφ
Aφ =
4π v∫ R
=
2π ∫ (a 2 + ρ 2 + z 2 − 2a ρ cos φ )1/ 2
0
We use the substitution,

f = p + 2a \ df = 2da
and cos f = 2 sin2a 1
π /2
μ0 aI (2 sin 2 α − 1) dα
Aφ = ∫
\ 4π
((a + ρ ) )
1/ 2
0
2
+ z 2 − 4a ρ sin 2 α
4a ρ
Let = k2
(a + ρ ) 2 + z 2
then
⎡⎛ 2 π /2 π /2 ⎤
k μ0 I a ⎞ dα 2
Aφ = ⎢⎜ 2 − 1⎟ ∫ − 2 ∫ (1 − k 2 sin 2 α )1/ 2 dα ⎥
2π ρ ⎣⎢⎝ k ⎠ 0 (1 − k sin α )
2 2 1/ 2
k 0 ⎦⎥
μ0 I a ⎡⎛ 1 2⎞ ⎤
= ⎢ ⎜⎝ 1 − k ⎟⎠ K − E ⎥
πk ρ ⎣ 2 ⎦
where K and E are the complete elliptic integrals of the first and second kind respectively.
Since A is independent of f, using the cylindrical coordinate system, it comes out that
∂Aφ 1 ∂
Bρ = − , Bφ = 0, Bz = ( ρ Aφ ).
∂z ρ ∂ρ
Hint: (about differentiation of Elliptic integrals).
dK E K dE E K
and
dk k (1 k ) 2
k dk k k
dk zk 3 dk k k3 k3 .
and
dz 4a S dS 2 S 4 S 4a
9.23 State the boundary conditions between two media of different permeabilities and express these
in terms of the magnetic vector potential.
When all the currents in a region flow in the z-direction only, the vector potential A satisfies a
scalar Poissons equation. Prove this.
Sol. The boundary conditions for the two media are:
(a) Bn1 = Bn2 and (b) Ht1 Ht2 = surface current density, since B = curl A
#O #O vÔ " ¹ EM vÔ "

U U ¹ EM
where the paths are taken in media 1 and 2, respectively and are close and parallel to the
interface boundary.
Since this has to be true for any path, At1 = At2, or Atan is continuous across the interface.
The boundary condition (b) says that there is a discontinuity of Htan across the interface. This
Î Þ
implies an equivalent discontinuity in the tangential component of Ï DVSM " ß
Ð NS à
Problem: J has only the z-component = iz J
\ A has only the z-component = izA (= Az)
"Z Þ Î "Y "[ Þ Î "Z "Y Þ
Now, B = ³" J Y ÏÎ "[ ß JZ Ï ß J[ Ï ß J Y "[ J Z "[
Ð Z [ à Ð [ Y à Ð Y Z à Z Y
Î # Z #Y Þ
curl H = + DVSM ) DVSM # J[ Ï ß J[ +
N N Ð Y Z à
Î "[ Þ Î "[ Þ Ë "[ "[ Û

or Ï ß Ï ß = Ì Ü +
Y Ð Y à Z Ð Z à ÌÍ Y Z ÜÝ
which is Poissons equation in scalars.
9.24 The divergence and curl of a vector field A are specified as div A = Q and curl A = P, where
Q and P are finite systems of sources and vertices, and also A ® 0 towards infinity. If A1 and
A2 are two vector fields which satisfy the above conditions, then show that A1 = A2.
Sol. This is, in fact, the Helmholtz theorem which has been already proved in Section 0.8.4.1
of the textbook ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New
Delhi, 2009. Here we are offering that proof in a slightly different form.
Given Ñ × A1 = Q and Ñ ´ A1 = P
and Ñ × A2 = Q and Ñ ´ A2 = P
Let us define a new vector A0 such that
A0 = A1 A2,
then we have
Ñ × A0 = div A0 = 0 and Ñ ´ A0 = curl A0 = 0
Since curl A0 is zero, A0 can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar.
i.e. A0 = grad V0 and V0 satisfies the Laplaces equation, i.e.
div grad V0 = Ñ 2V0 = 0
This tends to a constant value over a surface at infinity.
By the uniqueness theorem of electrostatics,
V0 = constant everywhere
\ A0 = 0
and, hence, A1 = A2
9.25 Find the vector potential Az due to two parallel infinite straight currents I flowing in the +z and
z directions. Hence show that the cross-sections through the equipotential surfaces are same
as those of V in Problem 1.30. Show that the equation of lines of B are B grad Az = 0 and, thus,
the lines of B are the curves Az = constant.
Sol. It has been shown in Sections 13.3.2.2 and 13.3.2.3 of ElectromagnetismTheory and
Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, that the vector potential due to a
pair of long parallel conductors is
N * È S Ø
(i.e. Eq. (13.16) of the textbook) (i)
"[
Q
MO
ÉÊ S ÙÚ

where r1 and r2 are the distances of the observation point P from the two parallel conductors
carrying currents ± I. Hence, the equation for the equipotentials will be
S
L DPOTUBOU (ii)
S
which is the same as Eq. (ii) of Problem 1.30.

Hence, in this case too, the equipotentials will be the same as those of the Problem 1.30
(non-intersecting co-axial circles with centres on the x-axis and the poles of the system would
be the two points at which the line currents ± I intersect this plane normally.
Also, the lines of B would be the same as the lines of E in that problem (Problem 1.30) and
these are orthogonal to the equipotential circles. Hence they are all co-axial circles of the
intersecting type, the common points of intersection being the poles of the equipotential
family. These are shown in Fig. 9.11, and since their derivation is the same as that shown in
Problem 1.30, it has not been repeated here.
B lines (all dotted lines)

V
P
r2
r1
x
–I +I –I +I
Equipotentials
Fig. 9.11 Equipotentials and B-lines due to two parallel line currents flowing in opposite directions.
Now, the vector potential A in this problem is

A = iz Az, Ax = 0, Ay = 0 (iii)
and B=ÑÁ (iv)

Here B will have only x- and y-components and Bz = 0
"[ È "[ Ø
\ B= JY #Y J Z #Z JY JZ ÉÊ Ù (v)
Z Y Ú
Î "[ È " Ø Þ Î "[ "[ Þ

B × grad Az = ÏJ Y J Z É [ Ù ß ¹ ÏJ Y JZ ß
Ð Z Ê Y à Ð Y
Ú Z à
"[ "[ "[ "[

= ¹ (vi)
Z Y Y Z
EY EZ
Also since, = , TBZ
(vii)
#Y #Z
then ds × grad Az = 0, where ds = ixdx + iydy (viii)
Equation (vi) implies that B has the same slope as the maximum slope of Az (i.e. gradient of Az).
\ The lines of B will be the curves Az = constant.
Poynting Vector and
10
Energy Transfer
10.1 INTRODUCTION
It should be carefully noted that the Poynting vector provides a simple method of calculating the
open-circuit energy flow in a system, but it does not give an insight into the mechanism of energy
flow in space. Considering the vector itself, i.e.
S = E × H,
nowhere it has been proved that there is an energy flow of S W/m2 at any point. What has been proved
in the textbook (as achieved by Poynting) is that:
The flux of S into any closed volume = the rate of storage of energy
+ the rate of dissipation of energy in that volume.
In complex notations,
S= E×H
=
1
2
( 1
)
Re Ec × H*c + Re {Ec × H c exp ( j 2ω t )}
2
where E = Ec exp ( jw t) + E*c exp (– jω t )
and H = Hc exp ( jw t) + H*c exp (− jω t )
S¢ = Ec × H*c
and Sav =
1
2
1
(
Re S′ = Re Ec × H*c
2
)
We shall discuss some of the Poynting vector problems now, though the Poynting vector
problems associated with eddy currents and electromagnetic waves will be dealt with in relevant
chapters.
An alternative vector, used for describing the energy transfer process is the Slepian vector,
which is:
∂D ⎞ ⎛ ∂A
S¢ = V ⎛⎜ J + ⎟+⎜ × H ⎞⎟ ,
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂A
where B = Ñ × A and E = – ∇ V –
∂t
631
It should be noted that the Slepian vector is the sum of two vectors, which can be described as
follows. The first part has the same direction as the total current and is V times its magnitude. The
second part is perpendicular to H and also to that part of E which is attributed to changing magnetic
fields.
10.2 PROBLEMS
10.1 A straight long uniform wire carries a steady current I. If the potential difference across a
length l is V, find the value of the Poynting vector at a distance r from the wire. Hence, show
that the energy flowing into the wire is VI per unit time.
10.2 The validity of the Poynting vector S as a measure of the energy flow is based on the equation
Power requirement of a region = Inward flux of S into the region
If the region under consideration is a slice of a coaxial cable carrying a direct current I, then
this equation reduces to 0 = 0, and yet the integral of S across the cross-section of the
dielectric correctly gives the power flow into the cable. Explain.
10.3 A long solenoid, having a cross-section of radius b, contains a long iron bar, centrally located
and having a radius a. The current in the solenoid is steadily increased. Show how Poyntings
theory accounts for the flow of energy from the solenoid winding into the iron. There is no
need to assume that the iron has a linear characteristic.
10.4 The suns radiation pours energy on the earths surface at a mean rate of 1.54 kW per square
metre normal to the rays. Calculate the rms values of E and H in a polarized light beam having
the same energy flow as light.
10.5 Power is being transmitted by direct current in a coaxial cable having concentric thin tubular
conductors of radii a, b (a < b), each of resistance R per unit length. The currents are ±I and
the potential difference at a certain section is V. Show that the Poynting vector accounts for
the known energy flows in the system.
10.6 A wire of diameter 2a carries an alternating current of rms value p a2J0 and frequency w /2p,
the skin effect being not very pronounced. Obtain a first approximation for the magnetic flux
density at a point distant r (< a) from the centre of the wire and deduce that the current density
at the same point is given to the first approximation by
⎧ ⎛ 2r 2 – a 2 ⎞⎫
J 0 ⎨1 + j⎜ 2 ⎟⎬ ,
⎩ ⎝ 8d ⎠⎭
1/ 2
⎛ ρ ⎞
where d = ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ μ0 μ r ω ⎠
Hence show that a second approximation to the flux density is
⎧r ⎛ r 3 – a 2 r ⎞⎫
μ0 μr J 0 ⎨ + j ⎜ 2 ⎟⎬
.
⎩2 ⎝ 16 d ⎠⎭
POYNTING VECTOR AND ENERGY TRANSFER 633
From these expressions, calculate the Poynting power flow per unit length into the outer
surface of the wire and comment upon the result.
10.7 The primary and secondary windings of a transformer form concentric cylinders round the
central core, the innermost one being the primary winding. The electric field can be resolved
into two parts by the equation
∂A
E = – ∇V – ,
∂t
one associated with the charges on the conductors and the other with the changing magnetic
field. Within the windings which are assumed to be of zero resistance, these fields cancel each
other out. Show that according to Poyntings theory, only the latter part of the electric field
can be effective in transferring energy from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Hence,
show how the theory accounts for the transference of the energy.
10.8 A salient pole alternator, having salient poles on the rotor is made to run with the rotor winding
excited, but with the stator winding open-circuited. Show that according to the Poynting
theory, there will be only a circulation of energy in the air-gap.
10.9 In Problem 10.8, the stator circuit is now closed so as to pass current at unity power factor.
Show that this causes an energy flow from the rotor to the stator.
10.10 A sphere of radius a, far away from other objects, has been charged to potential V0 (zero
potential being at infinity). It is then being slowly discharged by being connected to remote
ground via a high resistance wire. Discuss the energy flow (a) by Poynting theory and (b) by
Slepian theory.
10.11 Starting from Maxwells equations, express the divergence of the Poynting vector in integral
form in terms of the energy components, E and H being the values of the electric and the
magnetic fields on a closed surface S.
A parallel plate capacitor is made up of two circular discs of diameter d spaced a distance h
apart. A potential difference of V is applied between the plates and the spacing between the
plates is increased at a uniform rate to 2h in one second.
Find the induced magnetic field and the Poynting vector at the edge of the capacitor plates as
the plates are separated. Use the Poyntings theorem to correlate the change of stored energy
to the energy loss as the plates are separated.
10.12 A cylindrical region has perfectly conducting boundaries at r = b and z = L.
Show that the potential function F, which is given by
F = A ⎛⎜1 – ⎞⎟ ln ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ , where A is any arbitrary constant

z r
⎝ L⎠ ⎝b⎠
satisfies the Laplaces equation in the cylindrical coordinate system (r, f, z), i.e.
1 ∂
r ∂r
r{ }
∂Φ
∂r
1 ∂ 2Φ ∂ 2Φ
+ 2
r ∂φ
+ 2 =0
∂z
in the above specified region.
A voltage V is applied to a coaxial cylindrical resistor of radius a (a < b), in such a manner
that the potential across the input surface varies logarithmically. Evaluate the E and H fields
in the non-conducting region.
Show by using the Poynting vector that the power flow into the cylindrical resistor of
conductivity s is same as that calculated from circuit analysis.
10.3 SOLUTIONS
10.1 A straight long uniform wire carries a steady current I. If the potential difference across a
length l is V, find the value of the Poynting vector at a distance r from the wire. Hence, show
that the energy flowing into the wire is VI per unit time.
V
Sol. E = Ñ V and hence E = – along the wire (Fig. 10.1).
l
I
H= in the tangential or peripheral direction.
2π r
Fig. 10.1 Long straight wire carrying a current I.
VI
\ |S|=|E×H|=
2π rl
Over the length l of the wire,
the energy flowing into the wire = energy dissipated from it
=
∫∫ S ⋅ dA
S is constant over the concentric cylindrical surface.
\ Energy flowing into the wire = S × Area of the cylinder
VI
= × 2π rl
2π rl
= VI
10.2 The validity of the Poynting vector S as a measure of the energy flow is based on the equation
Power requirement of a region = Inward flux of S into the region
If the region under consideration is a slice of a coaxial cable carrying a direct current I, then
this equation reduces to 0 = 0, and yet the integral of S across the cross-section of the
dielectric correctly gives the power flow into the cable. Explain.
Sol. Let us consider a surface S as shown in Fig. 10.2. If it (= S) is large enough, it has no
field on it except on the portion S1. Hence
Fig. 10.2 Slice of a coaxial cable carrying a current I.
∫∫ S ⋅ dA = ∫ ∫ S ⋅ dA
Σ Σ1
= VI
= Power consumed in the resistor R

So to get the correct answer, S must be integrated over a surface which gives a net inward (or
outward) flux.
10.3 A long solenoid, having a cross-section of radius b, contains a long iron bar, centrally located
and having a radius a. The current in the solenoid is steadily increased. Show how Poyntings
theory accounts for the flow of energy from the solenoid winding into the iron. There is no
need to assume that the iron has a linear characteristic.
Sol. Let the solenoid have n turns/metre and a current i per turn (Fig. 10.3).
\ H = ni
Fig. 10.3 A long solenoid with a concentric long iron bar in it.
If the flux in the iron is F, then

1 dΦ
E= ,
2π a da
at a radius a (as shown in Fig. 10.3), while at radius r (r < a), E is somewhat greater. At the
surface of the iron bar,
ni d Φ
S=
2π a dt
normally inwards and so the flux of S per unit length is
dΦ
ni
dt
giving the energy increase as nid F in the time interval dt.
This agrees with the standard formula
(∇v ∫ HdB ) B
for the increase in the energy stored in iron. For, with a slow growth,
niδ Φ = niπ a 2δ B = π a 2 Hδ B
and p a is the volume of iron per unit length.
2
10.4 The suns radiation pours energy on the earths surface at a mean rate of 1.54 kW per square
metre normal to the rays. Calculate the rms values of E and H in a polarized light beam having
the same energy flow as light.
Sol. With rms values, EH = 1540 W
and the characteristic impedance of free space is
E
= 376.7
H
\ E = 761.6 V/m and H = 2.02 A/m
10.5 Power is being transmitted by direct current in a coaxial cable having concentric thin tubular
conductors of radii a, b (a < b), each of resistance R per unit length. The currents are ±I and
the potential difference at a certain section is V. Show that the Poynting vector accounts for
the known energy flows in the system.
Q
Note : With charges ± Q/ unit length, Er = .
2πε 0 r
Sol. See Fig. 10.4.
Fig. 10.4 Coaxial cable of thin concentric conductors of radii a, b (a < b).
I
With current ±I, Hq =
2π r
I
\ Sz =
4π ε 0 r 2
2
Q b VI
But V= ln and so Sz =
2πε 0 a 2π r 2 ln ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
b
⎝a⎠
b b
VI dr
\ ∫
a
S z 2 π r dr =
ln (b/a) ∫r
a
= VI, correct axial flow
At the conductor surfaces, $ axial electric forces ±RI.

\ On the inner conductors,
I
Sr = – RI
2π a
or 2p aSr = RI2
On the outer conductor,
I
Sr = + RI
2π b
or 2p bSr = RI2
\ The ohmic losses are provided for.
10.6 A wire of diameter 2a carries an alternating current of rms value pa2J0 and frequency w /2p,
the skin effect being not very pronounced. Obtain a first approximation for the magnetic flux
density at a point distant r (< a) from the centre of the wire and deduce that the current density
at the same point is given to the first approximation by
⎧ ⎛ 2r 2 – a 2 ⎞ ⎫
J 0 ⎨1 + j⎜ 2 ⎟⎬ ,
⎩ ⎝ 8d ⎠⎭
1/ 2
⎛ ρ ⎞
where d = ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ μ0 μ rω ⎠
Hence show that a second approximation to the flux density is
⎧r ⎛ r 3 – a 2r ⎞⎫
μ0 μ r J 0 ⎨ + j ⎜ 2 ⎟⎬
.
⎩2 ⎝ 16d ⎠ ⎭
From these expressions, calculate the Poynting power flow per unit length into the outer
surface of the wire and comment upon the result.
Sol. As stated in the problem, since the skin effect (i.e. due to the eddy currents) is not very
pronounced, it can be neglected.
Hence neglecting the skin effect,
Bθ
× 2π r = p r2J0
μ0 μr
1
\ Bq = μ0 μ r J 0 r
2
Note: As we have neglected the skin effect, we can justifiably assume that the current density
(even though the current is alternating and not direct) is uniformly distributed over the cross-
section of the wire.
We next consider from Maxwells equations, the one for Faradays law of induction, i.e.
1 μ0 μr ω
³J 1
³E jX | B | = – j
1 J r
J 0 r = – j 02 ,
S S 2 ρ 2 d
1/ 2
⎛ ρ ⎞
where d= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ωμ0 μr ⎠
Now since we are using the above equation, we have to permit the variation of E or J across
the cross-section, which we do in an approximate way as follows.
a
Let J ( = J z ) = J 0 + J1 , where ∫ J 2π r dr
0
1 = 0 and J0 = constant.
Then in the cylindrical polar coordinate system,

dJ dJ1 1 J 0 r
∇×J =− , so = j 2
dr dr 2 d
(This is an axi-symmetric problem with r-variation only.)

a
jJ 0 2
\ J1 =
4d 2
(r + C) but ∫ J 2π r dr
0
1 =0
a2
This gives C=
2
J 0 (2r 2 – a 2 )
\ J1 = j
8d2
⎛ 2r 2 – a 2 ⎞
and J = Jz = J 0 ⎜1 + j ⎟
⎝ 8d2 ⎠
The second approximation to B is

r
μ μ
B= 0 r
2π r ∫ J 2π r dr
0
μ0 μ r J 0 ⎧ r 2 j ⎛ r 4 a2 r 2 ⎞⎫
= ⎨ + 2 ⎜ – ⎟⎬
r ⎩ 2 8d ⎝ 2 2 ⎠⎭
⎧r ⎛ r 3 − a 2 r ⎞⎫
= μ0 μr J 0 ⎨ + j ⎜ 2 ⎟⎬
⎩2 ⎝ 16d ⎠⎭
At the outer surface,
J 0a ⎛ a2 ⎞
H= and E = ρ J 0 ⎜ 1 + j 2 ⎟
2 ⎝ 8d ⎠
a ρ J 02 π a 2
\ Re (E × H*) = ρ J 02 = ,
2 2π a
which is the dc value (to this degree of accuracy).
10.7 The primary and secondary windings of a transformer form concentric cylinders round the
central core, the innermost one being the primary winding. The electric field can be resolved
into two parts by the equation
∂A
E = – ∇V – ,
∂t
one associated with the charges on the conductors and the other with the changing magnetic
field. Within the windings which are assumed to be of zero resistance, these fields cancel each
other out. Show that according to Poyntings theory, only the latter part of the electric field
can be effective in transferring energy from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Hence,
show how the theory accounts for the transference of the energy.
Sol. Before considering the transformer core and the windings, we consider a simpler
structure of iron-cored reactance.
We assume a long cylinder of iron with a solenoid wound uniformly around it. For simplicity,
no eddy currents are assumed to exist in the iron (i.e. non-conducting). The magnetic field
inside the solenoid will be practically uniform and parallel to the axis of the solenoid. Outside
the solenoid, the magnetic field is negligible. Now, note that, in the Poynting vector, it is the
magnetizing force H (i.e. the magnetic field intensity or the mmf) and not the magnetic flux
density B which is considered. The electric field will be considered in two parts: one
produced by the alternating flux and the other by the charges which collect on the wires of
the solenoid.
Now, a varying magnetic flux producing an electric field is similar to a current producing a
magnetic field. In the latter case, the mmf or the integral of magnetic force around any closed
loop in space is proportional to the current in the loop. In the former case, it is the emf or the
integral of the electric force around any closed loop that is proportional to the flux enclosed.
If the flux along any line increases, then there are produced closed lines of electric force
surrounding that line (see Fig. 10.5).
Fig. 10.5 Magnetic and electric forces.
Now, we consider the power flow inside the core. Inside the core, the magnetic field is
uniform and parallel to the axis of the cylinder. The electric field is circumferential. Thus,
according to the Poynting theorem, the energy enters the core from outside, distributing itself
uniformly over the volume of the core. Since the magnetic field and the electric field are both
alternating in time quadrature, the Poynting vector will alternate with double the frequency
and so the magnetic energy flows into and out of the core.
Outside the core, the magnetic field is also constant until near the turns of the solenoid. There,
the lines of magnetic force bend and become closed curves around and inside the wires.
Again, combining the magnetic field and the electric field produced by the alternating flux,
we get the Poynting vector in the radial directions. Thus, the power flows back and forth from
the core across the intervening space into the solenoid conductors.
Now, we come to the power flow corresponding to the same magnetic field and the electric
field produced by the charges which collect on the turns of the solenoid. Now, the charges
which collect on the conductor surface reduce the electric field inside the conductors to zero
(i.e. the field produced by the charges is very nearly equal and opposite to the field produced
by the alternating flux). So the field of the charges produces a power flow into the conductors
very nearly equal to the power flow out produced by the field due to the alternating flux.
Now, suppose the core is not non-conducting but laminated. From the point of view of
Poynting theory, the purpose of laminating the core is to furnish insulating paths whereby the
magnetic energy may flow into the interior.
Now, for a transformer, a second solenoid is wound around the core which we have discussed
so far. When the transformer is operating, the current in the inner primary is opposite in
magnetic sense and nearly equal to the current in the outer secondary coil. Hence, the
magnetic field obtained now will differ from that considered so far, only in the magnetic field
in the region between the two coils. Thus, the magnetic field, taken together with the electric
field produced by the alternating flux, will show a flow of power across the intervening space
from the primary to the secondary.
Next, we consider the fields produced by the charges on the coils. This field is due to the field
E1 produced by the charges on the primary coils and the field E2 due to the charges on the
secondary coils. Also the magnetic field is the resultant of the field H1 due to the primary coil
currents alone, and the field H2 due to the secondary coil currents alone. So, out of these
E1 × H1 and E2 × H2 are the flow of power from the primary and secondary leads,
respectively. The cross-components E1 × H2 and E2 × H1 correspond to the local circulation
of energy in the dielectric medium (Appendix 3) and hence play no part in the energy transfer
process. It is only the component due to the alternating time-varying components that plays
part in the energy transference process.
(For details, see Slepian J., The Flow of Power in Electrical Machines, The Electric Journal,
16, pp. 303311, 1919.)
10.8 A salient pole alternator, having salient poles on the rotor is made to run with the rotor winding
excited, but with the stator winding open-circuited. Show that according to the Poynting
theory, there will be only a circulation of energy in the air-gap.
Sol. We consider the electric field set up by the rotating magnetic flux in the air-gap of the
machine. The magnetic flux is in the radial direction in the air-gap and it is changing its
direction as the field poles are rotating in a direction as shown in Fig. 10.6. The intensity of
the magnetic field at a point in the air-gap will change with time due to the rotation of the
rotor. Since the radial-peripheral flux loops are moving spatially in the peripheral direction,
Fig. 10.6 Salient pole ac generator, with the stator winding open-circuited.
this movement will produce linking E field loops lying in peripheral-axial planes. Since the
stator winding is open-circuited, there will be no current flow in it, and the direction of the
S vector produced by the axial E vector and the radial H vector will be in the peripheral
direction, which indicates a mere circulation of energy in the air-gap, as shown in
Appendix 3. Note that in this case, the E field is produced by charges on one set of conductors
and the H field (as the magnetic field) by currents in another set of windings.
(Refer to Slepian, J., ibid., for detailed analysis.)
10.9 In Problem 10.8, the stator circuit is now closed so as to pass current at unity power factor.
Show that this causes an energy flow from the rotor to the stator.
Sol. In this case, when the machine is on load, there are two magnetic fields, i.e. one
produced by the field currents and the other produced by the armature currents, and also there
are two electric fields, i.e. one produced by the charges on the armature conductors and the
other produced by the changing positions of the first magnetic field (Fig. 10.7). The
combination of the first magnetic field with the first electric field is the one described in
Fig. 10.7 Salient pole ac generator on load.
Appendix 3. The combination of the first magnetic field and the second electric field is already
considered in Problem 10.8. The combination of the second magetic field with the first electric
field is similar to that described for dc machines and transformers.
The combination of the second magnetic field and the second electric field is the new one,
which shows that the energy transfer is in the radial direction from the rotor to the stator.
(Refer to Slepian, J., ibid., for details.)
10.10 A sphere of radius a, far away from the other objects, has been charged to potential V0 (zero
potential being at infinity). It is then being slowly discharged by being connected to remote
ground via a high resistance wire. Discuss the energy flow (a) by Poynting theory and (b) by
Slepian theory.
Sol. The sphere of radius a has been charged to a potential V0. It is then surrounded by radial
electric field (spherically symmetrical) with
V0 a V0 a
V = and E= ,
r r2
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.8 Energy flow in a discharging sphere: (a) by Poynting theory and (b) by Slepian theory.
where r is the radial distance from the centre of the sphere. When the sphere is connected to
the remote ground by a high resistance wire, the sphere slowly discharges by the conduction
current in the wire. The small current produces a magnetic field. The stored electrostatic
energy gradually decreases and a corresponding amount of heat appears in the wire.
The magnetic flux lines will be circular loops in the horizontal plane and so the energy flow by
Poynting theory will be longitudinal circular loops on the surface of the sphere [Fig. 10.8(a)].
By Slepian theory, the displacement current density comes into play and the current flow will
thus be radial in the sphere which then becomes conduction current in the wire [Fig. 10.8(b)].
10.11 Starting from Maxwells equations, express the divergence of the Poynting vector in integral
form in terms of the energy components, E and H being the values of the electric and the
magnetic fields on a closed surface S.
A parallel plate capacitor is made up of two circular discs of diameter d spaced a distance h
apart. A potential difference of V is applied between the plates and the spacing between the
plates is increased at a uniform rate to 2h in one second.
Find the induced magnetic field and the Poynting vector at the edge of the capacitor plates as
the plates are separated. Use the Poyntings theorem to correlate the change of stored energy
to the energy loss as the plates are separated.
Sol. We use the curl equations of Maxwell, i.e.
∂B
Ñ×E = –
∂t
∂D
and Ñ×H = J+
∂t
Since w
ÔÔ E H ¹ dS
= ∫∫∫ ∇⋅ (E × H ) dv
v
S
we write Ñ × (E × H) = H × (Ñ × E) E × (Ñ × H)
∂B ∂D ⎞
= – H⋅ – E ⋅ ⎛⎜ J + ⎟
∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂ ⎛1 1 ⎞
= – E⋅J – ⎜ H ⋅B + E⋅ D ⎟
∂t ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
Hence
∂ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
w
ÔÔ E H ¹ dS
= ∫∫∫ E ⋅ J dv – ∂t ⎜⎝ ∫∫∫ 2 H ⋅ B dv + ∫∫∫ 2 E ⋅ D dv ⎟⎠ ,
1 1
where the integrands H × B and E × D are the energy densities stored in the magnetic and
2 2
the electric fields, respectively.
The interpretation of E × J to some degree depends on the nature of J. If J is just the
conduction current, then E × J is the power loss per unit volume due to dissipation.
If however J is present due to an impressed source, then E × J is the power supplied per unit
volume = work done on the system,
i.e. the surface integral = rate of decrease of stored energy power lost in dissipation
+ power supplied from outside the system
= net power outflow from the volume
Fig. 10.9 Parallel plate capacitor with changing gap between the plates.
If z is the distance between the plates at any instant of time t, then

dz
z = h(1 + t) and = z = h
dt
If the fringing effects at the edges are neglected,
V εV
|E|= so that | D | =
z z
\ The displacement current density will be given by
dD d ⎛1⎞
= εV ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
dt dt ⎝z⎠
ε V dz
= – ⋅
z 2 dt
εV h
= –
z2
By applying Amperes law to a circle of radius r (its centre being coaxial with the centre of the
discs), the magnetizing intensity H at that radius is given as
εVh
2Q r H = – 2 π r 2
z
ε Vh r
\ H = –
2z2
d
At the outside edge of the disc, r = .
2
d
εVh
V
w
ÔÔ ⋅ 2 zπ d
Thus, E H ¹ dS =
z 2 z2
π εV 2 hd2
=
4z 2
Next, we consider the stored energies, i.e.

1 1 V ε V π d2 π εV 2 d 2
∫∫∫ 2
E ⋅ D dv =
2 z z
⋅
4
⋅z =
8z
⎛ εV h d ⎞ ⎛ μ εVh d ⎞
1 1⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ πd2
and ∫∫∫ 2
H ⋅ B dv = ⎜ –
2⎜ 2z 2
2
⎟⎜–
⎟⎜ 2 z 2
2
⎟
⎟ 4
z
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
πμ ε 2V 2 h2 d 4
=
128 z 3
The magnetic energy is seen to be negligible (h << c).
\ The rate of decrease of stored energy
d ⎛
E ⋅ D dv ⎞⎟
1
= – ⎜
dt ⎝ ∫∫∫ 2 ⎠
π εV 2 d 2
=
8z 2
There is no dissipation of energy, but the plates of the capacitor are being pulled apart
and hence work is being done on the system. Hence the force between the plates (for a
separation z) is
π d 2 D2 πεV 2 d 2
⋅ =
4 2ε 8z 2
Since the plates move a distance hdt in a time element dt,
π εV 2 h d 2
the work done/second =
8z 2
\ Work done + Rate of decrease of stored energy
π εV 2 h d 2 π ε V 2 h d 2
= +
8z 2 8z 2
π ε V 2h d 2
=
4z 2
= the surface integral w

ÔÔ E H ¹ dS Poyntings theorem

S
Note that the surface integral is applied to the closed surface.
10.12 A cylindrical region has perfectly conducting boundaries at r = b and z = L.
Show that the potential function F, which is given by
F = A ⎛⎜1 – ⎞⎟ ln ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ , where A is any arbitrary constant

z r
⎝ L⎠ ⎝b⎠
satisfies the Laplaces equation in the cylindrical coordinate system (r, f, z), i.e.
1
r r
r ^ `
)
r
1 2 ) 2 )
2
r G

z2
=0
in the above specified region.

A voltage V is applied to a co-axial cylindrical resistor of radius a (a < b), in such a manner
that the potential across the input surface varies logarithmically. Evaluate the E and H fields
in the non-conducting region.
Show by using the Poynting vector that the power flow into the cylindrical resistor of
conductivity s is same as that calculated from circuit analysis.
Sol. See Fig. 10.10. The potential function
È [Ø È SØ
) " É o Ù MO É Ù
Ê -Ú Ê CÚ
is a function of z and r and is independent of f. So the Laplaces equation for this function
simplifies to
Fig. 10.10 A cylindrical region with perfectly conducting boundaries at r = b and z = L.
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂Φ ⎞ ∂ 2 Φ
⎜r ⎟+ =0
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ∂z 2
∂Φ z 1 1
= A ⎛⎜1 – ⎞⎟ ⋅ = ⎛⎜1 – ⎞⎟
A z
\
∂r ⎝ L ⎠ r/b b r⎝ L⎠
Hence
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂Φ ⎞
⎜r ⎟ =
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠
1 ∂
r ∂r ⎝ L⎠ {
A ⎛⎜1 – ⎞⎟ = 0
z
}
∂Φ
= A ⎛⎜ – ⎞⎟ ln ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
1 r
∂z ⎝ L⎠ ⎝b⎠
\
∂2Φ
∂z 2 = ∂z
∂ A
L ⎝b⎠{
– ln ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = 0
r
}
\ F satisfies the Laplaces equation in cylindrical coordinates.
Inside the resistor, only Ez exists and is given by
V
Ez =
for 0 < r < a
L
We can assume that the potential function F represents the potential in the air-region
(a < r < b), then
∂Φ A ⎛ r ⎞
Ez = – = ln ⎜ ⎟
∂z L ⎝b⎠
Since Ez is continuous across the boundary r = a,
A ⎛a⎞ V
ln ⎜ ⎟ =
L ⎝b⎠ L
V
\ A=
ln (a/b)
Hence the E field in the air-region will be
E = grad F, and so
È [Ø
7 É o Ù
∂Φ Ê -Ú ) 7 MO S C
Er = – = o and Ez = o
∂r S MO BC
[ - MO B C
The H field has only one component Hf which can be evaluated by applying the Amperes law
to a concentric circle of radius r as follows:
V
2p rHf = π a 2 Ezσ = π a σ
2
L
σ a 2V
\ Hf =
2 Lr
To calculate the power flow into the cylindrical resistor, we need to consider the radial
component of the Poynting vector in the direction ir at the radius r = a. Hence, the total
power flow into the cylindrical resistor is
z=L
∫∫ – i r ⋅ (E × H ) r =a
dS = 2π a
∫
z=0
Ez Hφ r =a
dz
V σ a 2V
= 2π a L
L 2 La
π a 2σ V 2
=
L
L
By circumferential analysis, R=
π a 2σ
V2 V 2πσ a 2
and the power loss = = ,
R L
which is same as calculated by using the Poynting vector.
Magnetic Diffusion (Eddy 11
Currents) and Charge
Relaxation
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The Maxwells equations when applied to solve eddy current (or magnetic diffusion) problems,
usually neglect the displacement current term ∂D ∂t in the generalized Amperes law equation, as most
of the eddy current problems of practical importance are usually of low frequency (i.e.
50/60 Hz or 400 Hz) power engineering domain. Though one important exception is that of propagation
of electromagnetic waves in lossy dielectrics and in conducting media of finite conductivity. In such
cases, it is not possible to neglect the displacement current term and the generalized form of the
Amperes law equation, i.e.
∂D
Ñ×H = J +
∂t
has to be used. This will be demonstrated while dealing with problems of electromagnetic wave
propagation and guidance.
However, in the present chapter, we shall consider the restricted form of Amperes law equation
i.e.
Ñ×H = J
for the problems discussed now.
11.2 EDDY CURRENTS (MAGNETIC DIFFUSION)

The Maxwells equations for eddy current problems are
Ñ · D = rC
Ñ·B = 0
Ñ×H = J
∂B
and Ñ×E =
∂t
Also, the relevant constitutive relations are
B = µH
648
MAGNETIC DIFFUSION (EDDY CURRENTS) AND CHARGE RELAXATION 649
1
E = rJ, where r =
σ
and D = eE
In these problems, since there is no free charge in the region under consideration,
rC = 0
Combining the Maxwells equations with the constitutive relations, we get the operating
equation in terms of a single vector as:
Ñ2H jw ms H = 0
and Ñ2E j w ms E = 0
for all time-harmonic field variations, i.e. where the time-derivative ∂ ∂t has been replaced by jw, w
being the angular frequency of the time-variation of the vectors.
It should be noted that the above equations hold for steady-state, time-harmonic variations
whereas for transient problems, the time-derivative ∂ ∂t has to be considered for the specific cases.
11.3 CHARGE RELAXATION EQUATIONS

The phenomenon of charge relaxation is the mechanism by which we consider the effect of motion on
electric field distributions. Since the magnetic fields have no role in the process, the Maxwells
equations of relevance are
Ñ×E=0
Ñ · D = rfc (charge density of free charge)
S GD
and ³¹+
U
The relevant constituent relations are
D = eE
and a modified Ohms law equation due to the motion of free charges, i.e.
J = s E + rfcv
Writing E in terms of a scalar potential f as
E = Ñf,
the operating equation in terms of f is obtained as
∂
∇ ⋅ (σ∇φ ) + ∇ ⋅ {v∇ ⋅ (ε∇φ )} = − {∇ ⋅ (ε∇φ )}
∂t
11.4 PROBLEMS
11.1 A pair of perfectly conducting plates holds a conducting block of rectanglular cross-section
as shown in the following figure. The metal block and the plates extend a long way to the right.
A current excitation i(t) = Re[I exp ( jw t)] is applied uniformly to the plates along their left edge.
Find (i) the magnetic flux density distribution in the region between the plates,
(ii) the current density in the conducting block, (iii) the equivalent reactance as seen at the
current source and (iv) the values of L and R using the equivalent circuit as shown below.
Hint: Solve as a one-dimensional problem in the x-dimension.
11.2 What will be the magnetic flux density and the current density in the conducting block of
Problem 11.1, if it extends over a finite length l in the x-direction?
11.3 A copper conductor of strip form has a length and breadth which are both much greater than
its thickness 2b. A coordinate system is taken with its centre at the origin at the centre of all
three dimensions of the strip, the axes of x, y, z being in the directions of the thickness, the
breadth and the length, respectively. The strip carries a current in the z-direction, the density
being represented by a phasor J. Show that
⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫
J = J 0 cosh ⎨ ⎬
⎩ d 2 ⎭
where J0 is the value at the centre and d is the skin depth. Neglecting the edge effects, prove
that
⎛1− j ⎞ ⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫
H = H y = J0d ⎜ ⎟ sinh ⎨ ⎬.
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎩ d 2 ⎭
11.4 In the conductor of Problem 11.3, prove that the total current per unit breadth is
⎛1− j⎞
I = 2J0d ⎜ sinh {(1 + j )θ },
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
b
where θ = . Also prove that the ratio of the voltage to current for one metre length is
d 2
ρ (1 + j )θ
Z= .
2b tanh{(1 + j )θ }
Does this result look reasonable? If so why?
11.5 If the conductor of Problem 11.3 is coated with a conducting material of resistivity r2 and the
thickness of the coating is a (in the x-direction) on both sides of the conductor, find the
current density distribution in the composite strip in terms of the current density J0 at the
centre of the strip. Show that there is a discontinuity of current densities on the planes
x = ±a. Find the total current per unit thickness in the two different media.
11.6 An alternating current flows longitudinally in a copper conductor of thickness 2b and

resistivity r, the length and the width of the conductor being great compared with b. Prove
that the ratio of the maximum to minimum current density is
1/ 2
⎧⎪ 1 ⎛ b 2 b 2 ⎞ ⎫⎪
⎨ ⎜⎜ cosh + cos ⎟⎬ ,
⎩⎪ 2 ⎝ d d ⎟⎠ ⎭⎪
1/ 2
⎛ ωµ ⎞
where d = ⎜ 0 ⎟ .
⎝ ρ ⎠
11.7 A No. 26 S.W.G. round copper wire has a diameter of 0.4572 mm. The conductivity of copper
is 5.80 S/m. Calculate the effective resistance per metre length of the wire to a current at a
frequency of 10 MHz. Assume limiting formula for strong skin effect.
11.8 In Problem 11.3, from the E and H vectors, show by using the Poyntings theorem that the
power consumed by the conductor strip per unit length and breadth is
ρ J 0 d 2 (sinh θ cosh θ + sin θ cosθ ),
b ρ
where θ = and d (the skin depth) = .
d 2 ωµ
11.9 A very long straight strip conductor of width a and thickness d, such that a >> d (i.e.
the effect of the finite width of the strip can be neglected), carries a sinusoidal current
i(t) = Im cos w t. Determine the current distribution in the strip as a function of f (= w /2p),
s and µ and express it in terms of the total current I.
11.10 Determine the distribution of current in the two-layer strip shown in the following figure. The
angular frequency of the current in both the layers is w , and the effects of the finite width of
the strips can be ignored.
11.11 An iron plate is bounded by the parallel planes x = ±b. The plate extends to +¥ in the
z-direction and is wide enough in the ±y-directions so that the edge effects can be ignored
(which simplifies it to a one-dimensional problem). Wire is wound uniformly round the plate
such that the layers of wire are parallel to the y-axis. An alternating current is sent through the
wire, thus producing a magnetizing intensity izH0 cos w t on the surfaces of the plate (i.e. H has
only the z-component on the two surfaces). Show that the H field inside the plate at a distance
x from its centre is given by
cosh 2mx + cos 2mx

H = i z H0 ⋅ cos (ω t + β ),
cosh 2 mb + cos 2mb
− sinh m(b + x ) sin m(b − x ) − sinh m(b − x ) sin m (b + x)

where tan β = ,
cosh m(b + x ) cos m(b − x ) + cosh m(b − x) cos m(b + x )
ω µσ 1 1
with m2 = = 2
, i.e. m = , d being the depth of penetration (i.e. skin depth) of
2 2d d 2
iron of permeability µ (= µ0 µr) and conductivity s. Discuss the limiting cases of mb small and
mb large.
11.12 From the analysis of the current distribution in a semi-infinite conducting block at radio
frequencies, prove that the ratio of ac resistance to the zero-frequency resistance (i.e. dc
resistance or Rdc) of conductor of any shape or cross-section is equal to the inverse ratio of
areas (i.e. cross-sectional areas). Derive this expression (i) for a conductor of circular cross-
section of radius a and (ii) for a rectangular bar of area (a × b).
11.13 When there are time-varying currents in a conducting medium, the magnetic vector potential
A satisfies the equation
∂A
E= − .
∂t
Hence, show that A satisfies the equation ∇ 2 A = µσ ∂A . (i)
∂t
Further show that the solution of A is of the form given by the equation
W = uW1 + u × ÑW2 (where u is an arbitrary vector),
i.e. A = Ñ × W = Ñ × (uW1 + u × ÑW2).
Now W, W1 and W2 all satisfy Eq. (i). Also show that W1 and W2 both contribute to the B field.
11.14 The figure below shows an idealized Flat Linear Induction Pump (FLIP) which can be regarded
as of infinite depth in the direction of current flow. The current
⎛ 2π ⎞
i = I sin ⎜ ω t −
⎝ λ ⎟⎠
is distributed along the wall of the walled tube which contains the liquid metal.
Choose a suitable coordinate system and derive the equation for the magnetic field and the
eddy currents in the liquid metal.
11.15 N identical rectangular conductors of width b and thickness a/N, connected in series and
carrying current I through each, are placed in an open rectangular slot of width b and
depth a in an iron block. Assuming the iron to be infinitely permeable and the field to be
tangential at the slot opening, state the necessary and sufficient boundary conditions required
to study the current distribution in the mth conductor (1 £ m £ N, integral values), for a
suitable choice of the coordinate system.
Neglect the insulation dimensions and the end effects and express the boundary conditions
as relationships in terms of the current density in the conductors.
Obtain the expression for the current density distribution when N = 1. State the implications
of the idealizing simplification that the field is tangential at the slot opening on the flux
distribution at the slot bottom.
11.16 The power dissipation which takes place in the stator windings of ac machines is an important
engineering problem. So for simplicity, we consider an insulated rectangular conductor, placed
in an open rectangular slot of height a and width b, for which the insulation dimensions can
be neglected. Assuming the slot opening to be a flux line, show that the ratio of the ac
resistance to the dc resistance of the conductor will be
⎧ ⎛a 2⎞ ⎛ a 2⎞ ⎫
⎪ sinh ⎜ ⎟ + sin ⎜ d ⎟ ⎪
Rac a ⎪ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪
= ⎨ ⎬,
Rdc d 2⎪ ⎛a 2⎞ ⎛ a 2⎞ ⎪
⎪ cosh ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ − cos ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
1
where d = the skin depth of the conductor = ,
ω µ 0 µ rσ
s = conductivity of the conductor material and
µr = relative permeability of the conductor material.
Show that this ratio can be approximated to
⎧⎪ 4 ⎛ a ⎞ ⎫⎪
4
⎨ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ by first order approximation.

⎪⎩ 45 ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎪
⎭
11.17 For Problem 11.16, using the circuit concept (i.e. using the quasi-static approach) and making
the first order skin effect correction for the ac resistance, derive the approximate relation for the
slotted conductors ac and dc resistance.
11.18 A metal ribbon (of non-magnetic nature) carries an alternating harmonic current of angular
frequency w. The thickness of the ribbon is 2b and the conductivity of the metal is s. The
width of the metal ribbon is very great compared with its thickness 2b and the current in it is
I ampere per unit width. It is given that the current density in the mid-plane of the ribbon is J0
and J is the density in a plane distant x from the mid-plane. Show that
⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫
J = J 0 cosh ⎨ ⎬,
⎩ d 2 ⎭
1
where d = skin depth = . Hence, show that
ω µ0σ
2
I ⎛ cosh 2mb − cos 2mb ⎞
= 2 2d ⎜ ⎟,
JS ⎝ cosh 2mb + cos 2mb ⎠
1
where m = and JS = current density at the surface of the ribbon.
d 2
11.19 A metal plate of thickness 2b carries an alternating magnetic flux in a direction parallel to its
surfaces, its depth of penetration being d = 1/ ω µσ , where w is the angular frequency of the
magnetic flux and µ1 s are the permeability and conductivity, respectively, of the metal. Show
that the total flux F in the plate lags the applied flux density (or mmf ) by an electrical angle
b2/3d2 when b/d is small and this angle of lag tends to 45° when b/d is large.
11.20 Calculate the relaxation time for ethyl alcohol, for which
er = 26 and s = 3 × 104 mho
11.21 A material of non-uniform properties (i.e. s and e are functions of space coordinates) is
bounded by two plane parallel electrodes as shown in the following figure. An external current
source drives a current i(t) through the material in the x-direction. The permittivity and the
conductivity are varying with x as indicated below:
ε2 σ2
ε ( x) = ε1 + x, σ ( x) = σ1 + x,
l l
where l is the distance between the electrodes.
Show that the free charge density is given by
⎡⎛ ε ⎞⎛ ε σ ⎞ ε2 ⎤
ε + 2 x ⎟ ⎜ jω 2 + 2 ⎟
Î ⎢ ⎜⎝ 1 ⎥
⎢ l ⎠⎝ l l ⎠ l ⎥,
ρf = −
ˆ +
A ⎢⎣ ( jωε + σ ) 2 jωε + σ ⎥⎦
where A is the area of the electrode and

i (t ) = Re {Iˆ exp ( jω t )}.
Write down the expression for the free charge density when the permittivity e (x) changes
linearly with x while keeping the conductivity s constant.
l
Electrode area A
r(x) e(x)
i(t) = Re {Î exp ( jzt)}

11.22 The depth of water in a tank is to be measured by either of the two systems indicated below.
In the system (a), the depth is obtained by measuring the inductance of a loop of copper
conductor which is partly dipped in the water. In the system (b), a pair of copper electrodes is
located so that the capacitance of the system is a function of the depth d as shown in the
figure below.
For the systems indicated, d is of the order of 1 cm, µ = µ0 = 4p × 107 H/m for water and
e = 81e0 = 81 × 8.854 × 1012 F/m for water and s = 102 mho/m.
Both capacitance and inductance are measured by a 100 kHz bridge (= f ). Which of the two
devices would work and why?
11.23 A large block of material of permeability µ and resistivity r is subjected to a time-varying

magnetic field which is parallel to its plane face. The flux density at a distance x from this face,
within the material, is B. Hence, show that
∂ 2 By µ 0 µ r ∂B
− = 0
∂x 2
ρ ∂t
Show that by substituting B = f (z), where z = l xt1/2, this equation is reduced to
f ²(z) + 2 z f ¢(z) = 0
by a suitable choice for the constant l. Express f (z) in the form of an integral by using the
2
integrating factor e− z .
11.24 A cylindrical conductor of radius a carries an alternating current of angular frequency w such
that the current density phasor at a radius r ( y < a) is given by
J = A{ber( r/d ) + j bei( r/d )},
where d = skin depth = (µ0 µrw /r)1/2 and ber x + j bei x º J0 (xj3/2) º I0 (xj1/2).
z2 z4 z6
J0(z) = 1 − + − +…
22 22 ⋅ 42 2 2 ⋅ 4 2 ⋅ 62
Derive the first order expressions for the phase difference between
(i) the current density at the surface and at the centre and
(ii) the total current and the current density at the centre.
If the skin effect is slight, show that the former angle is twice the latter.
11.25 Transformer laminations are made up of CRGO (Cold Rolled Grain Oriented) steel sheets,
which are non-isotropic for temperature and magnetic field distributions. The thermal
conductivity k (W m1 deg1) is non-isotropic such that the ratio of this conductivity along
the lamination (= kx) to that across the lamination (= ky) is in the range of 7080. Heating
of the laminated transformer core is caused by eddy currents as well as by hysteresis
losses. Find the temperature distribution in a rectangular section of the core of dimensions
2a × 2b (length 2a being along the lamination, x direction), given that
P = thermal power generated in the core per unit volume (W m3)
k = thermal conductivity (W m1 deg1)
J = thermal power density (W m3) = kE
E = temperature gradient = grad f
f = temperature at a point (x, y).
ε
On the boundaries, the normal temperature gradient is equal to times the temperature rise
k
over the ambient temperature (= fÿ ).
0
11.26 A transmission line is made up of two mutually external parallel cylinders of equal radius
Ro and the axial distance between the axes is D. Show that the internal resistance and
internal self-inductance of the line, when it is carrying an alternating current of angular
frequency w is given by
2 S D
Ri X Li
QE .2 Ro D 2 4 Ro2
2
where, d = skin depth of the conductor = d 2 , as stated in Section 15.2 of
XNT
ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009.
11.27 A transmission line is made up of two mutually external parallel cylinders of unequal radii R1
and R2(R2 > R1), the distance between their central axes being D. Show that the internal
resistance and the internal self-inductance of the line, when it is carrying an alternating current
of angular frequency w is given by
S 3 3
\% 3 3
^
3 X-
Q 3 3E < 3 3
% 3 3
% >
J J
2
Where d = the skin-depth of the conductor = (= d 2 , as stated in Section 15.2 of
ωμσ ′
ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009 and
r¢ = 1/s ¢).
11.28 A transmission line is made up of two parallel circular cylinders of unequal radii R1 and R2
(R2 > R1), one inside the other with their parallel central axes at a distance D from each other.
When the line is carrying an alternating current of angular frequency w, show that the internal
resistance and the internal self-inductance of the system is given by
S 3 3
\ 3 3
% ^
3 X-
Q 3 3E < 3 3
% 3 3
% >
J J

where d = the skin-depth of the conductor (= E as stated in the Section 15.2 of
XNT
ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009 and
r¢ = 1/s ¢).
11.5 SOLUTIONS
11.1 A pair of perfectly conducting plates holds a conducting block of rectanglular cross-section
(as shown in Fig. 11.1). The metal block and the plates extend a long way to the right. A current
excitation i (t) = Re[I exp ( jw t)] is applied uniformly to the plates along their left edge. Find
(i) the magnetic flux density distribution in the region between the plates, (ii) the current
density in the conducting block, (iii) the equivalent reactance as seen at the current source and
(iv) the values of L and R using the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 11.1.
Hint: Solve as a one-dimensional problem in the x-dimension.
Fig. 11.1 Conducting block excited by a time-varying current and the equivalent circuit of the system.
Sol. For practice, we start from the Maxwells equation (though we could have written down
the operating equation directly) and use the Cartesian coordinate system as shown in
Fig. 11.1.
Ñ×H = J
∂B
Ñ×E =
∂t
and B = µH, E = rJ
⎛ ∂H z ∂H y ⎞ ⎛ ∂H x ∂H z ⎞ ⎛ ∂H y ∂H x ⎞
∇ × H = i x ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ + i y ⎜ − ⎟ + i z ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
(from the geometry of the problem).
Since only the z-components of B and H exist, then only the y-component of E and J would
exist and the variation of these vectors would be only in the x-direction.
Also i = Re{ Iˆ exp ( jw t)}
Hence the above equations simplify to
∂H z ∂Bz ∂E y ∂B ∂Jy jω ⎛ ∂ ⎞
− = J y or = − µJ y and = − z or = − B since ≡ jω ⎟ .
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂t ∂x ρ z ⎜⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂ 2 Bz ∂J y jω µ ∂2 Jy jω ∂Bz jω µ
\ = −µ = + B and similarly = − = + Jy
∂x 2
∂x ρ z ∂x 2 ρ ∂x ρ
\ Its solution is
1/ 2
⎛x j⎞ ⎛ −x j ⎞ ⎛ ρ ⎞
Bz ( x ) = B1 exp ⎜ ⎟ + B2 exp ⎜ ⎟ , where d = ⎜ ⎟ ,
⎜ d ⎟ ⎜ d ⎟ ⎝ ω µ ⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
B1, B2 being constants of integration to be evaluated by using the boundary conditions, which
are:
(i) As x ® ¥, Bz ® 0; \ B1 = 0
Iˆ µIˆ
(ii) At x = 0, Hz = ; \ Bz = = B2
D D
µIˆ ⎧ x (1 + j ) ⎫ 1+ j
\ Bz (x) = Re exp ⎨ − ⎬ , since j =
D ⎩ d 2 ⎭ 2
µIˆ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎧⎪ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎫⎪
Hence Bz ( x, t ) = − Re exp ⎜ − ⎟ exp ⎨ j ⎜ ω t − ⎟⎬ (i)
D ⎝ d 2⎠ ⎩⎪ ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎭⎪
1 ∂Bz 1 µIˆ ⎧ 1+ j ⎫ ⎧ x(1 + j ) ⎫

Jy (x, t ) = − = + Re exp( jω t ) ⎨− ⎬ exp ⎨− ⎬
µ ∂x µ D ⎩ d 2⎭ ⎩ d 2 ⎭
Iˆ 1 + j ⎛ x ⎞ ⎧⎪ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎫⎪
= − Re exp ⎜ − ⎟ exp ⎨ j ⎜ ω t − ⎟⎬ (ii)
Dd 2 ⎝ d 2⎠ ⎩⎪ ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎭⎪
From this, Ey = rJy and on x = 0,

Iˆ ρ
E y ( x = 0) = − (1 + j ) (iii)
Dd 2
is the E field on the plane x = 0.
To find the impedance relationship between V and i(t), we have to take account of the flux
enclosed in the region to the left of the conducting block and to the right of the current source,
between the conducting plates y = 0 and y = d1. This can be directly done by considering the
equation
∂B
Ñ×E=
∂t
in integral form (i.e. by taking the line integral of the contour enclosing the specified region
above y = 0 and y = d, x = 0 and the source), in the anticlockwise direction. Hence
Iˆ
E y d1 V jX µ 0 bd1 ( µ0, because this is air space)
D
Substituting from (iii), we get
Iˆ Iˆ ρ d1 Iˆ ⎧ ρ d1 ⎫
V = jω µ bd1 + (1 + j ) = ⎨ jω µ 0bd1 + (1 + j ) ⎬ = Iˆ( R + jω L)
D Dd 2 D⎩ d 2 ⎭
d1 ρ ⎛ µ bd d ρ ⎞
\ R = and ωL = ω ⎜ 0 1 + 1 ⎟
D d 2 ⎝ D D ωd 2 ⎠
Note: In this problem and the next one, the end and edge effects (fringing) have been
neglected so as to simplify the problems to one-dimensional variation in order to make them
amenable to closed-form solutions.
11.2 What will be the magnetic flux density and the current density in the conducting block of
Problem 11.1, if it extends over a finite length l in the x-direction?
Sol. See Fig. 11.2. As in Problem 11.1,
#[
K
X² # and
+Z
K
X² +
Y
S [ Y
S Z
Fig. 11.2 Conducting block of finite length l.

⎛x j ⎞ ⎛ x j⎞ ⎛ ρ ⎞
1/ 2
\ The solution Bz = B1 exp ⎜ ⎟ + B2 exp ⎜ − ⎟, where d = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ d ⎟ ⎜ d ⎟⎠ ⎝ ωµ ⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝
The boundary conditions to evaluate B1 and B2, now are:
µIˆ
(i) At x = 0, B = ,
D
(ii) At x = l, B = 0, because all the current returns through the block.
µIˆ ⎛l j ⎞ ⎛ l j ⎞
\ B1 + B2 = and 0 = B1 exp ⎜ ⎟ + B2 exp ⎜ − ⎟
D ⎜ d ⎟ ⎜ d ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ 2l j ⎞
\ B2 = B1 exp ⎜ ⎟
⎜ d ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎧⎪ ⎛ 2l j ⎞ ⎫⎪ µIˆ
Hence B1 ⎨1 − exp ⎜ ⎟⎬ = −
⎜ d ⎟ D
⎪⎩ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭
⎛ l j⎞ ⎛l j⎞
exp ⎜ − ⎟ exp ⎜ ⎟
µIˆ ⎝ d ⎠ µIˆ ⎝ d ⎠
\ B1 = + and B2 = −
D ⎛l j⎞ ⎛ l j⎞ D ⎛l j⎞
exp ⎜ ⎟ − exp ⎜ − ⎟ 2 sinh ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
⎧⎪ ( x − l ) j ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ ( x − l ) j ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ ( x − l ) j ⎫⎪
exp ⎨ ⎬ − exp ⎨− ⎬ sinh ⎨ ⎬
µIˆ ⎪
⎩ d ⎪⎭ ⎪
⎩ d ⎪
⎭ µIˆ ⎪
⎩ d ⎭⎪
\ Bz = =
D ⎛l j ⎞ D ⎛l j ⎞
2 sinh ⎜ ⎟ sinh ⎜ ⎟
⎜ d ⎟ ⎜ d ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
∂Bz
and since = − µJ y ,
∂x
⎧⎪ ( x − l ) j ⎫⎪
cosh ⎨ ⎬
Iˆ j ⎪⎩ d ⎪⎭
Jy =
D d ⎛l j ⎞
sinh ⎜ ⎟
⎜ d ⎟
⎝ ⎠
11.3 A copper conductor of strip form has a length and breadth which are both much greater than
its thickness 2b. A coordinate system is taken with its centre at the origin at the centre of all
three dimensions of the strip, the axes of x, y, z being in the directions of the thickness, the
breadth and the length, respectively. The strip carries a current in the z-direction, the density
being represented by a phasor J. Show that
⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫
J = J 0 cosh ⎨ ⎬
⎩ d 2 ⎭
where J0 is the value at the centre and d is the skin depth. Neglecting the edge effects, prove
that
Î K Þ Î K
Y Þ
) )Z + E Ï ß TJOI Ï ß
Ð à Ð E à
Sol. See Fig. 11.3. Since the current is in the z-direction as specified by
⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫
J = J 0 cosh ⎨ ⎬,
⎩ d 2 ⎭
only the z-component of J (and hence of E as well) exists and the only variation is in the
x-direction.
Fig. 11.3 A copper conductor of strip form of thickness 2b.
∂E z ∂B ⎛ ∂ ⎞
\ ∇ × E = − iy = − = − i y jω B y ⎜ since ∂t = jω ⎟
∂x ∂t ⎝ ⎠
∂J z ωµ
\ = j H (i)
∂x ρ y
∂Hy
From ∇ × H = iz = iz Jz
∂x
∂H y
Þ = Jz (ii)
∂x
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get

∂2 J z ω µ ∂H y ωµ
= j = j J
∂x 2
ρ ∂x ρ z
ρ
Let d2 =
ωµ
∂2 J z j
\ = Jz
∂x 2
d2
Its solution will be
⎛x j⎞ ⎛ x j⎞
Jz = A exp ⎜ ⎟ + B exp ⎜ − ⎟
⎜ d ⎟ ⎜ d ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
The boundary conditions to evaluate A and B are:
(i) At x = 0, J = J0 = A + B
(ii) x = 0 is a plane of symmetry, i.e. Jz is an even function.
\ A=B
J0
Hence A=B=
2
⎪⎧ x j ⎪⎫ ⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫
\ J = J 0 cosh ⎨ ⎬ = J 0 cosh ⎨ ⎬
⎪⎩ d ⎪⎭ ⎩ d 2 ⎭
d 2 ∂J z d2 1+ j ⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫
Hy = = J0 sinh ⎨ ⎬
j ∂x j d 2 ⎩ d 2 ⎭
J0d ⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫
= −j (1 + j ) sinh ⎨ ⎬
2 ⎩ d 2 ⎭
⎧1 − j ⎫ ⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫
= J0d ⎨ ⎬ sinh ⎨ ⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎩ d 2 ⎭
11.4 In the conductor of Problem 11.3, prove that the total current per unit breadth is
⎛1 − j⎞
I = 2J0d ⎜ sinh {(1 + j )θ },
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
b
where θ = . Also prove that the ratio of the voltage to current for one metre length is
d 2
ρ (1 + j )θ
Z = .
2b tanh {(1 + j )θ }
Does this result look reasonable? If so, why?
+b +b
⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫
Sol. Total current/unit breadth, I =
−b
∫ J z dx = J 0 ∫ cosh ⎨⎩
−b
d 2 ⎭
⎬ dx
b
⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫
0
∫
= 2 J 0 cosh ⎨
⎩ d 2 ⎭
⎬ dx
b
d 2 ⎡ ⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫⎤
= 2J0 ⎢sinh ⎨ ⎬⎥
1+ j ⎣ ⎩ d 2 ⎭⎦ 0
1− j ⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫
= 2J0d sinh ⎨ ⎬
2 ⎩ d 2 ⎭
⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫
Voltage at the surface/unit length, E = ρ J = ρ J 0 cosh ⎨ ⎬
⎩ d 2 ⎭
Z per unit length = E/I
⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫
ρ J 0 cosh ⎨ ⎬
Z =
V
= ⎩ d 2 ⎭
\
I 1− j ⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫
2 J0d sinh ⎨ ⎬
2 ⎩ d 2 ⎭
1+ j
2
ρ 1 − j2
=
2d ⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫
tanh ⎨ ⎬
⎩ d 2 ⎭
ρ 1+ j
=
2 2d ⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫
tanh ⎨ ⎬
⎩ d 2 ⎭
(1 + j )b
ρ d 2
=
2b ⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫
tanh ⎨ ⎬
⎩ d 2 ⎭
ρ (1 + j )θ
=
2b tanh {(1 + j )θ }
R ac b
Fig. 11.4 as a function of .
R dc d 2
Separating the real and imaginary parts,

b b b b
cosh cos + j sinh sin
(1 + j ) ρ d 2 d 2 d 2 d 2
Z =
d 2 2 sinh b b b b
· sin + j cosh cos
d 2 d 2 d 2 d 2
b 2 b 2 b 2 b 2
sinh + sin sinh − sin
ρ d d + j ρ d d
=
2 2d b 2 b 2 2 2d b 2 b 2
cosh − cos cosh − cos
d d d d
ρ
= R + jX and Rdc =
2b
b 2 b 2
sinh + sin
Rac b d d
\ =
Rdc d 2 b 2 b 2
cosh − cos
d d
C
At low values of 4FF 'JH

E
4
Rac 4 ⎛ b ⎞
= 1+ ⎜ ⎟ ,
Rdc 45 ⎝ d 2 ⎠
d 2 varies inversely as the square root of f.

At high frequencies, Rac ∝ f and at low frequencies Rac µ 1 + kf 2.
11.5 If the conductor of Problem 11.3 is coated with a conducting material of resistivity r 2 and the
thickness of the coating is a (in the x-direction) on both sides of the conductors, find the
current density distribution in the composite strip in terms of the current density J0 at the
centre of the strip. Show that there is a discontinuity of current densities on the planes
x = ±b. Find the total current per unit thickness in the two different media.
Sol. To keep the solution more general, we assume the permeabilities to be µ1 and µ2,
respectively (Fig. 11.5).
Fig. 11.5 Conducting strip (of resistivity r1) coated with the conducting material (of resistivity r2).
The operating equations for the two media are:

ω µ1
∇ 2 J1 − j J = 0 for b < x < + b
ρ1 1
ω µ2
and ∇ 2 J2 – j
J =0 for b < x < a + b and (a + b) < x < b,
ρ2 2
J1 and J2 being z-directed only.
ρ1 ρ
Let the corresponding skin depths be d12 = and d 22 = 2 .
ω µ1 ω µ2
d 2 J1 j d 2 J2 j
The operating equations simplify to 2
− J1 = 0 and − J 2 = 0.
dx d12 dx 2
d 22
⎛x j⎞ ⎛ x j⎞
The solutions are J1 = A1 exp ⎜ ⎟ + B1 exp ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ d1 ⎠ ⎝ d1 ⎠
⎛x j ⎞ ⎛ x j ⎞
J 2 = A2 exp ⎜ ⎟ + B2 exp ⎜ − ⎟
⎜ d2 ⎟ ⎜ d2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
The four unknowns are A1, B1, A2 and B2.

The relevant boundary conditions are:
(i) x = 0 is the axis of symmetry.
\ A1 = B1
⎛x j⎞ ⎛x j⎞ ⎛ x j⎞
\ J1 = 2 A1 cosh ⎜ ⎟ and J 2 = A2 exp ⎜ ⎟ + B2 exp ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ d1 ⎠ ⎝ d2 ⎠ ⎝ d2 ⎠
(ii) and (iii) On x = ± b, Ez = Ez and Hy1 = Hy2 .
1 2
From Ez1 = Ez2 ⇒ ρ1 J1 = ρ 2 J 2 , i.e.
⎛a j⎞ ⎧⎪ ⎛a j⎞ ⎛ a j ⎞ ⎫⎪
2ρ1 A1 cosh ⎜ ⎟ = ρ2 ⎨ A2 exp ⎜ ⎟ + B2 exp ⎜ − ⎟⎬
⎝ d1 ⎠ ⎪⎩ ⎝ d2 ⎠ ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎭⎪
⎛a j⎞ ⎛ a j⎞ ρ1 ⎛a j⎞
\ A2 exp ⎜ ⎟ + B2 exp ⎜ − ⎟ = 2 A1 cosh ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d2 ⎠ ⎝ d2 ⎠ ρ2 ⎝ d1 ⎠
ρ1 ∂J1 ρ ∂J
and from Hy1 = H y2 ⇒ = 2 2 , i.e.
µ1 ∂x µ 2 ∂x
ρ1 j ⎛a j⎞ ρ2 j ⎧⎪ ⎛a j⎞ ⎛ a j ⎞ ⎫⎪
2 A1 sinh ⎜ ⎟ = ⎨ A2 exp ⎜ ⎟ − B2 exp ⎜ − ⎟⎬
µ1 d1 ⎝ d1 ⎠ µ 2 d2 ⎪
⎩ ⎝ d2 ⎠ ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎭⎪
⎛a j⎞ ⎛ a j⎞ ρ1 µ 2 d 2 ⎛a j⎞
or A2 exp ⎜ ⎟ − B2 exp ⎜ − ⎟ = 2 A1 sinh ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d2 ⎠ ⎝ d2 ⎠ ρ2 µ1 d1 ⎝ d1 ⎠
ρ1 ⎧⎪ ⎛ a j ⎞ µ2 d2 ⎛ a j ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎛ a j⎞
\ A2 = A1 ⎨cosh ⎜ ⎟ + sinh ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ exp ⎜ − ⎟
ρ2 ⎝ d 2 ⎠ µ1d1 ⎝ d1 ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎝ d2 ⎠
⎩⎪
ρ1 ⎧⎪ ⎛ a j ⎞ µ2d2 ⎛ a j ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎛a j⎞
B2 = A1 ⎨cosh ⎜ ⎟− sinh ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ exp ⎜ ⎟
ρ2 ⎝ d1 ⎠ µ1d1 ⎝ d1 ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎝ d2 ⎠
⎩⎪
(iv) On x = 0, J1 = J0 = 2A1
J0
\ A1 =
2
⎛x j ⎞
\ J1 = J 0 cosh ⎜ ⎟
⎜ d1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
ρ1 ⎡ ⎛a j ⎞ ⎪⎧ ( x − a ) j ⎪⎫ µ 2 d 2 ⎛a j ⎞ ⎪⎧ ( x − a ) j ⎪⎫⎤
J2 = J0 ⎢cosh ⎜ ⎟ cosh ⎨ ⎬ + sinh ⎜ ⎟ sinh ⎨ ⎬⎥
ρ2 ⎢ ⎜ d1 ⎟ ⎪⎩ d2 ⎪⎭ µ1d1 ⎜ d1 ⎟ ⎪⎩ d2 ⎪⎭⎥⎦
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Hence, on x = b,
⎛a j ⎞ ρ1 ⎛a j ⎞
J1 = J 0 cosh ⎜ ⎟ and J2 = J0 cosh ⎜ ⎟
⎜ d1 ⎟ ρ2 ⎜ d1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
\ J1 ¹ J2 on x = b,
i.e. there is discontinuity of J on the interface plane x = b.
The total current/unit thickness is
a
⎛x j ⎞ 2J0 j ⎛a j ⎞
0
∫
I1 = 2 J 0 cosh ⎜
⎜ d1
⎝
⎟ dx =
⎟
⎠
d1
sinh ⎜
⎜ d1
⎝
⎟
⎟
⎠
a+b
I2 = ∫a
J 2 dx
S1 d 2 (1 – j ) ËÌ Èa jØ È b j Ø µ2 d2 È a j Ø ÎÑ È b j Ø ÞÑ Û
= J0 cosh É Ù sinh É Ù sinh É Ù Ïcosh É Ù ßÜ
S2 2 Ì Ê d1 Ú Ê d 2 Ú µ1d1 Ê d1 Ú Ñ
Ð Ê d 2 Ú ÑÜ
àÝ
Í
11.6 An alternating current flows longitudinally in a copper conductor of thickness 2b and
resistivity r, the length and the width of the conductor being great compared with b. Prove
that the ratio of the maximum to minimum current density is
1/ 2
⎧⎪ 1 ⎛ b 2 b 2 ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎛ ωµ ⎞
1/ 2
⎨ ⎜⎜ cosh + cos ⎟⎟ ⎬ where d = ⎜ 0 ⎟ .
⎪⎩ 2 ⎝ ⎝ ρ ⎠
d d ⎠ ⎪⎭
Sol. As per Fig. 11.6, the current is assumed to flow in the z-direction. So the associated B
will be y-directed (neglecting edge effectsone-dimensional problem). So the variation will be
in the x-direction. The operating equation for the current density J will be
d2J j ωµ 1
− J = 0, where = 2.
dx 2
d 2
ρ d
⎛x j⎞ ⎛ x j ⎞
\ J z = J1 exp ⎜ ⎟ + J 2 exp ⎜ − ⎟,
⎜ d ⎟ ⎜ d ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
J = i z J z e jωt
Fig. 11.6 Copper conductor of thickness 2b, carrying alternating current.
where J1 and J2 are to be determined by using the boundary conditions, i.e. x = 0 is the axis
of symmetry.
1
\ J1 = J 2 = J 0 (say)
2
1 ⎧⎪ ⎛x j ⎞ ⎛ x j ⎞ ⎫⎪ x j
\ Jz = J 0 ⎨exp ⎜ ⎟ + exp ⎜ − ⎟ ⎬ = J 0 cosh
2 ⎪ ⎜ d ⎟ ⎜ d ⎟ d
⎩ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎭⎪
⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫ 1+ j
= J 0 cosh ⎨ ⎬ , as j = .
⎩ d 2 ⎭ 2
The maximum value of Jz will be at the two surfaces, i.e. at x = ±b and the minimum value at the
centre, i.e. the plane x = 0.
(1 + j )b
cosh
J max d 2 ⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫
\ = = cosh ⎨ ⎬
J min (1 + j )0 ⎩ d 2 ⎭
cosh
d 2
b b b b
= cosh 2 cos 2 + sinh 2 sin 2
d 2 d 2 d 2 d 2
b 2
= (1 + cosh α )(1 + cos α ) + (cosh α − 1)(1 − cos α ) , where α =
d
1
= (cosh α + cos α )
2
11.7 A No. 26 S.W.G. round copper wire has a diameter of 0.4572 mm. The conductivity of copper
is 5.80 S/m. Calculate the effective resistance per metre length of the wire to a current at a
frequency of 10 MHz. Assume limiting formula for strong skin effect.
Sol. See Fig. 11.7. Skin depth of copper, d = ( µw s )1/2
= (4p × 107 × 2p × 107 × 5.8 × 107)1/2
= 1.48 × 105 m
Fig. 11.7 Round conductor of copper.
0.4572
Radius of the wire, R = mm = 22.86 × 105 m
2
\ The effective resistance, Reff = (2 2πσ Rd ) −1
( )
−1
= 2 2π × 5.8 × 107 × 22.86 × 10 −5 × 1.48 × 10 −5
= 0.573 W/m
11.8 In Problem 11.3, from the E and H vectors, show by using the Poyntings theorem that the
power consumed by the conductor strip per unit length and breadth is
ρ J 02 d 2 (sinh θ cosh θ + sin θ cos θ ),
b ρ
where θ = and d (the skin depth) = .
d 2 ωµ
Sol. In Problem 11.3, we obtained

⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫
J z = J 0 cosh ⎨ ⎬
⎩ d 2 ⎭
⎧1 − j ⎫ ⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫
and H y = J0d ⎨ ⎬ sinh ⎨ ⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎩ d 2 ⎭
The Poynting vector, S = E × H = ρ J z H y .

* *
On the surface, x = b, and we take the surface integral over the surface.
\ Loss per unit area of each face = − Re E z H *y ( )

x=b
(*
\ Total loss = − 2 Re E z H y )x=b
⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫
Now, at x = b, J z = J 0 cosh ⎨ ⎬
⎩ d 2 ⎭
= J 0 (cosh θ cos θ + j sinh θ sin θ )
⎛1 − j ⎞ ⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫
Hy = J 0 d ⎜ ⎟ sinh ⎨ ⎬
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎩ d 2 ⎭
⎛1 − j ⎞
= J0d ⎜ ⎟ (sinh θ cos θ + j cosh θ sin θ )
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛1+ j ⎞
\ H *y = J 0 d ⎜ ⎟ (sinh θ cos θ − j cosh θ sin θ )
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎣ {
\ Total loss = ρ J 0 d 2 ⎡⎢Re (1 + j ) (sinh θ cosh θ cos θ + cosh θ sinh θ sin θ )
2 2 2
}
+ j (sinh 2 θ sin θ cos θ − cosh 2 θ sin θ cos θ ) ⎤⎥
⎦
= ρ J 02 d 2 [Re (1 + j )(sinh θ cosh θ − j sin θ cos θ ) ]
= ρ J 02 d 2 (sinh θ cosh θ + sin θ cos θ )

The same result would be obtained by the volume integration of ρ J z2 .
11.9 A very long straight strip conductor of width a and thickness b, such that a >> b (i.e.
the effect of the finite width of the strip can be neglected), carries a sinusoidal current
i (t) = Im cos w t. Determine the current distribution in the strip as a function of f (= w /2p), s
and µ and express it in terms of the total current I.
Sol. As before, the displacement current term can be neglected in the Maxwells equation
and the coordinate system is as indicated in Fig. 11.8. Only the z-component of J and the
y-component of H (neglecting edge effects as stated above) exist and the variations are in the
y-direction only.
∂B
Hence ∇×E = − and ∇ × H = J , reduce to
∂t
∇ × J = − jω µσ H and ∇×H = J
Fig. 11.8 A strip conductor carrying alternating current i(t).
which in the above rectangular Cartesian coordinate system simplify to
∂J z ∂H x
= − jω µσ H x and − = Jz
∂y ∂y
Hence the operating equation is obtained as
d2Jz 1
2
= jω µσ J z , ω µσ = , d being the skin depth.
dx d2
⎛y j⎞ ⎛ y j⎞
\ The solution is of the form, J z = A1 exp ⎜ ⎟ + A2 exp ⎜ − ⎟ , where A1 and A2 are
⎜ d ⎟ ⎜ d ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝
constants of integration to be determined from the boundary conditions which are:
(i) Jz (y) is an even function of y, i.e.
Jz (+y) = Jz (y)
⎧⎪ ⎛y j⎞ ⎛ y j ⎞ ⎫⎪
\ A1 = A2 and hence Jz (y) = A1 ⎨exp ⎜ ⎟ + exp ⎜ − ⎟⎬
⎜ d ⎟ ⎜ d ⎟
⎪⎩ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭
(ii) If at y = 0, Jz (y) is defined as Jz (0), then A1 = Jz (0)/2.
⎛y j⎞
\ J z ( y ) = J z (0) . cosh ⎜ ⎟.
⎜ d ⎟
⎝ ⎠
π π 1+ j
j = j1/ 2 = e jπ / 4 = cos + j sin =
4 4 2
⎧ (1 + j ) y ⎫
\ Jz (y) = Jz (0) · cosh ⎨ ⎬
⎩ d 2 ⎭
⎡ y y y y ⎤
= J z (0) ⎢ cosh cos + j sinh sin ⎥
⎣ d 2 d 2 d 2 d 2⎦
⎡ y y y y ⎤
\ | J z ( y ) | = J z (0) ⎢cosh 2 · cos 2 + sinh 2 sin 2 ⎥
⎣ d 2 d 2 d 2 d 2⎦
To express Jz ( y) in terms of the total current I, Jz (0) has to be evaluated in terms of I.
Since Hx (b/2) = Hx (b/2), applying Amperes circuital law to the closed contour 12341
(Fig. 11.8), we get
2aHx (b/2) = I
1 d 1/d ⎛y j⎞ d ⎛y j⎞
Now Hx ( y) = − J z ( y) = − J z (0) sinh ⎜ ⎟ = − J z (0) sinh ⎜ ⎟
jω µσ dy jω µσ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ d ⎟
⎝ d ⎠ j ⎝ ⎠
I j (1 + j ) I
\ J z (0) = =
⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫ ⎛ b b b b ⎞
2ad ⋅ sinh ⎨ ⎬ 2 2 ad ⎜ sinh cos + j cosh sin ⎟
⎩ d 2 ⎭ ⎝ d 2 d 2 d 2 d 2⎠
11.10 Determine the distribution of current in the two-layer strip shown in Fig. 11.9. The angular
frequency of the current in both the layers is w , and the effects of the finite width of the strips
can be ignored.
Fig. 11.9 A two-layer strip carrying alternating currents.

Sol. The coordinate system for the problem is as indicated in Fig. 11.9, and the strip 1 has µ1
and s1 and the strip 2 has µ2 and s2 as the permeability and conductivity, respectively. The
current flow in the strips is in the z-direction and the magnetic field in the x-direction. The field
variation is only in y-direction as the edge effects (i.e. finite width) are being ignored (to
simplify the problem to one-dimensional variation).
Hence, from Maxwells equations, the operating equations can be derived as

d 2 J z1 j d 2 J z2 j dJ z1 j dJ z2 j
2
− J z1 = 0, − J z2 = 0, = − H x1 , = − H x2 ,
dy d12 dy 2
d 22 dy d12 dy d 22
where the skin depths are d12 = (ω µ1σ1 ) −1 and d 22 = (ω µ 2σ 2 ) −1 .

The solutions in terms of J z1 , J z2 , H x1 and H x2 can be written as
⎛y j ⎞ ⎛ y j ⎞
J z1 = J1′ exp ⎜ ⎟ + J 2′ exp ⎜ − ⎟ (i)
⎜ d1 ⎟ ⎜ d1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Èy jØ È y jØ
J z2 J1exp É Ù J 2exp É (ii)
Ê d2 Ú Ê d 2 ÙÚ
d12 dJ z1 d12 j ⎧⎪ ⎛y j ⎞ ⎛ y j ⎞ ⎫⎪
H x1 = − = − · ⎨ J1′ exp ⎜⎜ ⎟ − J 2′ exp ⎜ −
⎟ ⎜ d1
⎟⎬
⎟
j dy j d1 ⎪ ⎝ d1 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎭⎪
⎩
d1 ⎧⎪ ⎛y j ⎞ ⎛ y j ⎞ ⎫⎪
= − ⎨ J1′ exp ⎜⎜ ⎟ − J 2′ exp ⎜ −
⎟ ⎜ d1
⎟⎬
⎟
(iii)
j ⎪⎩ ⎝ d1 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭
d2 Î Èy jØ È y j ØÞ
and H x2 Ï J1exp É Ù J 2exp É ß (iv)
j Ð Ê d2 Ú Ê d 2 ÙÚ à
There are four unknowns J1′, J 2′, J1″ , and J 2″ and so four boundary conditions are necessary,
which are:
J z1 (0) J z2 (0) T1
(i) On y = 0, Et1 = Et2 or = , i.e. J1′ + J 2′ ( J J 2) (v)
σ1 σ2 T2 1
d2
(ii) On y = 0, H t1 = H t2 or H x1 (0) = H x2 (0), i.e. J1′ − J 2′ ( J1 J 2) (vi)
d1
(iii) Hx (−b1 ) − Hx (0) = I z
1 1 1
d1 ⎡ ⎧⎪ ′ ⎛ b j ⎞ ⎛ b j ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎤
or − ⎢ ⎨ J1 exp ⎜ − 1 ⎟ − J 2′ exp ⎜ + 1 ⎟ ⎬ − ( J1′ − J 2′ )⎥ = I z1
j ⎢ ⎩⎪ ⎜ d1 ⎟ ⎜ d1 ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎦
(iv) H x2 (0) − H x2 (b2 ) = I z2
d 2 ËÎ È b2 j Ø È b j Ø ÞÛ
or Ì Ï J1 J 2 J1exp É Ù J 2 exp É 2 ßÜ I z2
j ÍÐ Ê d2 Ú Ê d 2 ÙÚ àÝ
From the above four boundary conditions, J1, J 2 , J1, and J 2 can be evaluated in terms of
I z1 and I z2 and hence the distributions can be evaluated.
The actual algebraic details are left as an exercise for the students.
11.11 An iron plate is bounded by the parallel planes x = ±b. The plate extends to +¥ in the
z-direction and is wide enough in the ±y-directions so that the edge effects can be ignored
(which simplifies it to a one-dimensional problem). Wire is wound uniformly round the plate
such that the layers of wire are parallel to the y-axis. An alternating current is sent through the
wire, thus producing a magnetizing intensity izH0 cos w t on the surfaces of the plate (i.e. H has
only the z-component on the two surfaces). Show that the H field inside the plate at a distance
x from its centre is given by
cosh 2mx + cos 2mx

H = i z H0 ⋅ cos (ω t + β ),
cosh 2 mb + cos 2mb
− sinh m(b + x ) sin m(b − x ) − sinh m(b − x ) sin m(b + x )

where tan β =
cosh m(b + x ) cos m(b − x ) + cosh m(b − x ) cos m(b + x )
ω µσ 1 1
with m2 = = 2
, i.e. m = , d being the depth of penetration (i.e. skin depth) of
2 2d d 2
iron of permeability µ (= µ0 µr) and conductivity s. Discuss the limiting cases of mb small and
mb large.
Sol. The geometry of the problem is shown in Fig. 11.10(a) and (b). Since the current flows
in the closed turns of the winding, it flows in the +y-direction on the face x = +b and in the
y-direction on the face x = b. Hence, on these two faces, the applied magnetic fields are
in the +z-direction, on these surfaces the value being izH0 cos w t.
Thus, it is seen that this problem is (in reality) identical with the problem discussed in
Section 15.3, pp. 475 478 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition,
PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, except for the fact that the coordinate system is so rotated that
the magnetic field in this problem is in the z-direction instead of y-direction.
The other difference is that the excitation here is H0 cos w t instead of B0 exp ( jw t). So we
have to consider in the final expression, the real part of the complex variable expression
obtained in solving the problem. So starting from the Maxwells equations in the Cartesian
coordinate system and neglecting the displacement current term, the operating equation can
be derived as
d 2Hz
− jω µσ H z = 0
dx 2
(The actual derivation is left as an exercise for the students.)
z
x
–b 0 +b
(a) The iron plate section in the xy-plane
–b +b
Direction of current in the

winding (+ y-direction)
on the plane x = + b
y
Direction of current in the winding
on the back side (i.e. plane x = –b)
will be in the -y-direction
(b) Isometric view
Fig. 11.10 The iron plate with the winding so that the surface current is in the y-direction.
The solution of the operating equation, using the condition that Hz = H0e jw t on the boundaries
x = ±b, is
⎡ ⎛x j⎞ ⎛ x j⎞⎤
⎢ exp ⎜ ⎟ + exp ⎜ − ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎥ jω t 1
H z = H0 ⎢ ⎥ e , where d =
⎢ ⎛b j⎞ ⎛ b j⎞⎥ ω µσ
⎢ exp ⎜ d ⎟ + exp ⎜ − d ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛x j⎞
cosh ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d ⎠ 1+ j
= H 0 exp( jω t ) , but j =
⎛b j⎞ 2
cosh ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d ⎠
⎧ (1 + j)x ⎫
cosh ⎨ ⎬
= H 0 exp( jω t ) ⎩ d 2 ⎭
⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫
cosh ⎨ ⎬
⎩ d 2 ⎭
cosh{m(1 + j ) x}
= H 0 exp( jω t )
cosh{m(1 + j )b}
Now, this expression can be expressed in terms of the distances of the point x not from the
centre x = 0, but from the sides where the fields have been applied, i.e. x = ±b, so that the
expression would be in (b + x) and (b x). We use the following equations:
1
x = {(b + x ) − (b − x )}
2
⎡m ⎤
cosh{m(1 + j)x} = cosh ⎢ (1 + j ) {(b + x) − (b − x )}⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
⎧m ⎫ ⎧m ⎫
= cosh ⎨ (1 + j )(b + x ) ⎬ cosh ⎨ (1 + j )(b − x ) ⎬
⎩2 ⎭ ⎩2 ⎭
⎧m ⎫ ⎧m ⎫
− sinh ⎨ (1 + j )(b + x) ⎬ sinh ⎨ (1 + j )(b − x ) ⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎩ 2 ⎭
⎡ ⎧m ⎫ ⎧m ⎫ ⎧m ⎫ ⎧m ⎫⎤
= ⎢cosh ⎨ (b + x ) ⎬ cos ⎨ (b + x) ⎬ + j sinh ⎨ (b + x ) ⎬ sin ⎨ (b + x ) ⎬ ⎥
⎣ ⎩2 ⎭ ⎩2 ⎭ ⎩2 ⎭ ⎩2 ⎭⎦
⎡ ⎧m ⎫ ⎧m ⎫ ⎧m ⎫ ⎧m ⎫⎤
× ⎢ cosh ⎨ (b − x ) ⎬ cos ⎨ (b − x) ⎬ + j sinh ⎨ (b − x ) ⎬ sin ⎨ (b − x ) ⎬⎥
⎣ ⎩2 ⎭ ⎩2 ⎭ ⎩2 ⎭ ⎩2 ⎭⎦
⎡ ⎧m ⎫ ⎧m ⎫ ⎧m ⎫ ⎧m ⎫⎤
− ⎢sinh ⎨ (b + x ) ⎬ cos ⎨ (b + x ) ⎬ + j cosh ⎨ (b + x ) ⎬ sin ⎨ (b + x ) ⎬ ⎥
⎣ ⎩2 ⎭ ⎩2 ⎭ ⎩2 ⎭ ⎩2 ⎭⎦
⎡ ⎧m ⎫ ⎧m ⎫ ⎧m ⎫ ⎧m ⎫⎤
× ⎢sinh ⎨ (b − x ) ⎬ cos ⎨ (b − x) ⎬ + j cosh ⎨ (b − x ) ⎬ sin ⎨ (b − x ) ⎬ ⎥
⎣ ⎩2 ⎭ ⎩2 ⎭ ⎩2 ⎭ ⎩2 ⎭⎦
= Numerator
Denominator = cosh{m(1 + j)b}
Since the excitation is H0 cos w t and not exp( jw t), we incorporate exp( jw t) in the above
expression and take the real part of the above expression after rationalizing the denominator.
This expression can then be reduced to the required forma step left as an exercise for the
interested readers.
11.12 From the analysis of the current distribution in a semi-infinite conducting block at radio
frequencies, prove that the ratio of ac resistance to the zero-frequency resistance (i.e. dc
resistance or Rdc) of conductor of any shape or cross-section is equal to the inverse ratio of
areas (i.e. cross-sectional areas). Derive this expression (i) for a conductor of circular cross-
section of radius a and (ii) for a rectangular bar of area (a × b).
Sol. The induced current distribution in a semi-infinite conducting block has been obtained
in Section 15.2, pp. 468473 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI
Learning, New Delhi, 2009. It has been described on p. 473, how a circular conductor can be
developed into a plane, since the current in the metal would be concentrated near the surface
up to its skin depth (approximation).
Hence Rac for a circular conductor of radius a, can be expressed as
ρ ,
Rac =
2 2π ad
where d is the skin depth of the medium. The above relation can be rewritten as
ρ
Rac = (per unit length), i.e. 3BD
2{(2π a )d } Q B
E
Here (2pa)d is the cross-sectional area of the region where the current is concentrated.
The zero frequency resistance of the circular conductor is
ρ ρ
Rdc = per unit length = , i.e. 3ED
cross -sectional area πa 2
QB
Rac π a2
\ =
Rdc 2{(2π a ) d }
i.e. the ratio Rac/Rdc is inversely proportional to cross-sectional areas.
Similarly, for a rectangular bar of cross-section (a × b) (by developing the bar to a plane),
ρ ρ
Rac = , i.e. RBD and Rdc = , i.e. RED
2{2( a + b) d } \ B C
E^ ab BC
Rac ab
\ = ,
Rdc 2{2( a + b) d }
i.e. again the ratio Rac/Rdc is inversely proportional to cross-sectional areas.

11.13 When there are time-varying currents in a conducting medium, the magnetic vector potential
A satisfies the equation
∂A
E= −
∂t
∂A
Hence, show that A satisfies the equation ∇ 2 A = µσ (i)
∂t
Further show that the solution of A is of the form given by the equation
W = uW1 + u × ÑW2 (where u is an arbitrary vector),
i.e. A = Ñ × W = Ñ × (uW1 + u × ÑW2).
Now W, W1 and W2 all satisfy Eq. (i). Also show that W1 and W2 both contribute to the B field.
Sol. In a conducting medium, Ñ × H = J.
∂A ∂B
E = − ⇒ ∇×E = −
∂t ∂t
∂B ∂A ∂
or = −∇× E = + ∇× = (∇ × A ).
∂t ∂t ∂t
\ B=Ñ×A
Hence from Ñ × H = J,
1 1 ∂A
∇ × B = ∇ × ∇ × A = J = σ E = −σ
µ µ ∂t
Now Ñ × Ñ × A = grad (Ñ × A) Ñ2A

We impose the condition Ñ · A = 0.
∂A
\ −∇ 2 A = − σ µ
∂t
∂A
or ∇ 2 A = µσ
∂t
It has been shown in Problem 9.17 that
when A = Ñ × W = Ñ × (uW1 + u × ÑW2),
∇ 2 A = ∇ × ∇ 2 W = ∇ × {∇ 2 (uW1 ) + ∇ 2 (u × ∇W2 )}
and also
Ñ2(uW1) = uÑ2W1
Ñ2(u × ÑW2) = u × Ñ(Ñ2W2)
∂A ∂ ⎧ ∂W ⎛ ∂W ⎞ ⎫
and = {∇ × (uW1 + u × ∇W2 )} = ∇ × ⎨u 1 + u × ∇ ⎜ 2 ⎟⎬
∂t ∂t ⎩ ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ⎭
∂W1 ∂W2
\ ∇ 2W1 = µσ and ∇ 2W2 = µσ .
∂t ∂t
Also B = Ñ×A
= Ñ × [Ñ × {uW1 + u × (ÑW2)}]
= [Ñ × Ñ × (uW1) + Ñ × Ñ × {u × (ÑW2)}]
Now Ñ × Ñ × (uW1) = grad{Ñ · (uW1)} Ñ2(uW1)
Hence W1 contributes to B, since even if Ñ · (uW1 ) = 0,
B = Ñ2(uW1)
Similarly W2 also contributes to B.
Note: The gauge imposed is Ñ · B = 0,

which means Ñ · {Ñ × (uW1 + u × ÑW2)} = 0,
which gives Ñ · Ñ × (uW1) = 0 and Ñ · Ñ × (u × ÑW2) = 0
11.14 Figure 11.11 shows an idealized Flat Linear Induction Pump (FLIP) which can be regarded as
of infinite depth in the direction of current flow. The current
⎛ 2π ⎞
i = I sin ⎜ ω t −
⎝ λ ⎟⎠
is distributed along the wall of the walled tube which contains the liquid metal.
Fig. 11.11 Travelling field device for liquid metal.
Choose a suitable coordinate system and derive the equation for the magnetic field and the
eddy currents in the liquid metal.
Sol. Let us first assume that there is perfect flux penetration as with pumps of small gap/
pole-pitch ratio. We will then restate the equations for the case of a pump with large gap/pole-
pitch ratio.
I = amplitude of the stator surface current sheet
l = wavelength (= 2 × pole-pitch)
z = direction of field travel
c = width of the pump-strip in the z-direction
w = 2p f = angular frequency of the current
Maxwells field equations are:

Ñ×H=J
E# È # # Ø
and ³& É W Ù Fixed coordinate system
EU Ê U [ Ú
Ñ·E = 0, Ñ·B = 0
and E = r J and B = µH = µ0µrH
These equations reduce to
È ) Y ) [ Ø #Y + Z
³) iZ É Ù + Z and and
Ê [ Y Ú Y Z
since only Iy and Jy exist.
(i) Because of infinite flux penetration, there will be no x-variation of flux.
∂H x
\ The relevant equation reduces to = Jy and Ey = rJy only the non-zero component.
∂z
⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ⎛ ∂Bx ∂Bx ⎞ ⎛ ∂E y ⎞
∇ × E = i x ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ + i z 0 = − i x ⎜⎝ ∂t + v ∂z ⎟⎠ ⎜⎜' = 0 ⎟⎟
⎝ ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ⎠
∂J y µ 0 µ r ⎛ ∂H x ∂H x ⎞
or = +v
∂z ρ ⎜⎝ ∂t ∂z ⎠
⎟
∂2 H x µ 0 µ r ⎛ ∂H x ∂H x ⎞
or = ⎜ +v ⎟
∂z 2
ρ ⎝ ∂t ∂z ⎠
∂2 J y µ0 µ r ⎛ ∂J y ∂J y ⎞
and = ⎜⎜ +v ⎟⎟ for Hx.
∂z 2 ρ ⎝ ∂t ∂z ⎠
The boundary conditions are: On z = 0 and z = c, Jy = 0.
(ii) Taking account of flux penetration:
Since Iy = applied stator current sheet is the only component, Jy will be the only component of
eddy current in the liquid metal.
∂H x ∂H z
Hence, ∇×H = − = Jy (i)
∂z ∂x
⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ⎛ ∂B ∂B ⎞ ⎛ ∂B ∂B ⎞
and ∇ × E = i x ⎜ − ⎟ + iz ⎜ ⎟ = − ix ⎜ x + v x ⎟ − iz ⎜ z + v z ⎟
⎝ ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂t ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂t ∂z ⎠
∂J y µ 0 µ r ⎛ ∂H x ∂H x ⎞
\ = ⎜ +v ⎟ (ii)
∂z ρ ⎝ ∂t ∂z ⎠
∂J y µ 0 µ r ⎛ ∂H z ∂H z ⎞
= − ⎜ +v ⎟ (iii)
∂x ρ ⎝ ∂t ∂z ⎠
∂H x ∂Hz
and ∇·B = 0 ⇒ + = 0 (iv)
∂x ∂z
Substituting from Eqs. (i) and (iv) into Eqs. (ii) and (iii), we get
∂2 H x ∂2 H x µ0 µ r ⎛ ∂H x ∂H x ⎞
+ = ⎜ +v ⎟
∂x 2
∂z 2
ρ ⎝ ∂t ∂z ⎠
∂2 H z ∂2 H z µ0 µ r ⎛ ∂H z ∂H z ⎞
+ =− ⎜ ∂t + v ∂z ⎟
∂x 2
∂z 2
ρ ⎝ ⎠
∂2 J y ∂2 J y µ 0 µ r ⎛ ∂J y ∂J y ⎞
and + = ⎜
⎜ +v ⎟
∂x 2
∂z 2
ρ ⎝ ∂t ∂z ⎟⎠
The additional boundary conditions are:
(i) At x = 0, Hz = 0
(ii) At x = d, Hz = I sin(w t 2p z/l)
Note: All these equations can be solved by the method of separation of variables, by assuming
a solution of the form XZT, where the form of T would be exp ( jw t).
11.15 N identical rectangular conductors of width b and thickness a/N, connected in series and
carrying current I through each, are placed in an open rectangular slot of width b and depth a
in an iron block. Assuming the iron to be infinitely permeable and the field to be tangential at
the slot opening, state the necessary and sufficient boundary conditions required to study the
current distribution in the mth conductor (1 £ m £ N, integral values), for a suitable choice of
the coordinate system.
Neglect the insulation dimensions and the end effects and express the boundary conditions
as relationships in terms of the current density in the conductors.
Obtain the expression for the current density distribution when N = 1. State the implications
of the idealizing simplification that the field is tangential at the slot opening on the flux
distribution at the slot bottom.
Sol. See Fig. 11.2. The boundary conditions for the chosen coordinate system are:
1. Symmetry about the y-axis (x = 0)
2. At x = ±b/2, Hy = 0
3. At y = 0, Hx = 0 for the first conductor
4. At y = a, ³ × H = total current in the slot = NI
or bH x, N = NI
NI
or H x, N = for b/2 < x < b/2 for the Nth conductor
b
5. Similarly, for the mth conductor, where N ³ m ³ 1:

ma
At y = , bH x , m = mI for b/2 < x < b/2
N
( m − 1) a
And at y = , bH x , m −1 = ( m − 1) I for b/2 < x < b/2
N
Fig. 11.12 An open rectangular slot with N rectangular conductors in it.

Expressing the boundary conditions in terms of the current density, we get:
1. Symmetry about the y-axis (x = 0), i.e. J zm ( x, y ) = J zm ( − x, y ), 1 ≤ m ≤ N .
1 ∂J zm
2. At x = ±b/2, H y = = 0, 1≤ m ≤ N
jα 2 ∂x
1
1 ∂J z
3. At y = 0, H x = − = 0
jα 2 ∂y
1 ∂J zN NI
4. At y = a, H x = − = for b/2 < x < b/2
jα 2
∂y b
5. For the mth conductor:
ma 1 ∂J
m
mI ⎫
At y = , Hx = − 2 z = for − b/ 2 < x < b/ 2 ⎪
N jα ∂y b ⎪
m −1 ⎬1≤ m ≤ N
( m − 1) a 1 ∂J z ( m − 1) I ⎪
At y = , Hx = − 2 = for − b/ 2 < x < b/ 2
N jα ∂y b ⎪
⎭
where ÿa2 = w µ0 µrs.
For N = 1, the boundary conditions are:

1. Symmetry at x = 0, Jz (x, y) = Jz (x, y)
1 ∂J z
2. At x = +b/2, H y = = 0
jα 2 ∂x
1 ∂J z
3. At y = 0, H x = − = 0
jα 2 ∂y
1 ∂J z I
4. At y = a, H x = − = for − b/ 2 < x < b/ 2, α 2 = ω µ 0 µ rσ
jα 2
∂ y b
Starting from Maxwells equations,
∂B
∇×E = −
∂t
Ñ×H=J (no displacement current)
and J = s E, B = µ0 µrH = µH.
Since only the z-component of current exists, Jx = 0, Jy = 0.
∂
Also, because of periodic variation with respect to time, = jω .
∂t
1 1 Ë J z J Û
³ E ³J Ìi x iy z Ü jX µ0 µ r H jXN0 Nr (i x H x i y H y )
T T Í y x Ý
1 ÑÎ È 2 J z 2 J z Ø ÑÞ
³³E Ïi x 0 i y 0 i z É 2 Ùß jX µ 0 µ r ¹³ H jX µ 0 µ r J z ,
T ÐÑ Ê x y 2 Ú àÑ
since there is no variation in the z-direction.
∂2 J z ∂2 J z
\ + = jω µ 0 µ rσ J z = jα 2 J z ,
∂x 2 ∂y 2
where a 2 = w µ0 µrs.
⎛ ∂H y ∂H x ⎞
Also ∇ × H = i x 0 + i y 0 + i z ⎜⎜ − ⎟ = iz Jz
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠⎟
Hence, considering the current distribution in the mth conductor,
J zm = XY exp ( jω t )
{ ( )
= ( A cos γ x + B sin γ x) C exp y γ 2 + jα 2 + D exp − y γ 2 + jα 2 ( )}exp ( jωt )
For evaluation of constants, we take the general solution, i.e.
J zm = ∑{A cos γ x + B sin γ x}{C exp ( y

m
) (
γ 2 + jα 2 + D exp − y γ 2 + jα 2 )}exp ( jωt )
By boundary condition 1, symmetry about x = 0 ® B = 0.

γb
By boundary condition 2, at x = ±b/2, sin = 0 = sin np, n = 0, 1, 2,
2
2nπ
\ γ =
b
\ J zm = ∑
n = 0,1, 2, …
cos
2nπ x
b { ( ) (
Cn exp y γ 2 + jα 2 + Dn exp − y γ 2 + jα 2 )}exp ( jωt )
From boundary condition 5, for the mth conductor,
⎡ ⎧ 2 ⎫
2nπ x ⎢ ⎪ ma ⎛ 2nπ ⎞ 2⎪
∑ cos
b ⎢
Cn exp ⎨ ⎜
⎪⎩ N ⎝ b ⎠
⎟ + jα ⎬
⎪⎭
n = 0,1, 2, …
⎣⎢
⎧ 2 ⎫⎤ 2
⎪ ma ⎛ 2nπ ⎞ 2 ⎪ ⎥ ⎛ 2 nπ ⎞
− Dn exp ⎨ − ⎜ b ⎟ + jα ⎬⎥ ⎜ ⎟ + jα
2
⎪⎩ N ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎥⎦ ⎝ b ⎠
mI
= − jα 2
b
⎡ ⎧ 2 ⎫
2nπ x ⎢ ⎪ ( m − 1) a ⎛ 2nπ ⎞ 2⎪
and ∑ cos
b ⎢
Cn exp ⎨
⎪⎩ N
⎜ b ⎟
⎝ ⎠
+ jα ⎬
⎪⎭
n = 0,1, 2, …
⎣⎢
⎧ 2 ⎫⎤ 2
⎪ ( m − 1) a ⎛ 2nπ ⎞ 2 ⎪ ⎥ ⎛ 2 nπ ⎞
− Dn exp ⎨ ⎜ b ⎟ + jα ⎬⎥ ⎜ ⎟ + jα
2
⎪⎩ N ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭⎥⎦ ⎝ b ⎠
( m − 1) I
= − jα 2
b
\ Only n = 0 term exists.
So, this reduces the above equations to
Ë Î (1 j )B ma Þ Î (1 j )B ma ÞÛ (1 j )B mI
ÌC exp Ï · ß D exp Ï ßÜ jB 2
Í Ð 2 N à Ð 2 N àÝ 2 b
Ë Î (1 j )B ( m 1) a Þ Î (1 j )B ( m 1) a Þ Û (1 j )B ( m 1) I
and ÌC exp Ï ß D exp Ï ßÜ jB 2
Í Ð 2 N à Ð 2 N àÝ 2 b
(1 + j )α a
Let = β . Hence, the above equations can be written as
N 2
jα 2 mI
C exp (m β ) − D exp ( −m β ) = −
1+ j b
jα 2 ( m − 1) I
C exp {( m − 1) β } − D exp {−( m − 1) β } = −
1+ j b
mI jα 2
\ C = − exp (−m β ) + D exp ( −2m β )
b 1+ j
( m − 1) I jα 2
= − exp {−(m − 1) β } + D exp{−2( m − 1) β }
b 1+ j
I jα 2
Hence, D exp{2mb }{1 exp(2b )} = exp (mb){m (m 1) exp (b )}
b 1+ j
I jα 2 ⎧ ( m − 1) − m exp ( − β ) ⎫
\ D= exp ( m β ) ⎨ ⎬
b 1+ j ⎩ 2sinh β ⎭
I jα 2 ⎧ ( m − 1) − m exp ( β ) ⎫
and C= exp ( − m β ) ⎨ ⎬
b 1+ j ⎩ 2sinh β ⎭
So
jα 2 I
J zm =
1 + j 2b sinh β
[(m − 1) cosh{mβ − (1 + j )α y} − m cosh{(m − 1) β − (1 + j )α y ]exp( jω t ),
(1 + j )aα (m − 1)a ma
where β = and ≤ y ≤
N 2 N N
When N = 1, (m also will be equal to 1)
jα 2 I
\ Jz = cosh {(1 + j )α y}
1 + j 2 sinh β
Note: The simplification regarding the field intensity at the slot opening implies that there will
be no flux lines normal to the slot bottom.
11.16 The power dissipation which takes place in the stator windings of ac machines is an important
engineering problem. So for simplicity, we consider an insulated rectangular conductor, placed
in an open rectangular slot of height a and width b, for which the insulation dimensions
can be neglected. Assuming the slot opening to be a flux line, show that the ratio of the
ac resistance to the dc resistance of the conductor will be
⎧ ⎛a 2⎞ ⎛a 2⎞ ⎫
⎪ sinh ⎜ ⎟ + sin ⎜ d ⎟ ⎪
Rac a ⎪ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪
= ⎨ ⎬,
Rdc d 2⎪ ⎛a 2⎞ ⎛a 2⎞ ⎪
⎪ cosh ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ − cos ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
1
where d = the skin depth of the conductor =
ω µ 0 µ rσ
s = conductivity of the conductor material and
µr = relative permeability of the conductor material.
Show that this ratio can be approximated to
⎧⎪ 4 ⎛ a ⎞ ⎫⎪
4
⎨ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ by first order approximation.

⎪⎩ 45 ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎪
⎭
Sol. This is the limiting case of Problem 11.15 when N = 1, i.e. single conductor in the slot
(Fig. 11.13). It will also be seen that if the slot opening is assumed to be a flux line, then the
current distribution can be considered as one-dimensional variation, i.e. no variation in the
x-direction, the only variation being in the y-direction. This will be obvious from the solution
of the previous problem, where we started with a two-space dimensional variation and the
answer indicated that for the assumptions made there (which are also the same in this case),
the problem reduced to that of one-dimensional variation. Hence, from
∂B
∇×H = J and ∇×E = −
∂t
Fig. 11.13 Rectangular conductor in an open rectangular slot.
and the fact that J and E have only the z-component, the equations come out to be
H x Ez Jz
Jz and jX Bx and Ez and Bx µ0 µ r H x
y y T
∂ 2 Ez j 1
\ = jω µσ E z = E z , where d = skin depth = .
∂y 2
d 2
ω µ 0 µ rσ
The solution of this equation will be

⎛y j⎞ ⎛ y j⎞
E z = A exp ⎜ ⎟ + B exp ⎜ − ⎟
⎜ d ⎟ ⎜ d ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝
⎧ (1 + j ) y ⎫ ⎧ (1 + j ) y ⎫ 1+ j
= A exp ⎨ ⎬ + B exp ⎨ − ⎬, since j =
⎩ d 2 ⎭ ⎩ d 2 ⎭ 2
The necessary boundary condition is that at y = 0, Hx = 0,
since in iron Hx = 0 and as Hx is continuous on the ironcopper interface which is the plane
y = 0.
1 ∂Ez
\ Hx = − = 0
jω µ ∂y
1+ j
\ ( A − B) = 0 ⇒ A = B
d 2
⎡ ⎧ (1 + j ) y ⎫ ⎧ (1 + j ) y ⎫ ⎤ ⎧ (1 + j ) y ⎫
\ J z = σ E z = σ A ⎢exp ⎨ ⎬ + exp ⎨ − ⎬ ⎥ = σ A cosh ⎨ ⎬
⎣ ⎩ d 2 ⎭ ⎩ d 2 ⎭⎦ ⎩ d 2 ⎭
The total current (= I ) can be obtained by integrating Jz over the cross-section.
a
σ Ab d 2 ⎧ (1 + j ) y ⎫ ⎤ σ Ab d 2 ⎧ (1 + j ) a ⎫
\ I = sinh ⎨ ⎬⎥ = sinh ⎨ ⎬
1+ j ⎩ d 2 ⎭⎦ 0 1+ j ⎩ d 2 ⎭
The dc loss would be obtained if this total current flowed through the dc resistance of the
conductor which would be
1
Rdc = per unit length
σ ba
1 2
The dc loss, Wdc I Rdc
2
1 ⎡ 2σ 2 A2 b 2 d 2 ⎪⎧ 2⎛ a ⎞ 2⎛ a ⎞ 2⎛ a ⎞ 2 ⎛ a ⎞⎪ ⎫⎤ 1
= ⎢ ⎨sinh ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟ + cosh ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟⎬⎥
2 ⎣⎢ 2 ⎪⎩ ⎝d 2⎠ ⎝d 2⎠ ⎝d 2⎠ ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎪⎭⎦⎥ σ ba
1 σ A2 d 2b ⎧⎪ ⎛a 2 ⎞ ⎛a 2 ⎞ ⎫⎪
= ⎨cosh ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − cos ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎬
2 a ⎩⎪ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎭⎪
1
The ac power loss per unit volume, Wac = σE⋅E*
2
1 ⎧ y y y y ⎫
= σ A2 ⎨cosh cos + j sinh · sin ⎬
2 ⎩ d 2 d 2 d 2 d 2⎭
⎧ y y y y ⎫
⎨cosh cos − j sinh sin ⎬
⎩ d 2 d 2 d 2 d 2⎭
1 ⎧⎪ ⎛ y ⎞ 2⎛ y ⎞ 2⎛ y ⎞ 2 ⎛ y ⎞⎫ ⎪
= σ A2 ⎨cosh 2 ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟ + sinh ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟⎬
2 ⎩⎪ ⎝d 2⎠ ⎝d 2⎠ ⎝d 2⎠ ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎭⎪
1 ⎧⎪ ⎛y 2⎞ ⎛ y 2 ⎞ ⎫⎪
= σ A2 ⎨cosh ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + cos ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎬
2 ⎪⎩ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎪⎭
⎪⎧ ⎛ y 2 ⎞ ⎪⎫
a
1 ⎛y 2 ⎞
\ Wac = σ A2 b
2 ∫ ⎨⎩⎪cosh ⎜⎝⎜
0
d ⎟⎟
⎠
+ cos ⎜
⎜ d ⎟⎟ ⎬
⎝ ⎠ ⎭⎪
dy
σ A2bd ⎧⎪ ⎛a 2 ⎞ ⎛a 2 ⎞ ⎫⎪
= ⎨sinh ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎬
2 2 ⎪⎩ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎪⎭
Wac R
\ = ac
Wdc Rdc
σ A2bd ⎪⎧ ⎛ a 2⎞ ⎛ a 2 ⎞ ⎪⎫
⎨sinh ⎜ ⎟ + sin ⎜ ⎟⎬
2 2 ⎩⎪ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎪⎭
=
σ A2 d 2 b ⎪⎧ ⎛a 2⎞ ⎛ a 2 ⎞ ⎪⎫
⎨cosh ⎜ ⎟ − cos ⎜ ⎟⎬
2a ⎩⎪ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎪⎭
⎧ ⎛a 2⎞ ⎛a 2⎞ ⎫
⎪ sinh ⎜ ⎟ + sin ⎜ ⎟⎪
a ⎪ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠⎪
= ⎨ ⎬
d 2⎪ ⎛a 2⎞ ⎛a 2⎞⎪
⎪ cosh ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ − cos ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
For approximation,
x3 x5
sinh x = x + + +"
3! 5!
x2 x4
cosh x = 1 + + +"
2! 4!
x3 x5
sin x = x − + −"
3! 5!
x2 x4
cos x = 1 − + −"
2! 4!
5
⎧⎪ ⎛a 2 ⎞ ⎛a 2 ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎛a 2 ⎞ ⎛a 2⎞ 1
\ ⎨sinh ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎬ l 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅
⎩⎪ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ 5!
a ⎧⎪ ⎞ ⎫⎪
2 6
⎛a 2 ⎞ ⎛a 2 ⎛ a ⎞ 8⎛ a ⎞
Hence ⎨sinh ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎬ l 4 ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
d 2 ⎩⎪ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎝ d 2 ⎠ 15 ⎝ d 2 ⎠
⎧⎪ ⎛a 2 ⎞ ⎛a 2 ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎛ a ⎞
2
8⎛ a ⎞
6
and ⎨cosh ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − cos ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎬ l 4 ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
⎩⎪ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎝d 2⎠ 15 ⎝ d 2 ⎠
⎧ ⎛a 2⎞ ⎛a 2⎞⎫
⎪ sinh ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎪ −1
⎧ 4 ⎫⎧ 4⎫
\
a ⎪ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎪ ≈ ⎪1 + 6 ⎛ a ⎞ ⎪ ⎪1 + 2 ⎛ a ⎞ ⎪
⎨ ⎬ ⎨ ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎨ ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
d 2⎪ ⎛a 2⎞ ⎛ a 2 ⎞ ⎪ ⎪ 45 ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎪ ⎪ 45 ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
⎪ cosh ⎜⎜ d ⎟⎟ − cos ⎜⎜ d ⎟⎟ ⎪
⎩ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎭
4
4 ⎛ a ⎞
= 1+ ⎜ ⎟
45 ⎝ d 2 ⎠
Note: This would be the value obtained for the ratio Rac/Rdc, if the problem were solved by
circuit concept and then used the correction by first order approximation.
11.17 For Problem 11.16, using the circuit concept (i.e. using the quasi-static approach) and making
the first order skin effect correction for the ac resistance, derive the approximate relation for the
slotted conductors ac and dc resistance.
Sol. The Maxwells equations for the rigorous solution were:
H x
= –T Ez (i)
y
Ez
and jX µH x (ii)
y
If the fields were stationary, the electric field would be uniform, having the value E0 (say) and
then the above equations would simplify to
∂H 0
= − σ E0 (iii)
∂y
∂E0
and = 0 (iv)
∂y
\ The zero-order magnetic field would be H0 = s E0 y.
We make the first order correction from Eq. (ii) for the electric field as
E1
jX µT E0 y
y
y2
\ E1 jX µT E0
2
Similarly, the first order correction for H is

)
K X NT
&T Z

Z
y3
\ H1 j (X µT ) E0 T
6
Next, the second order correction for E is
E2 y3
j 2 (X µT ) 2 E0
y 6
y4
\ E2 j 2 (X µT )2 E0
24
\ E E0 E1 E2 ,
⎛ 1 ⎞
which in terms of the skin depth d ⎜ = ⎟ becomes
⎜ ω µσ ⎟⎠
⎝
⎡ y2 y4 ⎤
E = E0 ⎢1 + j 2 − ⎥
⎢⎣ 2d 24d 4 ⎥⎦
a
⎛ y2 y4 ⎞
\ The total current, I = σ bE0 ∫
0
⎜⎜1 + j 2 −
⎝ 2d 24d 4
⎟⎟ dy
⎠
⎪⎧⎛ a4 ⎞ a 2 ⎫⎪
= σ E0 ab ⎨⎜1 − ⎟⎟ + j 2 ⎬
⎜ 4
⎩⎪⎝ 120d ⎠ 6d ⎭⎪
⎡⎧ 1 ⎛ a ⎞ ⎫⎪
4
1 ⎛ a ⎞ ⎤⎥
2
⎢ ⎪
= σ E0 ab ⎨1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎬+ j ⎜ ⎟
⎢ ⎪ 30 ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎪ 3⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎩ ⎭ ⎦
1
The dc resistance of the conductor = Rdc per unit length =
σ ab
1 ⎡⎢ 2 2 2 2 ⎧⎪ 2 ⎛ a ⎞ ⎫⎪⎤⎥ 1
4
\ The dc power loss per unit length, Wdc ≈ σ E0 a b ⎨1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
2⎢ 45 ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎪⎥ σ ab
⎣ ⎩⎪ ⎭⎦
Ë
ÌÍTJODF 8ED ] * ] 3ED ÛÜ
Ý
σ E02 ab ⎧⎪ 2 ⎛ a ⎞ ⎫⎪
4
= ⎨1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
2 ⎪ 45 ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
a
σb
Now, ac power loss = Wac =
2 ∫
E ⋅ E * dy
0
σ bE02
a ⎧⎛ ⎞
2 ⎫
⎪ y4 y4 ⎪
≈
2 ∫ ⎨⎜⎜
⎪⎩⎝
1 −
24d 4 ⎟⎟
⎠
+ ⎬ dy
4d 4 ⎪
0 ⎭
a
σ bE02 ⎛ 1 y4 ⎞
≈
2 ∫
0
⎜⎜ 1 +
⎝
⎟ dy
6 d 4 ⎟⎠
σ abE02 ⎛ 1 a4 ⎞
≈ ⎜⎜1 + ⎟
2 ⎝ 30 d 4 ⎟⎠
σ abE02 ⎧⎪ 2 ⎛ a ⎞ ⎫⎪
4
≈ ⎨1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
2 15 ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎪
⎩⎪ ⎭
−1
Wac R ⎧⎪ 2 ⎛ a ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪
4
2 ⎛ a ⎞ ⎫⎪
4
= ac = ⎨1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎨ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
Wdc Rdc ⎪⎩ 15 ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ 45 ⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎪
⎭
4
4 ⎛ a ⎞
≈ 1+ ⎜ ⎟
45 ⎝ d 2 ⎠
This is same as in Problem 11.16 (i.e. the approximate value).
11.18 A metal ribbon (of non-magnetic nature) carries an alternating harmonic current of angular
frequency w. The thickness of the ribbon is 2b and the conductivity of the metal is s. The
width of the metal ribbon is very great compared with its thickness 2b and the current in it is
I ampere per unit width. It is given that the current density in the mid-plane of the ribbon is J0
and J is the density in a plane distant x from the mid-plane. Show that
⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫
J = J 0 cosh ⎨ ⎬,
⎩ d 2 ⎭
1
where d = skin depth = . Hence, show that
ω µ0σ
2
I 2 ⎛ cosh 2mb − cos 2mb ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟,
JS m 2 ⎝ cosh 2mb + cos 2mb ⎠
1
where m = and JS = current density at the surface of the ribbon.
d 2
Sol. The first part of this problem has been solved in Section 15.4, pp. 478482 of
Electromagnetism Theory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009,
and it has been shown that
⎧ (1 + j ) x ⎫
J y = J 0 cosh ⎨ ⎬,
⎩ d 2 ⎭
and the surface current density JS is
⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫
J S = J 0 cosh ⎨ ⎬
⎩ d 2 ⎭
and the total current I per unit width is
2 2 JSd ⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫
I = tanh ⎨ ⎬
1+ j ⎩ d 2 ⎭
I 2 2d ⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫ 2 sinh{(1 + j ) mb} 1
\ = tanh ⎨ ⎬ = , m=
JS 1+ j ⎩ d 2 ⎭ (1 + j ) m cosh{(1 + j ) mb} d 2
2(1 − j ) sinh mb cos mb + j cosh mb sin mb

=
2m cosh mb cos mb + j sinh mb sin mb
{(sinh mb cosh mb cos 2 mb sinh mb cosh mb sin 2 mb)

1 j j (cosh 2 mb sin mb cos mb sinh 2 mb sin mb cos mb)}
.
m cosh 2 mb cos 2 mb sinh 2 mb sin 2 mb
The denominator = cosh 2 mb cos 2 mb + sinh 2 mb sin 2 mb
= cosh 2 mb (1 − sin 2 mb) + (cosh 2 mb − 1)sin 2 mb
= cosh 2 mb − sin 2 mb
1 1
= (cosh 2mb + 1) − (1 − cos 2mb)
2 2
1
= (cosh 2mb + cos 2mb)
2
The numerator
= sinh mb cosh mb(cos 2 mb + sin 2 mb) + j (cosh 2 mb − sinh 2 mb) sin mb cos mb
1
= (sinh 2mb + j sin 2mb)
2
I 1 − j ⎛ sinh 2mb + j sin 2mb ⎞

\ = ⎜ ⎟
JS m ⎝ cosh 2mb + cos 2mb ⎠
1 ⎡ (sinh 2mb + sin 2mb) − j (sinh 2mb − sin 2mb) ⎤

= ⎢ ⎥
m⎣ cosh 2mb + cos 2mb ⎦
2 2 2
I ⎛ 1 ⎞ (sinh 2mb + sin 2mb) + (sinh 2mb − sin 2mb)
\ = ⎜ 2⎟
JS ⎝m ⎠ (cosh 2mb + cos 2mb) 2
2 2 2 2
⎛ 2 ⎞ sinh 2mb + sin 2mb ⎛ 2 ⎞ (cosh 2mb − 1) + (1 − cos 2mb)
= ⎜ 2⎟ 2
= ⎜ 2⎟
⎝ m ⎠ (cosh 2mb + cos 2mb) ⎝m ⎠ (cosh 2mb + cos 2mb) 2
2 2
⎛ 2 ⎞ cosh 2mb − cos 2mb ⎛ 2 ⎞ cosh 2mb − cos 2mb
= ⎜ 2⎟ 2
= ⎜ 2 ⎟ cosh 2mb + cos 2mb
⎝ m ⎠ (cosh 2mb + cos 2mb) ⎝m ⎠
11.19 A metal plate of thickness 2b carries an alternating magnetic flux in a direction parallel to its
surfaces, its depth of penetration being d = 1/ ω µσ , where w is the angular frequency of the
magnetic flux and µ, s are the permeability and conductivity, respectively, of the metal. Show
that the total flux F in the plate lags the applied flux density (or mmf ) by an electrical angle
b2/3d2 when b/d is small and this angle of lag tends to 45° when b/d is large.
Sol. The initial part of this problem has been solved in Section 15.3, pp. 475478 of
The total flux F expressed in terms of the surface flux density B0 (or the mmf applied is
B0/µ0) is
⎪⎧ 2 ⎪⎫ ⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫
2 B0 d ⎨ ⎬ sinh ⎨ ⎬
⎪
⎩ 1 + j ⎪
⎭ ⎩ d 2 ⎭
Φ =
⎧ (1 + j )b ⎫
cosh ⎨ ⎬
⎩ d 2 ⎭
2 B0 d (1 − j ) ⎛ sinh α cos α + j cosh α sin α ⎞ b

= ⎜ ⎟, where α =
2 ⎝ cosh α cos α + j sinh α sin α ⎠ d 2
2 B0 d (1 − j ) ⎛ sinh 2α + j sin 2α ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ , on rationalizing as in Problem 11.18
2 ⎝ cosh 2α + cos 2α ⎠
⎧ (sinh 2α + sin 2α ) − j (sinh 2α − sin 2α ) ⎫

= B0 d 2 ⎨ ⎬
⎩ cosh 2α + cos 2α ⎭
⎛ sinh 2α − sin 2α ⎞
\ Lagging phase angle, θ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ sinh 2α + sin 2α ⎠
x3 x5
Note: sinh x = x + + +"
3! 5!
x3 x5
sin x = x − + −"
3! 5!
(2α )3
\ sinh 2α − sin 2α ≈ 2
3!
⎧⎪ (2α )5 ⎫⎪
sinh 2α + sin 2α ≈ 2 ⎨(2α ) + ⎬
⎩⎪ 5! ⎭⎪
(2α )5
l 2(2a), since is negligible when b/d is small (α = b/d 2)
5!
⎛ 2(2α )3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
\ θ ≈ tan −1 ⎜⎜ 6 ⎟⎟
⎝ 2(2α ) ⎠
(2α ) 2
= tan1
6
2
1⎛b 2 ⎞ b2
= ⎜ ⎟⎟ = , when b/d is small.
6 ⎜⎝ d ⎠ 3d 2
When b/d is large,
2 B0 d (1 − j ) sinh{(1 + j )α }
Φ =
2 cosh{(1 + j )α }
exp{(1 + j )α } − exp{− (1 + j )α }
= 2 B0 d (1 − j )
exp{(1 + j )α } + exp{− (1 + j )α }
1 − exp{−2(1 + j )α }
= 2 B0 d (1 − j )
1 + exp{−2(1 + j )α }
1− j 1
≈ B0 d .
2 1
\ F lags B0 by 45° in the limit.
11.20 Calculate the relaxation time for ethyl alcohol, for which
er = 26 and s = 3 × 104 mho
ε 8.854 × 10−12 × 26
Sol. The relaxation time, t = = −4
l 106 s
σ 3 × 10
11.21 A material of non-uniform properties (i.e. s and e are functions of space coordinates) is
bounded by two plane parallel electrodes as shown in Fig. 11.14. An external current source
drives a current i(t) through the material in the x-direction. The permittivity and the
conductivity are varying with x as
ε2 σ2
ε ( x) = ε1 + x, σ ( x) = σ1 + x,
l l
where l is the distance between the electrodes.
Show that the free charge density is given by
ËÈ F Ø È F T Ø F Û
*~Ì ÉÊ F M Y ÙÚ ÉÊ KX M M ÙÚ Ü
S~ G Ì M Ü

" ÍÌ KXF T
KXF T ÝÜ
where A is the area of the electrode and

i (t ) = Re {Iˆ exp ( jω t )}
Write down the expression for the free charge density when the permittivity e (x) changes
linearly with x while keeping the conductivity s constant.
Fig. 11.14 A slightly conducting medium of non-uniform permittivity and conductivity, bounded
by two plane parallel electrodes each of area A.
Sol. The electric field away from the plates is zero and so the continuity equation
(conservation of charge) can be written in integral form as

w
ÔÔ J ¹ dS
S

t ÔÔÔS
v
f dv
t w
ÔÔ (F E) ¹ dS
S
(i)
From
w
ÔÔ D ¹ dS
S
Q ÔÔÔSv
f
dv,
Eq. (i) becomes

Iˆ
T Ex jXF Ex ,
A
where Ex = Ex (x).
Iˆ
Iˆ A
\ Ex ( x) = =
(σ + jωε ) A ⎛ σ2 ⎞ ⎛ ε ⎞
⎜ σ1 + l x ⎟ + jω ⎜ ε1 + 2 x⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ l ⎠
Note: The above expression can also be derived from the equation
∂
∇ ⋅ (σ ∇φ ) + {∇ ⋅ (ε ∇φ )} = 0,
∂t
which in the present case becomes
∂ ⎧ ∂ ⎫
⎨σ E x + (ε E x ) ⎬ = 0
∂x ⎩ ∂t ⎭
∂
On integrating it, σ Ex + (ε E x ) = f ( t )
∂t
i (t )
In the present case, f (t ) =
A
and since i (t ) = Re{Iˆ exp ( jω t )},
we get Ex = Re {Eˆ x ( x) exp ( jω t )}
Iˆ
\ Ex =
A( jωε + σ )
From Coulombs law,
È E F ET Ø EF
É KX Ù *~
E F *~ Ê EY EY Ú EY
S~ G F & Y

EY " KXF T
" KXF T
ËÈ F Ø È F T Ø F Û
Ì ÉÊ F M Y ÙÚ ÉÊ KX M M ÙÚ
*~ Ü
or S~ G Ì M Ü

" ÍÌ KXF T
KXF T ÝÜ
Substituting for e and s (as given in the statement of the problem) in the denominator of the
above expression, we get
È F Ø È F T Ø F
ÉÊ F Y Ù É KX Ù
S~ G " M Ú Ê M M Ú M

*~ ÎÈ T Ø È F ØÞ ÎÈ T Ø È F Ø Þ
ÏÉÊ T Y Ù KX É F Y Ù ß ÏÉÊ T Y Ù KX É F
Ú Ê
YÙ ß
Ð M Ú Ê M Úà Ð M M Úà
When s is constant and only the permittivity changes, then s2 = 0 and e2/e1 << 1, for small
changes in e, and we have
T 1 F 2 Iˆ
Sf ,
Al ( jXF1 T 1 ) 2
i.e. in the presence of conduction, the gradient of e causes the free charge to be stored in the
bulk of the fluid.
Note: The material considered is usually fluid whose conductivity is a strong function of
temperature and hence s varies as a function of x in the original problem.
11.22 The depth of water in a tank is to be measured by either of the two systems indicated below.
In the system (a), the depth is obtained by measuring the inductance of a loop of copper
conductor which is partly dipped in the water. In the system (b), a pair of copper electrodes is
located so that the capacitance of the system is a function of the depth d (Fig. 11.15).
For the systems indicated, d is of the order of 1 cm, µ = µ0 = 4p × 107 H/m for water and
e = 81e0 = 81 × 8.854 × 1012 F/m for water and s = 102 mhos/m.
Fig. 11.15 Magnetic and electric devices to measure the water level.
Both capacitance and inductance are measured by a 100 kHz bridge (= f ). Which of the two
devices would work and why?
Sol. The critical parameter in the magnetic system is the magnetic diffusion time constant,
i.e.
<4FF &R
PG 4FDUJPO QQ o PG
²T C È ²T E Ø
UN &MFDUSPNBHOFUJTN 5IFPSZ BOE "QQMJDBUJPOT OE &EJUJPO
Q ÉÊ Q ÙÚ
1)* -FBSOJOH /FX %FMIJ >
and for the electric system, it is the relaxation time, i.e.

ε
τe = [See Eq. (16.13) of Section 16.2.1, pp. 546547 of ElectromagnetismTheory
σ
and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009]
For the system to operate successfully, these two time constants have to be equal to the period
of excitation, i.e. T = 1/f.
i.e. te = T = tm
Hence, the conductivity of the systems must be such that

π 2T
σm =
µ0 d 2
ε
and σe =
T
For the given values,
(3.14) 2 (10−5 )
σm =
4(3.147) × 10−7 (10−4 )
= 7.85 × 107 mhos/m (i)
81 × 8.854 × 10−12
and σe = = 7.16 × 10 −5 mhos/m (ii)
10 −5
If the change in the depth has to have a large effect on the inductance, then the conductivity
must be greater than that given by Eq. (i). Hence, the magnetic device is not a satisfactory one.
On the other hand, the conductivity of the electric device is more than sufficient to make any
change in C apparent with the liquid depth, even if e = e0.
11.23 A large block of material of permeability µ and resistivity r is subjected to a time-varying
magnetic field which is parallel to its plane face. The flux density at a distance x from this face,
within the material, is B. Hence, show that
#Z ² ²r #Z

Y
S U
Show that by substituting By = f (z), where z = lxt1/2, this equation is reduced to
f ¢¢(z) + 2 z f ¢(z) = 0,
by a suitable choice for the constant l. Express f (z) in the form of an integral by using the
2
integrating factor e− z .
Sol. This problem can be treated as a semi-infinite block subjected to a time-varying
magnetic field applied to its plane face (Fig. 11.16). This problem (the initial part) has
been solved in Section 15.2, pp. 468473, ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications,
2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, except that the time-variation of the applied field is

assumed to be of time-harmonic type, i.e. K X which is kept general in the present case.
U
Using the coordinate system shown in Fig. 11.16, we start with Maxwells equations which are:
Ñ × B = 0,
∂B
∇×E = − ,
∂t
Ñ×H=J
and E = rJ and B = µH
Fig. 11.16 Block of material (large) of characteristics m, r subjected to a time-varying magnetic field.
Since the applied field is in the y-direction and since the variation is in the x-direction only,
these equations simplify to
∂E z ∂B y
=
∂x ∂t
∂H y
= Jz
∂x
and Ez = rJz and By = µHy.
∂ 2 By µ ∂B y
So, we get − = 0 (i)
∂x 2 ρ ∂t
Substituting By = f (z), where z = l x t1/2,
∂B y ∂B y ∂z
= · = f ′( z ) λ t −1/ 2
∂x ∂z ∂x
∂ 2 By ∂ ⎛ ∂By ⎞ ∂ ∂z
∂x 2
= ⎜
∂x ⎜⎝ ∂x
⎟⎟ =
⎠ ∂z
(
f ′( z ) λ t −1/ 2
∂
)
x
f ( z )M t 1/ 2 M t 1/ 2 f ( z )M 2 t 1

∂B y
⎧∂ ⎫ ∂z ⎛ 1 ⎞
= ⎨ f ( z)⎬ = f ′( z ) ⎜ − λ xt −3/ 2 ⎟
∂t ⎩ ∂z ⎭ ∂t ⎝ 2 ⎠
\ Equation (i) becomes
µ 1
f ( z ) M 2 t 1 f ( z ) · M xt 3/ 2 0
S 2
xt 1/ 2 µ
or f ( z ) f ( z ) · 0
2M S
È 1 µØ
or ^
f ( z ) f ( z ) 2M xt 1/ 2 É 2 Ù`
Ê 4M S Ú
0
So this equation will reduce to the required form, i.e.

f ( z ) 2 z f ( z ) 0 (ii)
1 µ
if =1
4λ 2 ρ
µ
or 4λ 2 =
ρ
1 µ
or λ=
2 ρ
To solve Eq. (ii), we use the integrating factor
∫
2
I= e− z dz
∫
2
\ f ( z ) = A1 + A2 e− z dz
11.24 A cylindrical conductor of radius a carries an alternating current of angular frequency w such
that the current density phasor at a radius r ( y < a) is given by
J = A{ber( r/d ) + j bei( r/d )},
where d = skin depth = (µ0 µrw /r)1/2 and ber x + j bei x º J0(xj3/2) º I0(xj1/2).
z2 z4 z6
J0(z) = 1 − + − +"
22 2 2 ⋅ 42 2 2 ⋅ 4 2 ⋅ 62
Derive the first order expressions for the phase difference between
(i) the current density at the surface and at the centre and
(ii) the total current and the current density at the centre.
If the skin effect is slight, show that the former angle is twice the latter.
È Y Y Ø È Y Y Ø
Sol. (i) We have, + Y K
É "Ù K É "Ù

Ê ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ Ú Ê ¹ ¹ Ú
where x = r/d.
\ Current density at the centre (x = 0 or r = 0),
J(0) = A
and the current density at the surface (r = a),
⎧ ⎛a⎞ ⎛ a ⎞⎫
J ( a ) = A ⎨ber ⎜ ⎟ + j bei ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎩ ⎝ ⎠ d ⎝ d ⎠⎭
bei( a/d )
\ Phase difference = tan1
ber( a/d )
⎛ a2 ⎞
= tan1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ with surface current leading.
⎝ 4d ⎠
a
⎛ a2 a4 ⎞
(ii) Total current, I = ∫
0
J ⋅ 2π r dr = 2π A ⎜ 2 + j
⎜ 2d
⎝ 16d 4
+ higher order terms ⎟
⎟
⎠
a 4 /16d 4 ⎛ a2 ⎞
\ Phase difference = tan −1 = tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
a 2 /2d 2 ⎜ 8d
⎝ ⎠
⎛ a2 ⎞
i.e. the total current leads the central current by tan1 ⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ .
⎜ 8d
⎝ ⎠
When the skin effect is slight, a/d will be small, then
⎛ a2 ⎞ a2 ⎛ a2 ⎞ a2
tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ → and tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ →
⎜ 4d 4d 2 ⎜ 8d 8d 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
\ The former phase difference (i.e. between the surface and the central) will be twice the
latter (i.e. between the total and the central).
11.25 Transformer laminations are made up of CRGO (Cold Rolled Grain Oriented) steel sheets,
which are non-isotropic for temperature and magnetic field distributions. The thermal
conductivity k (W m1 deg1) is non-isotropic such that the ratio of this conductivity along
the lamination (= kx) to that across the lamination (= ky) is in the range of 7080. Heating
of the laminated transformer core is caused by eddy currents as well as by hysteresis
losses. Find the temperature distribution in a rectangular section of the core of dimensions
2a × 2b (length 2a being along the lamination, x direction), given that
P = thermal power generated in the core per unit volume (W m3)
k = thermal conductivity (W m1 deg1)
J = thermal power density (W m3) = kE
E = temperature gradient = grad f
f = temperature at a point (x, y).
ε
On the boundaries, the normal temperature gradient is equal to times the temperature rise
k
over the ambient temperature (= fÿ0).
Sol. For a volume d v, in equilibrium condition,
the heat generated = the heat dissipated.
\ 1E W ³ ¹ + E W (i)
or 1 L ³ ¹ + for isotropic medium
L ³ ¹ ³ G
(ii)
For the two-dimentional rectangular section under consideration, this equation will be
⎛ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ⎞
k ⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟=−P (iii)
⎜ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎠
⎝
For the non-isotropic laminations, there are two thermal conductivities kx and ky , and
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
kx + ky =−P (iv)
∂x 2 ∂y 2
is the equation governing the core behaviour for this type.

Note: This is a problem in which the temperature distribution due to eddy current heating has
to be determined. It is not a problem for evaluating the eddy current distribution. It has been
included in this chapter as an example on steady state non-isotropic heating of the medium.
The governing equation in this case is a quasi-Poissons equation which can be reduced to
Poissons equation by a suitable substitution. This method used here, has been discussed
in detail in Sections 9.3.2.49.3.2.5 of Electromagnetism: Theory and Applications,
2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009. This problem is an example of application of that
method.
In this problem, the heat generated by the eddy currents in the laminations is being used as the
source term P. So the equation to be solved is
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
kx + ky =−P (iv)
∂x 2 ∂y 2
A new variable is now introduced to convert the above equation into Poissons equation, by the
substitution
kx
ξ= y (v)
ky
G G Y L Y G Ë Y LY Û
\ Ì TJODF Ü
Z Y Z L Z Y ÌÍ Z LZ Ü
Ý
∂ 2φ k x ∂ 2φ
and = (vi)
∂y 2 k y ∂ξ 2
Hence Eq. (iv) becomes
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ P
+ =− (vii)
∂x 2
∂ξ 2
kx
which is a two-dimensional Poissons equation in (x, x ).
Next, this equation is simplified to Laplaces equation by using the substitution
φ = Ω + A + B x2 (viii)
where A and B are arbitrary constants of integration. It should be noted that A is not a necessary
requirement. However, its introduction will simplify some of the derived expressions later.
Substituting from Eq. (viii) into Eq. (vii),
∂2Ω ∂ 2Ω P
+ + 2B = − (ix)
∂x 2
∂ξ 2
kx
P
Since B is an arbitrary constant, let B = − (x)
2k x
\ Equation (ix) becomes
∂ 2Ω ∂ 2Ω
+ =0 (xi)
∂x 2 ∂ξ 2
which is the Laplaces equation.
Its solution will be of the form,
: Ç An cos H n x cosh H n Y (xii)
The sine functions have to be discarded because of the symmetry of the problem as would be
seen from Fig. 11.16.
y
x
O
a a
Fig. 11.16 Non-isotropic lamination section (2a × 2b).

∂φ ε
1. x = a, = − x (φ − φ0 )
∂x kx
∂φ ε x
2. x = a, = (φ − φ0 )
∂x k x
∂φ εy
3. y = b, =− (φ − φ0 )
∂y ky
∂φ ε y
4. y = b, = (φ − φ0 )
∂y k y
where
f0 = temperature of the surrounding
ex,ÿey = thermal emissivity of the surface in x and y directions respectively (W m2 deg1).
The y-boundary conditions converted to x become
kx ∂φ εy
3′ . ξ= b, =− (φ − φ0 )
ky ∂ξ kx k y
kx G Fy
4′ . Y b, (G G0 )
ky Y kx k y
Differentiating Eq. (viii) and substituting for B from Eq. (x),
∂φ ∂Ω Px
= − (xiii)
∂x ∂x k x
∂Ω Px ε ⎛ Pa 2 ⎞
\ At x = +a, − = − x ⎜Ω + A − − φ0 ⎟ (xiv)
∂x k x k x ⎜⎝ 2k x ⎟
⎠
: Fx È Pa 2 Pa Ø
or É : A G0 Ù (xv)
x kx Ê 2k x Fx Ú
Since A is an arbitrary constant,
Pa 2 Pa
Let A= + + φ0 (xvi)
2k x εx
∂Ω ε
Then =− x Ω (xvii)
∂x kx
This is the boundary condition at x = a.
Similarly to obtain the boundary condition at y = b is terms of W and x ,
∂φ ∂
= (Ω + A + Bx 2 )
∂y ∂y
∂Ω
=
∂y
εy
=− (φ − φ0 )
ky
εy
=− (Ω + A + Bx 2 − φ0 )
ky
εy ⎛ Pa 2 Pa Px 2 ⎞
=− ⎜⎜ Ω + + + φ0 − − φ0 ⎟
ky ⎝ 2k x εx 2k x ⎟
⎠
εy ⎛ Pa 2 Px 2 Pa ⎞
=− ⎜⎜ Ω + − + ⎟ (xviii)
ky ⎝ 2k x 2k x ε x ⎟⎠
Also : : Y : LY (xix)
Z Y Z Y LZ
∂Ω εy ⎧⎪ Pa 2 Px 2 Pa ⎫⎪
\ =− ⎨ Ω + − + ⎬ (xx)
∂ξ k x k y ⎩⎪ 2k x 2k x ε x ⎭⎪
This is the boundary condition at y = b.

Since the solution, i.e. Eq. (xii) is an even function, the boundary conditions at x = a and
y = b are automatically satisfied.
Hence substituting from Eq. (xii) in Eq. (xvii), gives
È F Ø
Ç An cosh H n Y ÉÊH n sin H n a k x cos H n aÙÚ 0
x
Fx Fxa
or tan H n a (xxi)
k xH n k x (H n a )
determines the values of gn. The values of gn can be obtained graphically.
kx
Next, applying the boundary condition at y = b (which in terms of x is the condition ξ = b,
ky
i.e. substituting Eq. (xii) in Eq. (xx), we get
ÎÑ È kx Ø Fy È k x Ø ÞÑ
Ç An ÏHn sinh ÉH n bÙ
ky Ú
cosh ÉH n bÙ ß cos (H n x)
ky Ú Ñ
C Dx 2 (xxii)
ÐÑ Ê kx k y Ê à
where
Î a2
FyP Ñ a ÑÞ
C – Ï ß
k x k y ÑÐ 2k x F x Ñà
εyP
D=
2k x kxk y
The function (C + Dx2) can be expanded in a cosine series and Ans would then be determined
from Eq. (xxii), i.e.
1 . 2H n
An
ÎÑ È kx Ø Fy È k x Ø ÞÑ ^H n a sin (H n a ) cos (H n a )`
ÏH n sinh É H n bÙ cosh É H n bÙ ß
Ê ky Ú kx k y Ê ky Ú Ñ
ÐÑ à
a
^ `
. Ô C Dx 2 cos (H n x) dx (xxiii)
0
Hence
a
Ô ^C Dx ` cos (H ^2H `
1 D
2
n x) dx C sin (Hn a) 3 n a cos (H n a ) (H n2 a 2 2) sin (H n a ) (xxiv)
Hn Hn
0
\ The final solution is

È kx Ø Px 2
G Ç An cos (Hn x) cosh ÉHn ky
yÙ A
2k x (xxv)
n 1 Ê Ú
where
Pa 2 Pa
A= + + φ0
2k x εx
ε y P ⎛ a2 a⎞
C=− ⎜ 2k + ε ⎟
kxk y ⎝ x x⎠
εyP
D= , and An is given by Eqs. (xxiii) and (xxiv).
2k x kx k y
11.26 A transmission line is made up of two mutually external parallel cylinders of equal radius Ro
and the axial distance between the axes is D. Show that the internal resistance and internal
self-inductance of the line, when it is carrying an alternating current of angular frequency
w is given by
2S D
Ri X Li
QE . 2 Ro D 2 4 Ro2
2
where, d = skin depth of the conductor = d 2 , as stated in Section 15.2 of
XNT
Sol. The method of solving such a problem has been described and discussed in
Section 15.18.2 (pp. 539541) of the textbook mentioned below. Hence using Eqs. (15.223),
(15.224), (15.225) and (15.230), and the conformal transformation of the allied Problem 3.40,
we write :
z ja a z
W = ln 2 j tan 1 2 j cot 1
z ja z a
ÈW Ø È U jV Ø
or z = a cot É Ù a cot É .
Ê 2 jÚ Ê 2 j ÙÚ
Differentiating w.r.t. z,
ÎÑ È W Ø ÞÑ 1 dW
1 = a Ï cosec
2
ÉÊ 2 j ÙÚ ß 2 j dz
ÐÑ àÑ
dW 2j W 2j U jV
\ = sin 2 sin 2
dz a 2j a 2j
From Problem 3.40 and Appendix 5, on a cylinder at the potential U = U1 the tangential
V .
component of B is given by The mmf law applied to a surface element of the current
s
(which is the source of the magnetic field in the present problem), we get
I
NiS B, ,
where iS
2Q a
I being the total current in the conductor and 2a is the bipolar distance or the diameter of
the central circle. Hence taking the modulus of the derivative of the complex potential W
w.r.t. the variable z, we have
dW V 2N I 2Q (U1 jV ) 2Q (U1 jV )
= sin sin
dz s 2Q a 2 jNI 2 jNI

[complex conjugate]
NI Î Q (U1 jV ) Þ Î Q (U1 jV ) Þ
= sin Ï ß sin Ï ß
Qa Ð j N I à Ð jNI à
NI Ë 2 Î Q U1 Þ Î Q V ÞÛ
ß cos
2
= Ì cosh Ï Ï ßÜ
Qa Í Ð N I à Ð N I àÝ
So now, we need to evaluate the integral given in Eq. (15.233) of the textbook
ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009
to evaluate Ri and Li, which gives us
NI
I Ë Î Q U1 Þ 2 Î Q V ÞÛ
vÔ iS ds = Ô ÌÍ cosh
2
ß cos Ï
2
Ï ß Ü dV
NQ a 0 Ð NI à Ð N I àÝ
I2 Î 2Q U1 Þ
= cosh Ï ß,
2Q a Ð NI à
as the second term vanishes on integration.
Î 2Q U1 Þ D
Now, cosh Ï ß =
Ð N I à 2 Ro
which follows from Problems 3.40 and 3.55.
Also, D 2 4Ro2 4a 2 from Eq. (A.5.12).
Furthermore, from Section 15.18.2, Eq. (15.223), of the textbook cited below, we get
1 S
wLi1 =
Td 2 E
From Eq. (15.224), of the textbook cited below
Li I 2 = 2 Li1 vÔ J S ds
2
(The notation for surface current is JS or iS)

The factor 2 in the above expression is due to the fact that the two parallel conductors are
of equal diameter, and hence,
2S D
wLi = Ri
QE .2 Ro D 2 4 Ro2
11.27 A transmission line is made up of two mutually external parallel cylinders of unequal radii R1
and R2(R2 > R1), the distance between their central axes being D. Show that the internal
resistance and the internal self-inductance of the line, when it is carrying an alternating current
of angular frequency w is given by
S 3 3
\% 3 3
^
3J
X-J
Q 3 3E ËÍ 3 3
% 3 3
% ÛÝ
2
where d = the skin-depth of the conductor = (= d 2 , as stated in Section 15.2 of
ωμσ ′
ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009
and r¢ = 1/s ¢).
Sol: Figure 11.17 shows the arrangement of the two cylinders of the transmission line.
This problem is a generalization of the transmission line analyzed in Problem 11.26 in as much
as the line of that problem consisting of two parallel cylinders of equal radius of Ro has been
now replaced by two parallel cylinders of unequal radii R1 and R2 where R2 > R1, the cylinders
being mutually external in both the problems. The gap between the central parallel axes of the
cylinders is D.
This problem is again one which has to be solved in bicylindrical coordinates. We shall
however solve it by using the conformal transformation used in Problem 3.40 which as stated
in Problem 11.26 is
[ KB
8 MO (A)
[ KB
which by some algebraic manipulations becomes
[ KB
= ew
[ KB
Cylinder of radius R2
O2
P1 R2 w2
D
a
2a
O x
a
w1
P2 R1
O1
Cylinder of radius R1 Poles P1, P2
P1P2 = Bipolar distance = 2a.
Fig. 11.17. Two parallel cylinders of radii R1 and R2 (R2 > R1), mutually external to each other.
or z(ew 1) = ja(ew + 1)
FX
or z = KB X (A1)
F
The transformation used in the bicylindrical coordinate system is
B F X
z* = (B)
FX
where W = U + jV, z = x + jy and z* = x jy
So, it is obvious that the two transformations are essentially very similar, except that the
x-y coordinates in the two systems have been turned through 90°. The consequence of this
rotation has been that the co-axial non-intersecting circles (which are really the members of
h = constant circles of the bicylindrical coordinate system are now lying on the y-axis of the
transformation ((A) or (A1)). However, it should be noted that the corresponding geometrical
parameters have remained the same for both the transformations, i.e. 2a = the bipolar distance,
D, R1 and R2 and w1 and w2. Thus, the various relations of these distances as derived in
Appendix 5 can be used directly.
Thus, we have
a = semi-bipolar distance (or radius of the central circle)
\ 3 3
% 3 3
% ^
= (i)
%
w1 = distance of the centre of the circle of radius R1 from the mid-point of the bipolar
axis (y-axis)
% 3 3
= (ii)
%
w2 = distance of the centre of the circle of radius R2 from the mid-point of the bipolar
axis (y-axis)
=
% 3 3
(iii)
%
Now, solving the problem, the internal self-inductance Li is obtained from
- * vÔ +

J
-
J 4 ET (iv)
where JS = the current across the unit arc-length in the cylindrical skin of the cylindrical
conductor j = I/2pa
I = the total current in the cylindrical conductor
Li1 = internal self-inductance of the cylindrical conductor per unit axial length and unit
circumferential width

= (v)
XTE

XT ¹ E
(from Eq. (15.223), Section 15.18.2 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications,
2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009).
The next step is to evaluate JS. This can be obtained by considering the mmf applied on the
surface element of the cylindrical conductor, which gives
m JS = B (vi)
where B is the tangential component of B on the cylindrical conductor.
This can be obtained from the conjugate function relationship of the conformal transformation
used for the problem (for details see Section 15.18.2 of the textbook cited above), i.e.
[ KB [
W= MO K DPU
[ KB B
or z= B DPU ÈÉ 8 ØÙ B DPU ÏÎ6 K7 ßÞ (vii)

ÊKÚ Ð K à
Differentiating Eq. (vii) w.r.t. z
1= B ËÌ DPTFD ÈÉÊ 8 K ØÙÚ ÛÜ K E8

E[
Í Ý
E8 K È 6 K7 Ø
\ = TJO É (viii)
E[ B Ê K ÙÚ
In the conjugate function, taking U as the potential function, the tangential component of
7
B is given by
T
Hence, taking the modulus of the derivative of the complex potential W, with respect to the
variable z, we get
E8 7 N * Q 6 K7
Q 6 K7
TJO ¹ TJO (ix)

E[ T Q B KN* KN*

$PNQMFY DPOKVHBUF
Since in the present problem, the two cylinders have different radii, we consider the cylinder
of radius R1 to be at the potential U1 (say), then
E8 N* Î Q 6 K7
Þ Î Q 6 K7
Þ
= Ï
K N * à Ð K N * ßà
ß TJO Ï
TJO
E[ QB Ð
N* Ë Î Q6 Þ Î Q7 Þ Û
= Ì DPTI Ï ß DPT Ï ßÜ (x)
QB Í Ð N * à Ð N * àÝ
vÔ +

\ To evaluate the integral 4 ET XF HFU
7
vÔ + vÔ T E7

4 ET =
N
N*
* Ë Î Q6 Þ Î Q7 Þ Û
ß DPT Ï ßÜ E7
NQ B Ô Í

= Ì DPTI Ï
Ð N* à Ð N * àÝ
* DPTI Î Q6 Þ
= Ï ß (xi)
Q B Ð N* à
as the second term vanishes on integration.
The diameter of this cylinder 2R1 and the distance of its centre from the x-axis is w1.
Hence the capacitance of this cylinder (per unit length) with its axis parallel to and at a
distance w1 from an infinite conducting plane (y = 0) is given by (Ref. Problems 3.40 and
3.55 and 11.26)
$ Î
QF ÏDPTI
% Þ (xii)
ß
Ð 3 à
where
D = distance between the centres of two similar cylinders, and
R = the radius of the cylinder.
Hence, the inductance L will be
- NF N
DPTI
% (xiii)
$ Q 3
In the present problem, the equivalent of D is 2w1 and of R is R1
Î Q6 Þ X
\ DPTI Ï ß (xiv)
Ð N* à 3
Similarly, for the second cylinder at potential U2 with its central axis at a distance w2 from the
plane y = 0, and of radius R2, we get
Î Q6 Þ X
DPTI Ï ß (xv)
Ð N* à 3
\ The total inductance of the two mutually external parallel cylinders of radii R1 and R2
(R1 < R2), respectively is given by
w Li = ^
X --J vÔ + 4 ET`

S * Ë Î Q6 Þ Î Q6 Þ Û
Ì DPTI Ï ß DPTI Ï ßÜ
E Q B Í Ð N* à Ð N * àÝ
= (xvi)
*
S % È X X Ø
= É
(xvii)
QE \ 3 3
% 3 3
% ^ Ê 3

3 ÙÚ
S %
= X 3 X 3
(xviii)
^3 3
% `

Q 3 3E
3
% 3

Now, w 2R1 + w 1R2 =

% 3 3
¹ 3 % 3 3
¹ 3
% %

= Ë % 3 3
3 3 3 3
3 3
ÛÝ
% Í
3 3 Ë
Í % 3 3 3 3 3 3
Ý
Û
=
%
3 3 Ë
Í % 3 3
Ý
Û
= (xix)
%
S 3 3
< % 3 3
>
\ w Li = (xx)
Q 3 3E < 3 3
% 3 3
% >

which is the required result.

It should be noted that in this derivation, in particular of Eqs. (xiv) and (xv), there has been a
tacit simplifying assumption which is that for these two equations the plane y = 0 is an
equipotential plane at zero potential. This means that for each of these equations, we imply
that there are two parallel cylinders of equal radius at equal distance on two sides of the
y = 0 plane, i.e. for Eq. (xiv) there are two parallel cylinders of equal radius R1 with the axial
distance 2w1 and similarly for Eq. (xv) there are two parallel cylinders of radius R2 with an axial
gap of 2w2. Having derived these two values, we then go back to the original arrangement of
cylinders of unequal radii R1 and R2.
This intermediate simplifying assumption does not invalidate the final result as can be seen
from the limiting case, i.e. case of parallel mutually external cylinders of equal radius. Here we
substitute in Eq. (xx),
R1 = R2 = Ro
and then, we get
S ¹ 3P ¹ %
w Li =
Q 3P E < % % 3P >
S %
=
QE 3P < % 3P >
which is the result obtained in Problem 11.26.
11.28 A transmission line is made up of two parallel circular cylinders of unequal radii R1 and R2
(R2 > R1), one inside the other with their parallel central axes at a distance D from each other.
When the line is carrying an alternating current of angular frequency w, show that the internal
resistance and the internal self-inductance of the system is given by
S 3 3
\ 3 3
% ^
3 X-
J J
Q 3 3E < 3 3
% 3 3
% >

where d = the skin depth of the conductor (= E as stated in the Section 15.2 of
XNT
ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009,
and r¢ = 1/s ¢ ).
Sol: This problem, like the last problem (i.e. Problem 11.27) deals with two parallel circular
cylinders of unequal radii R1 and R2 (R1 < R2), but now the smaller cylinder (of radius R1) is
eccentrically located inside the larger cylinder, so that inspite of the similarities in these two
problems, there are certain very significant differences which justify the consideration of this
arrangement as a separate problem.
Because of the similarity of the geometry of the two problems (Figs. 11.17 and 11.18), the initial
steps for solving the problem are very similar. In fact, the steps of the last problem up to
Eq. (xv) are same and, hence, we shall not repeat them again here. The new step is to calculate
the total inductance due to the two cylinders eccentrically mounted one inside the other. Here
it should be noted that the currents in the two cylinders are flowing in opposite direction and
the smaller cylinder is inside the larger cylinder. This means that the peripheral flux in the inner
cylinder is in the opposite direction to the direction of the peripheral flux in the outer cylinder
and thus the new flux in the system would be the difference between the flux in each cylinder
and not the sum as in the case of mutually external cylinders. Thus the total inductance
(internal) of the system will be
S * Ë Î Q6 Þ Î Q6 Þ Û
Ì DPTI Ï ß DPTI Ï ßÜ
E Q B Í Ð N* à Ð N * àÝ
w Li = (i)
*
O2
D
R2 w2
O1
P1
R1
a w1
2a
O x
a
P2
Poles P1, P2
P1P2 = Bipolar distance 2a.
Fig. 11.18 Two parallel cylinders of radii R1 and R2 (R2 > R1), one inside the other, but not concentric.
S %
= X 3 X 3
(ii)
QE 33 \ 3
3

% 3 3
% ^
% 3 3
¹ 3 % 3 3
3
\ w2R1 w1R2 =
% %


= Ë % 3 3
3 3 3 3
3 3
Û
% Í Ý
3 3
Ë

= Í % 3 3 3 3 3 3 ÛÝ
%

= 3 3
< 3 3
% >
(iii)
%
S 3 3
\ 3 3
% ^
\ wLi = (iv)
Q 3 3 E < 3 3
% 3 3
% >

which is the required result.

Once again, in this derivation, there is the same tacit simplifying assumption as made and
mentioned in Problem 11.27.
We next consider the limiting conditions:
(i) D = 0. In this case, the system becomes a co-axial cable. This problem cannot then be
considered by this coordinate system (or this conformal transformation). The reason is
obvious because for D = 0, both the circles (of radii R1 and R2, R1 ¹ R2) have the same centre,
which is not valid for this set of non-intersecting co-axial circles. The problem then has to be
solved by using the cylindrical polar coordinate system.
(ii) R1 = R2. This case also cannot be considered by the present analysis, because when R1 =
R2 and D ¹ 0, the two circles intersect. Since these two circles belong to the family of non-
intersecting co-axial circles, the case of R1 = R2 with D ¹ 0 cannot be considered by this co-
ordinate system. If D = 0, then the two circles with R1 = R2 become co-incident and it becomes
a single circle, and this also would be outside the purview of the present analysis.
Electromagnetic Waves 12
Propagation, Guidance
and Radiation
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Since electromagnetic waves depend on the existence of displacement currents, now the displacement
current term in Maxwells equations have to be considered. Also, since the waves are, in general, a
high frequency phenomenon, the conduction current term (i.e. the J vector) can be justifiably
neglected. This is completely justifiable when we consider the propagation of waves in loss-less media.
When lossy media are present (for example in the metal walls of waveguides), then this simplification is
no longer possible and this term has also to be taken into account. But during the initial stages of
propagation problems, we will consider mostly the loss-less media problems. The relevant Maxwells
equations are:
Ñ×B = 0
Ñ × D = rC when rC ¹ 0
∂D
Ñ×H =
∂t
#
and Ñ×E =
U
Since wave propagation is mostly a time-harmonic phenomenon,
∂
º jw ,
∂t
w being the angular frequency of the disturbance.
By using the constitutive relations,
D = eE and B = m H,
the four different equations can be reduced to an operational equation in terms of a single field vector
(as has been found that all the field vectors satisfy the same operational equation), i.e.
Ñ 2 H + b 2H = 0
and Ñ2 E + b 2E = 0,
ω2 1
where b 2 = w 2 m0 e 0 = , c= .
c2 μ0ε 0
717
Note: Sometimes in place of b, the k, called the wave number, notation is used.
When the dielectric is lossy or when we are considering conducting media, the corresponding
equations are
∂H ∂2H
∇ 2 H – μσ – με 2 = 0
∂t ∂t
∂E ∂2E
and ∇ 2 E − μσ − με 2 = 0
∂t ∂t
When E and H have time-harmonic variations, these equations reduce to
∇ 2 H – jωμσ H + ω 2 με H = 0
and ∇ 2 E – jωμσ E + ω 2 με E = 0,
∂
because now = jw .
∂t
The solutions of E and H are
E = ix Eox exp{ j(w t kz)}
L
and H = iZ &PY FYQ ^ K X U o L[
` i Z ) PY FYQ ^ K X U o L[
`
XN
These equations represent attenuated waves.
By substituting these expressions in the above equations, we get
L X NF KXNT (i)
Î È T ØÞ
k2 = w 2me jwms = X N F Ï o K É Ù ß

\
Ð Ê XF Ú à
\ k2
È X 2 Nr F r Ø
^ÈT Ø
ÉÊ c 2 ÙÚ 1 j Ê XF Ú ` 4Q 2
M 2
0
Nr F r ÎÏ1
Ð
È T ØÞ
jÉ ß,
Ê X F ÙÚ à
X 2π
as m = m0mr, e = e0er, = , l0 being the wavelength in free space.
c λ0
2
As k is complex, we write
k = kr jki
1/ 2
2π μr ε r ⎧⎪⎛ σ2 ⎞
1/ 2
⎫⎪
\ kr = ⎨⎜1 + 2 2 ⎟ + 1⎬
λ0 2
⎩⎪⎝ ω ε ⎠ ⎪⎭
1/ 2
2π μr ε r ⎧⎪⎛ σ2 ⎞
1/ 2
⎫⎪
and ki = ⎨⎜ 1 + 2 2 ⎟
– 1⎬
λ0 2 ⎪⎩⎝ ω ε ⎠ ⎪⎭
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES PROPAGATION, GUIDANCE AND RADIATION 719
The real part of k, i.e. kr is 2p /l, where l is the wavelength in the medium. The imaginary part
ki is the reciprocal of the distance d over which the amplitude is attenuated by a factor of e. The
quantity d = 1/ki is called the attenuation distance.
The phase velocity is
ω
u=
kr
Corresponding to an index of refraction,
c ⎛c⎞ ⎛λ ⎞k λ0
n= = ⎜ ⎟ kr = ⎜ 0 ⎟ r =
u ⎝ω ⎠ ⎝ 2π ⎠ λ
1
E ωμ μ ⎡⎧ σ 2 ⎫⎤ 4 ⎧ –1 ⎛ ki ⎞ ⎫
and = = ⎢ ⎨1 + 2 2 ⎬ ⎥ exp ⎨ j tan ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ ,
H k ε ⎣ ⎩ ω ε ⎭⎦ ⎩ ⎝ kr ⎠ ⎭
the quantity tan1 (ki/kr) denotes the phase of E with respect to H.

Note: The quantity k is still called the wave number in this general case. But it is complex and its
imaginary part corresponds to absorption. It should be carefully noted that an attenuated
wave travelling in the positive direction (along the z-axis in this case) needs the real part of
k to be positive and the imaginary part to be negative. Otherwise the wave would grow
exponentially with increasing z. The quantities kr and ki are both positive and hence k has the
negative sign in it (i.e. k = kr jki).
In transmission line theory, jk is denoted by g and is called the propagation constant.
An attenuated wave travelling in the negative z-direction is similarly expressed as
A0 exp { j (ω t + kr z ) + ki z}
= A0 exp { j (ω t + k z )}
Also, from the terms of Eq. (i), we can write
σ⎞
ω 2 μ ε – jωμσ = ω 2 μ ⎛⎜ ε – j ⎟,
⎝ ω⎠
σ
whose ⎛⎜ ε – j ⎞⎟ is called the complex permittivity of the medium.
⎝ ω⎠
Apart from problems dealing with propagation of waves (which include both reflection and
transmission, i.e. normal as well as oblique incidences), there are problems dealing with guidance.
These include transmission line problem as well as those of waveguides (including resonant cavities).
The underlying concepts, both mathematical as well as physical points, have been discussed in
reasonable depth in the textbook, ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition,
PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, and hence will not be repeated here.
Finally, this chapter closes with problems on radiation and antennae. Some of the problems have
been used to introduce new concepts not covered in the textbook, such as the Hertz vectors.
12.1.1 A List of Antenna Parameters

Radiation intensity = U(q, f) = Pav r2.
1 2
Time-average power density = Pav = I . HG i r , h = intrinsic impedance (also denoted by Z)
2
Time-average radiated power = Prad = ³ Pav . dS
1 1 2
Also Pav Re (E s H*s ) I HG s ir
2 2
1 2
Also Prad =I 0 Rrad where Rrad = radiation resistance
2
The average value of radiation intensity is
Prad
Uav =
4π
6 R G
Q 6 R G
Directive gain, GD =
6 BW 1SBE
GD
Pav= Prad
4Q r 2
U max
Directivity, D = GD , max
U av
4π U max
=
Prad
Power gain : {= GP (q, f)}
Total input power, Pi = Pl + Prad
1 2
= I in ( Rl Rrad )
2
where Iin = current at the input terminal
Rl = loss or ohmic resistance of the antenna
Q 6 R G
GP (q, f) =
1 J
Power gain in any specified direction

Radiation efficiency, hr =
Directive gain in that direction
GP Prad Rrad
=
GD Pi Rrad Rl
Pattern multiplication for arrays :
E (total) = (E due to single element at origin) ´ (Array factor).
or Resultant Pattern = Unit Pattern ´ Group Pattern
i.e. by normalizing the array factor.
12.2 PROBLEMS
12.1 For a uniform plane wave in air, the magnetic field is given by
{
H = i x 2 exp j ⎛⎜ ω t −
⎝
π ⎞
z⎟ .
20 ⎠ }
1
Calculate (a) the wavelength, (b) the frequency and (c) the value of E at t = µs,
15
z = 5 m.
12.2 A 5 GHz plane wave is propagating in a large block of polystyrene (er = 2.5) the amplitude of
the electric field being 10 mV/m. Find
(a) the velocity of propagation,
(b) the wavelength and
(c) the amplitude of the magnetic field intensity.
12.3 The amplitude of the electric field component of a sinusoidal plane wave in free space is
20 V/m. Calculate the power per square metre carried by the wave.
12.4 A plane linearly polarized Ei, Hi in free space, as described by the equations
& J
J & FYQ \ K X U C [
^ )
Y J
J ) FYQ \ K X U C [
^
Z
is incident on the plane surface (z = 0) of a semi-infinite block of loss-less dielectric of

permittivity er and gives rise to a transmitted wave Et, Ht and a reflected wave Er, Hr. The
surface is coated with a thin layer of resistive material, of resistivity rS, such that the thickness
of this layer can be neglected. Show that the ratio of the amplitude of the reflected wave to the
incident wave will be
⎛ 1 1⎞
1 − Z0 ⎜ +
⎝ ρS Z r ⎟⎠
= ,
⎛ 1 1⎞
1 + Z0 ⎜ +
⎝ ρS Z r ⎟⎠
µ0 µ0
where Z0 = , Zr = , and er = e0er0.
ε0 εr
What will be this ratio if the layer of resistive material is removed from the incident surface?
12.5 Radar signals at 10,000 MHz are to be transmitted and received through a polystyrene window
(e /e0 = 2.5) let into the fuselage of an aircraft. Assuming that the waves are incident normally,
how would you ensure that no reflections are produced by the window by choosing a
particular thickness for the window.
12.6 Solve Problem 12.5 without assuming that a solution to the problem exists.
12.7 A slab of solid dielectric material is coated on one side with a perfectly conducting sheet.
A uniform plane wave is directed towards the uncoated side at normal incidence. Show that if
the frequency is such that the thickness of the slab is half the wavelength, the wave
reflected from the dielectric surface will be equal in amplitude to the incident wave and
opposite in phase. Calculate this frequency for a loss-less dielectric of permittivity 2.5 and
thickness 5 cm.
12.8 Solve Problem 12.7, when the condition regarding the thickness of the slab is not stated.
Hint: Now the complete solution is required.
12.9 A uniform plane wave is moving in the +z-direction with
& J Y TJO XU C [
J Z DPT XU C [

Express H by the use of Maxwells equations. If this wave encounters a perfectly conducting
xy plane at z = 0, express the resulting E and H for z < 0. Find the magnitude and the direction
of the surface current density on the perfect conductor.
12.10 A time-harmonic uniform plane wave is incident normally on a planar resistive sheet which is
the plane interface z = 0, separating the half space z < 0 (medium 1) from another half space
z > 0 (medium 2). Let the media 1 and 2 be characterized by the constitutive parameters
µ1, e1 and µ2, e2, respectively (loss-less media). The thickness of the layer is assumed to be
very small compared with a wavelength so that it can be approximated by a sheet of zero
thickness and can be assumed to occupy the z = 0 plane. The surface current density JS on
the resistive sheet and the E field tangential to it are related as follows:
Et
JS = σ SEt = ,
ρS
where sS is surface conductivity = 1/rS and rS is surface resistivity.
Show that the ratios of the reflected E wave and the transmitted E wave to the incident wave
are
E xr0 Z 2 r − Z1
ρE = =
E xi 0 Z 2 r + Z1
Ext 0 2Z2r
and τE = = ,
Exi 0 Z 2 r + Z1
1 1 1
where = + ,
Z 2r ρS Z 2
Z1 and Z2 are the characteristic impedances of the media 1 and 2, respectively, and the
subscript 0 represents the amplitude of the corresponding wave. Hence, show that the power
dissipated in the resistive sheet per unit square area is
| E xi 0 |2 τ E2
2 ρS
Note: The subscripts i (incident), r (reflected) and t (transmitted) have been made into
superscripts here to eliminate confusion by overcrowding of suffices.
12.11 In Problem 12.10, if there is no resistive sheet on the interface z = 0, show that there will be no
energy dissipation in the dielectrics.
12.12 The wave number k = kr jki for plane waves in unbounded lossy media is obtained as
k = ω 2 µε − jω µσ (A)
where µ, e, s are the constitutive parameters of the medium.
From Eq. (A), deduce that
µε ⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪
kr = ω ⎨ 1 + + 1 ⎬ (B)
2 ⎪⎩ ω 2ε 2 ⎪⎭
µε ⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪
and ki = ω ⎨ 1 + − 1⎬ (C)
2 ⎪⎩ ω ε
2 2
⎪⎭
For s /we << 1, obtain the following approximations from Eqs. (B) and (C):
⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪
kr = ω µε ⎨1 + 2 2⎬
(D)
⎩⎪ 8ω ε ⎭⎪
σ µ ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪
and ki = ⎨ 1 − 2 2⎬
(E)
2 ε ⎩⎪ 8ω ε ⎭⎪
For s /we >> 1, show that Eqs. (B) and (C) may be approximated by
ω µσ ⎛ ωε ⎞
kr = ⎜1 + 2σ ⎟ (F)
2 ⎝ ⎠
and ki = 1− (G)
2 ⎜⎝ 2σ ⎟⎠
12.13 From Eq. (C) in Problem 12.12, find the expressions for the phase velocity vph, the wavelength
l and the group velocity vg. From these expressions, deduce the following approximations for
vph, l and vg which are valid for a good dielectric for which s /we << 1, i.e.
⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪ 1 2π v ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪
v ph = v ⎨1 − 2 2⎬
, v = and λ = ⎨1 − ⎬ , v g = ⎨ 1 + 2 2⎬
v
⎩⎪ 8ω ε ⎭⎪ µε ω ⎩⎪ 8ω 2ε 2 ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪ 8ω ε ⎭⎪
12.14 The intrinsic impedance (also called the characteristic impedance) ηl = ηlr + jηlj (also
denoted by Zl) in an unbounded lossy medium is obtained as
µ
ηl = ηlr + jηlj = (A)
σ
ε− j
ω
where µ, e and s are the constitutive parameters of the medium and w is the wave angular
frequency. From Eq. (A), deduce that
µ ⎡ σ2 ⎤
ηlr2 = ⎢1 + 1 + ⎥ (B)
2ε ⎡1 + {σ 2 /(ω 2ε 2 )}⎤ ⎢⎣ ω 2ε 2 ⎥
⎦
⎣ ⎦
µ ⎡ σ2 ⎤
and ηlj2 = ⎢ −1 + 1 + ⎥ (C)
2ε ⎡1 + {σ 2 /(ω 2ε 2 )}⎤ ⎢⎣ ω 2ε 2 ⎥
⎦
⎣ ⎦
For s /we << 1, obtain the following approximations for Eqs. (B) and (C):
µ ⎛ 3σ 2 ⎞
ηlr = ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ (D)
ε ⎝ 8ω 2ε 2 ⎠
µ σ ⎛ 5σ 2 ⎞
and ηlj = ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ (E)
ε 2ωε ⎝ 8ω 2ε 2 ⎠
For s /w e >> 1, show that Eqs. (B) and (C) may be approximated to
I X ² È XF Ø
É Ù (F)
T Ê T Ú
MS
ω µ ⎛ ωε ⎞
and ηlj = 1− (G)
2σ ⎜⎝ 2σ ⎟⎠
12.15 The surface impedance of a conductor is defined as the ratio Et /Ht at the surface, where Et and
Ht are the tangential components of E and H, respectively.
Note: Ht is numerically equal to the current per unit width in the conductor.
Show that the surface impedance of a good conductor is
1/ 2
⎛ ωµ ⎞ ⎛1+ j ⎞
(1 + j ) ⎜ ⎟ or ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2σ ⎠ ⎝ σδ ⎠
1/ 2
⎛ 2 ⎞
where δ=⎜ ⎟ = d 2.
⎝ ω µσ ⎠
1 ωµ
= is called the surface resistivity or surface resistance (per unit area) of the
σδ 2σ
conductor.
Hence obtain the energy dissipated per unit area of the conductor.
12.16 The electric vector of a uniform plane wave in free space is given by
E = i y 5 exp {− j 2π (0.6 x + 0.8 z ) + jω t}
Show that the given electric field is consistent with the Maxwells equations provided that w
has a certain value.
Evaluate the phase constant b, the wavelength l and the angular frequency w of the given
electric field. Also, find the direction of propagation and the associated magnetic field
vector.
This wave meets a perfectly conducting surface on the plane z = 0. Write down the equations
for the reflected magnetic wavefronts.
12.17 In Problem 12.16, if the E vector of the uniform plane wave is
E = {i x 3 – i y 4 + i z (3 − j 4)} exp [− j 2.0 (0.8 x + 0.6 y ) + jωt ]
find b, l and w.
Also, find the direction of propagation of the wave and the associated magnetic field vector.
12.18 (a) Show that for a wave incident in air on a non-conducting magnetic medium, (E0r /E0i)P is
zero for
ε r (ε r − µ r )
tan 2 θ i =
ε r µr − 1
and hence show that the Brewsters angle exists only if er > µr.
(b) Show that (E0r /E0i)N is zero for
µr ( µr − ε r )
tan 2 θ i =
ε r µr − 1
12.19 A plane wave is reflected at the interface between two dielectrics whose indices of refraction
are slightly different. The wave is incident in the medium 1 and n1/n2 = 1 + a.
(a) Show that the coefficients of energy reflection for the waves polarized with their E vectors
in the plane of incidence and normal to this plane are both given by (approximately)
B "
R=
B "
where A2 = 1 2 a tan2 qi,
qi being the angle of incidence.
(b) Show that A = 0 at the critical angle.
Note: In Section 17.15, pp. 599605, Eqs. (17.153c) and (17.153a), respectively of
ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, it
has been shown that the coefficient of energy reflection R (defined as the ratio of the average
energy fluxes per unit time and per unit area at the interface) is given by
2
⎡ n1 ⎤
⎢ − cos θ i + n cos θ t ⎥
RP = ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ n1 ⎥
⎢ cos θ i + n cos θ t ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
2
⎡ n1 ⎤
⎢ n cos θ i − cosθ t ⎥
RN = ⎢ ⎥
2
and
⎢ n1 ⎥
⎢ n cosθ i + cos θ t ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
for non-magnetic, loss-less dielectrics (which is the case in this problem).
12.20 A loss-free transmission line is operating under ac conditions and has been terminated with a
resistance equal to half its characteristic impedance Z0. Show that the input impedance is
1 + 4 tan 2 β l
Z0 ,
4 + tan 2 β l
where β = ω LC and l is the length of the line.
12.21 Show that the coefficient of energy reflection R and the coefficient of energy transmission T
are both equal to 0.5 at normal incidence on the interface between two dielectrics, if the ratio
of the indices of refraction is 5.83.
12.22 Define the phase velocity vp and the group velocity vg of a travelling wave and show that
1 1 ω dv p
− = 2
v p vg v p dω
dv p
and vg = v p − λ ,
dλ
where w is the angular frequency of the wave and l its wavelength.
12.23 Show that the input impedance of a loaded lossy transmission line is given by
⎡ Z + jZ c tanh γ l ⎤
Zin = Z c ⎢ L ⎥,
⎣ Z c + jZ c tanh γ l ⎦
where
g is propagation constant
Zc is characteristic impedance
ZL is load impedance
l is length of the line.
Z c2
Hence show that for a quarter wavelength line, Z in = .
ZL
Hint: The problem of lossy transmission lines has been discussed in detail in Section 18.2.2,
pp. 643648 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning,
New Delhi, 2009.
12.24 A transmission line consists of two parallel strips of copper forming the go and return
conductors, their widths being 6 times the separation between them. The dielectric is air. From
the Maxwells equations, applied to TEM waves, show that the ratio of voltage to current in
a progressive wave is 20p ohms.
12.25 A coil has a complex impedance of resistance R and self-inductance L. It is connected in
parallel with a capacitor of capacitance C and an imperfect dielectric equivalent to a series
resistance which is also R. Find
(i) a value of R which makes the impedance purely resistive at all values of w and
(ii) a value of w which again makes the impedance resistive for all values of R.
12.26 In a rectangular waveguide operating in the TE10 mode, a narrow longitudinal slot may be cut
in the centre of the either of the wider sides for the purpose of investigating the character of
the internal fields. Explain why the operation of the guide will be unaffected by the presence
of the slot. Indicate a position in which a transverse slot might be cut if required for a similar
purpose.
12.27 Rectangular waveguides are often made of brass or steel for economy and then silver plated
to provide the lowest losses. Assuming operation at 10 GHz with s = 6.17 × 107 mho/m for
silver, calculate the amount of silver required per mile to provide three skin-depth coatings on
a waveguide with an inner periphery of 10 cm. Density of silver = 10.5 g/cc.
1 1
Hint: Skin depth, d = =
ωμσ 2π × 109 × 4π × 10−7 × 6.17 × 107
12.28 By using Maxwells equations, prove that a TEM wave cannot exist in a single conductor
waveguide such as rectangular or cylindrical waveguides.
12.29 Prove that for all loss-less transmission lines,
µε µε
Z0 = and L =
C C
12.30 A perfect dielectric medium x < 0 is separated from a perfect conducting medium x > 0 by the
plane x = 0, as shown in the following figure. The electric field intensity in the dielectric is
given by
E( x, y, z, t ) = i y [ E1 cos(ω t − β x cosθ − β z sin θ ) + E2 cos(ω t + β x cosθ − β z sin θ )],
where E1, E2, b and q are constants.

Find the relationship between E1 and E2. Find also the magnetic field on the surface of the
conductor and show that the surface current density JS at the surface of the perfect conductor
is
2 E1β
JS = i y cos θ cos(ωt − β z sin θ ).
ωµ
12.31 A plane electromagnetic wave is incident at an angle (say, q ) on a flat perfectly conducting
surface and E is normal to the plane of incidence.
(a) Draw carefully a set of equally spaced parallel lines representing the crests of E in the
incident wave at a given instant and draw dotted (or broken) lines for troughs. Draw similar
lines for the reflected wave.
(b) Where is E always equal to zero?
(c) Can you relate this pattern to the n = 1, 2, , etc. modes in a rectangular waveguide?
12.32 (a) If the maximum allowed field strength in a coaxial line is Em, show that the maximum allowed
voltage is
ln( ro /ri )
Vm = ro Em .
ro /ri
(b) Show that for a given value of ro, Vm is the greatest when ro/ri = e.
(c) Show that the characteristic impedance is then 60 W, if the line is air-insulated.
(d) Show that under these conditions, the maximum allowable current is (roEm/163) amperes.
12.33 Show that the Brewsters angle can be expressed as

1 − b2
sin 2 θ B =
( n1/n2 ) 2 − b 2
n1
and hence cot θ B = (for non-magnetic media),
n2
where n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction of the two media through which the wave is
passing with oblique incidence at the interface (E field being parallel to the plane of incidence),
i.e.
µ1n2
n1 = µ r1ε r1 , n2 = µ r 2ε r 2 and b = .
µ 2 n1
12.34 The field near a Hertzian dipole of length l has the following principal components in spherical
polar coordinates:
ql cos θ ql sin θ µ 0 il sin θ
Er = , Eθ = , Bφ =
2πε 0 r 3
4πε 0 r 3
4π r 2
If i is oscillating and equal to I 2 cos ω t , prove that the predominant energy flow in this
region is likewise oscillatory, being such that a quantity of energy given by
i 2l 2
W=
6πε 0ω 2 r 3
flows out and back from a sphere of radius r, twice in each cycle of the dipole current.
12.35 The symmetry of Maxwells equations in free space implies that any system of travelling waves
defined by the field vectors E, B, has a dual in which E¢ = cB and B¢ = E/c. What source
would produce a field which is the dual of that set up by a Hertzian dipole?
12.36 Considering the far fields of the electric dipole and the magnetic dipole, show that they are
duals of each other.
12.37 Show that the phase velocity of H field of an oscillating dipole is
⎪⎧ c2 ⎪⎫
vφ = c ⎨1 + 2 2 ⎬ .
⎩⎪ ω r ⎭⎪
Show also that the phase velocities of r and q components of E field are:
⎧⎪ c 2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ (ω r/c)4 − (ω r/c)2 + 1 ⎫⎪
v r = c ⎨1 + 2 2 ⎬ and vθ = c ⎨ 2 ⎬
, respectively.
⎩⎪ ω r ⎭⎪ ⎪⎩ (ω r/c) − 2(ω r/c) ⎭⎪
4
12.38 Two similar Hertzian dipoles placed at the origin and carrying currents of the same frequency
are arranged along the x- and z-axes, respectively. The dipoles are of the same length and their
currents are equal in magnitude and in phase. What will be the polarization of the electric field
of this combination (a) at a point along the x-axis and (b) at a point along the y-axis? What
will be the polarization if the currents differ in phase by 90°?
12.39 Two (identical) Hertzian dipoles are arranged orthogonally at a distance of l /4 as shown
in the following figure and are excited by currents of same magnitude and phase. Find the
resultant E field in the xy-plane.
12.40 Two Hertzian dipoles are parallel and separated by a spacing 2a, their currents are in phase.
Taking spherical polar coordinates (r, q, f) centred at the centre of symmetry, calculate the E
and H fields at a great distance and deduce a formula for the distribution of the energy flow
as a function of the direction angle q.
12.41 The field of a magnetic dipole is such that V = 0 and A ¹ 0. Is it possible to have a radiation
field which has V ¹ 0 and A = 0?
12.42 A sealed plastic box contains a transmitting antenna which is radiating electromagnetic waves.
How would you identify whether it is a magnetic or electric dipole?
12.43 A Hertzian dipole made up of copper has the length l of wire of radius a. If the frequency of
the radiated wave is f, find the efficiency of the antenna, which is given by the ratio of the
average radiated power to the total average power delivered to the antenna.
12.44 Discuss and draw the image of a horizontal dipole antenna above a perfectly conducting plane
and show that the currents in the image and the antenna flow in opposite directions. Discuss
and draw again the image of a vertical dipole (antenna) above a perfectly conducting plane
and show that in this case, the current in the image as well as in the dipole flow in the same
direction.
12.45 A small conducting loop is placed in an electromagnetic field radiated by a distant antenna. By
small, it is implied that the wavelength of the wave is much larger than the dimensions of the
loop. Show that the emf induced in the loop is given by
)(t ) = µSX H cos B sin X t
where the field at the location of the loop is
H(t) = H cos w t
and
S = cross-sectional area of the loop
i n = unit vector normal to the plane of the loop
a = the angle between H and in
w = angular frequency of the field.
12.46 Two identical half-wave dipoles carrying currents Im and jIm, respectively, are orthogonally
located in the same plane as shown in the following figure. Find the resultant far field of the
electric field intensity in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the dipoles.
12.47 We have seen that it is possible to define and derive completely the propagation equations
from the Maxwells equations by using a magnetic vector potential A and an electric scalar
potential y. Show that it is possible to describe the whole electromagnetic field by means
of a single vector Ze (called the electric Hertz vector) and also state its relationship with
A and y.
12.48 Two identical magnetic dipoles are perpendicular to each other and have a common diameter.
(a) Show that its radiation pattern (i.e. amplitude as a function of q ) is a circle in a plane
perpendicular to the common diameter (in the far field zone) if one dipole leads the other by
90°.
(b) Explain the nature of the resulting field.
12.49 A rectangular waveguide of sides a × b, is closed at one end by a perfectly conducting plate
so that it is short-circuited. A source located at the far left transmits TE10 waves. Find the
resultant electromagnetic field in the guide.
12.50 From Problem 12.49, show that an electromagnetic field can exist in a cavity which is made from
a rectangular parallelepiped. Give a qualitative analysis of the charge and current distribution
on the walls of such a resonant cavity.
12.51 Find the total energy stored inside the cavity in Problem 12.50.
12.52 Two long parallel metal cylinders with radii r1 and r2 and potentials V1 and V2, respectively,
form a transmission line. When the cylinders are outside each other, not touching, with
centres at a distance s such that s > r1 + r2, they form an open-wire transmission line. On
the other hand, if one cylinder is within the other one (r1 < r2) such that s = | r1 r2 |, then
they form an eccentric cable. Find the capacitance of the system in either case.
12.53 In a co-axial cable of radii r1 and r2 (r1 < r2), the inner conductor has been displaced
from its normal position such that the distance between the axes of the two cable
conductors is now s. What is the resulting force on the inner conductor if the potential
difference between the two conductors is (V1 V2)?
12.54 The Hertz vector Ze has only a z-component and hence it satisfies the scalar wave equation
for a plane transmission line. Hence show that the potentials are
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
φ = V ( x, y ) f ⎜ z − t⎟ and A = iz με V ( x, y ) f ⎜ z − t ⎟.
⎝ με ⎠ ⎜ με ⎟⎠
⎝
Show that when the scalar potential f is eliminated by using the equation
" "
& o Ô ³ ³ ¹ "
EU o # ³ "
U NF U
the resultant new vector potential A¢ is identical with the form:
{
A = ∇ 2 U ( x, y ) f z − (με )
−1/ 2
}
t , where ∇ 2 has been defined as
∂ ∂.
∇2 ≡ i x + iy
∂x ∂y
12.55 A linear quadrupole made up of the point charges q, + 2q, q is located at the points
z = a, 0, and +a respectively on the z-axis. Its moment is Q = a2q sin w t. Show that, for
a << r, the electric and the magnetic field components are:
Q0 (1 3 cos 2 R ) Ë 3C È 3 C2Ø Û
Er Ì 3 cos (X t C r ) É 4 2 Ù sin (X t C r ) Ü
4QF 0 ÍÌ r Êr r Ú ÝÜ
Q0 sin 2θ ⎡⎛ β 3 3β ⎞ ⎛ 3β 2 3⎞ ⎤
Eθ = ⎢⎜⎜ − 3 ⎟⎟ cos (ω t − β r ) + ⎜⎜ 2 − 4 ⎟⎟ sin (ω t − β r ) ⎥
4πε 0 ⎣⎢⎝ 2r r ⎠ ⎝ 2r r ⎠ ⎦⎥
Q0 β sin 2θ ⎡⎛ β 3 3β ⎞ 3β 2 ⎤
Bφ = ⎢⎜⎜ − 3 ⎟⎟ cos (ω t − β r ) + sin (ω t − β r ) ⎥
8πωε 0 ⎣⎢⎝ r r ⎠ r 2
⎦⎥
where
X Q G C X X N F
D
12.56 From Problem 12.55, show that the average rate of energy radiated from the linear
16 Q 5 c Q02 .
quadrupole is
15 M 6 F 0
12.57 A plane quadrupole consisting of charges q, + q, q, and + q, has them located at the
π 3π
corners of a square whose sides are of length a and are parallel to φ = 0, , π,
2 2
respectively. The moment of the quadrupole is 2 2 DPT X U RB DPT X U Prove that, for
r >> a, the field components are:
3 Q0 sin 2 R sin 2G ËÈ 3 C 2 Ø 3C Û
Er = ÌÉ 4 2 Ù cos (X t C r ) 3 sin (X t C r ) Ü
8QF 0 ÍÌÊ r r Ú r ÝÜ
Q0 sin R cos 2G ËÈ 3C 2 6 Ø È 6C C 3 Ø Û
Ef = ÌÉ 3 4 Ù cos (X t C r ) É 3 Ù sin (X t C r ) Ü
8QF 0 ÍÌÊ r r Ú Êr r Ú ÝÜ
Eq = Ef cos q tan 2f
Br = 0
Bf = Bq cos q tan 2f
2 C TJO R DPT G Ë C DPT X U C S

È C C Ø TJO X U C S
Û
Bq = Ì É S Ü
Q F X ÌÍ S Ê S ÙÚ ÜÝ
12.58 Prove that the plane quadrupole of Problem 12.57 radiates energy at the average rate of
4 π 5 c Q02 .
5 λ 6ε0
λ
12.59 A thin dipole antenna of length (2n + 1) carries a sinusoidal current I0 sin (b z). Show
2
that the far field expression for the antenna is
⎧ (2n + 1) π ⎫
jβ r cos ⎨ cos θ ⎬
I0 e ⎩ 2 ⎭.
Hf = j
2π r sin θ
Hence evaluate the time-average power density.

λ
12.60 Two thin linear dipole antennae, each being (2n + 1) long, are positioned parallel to the
2
z-axis with centres at x = 0 and x = a. The one located at z = a lags 90° in phase behind
the one located at the origin of the coordinate system. Show that the radiation intensity of
this end-fire array is given by
(2n 1) Q ÎQ È ØÞ
N0 c I 02 cos 2 ÎÏ Þ 4a
cos R ß . cos 2 Ï É1 sin R cos G Ù ß
Ð 2 à Ð4 Ê M Ú à
Power density =
2Q r sin R
2 2 2
where I0 is the magnitude of the current in both antennae.

λ,
12.61 Show that when a = the directivity of the double antennae of Problem 12.60 is twice
4
that of a single antenna resonating in the same mode.
12.62 It has been shown in the Section 13.9, Chapter 13 of ElectromagnetismTheory and
Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi 2009, that when the plane waves are
propagating in the z-direction along a set of perfect conductors, the Hertz vector and the
vector potential in the z-direction are parallel to the currents. When the scalar potential is
eliminated by using the Hertz vector, a vector potential is obtained which is normal to
z-direction. Obtain this result, by solving directly the scalar propagation equation
∂ 2W ∂ 2W ∂ 2W ∂ 2W
+ + − με = 0.
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂t 2
12.63 A set of p end-fire two-element linear dipole arrays described in Problems 12.60 and 12.61
are set at half-wave intervals along the y-axis. Show that the radiation intensity pattern
given by the Poynting vector is
⎧ pπ ⎫
sin 2 ⎨ sin θ sin φ ⎬
S = S1 ⎩ 2 ⎭
⎧ π ⎫
⎩2 ⎭
U 1 (θ , φ )
where S1 = for the two-element array discussed in Problems 12.60 and 12.61
r2
λ
with a = and the two-elements in-phase.
4
12.64 If p number of half-wave in-phase antennae are positioned end-to-end along the z-axis,
show that the radiation intensity at a great distance is
6 R G
ND * DPT ^ Q
` ^ `
DPT R TJO
QQ

DPT R
^ `

S Q
Q S TJO R ¹ TJO DPT R

12.65 A rectangular cavity of dimensions a × b × d is made from a rectangular waveguide of

cross-sectional dimension a × b by putting conducting walls at z = 0 and z = d. The cavity
is operating in TE mode. Starting from the vector potential A for the rectangular waveguide,
which can be written in the form
∂2A ∂ 2Wte ,
∇ 2 A = με to ∇ 2Wte = με
∂t 2 ∂t 2
the vector A being expressed in terms of the scalar Wte as
A = Ñ × (izWte) and hence the magnetic field as
B = Ñ × (iz × ÑWte),
derive the field expressions for the cavity in the general TEmnp mode (m, n, p being not
equal to zeroes) and hence show that the quality factor Qte is given by
1

3/ 2
v NT E Q m 2 b 2 n 2 a 2 m 2b 2 d 2 n 2 a 2 d 2 p 2 a 2 b 2
4
Qte = 2 3 3 2
p a b ËÍ n a ( a d ) m 2b (b d ) ÛÝ d 3 ( a b) (m 2 b 2 n 2 a 2 ) 2
where
v = velocity of propagation of the wave
d = skin-depth of the wall material
s = conductivity of the wall material.
12.66 The rectangular cavity of Problem 12.65 is now operating in TM mode. Again, starting from
the vector potential A, written in terms of the scalar Wtm which again satisfy the same
equation, i.e.
∂2A ∂ 2Wtm ,
∇ 2 A = με to ∇ 2Wtm = με
∂t 2 ∂t 2
the vector A now being expressed in terms of the scalar function Wtm as
A = ∇ × (i z × ∇Wtm ) and the magnetic field
( )
B = − ∇ × i z β 2 ∇Wtm where β 2 = ωμε , with ω being the angular frequency of the time-
variation oscillations.
Derive the field expressions for the cavity in the general TMmnp mode (m, n, p being not
equal to zeroes) and show that the quality factor Qtm is given by
(
v μ σ δ π m2b 2 + n 2 a 2 )(m b d + n a d + p a b )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1/ 2
Qtm =
2 ⎡ ab (2 − δ p0 ) (m b + n a ) + 2d (n a + m b )⎤
2 2 2 2 2 3 2 3
⎣ ⎦
where δ p is the Kronecker delta and the other symbols have the same meanings as in
0
Problem 12.65.
12.67 For the rectangular resonant cavity described in Problems 12.65 and 12.66, if d is the
shortest dimension, find the lowest possible frequency and show that for this frequency
when the cavity operates in the TM mode, the quality factor is given by
v μ σ δ π d (a 2 + b 2 )3/ 2
Qtm = .
2 ⎡⎣ ab (a 2 + b 2 ) + 2d ( a3 + b3 ) ⎤⎦
12.68 If the cavity of Problem 12.67 is a rectangular box, i.e. a = b, then for the lowest TM mode,
show that the quality factor is given by
v NT E Q d
Qtm .
2 ( a 2d )
12.69 If the cavity of Problem 12.67 is cubical, i.e. a = b = d, then show that, for the lowest TM mode,
the quality factor is given by
vμσ δ π
Qtm = .
3 2
where the symbols have the same meanings as in the previous problems.
12.70 A cavity is bounded by the planes x = 0, y = 0, x + y = a, z = 0 and z = d. Show that the
resonant frequency for the simplest TE mode is
v ( a 2 + d 2 )1/ 2
f =
2ad
and for the simplest TM mode is
v 5.
f =
2a
12.71 A plane wave of angular frequency w in free space (m0, e0) is incident normally on a half-space
of a very good conductor (m0, e0, s). Show that the ratio of the reflected to the incident time-
averaged Poynting vector is approximately RS = 1 2bd, where C X N F and d is the
È Ø
skin-depth É
Ê XNT ÙÚ
12.3 SOLUTIONS
12.1 For a uniform plane wave in air, the magnetic field is given by
{
H = i x 2 exp j ⎛⎜ ω t −
⎝
π ⎞
z⎟ .
20 ⎠ }
1
Calculate (a) the wavelength, (b) the frequency and (c) the value of E at t = µs,
15
z = 5 m.
π
Sol. We have ωt − β z = ωt − z
20
π
\ β=
20
In air, the velocity is same as that in free space.
1 1
\ u = c = = = 3 × 108 m/s
µ 0ε 0 {4π × 10 −7
× 10 −9 /(36π )}
ω 2π
Now β = =
u λ
π 2π f
\ =
20 c
c 3 × 108 3
Hence f = = = × 107
40 40 4
\ Frequency, f = 7.50 × 106 Hz = 7.5 MHz
2π 2π
Wavelength, λ = = = 40 m
β π /20
µ0 ⎧ ⎛ π z ⎞⎫
E = H exp ⎨ j ⎜ ω t − ⎬
ε0 ⎩ ⎝ 20 ⎟⎠ ⎭
1
\ At t = µs, z = 5 m, we have
15
4π × 10−7 ⎡ ⎧⎛ 1 −6 ⎞ π ⎫⎤
E = − · 2 · exp ⎢ j ⎨⎜ 2π × 7.5 × 10 6
× × 10 ⎟ − 5⎬⎥
10−9 /36π ⎣⎢ ⎩⎝ 15 ⎠ 20 ⎭⎥⎦
= 533 V/m
12.2 A 5 GHz plane wave is propagating in a large block of polystyrene (er = 2.5), the amplitude of
the electric field being 10 mV/m. Find
(a) the velocity of propagation,
(b) the wavelength and
(c) the amplitude of the magnetic field intensity.
Sol. The velocity of propagation (in polystyrene),
1 1
u = =
µ 0ε 0ε r ⎪⎧ 10−9 ⎪⎫
−7
⎨ 4π × 10 × × 2.5⎬
⎩⎪ 36π ⎭⎪
9
= × 108 m/s
2.5
= 1.896 × 108 m/s
The relationship for wavelength l is
ω 2π
=
u λ
2π × u 2π u u 1.896 × 108
\ λ = = = = = 0.379 × 101 m = 3.79 cm
ω 2π f f 5 × 109
The amplitude of the magnetic field intensity,
−1
⎧ 4π × 10−7 ⎫
E ⎪ ⎪ 10−2 2.5
Hˆ = = ⎨ 10−9 ⎬ × 10 × 103 = = 41.9 µA/m
µ ⎪ × 2.5 ⎪ 12π × 10
ε ⎩ 36π ⎭
12.3 The amplitude of the electric field component of a sinusoidal plane wave in free space is
20 V/m. Calculate the power per square metre carried by the wave.
Sol. E = 20 V/m
E 20 V
H = =
Z0 376.7 Ω
1
\ Power per square metre = E×H
2
1 20
= · 20 ×
2 376.7
1
= × 1.06 = 0.53 W/m2
2
12.4 A plane linearly polarized wave Ei, Hi in free space, as described by the equations,
Ei = i x E0 exp { j (ω t − β z )}, Hi = i y H 0 exp { j (ω t − β z )},
is incident on the plane surface (z = 0) of a semi-infinite block of loss-less dielectric of

permittivity er and gives rise to a transmitted wave Et, Ht and a reflected wave Er, Hr. The
surface is coated with a thin layer of resistive material, of resistivity rS, such that the thickness
of this layer can be neglected. Show that the ratio of the amplitude of the reflected wave to the
incident wave will be
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
1 − Z0 ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ ρS Z r ⎠ ,
=
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
1 + Z0 ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ ρS Z r ⎠
µ0 µ0
where Z0 = , Zr = and er = e0er0.
ε0 εr
What will be this ratio if the layer of resistive material is removed from the incident surface?
Sol. See Fig. 12.1. Incident wave travelling in the +z-direction:
Ei = i x E0 exp { j (ω t − β z )}, Hi = i y H 0 exp { j (ω t − β z )}
E0
= iy exp { j (ω t − β z )},
Z0
µ0
where Z 0 = , β = µ 0ε 0 .
ε0
Fig. 12.1 A plane wave incident on a semi-infinite block of loss-less dielectric with the
interface surface coated with a resistive material of zero thickness.
Reflected wave travelling in the z-direction:

Er = i x Er 0 exp { j (ω t + β z )}, H r = i y H r 0 exp { j (ω t + β z )}
Er 0
= − iy exp { j (ω t + β z )}
Z0
Transmitted wave travelling in the +z-direction in the dielectric:

Et = i x Et 0 exp { j (ω t + β r z )}, Ht = i y H t 0 exp { j (ω t + β r z )}
Et 0
= iy exp { j (ω t + β r z )},
Zr
µ0
where Z r = , β= µ 0ε r and ε r = ε 0ε r0 .
εr
The unknowns to be evaluated are Er0 and Et0.
Boundary conditions: On z = 0, Et is continuous.
\ E0 + Er0 = Et0 (i)
and on z = 0, H t1 − H t2 = surface current JS.
Et 0 ⎛E E ⎞ E E
\ ( H 0 + H r 0 ) − H t0 = J S = = ⎜ 0 − r0 ⎟ − t0 = t0
ρS ⎝ Z0 Z0 ⎠ Z r ρS
⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
or E0 − Er 0 = Et 0 ⎢ Z 0 ⎜ + ⎟⎥ (ii)
⎣⎢ ⎝ ρS Z r ⎠ ⎦⎥
Adding (i) and (ii),
⎪⎧ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎪⎫
2 E0 = Et 0 ⎨1 + Z 0 ⎜ + ⎟⎬ (iii)
⎩⎪ ⎝ ρS Z r ⎠ ⎭⎪
2 E0
\ Et0 = Amplitude of the transmitted wave =
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
1 + Z0 ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ ρS Z r ⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
1 − Z0 ⎜ + ⎟
and Er0 = Amplitude of the reflected wave = Et0 E0 = E0 ⎝ ρS Z r ⎠ .
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
1 + Z0 ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ ρS Z r ⎠
Hence the ratio Er0 /E0 is as shown.
In the absence of the resistive sheet, Eq. (ii) becomes
H t1 = H t2 ⇒ H 0 + H r 0 = H t 0
E0 Er 0 E Z
or − = t 0 ⇒ E0 − Er 0 = Et 0 0 (iv)
Z0 Z0 Zr Zr
Adding (i) and (iv),
⎛ Z ⎞
2 E0 = Et 0 ⎜1 + 0 ⎟
⎝ Zr ⎠
2 E0
\ Et 0 =
Z
1+ 0
Zr
Z0
1−
Zr
and Er0 = Et0 E0 = E0
Z
1+ 0
Zr
12.5 Radar signals at 10,000 MHz are to be transmitted and received through a polystyrene window
(e /e0 = 2.5) let into the fuselage of an aircraft. Assuming that the waves are incident normally,
how would you ensure that no reflections are produced by the window by choosing a
particular thickness for the window.
Sol. See Fig. 12.2. Tangential E and H must be continuous on both the interfaces z = 0 and
z = d.
Since µ = µ0 in all three media, this means that both E and B must be continuous.
Assume E, and B = E/c as shown in the air-space 1.
Assume that the problem is solvable, i.e. there is no reflection in medium 1. Then, in medium 1,
only the incident wave is present, i.e.
E
E1 = E exp ( − j β z ), B1 = B exp ( − j β z ) = exp ( − j β z ),
c
where the phasors have been underlined by a straight line.
In medium 2, both the transmitted and reflected waves exist, i.e.
⎡ E′ E ⎤
E2 = E ′ exp ( − jk β z ) + E exp ( jk β z ), B2 = k ⎢ exp ( − jk β z ) − exp ( jk β z ) ⎥ ,
⎣ c c ⎦
ε
where k = = 2.5 (since the wave velocity in medium 2 is c/k).
ε0
Fig. 12.2 Polystyrene window in the fuselage of an aircraft.

In medium 3, only the transmitted wave exists, i.e.

⎛E⎞
E3 = E exp{− j β ( z − z1 )}, B3 = ⎜ ⎟ exp{− j β ( z − z1 )}
⎝c⎠
admitting that the transmitted wave may undergo a change of phase denoted by exp ( jb z1).
The boundary conditions at z = 0 give
E = E¢ + E¢¢ (i)
and E = k(E¢ E¢¢) (ii)
The boundary conditions at z = d give
E ′ exp ( − jk β d ) + E ″ exp ( jk β d ) = E exp{− j β ( d − z1 )}
or E ′ + E ″ exp ( j 2k β d ) = E exp[ j β {( k − 1) d + z1}] (iii)
E
and E ′ exp ( − jk β d ) − E ″ exp ( jk β d ) = exp{− j β ( d − z1 )}
k
or E ′ − E ″ exp ( j 2k β d ) = E exp[ j β {( k − 1) d + z1}] (iv)
The conditions (iii) and (iv) will be identical with conditions (i) and (ii), respectively,
if z1 = (k 1)d and if exp ( j2kb d ) = 1
or kb d = n p
ω 2π × 1010 200π
In this case, β= = 8
= and k = 2.5 = 1.58
c 3 × 10 3
200π
\ 1.58 × d = nπ
3
3n
Þ d= m
316
\ d is any integral multiple of 0.95 cm.
12.6 Solve Problem 12.5 without assuming that a solution to the problem exists.
e0 e = 2.5e0 e0
z
z=0 z=d
1 2 3
Air-space Polystyrene window Air-space
Fig. 12.3 Polystyrene window in the fuselage of an aircraft.

Sol. Now, we make no assumption regarding the existence of the solution.

The incident wave in medium 1 = i x E1+ exp{ j (ω t − β z )}
In medium 1 E1x = E1+ exp (− j β z ) + E1− exp ( + j β z )
In medium 2 E2 x = E2+ exp ( − jk β z ) + E2− exp ( + jk β z )
In medium 3 E3 x = E3+ exp ( − j β z )
The corresponding magnetic fields will be
In medium 1 H1 y = H1+ exp (− j β z ) + H1− exp (+ j β z )
In medium 2 H 2 y = H 2+ exp (− jk β z ) + H 2 − exp (+ jk β z )
In medium 3 H 3 y = H 3+ exp(− j β z )
The relationships between E and H are:
⎛ E1+ E ⎞ µ0 E E E µ0 Z0 Z0
⎜ = − 1− ⎟ = Z 0 = = 3+ and 2 + = − 2 = Z 2 = = =
⎝ H1+ H1− ⎠ ε0 H 3+ H 2+ H2 ε 2.5 k
\ The H fields will be:

E1+ E
H1 y = exp ( − j β z ) − 1− exp ( + j β z ),
Z0 Z0
E2+ k E k
H2y = exp ( − jk β z ) − 2 − exp ( + jk β z ),
Z0 Z0
E3+
H3 y = exp ( − j β z )
Z0
There are now four unknowns E1, E2+, E2 and E3+.
(i) On z = 0, Ex and Hy are continuous.
E1+ + E1 = E2+ + E2 (i)
and E1+ E1 = k(E2+ E2) (ii)
(ii) On z = d, Ex and Hy are continuous.
E2 + exp ( − jk β d ) + E2− exp ( + jk β d ) = E3+ exp ( − j β d ) (iii)
and [ E2− exp ( − jk β d ) − E2 − exp ( + jk β d )]k = E3+ exp ( − j β d ) (iv)

From Eqs. (iii) and (iv),
E2 + (1 − k ) exp ( − jk β d ) + E2− (1 + k ) exp ( + jk β d ) = 0
1− k
\ E2 − = − exp ( − j 2k β d ) · E2+ (v)
1+ k
Substituting the value of E2 from Eq. (v) in Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
⎡ 1− k ⎤
E1+ + E1− = E2+ ⎢1 − exp ( − j 2k β d ) ⎥
⎣ 1+ k ⎦
⎡ 1− k ⎤
and E1+ − E1− = kE2 + ⎢1 + exp ( − j 2k β d ) ⎥
⎣ 1 + k ⎦
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
\ ( E1+ − E1− ) k ⎢1 + 1 − k exp ( − j 2k β d ) ⎥ = ( E1+ − E1− ) ⎢1 − 1 − k exp ( − j 2k β d ) ⎥
⎣ 1+ k ⎦ ⎣ 1+ k ⎦
⎡ ⎧ 1− k ⎫ ⎧ 1− k ⎫⎤
Hence E1− ⎢ k ⎨1 + exp (− j 2k β d ) ⎬ + ⎨1 − exp ( − j 2k β d ) ⎬⎥
⎢⎣ ⎩ 1 + k ⎭ ⎩ 1+ k ⎭⎥⎦
⎡⎧ 1 − k ⎫ ⎧ 1− k ⎫⎤
= E1+ ⎢ ⎨1 − exp ( − j 2k β d ) ⎬ − k ⎨1 + exp (− j 2k β d ) ⎬⎥
⎢⎣ ⎩ 1 + k ⎭ ⎩ 1+ k ⎭⎥⎦
⎧ ⎛ 1− k ⎞ ⎫
= E1+ ⎨(1 − k ) − (1 + k ) ⎜ ⎟ exp ( − j 2k β d ) ⎬
⎩ ⎝ 1+ k ⎠ ⎭
\ For E1 to be zero (i.e. the condition for no reflection),
exp ( − j 2k β d ) = 1 is the required condition.
This is same as in Problem 12.5.
12.7 A slab of solid dielectric material is coated on one side with a perfectly conducting sheet.
A uniform plane wave is directed towards the uncoated side at normal incidence. Show that if
the frequency is such that the thickness of the slab is half the wavelength, the wave reflected
from the dielectric surface will be equal in amplitude to the incident wave and opposite in
phase. Calculate this frequency for a loss-less dielectric of permittivity 2.5 and thickness 5 cm.
Sol. For the conditions given (Fig. 12.4), at the surface B, the resultant E = 0.
Fig. 12.4 Loss-less dielectric slab, one surface of which is coated with a perfectly
conducting sheet to prevent further transmission of waves.
Also, at the surface A, under the conditions stated, the same condition would hold.
Therefore, AB (= d, say) must be an integral number of half wavelengths in the standing wave-
pattern.
c
\ Wave velocity in the dielectric =
2.5
If AB is the half wavelength,

Q G Q
c
3 × 108
\ f= = 1900 MHz
1.58 × 10−1
12.8 Solve Problem 12.7, when the condition regarding the thickness of the slab is not stated.
Hint: Now the complete solution is required.
Sol. Incident wave = i x E1+ exp{ j (ω t − β z )}

In medium 1, E1x = E1+ exp ( − j β z ) + E1− exp ( + j β z )
ε c
In medium 2, E2 x = E2 + exp ( − jk β z ) + E2− exp ( + jk β z ), k = and velocity =
ε0 k
The H or B waves will be
B1 y = B1+ exp (− j β z ) + B1− exp (+ j β z )
µ0 µ0
and B2 y = B2+ exp ( − jk β z ) + B2− exp ( + jk β z ), Z 0 = , Z =
ε0 ε
The relations between E and B are:
4x
Dielectric slab
Direction of e = 2.5e0 Perfectly conducting sheet
E1+
propagation (no transmission through the sheet)
B1+ E2+
B2+
B2–
E1–
E2–
y
z
z=0 z=d
y = +ve direction
outwards
1 2
Fig. 12.5 Dielectric slab coated on one face with a perfectly conducting sheet and a
wave incident normally on the other face.
E1+ E ⎛ Z ⎞ E E c Z Z
= − 1− = ⎜ c = 0 ⎟ and 2+ = − 2− = = = 0
B1+ B1− ⎝ µ0 ⎠ B2+ B2− k µ 0 kµ 0
1
\ B1 y = {E1+ exp ( − j β z ) − E1− exp ( + j β z )}
c
k
and B2 y = {E2 + exp ( − jk β z ) − E2 − exp ( + jk β z )}
c
Hence the unknowns are E1, E2+ and E2.
(i) On z = 0, Ex and By are continuous (µ = µ0).
E1+ + E1 = E2+ + E2 and E1+ E1 = k(E2+ E2)
(ii) On z = d, all the E wave is reflected. \ Ex = 0
Hence E2 + exp ( − jk β d ) + E2− exp ( + jk β d ) = 0
\ E2 − = − E2+ exp ( − j 2k β d )
So, we have
E1+ + E1− = E2+ {1 − exp ( − j 2k β d )} = j 2 E2 + exp ( − jk β d ) sin k β d
and E1+ − E1− = kE2+ {1 + exp ( − j 2k β d )} = 2kE2 exp ( − jk β d ) cos k β d
\ ( E1+ + E1− ) k cos k β d = ( E1+ − E1− ) j sin k β d
Þ E1+ ( k cos k β d − j sin k β d ) = − E1− ( k cos k β d + j sin k β d )
E1+ k + j tan k β d
\ =
E1− − k + j tan k β d
Hence for the required condition,
if d = half wavelength, then kbd = p
\ E1 = E1+ (equal in amplitude but opposite in phase)
The frequency is then given by
kb d = p
ω 2π f
k = 2.5 = 1.58, β = = , c = 3 × 108 m/s, d = 5 cm = 5 × 102 m
c c
2π f
\ 1.58 × × 5 × 102 = p
3 × 108
3 × 108
Hence f= = 1900 MHz
2 × 1.58 × 5 × 10−2
12.9 A uniform plane wave is moving in the +z-direction with

E = i x 100 sin (ωt − β z ) + i y 200 cos (ωt − β z ).
Express H by the use of Maxwells equations. If this wave encounters a perfectly conducting
xy-plane at z = 0, express the resulting E and H for z < 0. Find the magnitude and the direction
of the surface current density on the perfect conductor.
Sol. Given E = i x 100 sin (ω t − β z ) + i y 200 cos (ω t − β z )
By Maxwells equation,
∂B ⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ex ⎞
− = ∇ × E = i x ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ + i y ⎜ ⎟ + iz 0
∂t ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ⎠
= − i x β 200 sin (ω t − β z ) − i y β 100 cos (ω t − β z )
β β
\ B = − ix 200 cos (ω t − β z ) + i y 100 sin (ω t − β z )
ω ω
β β
and H = − ix 200 cos (ω t − β z ) + i y 100 sin (ω t − β z ) = H i
µ 0ω µ0ω
Reflected waves from the perfectly conducting surface at z = 0 are:
Er = − i x 100 sin (ω t + β z ) − i y 200 cos (ω t − β z )
β β
Hr = − i x 200 cos (ω t + β z ) + i y 100 sin (ω t + β z )
µ0ω µ 0ω
β 1
Note: = , where Z0 is the characteristic impedance.
µ 0ω Z0
Surface current density
Magnitude of the surface current/unit width = Hi( z = 0) + H r( z = 0)
Direction of the current = in × H
2β 2β
On z = 0, Hi + H r = − i x 200 cos ω t + i y 100 sin ω t
µ 0ω µ 0ω
In this case, in = iz
2β 2β
\ Surface current/unit width = − i y 200 cos ω t − i x 100 sin ω t
µ 0ω µ 0ω
Note: iz × ix = iy, iz × iy = ix.
12.10 A time-harmonic uniform plane wave is incident normally on a planar resistive sheet which is
the plane interface z = 0, separating the half-space z < 0 (medium 1) from another half-space
z > 0 (medium 2). Let the media 1 and 2 be characterized by the constitutive parameters
µ1, e1 and µ2, e2, respectively (loss-less media). The thickness of the layer is assumed to be
very small compared with a wavelength so that it can be approximated by a sheet of zero
thickness and can be assumed to occupy the z = 0 plane. The surface current density JS on
the resistive sheet and the E field tangential to it are related as follows:
&
+4 T4& U

U
S4
where sS is surface conductivity = 1/rS and rS is surface resistivity.
Show that the ratios of the reflected E wave and the transmitted E wave to the incident wave
are:
Exr0 Z 2 r − Z1
ρE = =
Exi 0 Z 2 r + Z1
Ext 0 2Z2r
and τE = = ,
Exi 0 Z 2 r + Z1
1 1 1
where = + ,
Z 2r ρS Z 2
Z1 and Z2 are the characteristic impedances of the media 1 and 2, respectively, and the
subscript 0 represents the amplitude of the corresponding wave. Hence, show that the power
dissipated in the resistive sheet per unit square area is
2
Exi 0 τ E2
.
2 ρS
Note: The subscripts i, r and t have been made into superscripts here to eliminate confusion
by overcrowding of suffices.
Sol. See Fig. 12.6. This is a generalization and further extension of Problem 12.4.
Incident waves:
Eix ( z ) = i x E xi 0 exp{− j ( β1 z − ω t )}
Exi 0
and Hiy ( z ) = i y H yi 0 exp{− j ( β1 z − ω t )} = i y exp{− j ( β z − ω t )},
Z1
Fig. 12.6 Two loss-less media with resistive interface.

µ1
where β1 = ω µ1ε1 and Z1 = .
ε1
Reflected waves in medium 1, travelling in the z-direction:
E rx ( z ) = i x E xr 0 exp { j ( β1 z + ω t )}
and H ry ( z ) = i y H yr 0 exp { j ( β1 z + ω t )}
Exr 0
= iy exp { j ( β1 z + ω t )}
Z1
Transmitted waves in medium 2, travelling in the +z-direction:
Etx ( z ) = i x E xt 0 exp {− j ( β 2 z − ω t )}
and Hty ( z ) = i y H ty 0 exp {− j ( β 2 z − ω t )}
Ext 0
= iy exp {− j ( β 2 z − ω t )}
Z2
On the interface z = 0, we have continuous Et, i.e. Et1 = Et2 .
\ E xi 0 + E xr 0 = E xt 0
Also because of the surface current on z = 0, Ht1 − Ht2 = JS
or ( H iy 0 + H yr 0 ) − H ty 0 = J S
⎛ Exi 0 Exr0 ⎞ Ext 0 Et

or ⎜ − ⎟− = JS = x 0
⎜ Z1 Z1 ⎟⎠ Z 2 ρS
⎝
Hence Exi 0 + Exr 0 = Ext 0 (i)
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
and Exi 0 − Exr 0 = Ext 0 ⎜ + ⎟ Z1 (ii)
⎝ ρS Z 2 ⎠
⎪⎧ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎪⎫
2 Exi 0 = E xt 0 ⎨1 + Z1 ⎜ + ⎟⎬
⎩⎪ ⎝ ρS Z 2 ⎠ ⎭⎪
2 E xi 0
\ Amplitude of the transmitted wave, E xt 0 =
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
1 + Z1 ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ ρS Z 2 ⎠
Subtracting (ii) from (i),

⎧⎪ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎫⎪
2 Exr 0 = Ext 0 ⎨1 − Z1 ⎜ + ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎝ ρS Z 2 ⎟⎠ ⎪⎭
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
1 − Z1 ⎜ +
⎝ ρS Z 2 ⎟⎠
\ Amplitude of the reflected wave, Exr 0 = Exi 0
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
1 + Z1 ⎜ +
⎝ ρS Z 2 ⎟⎠
⎛ 1 1⎞
1 − Z1 ⎜ +
Exr0 ⎝ ρS Z 2 ⎟⎠ Z 2 r − Z1
Hence the reflection coefficient, ρ E = = =
Exi 0 ⎛ 1 1⎞ Z 2 r + Z1
1 + Z1 ⎜ +
⎝ ρS Z 2 ⎟⎠
E xt 0 2
and the transmission coefficient, τ E = =
E xi 0 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
1 + Z1 ⎜ +
⎝ ρS Z 2 ⎟⎠
2 Z 2r
= = 1 + rE
Z 2 r + Z1
1 1 1
where = + .
Z2r ρS Z 2
Power dissipation
2
1 1 Exi 0
i i i*
Incident power flux density, S ( z ) = Re{i x Ex ( z ) × i y H y ( z )} = i z
2 2 Z1
i 2
1 1 Ex 0
Reflected power flux density, r r r*
S ( z ) = Re{i x Ex ( z ) × i y H y ( z )} = i z ρ E2
2 2 Z1
2
i
1 1 Ex 0
t t t*
Transmitted power flux density, S ( z ) = Re{i x Ex ( z ) × i y H y ( z )} = i z τ E2
2 2 Z1
From the principle of energy conservation,
i z {Si ( z ) − S r ( z ) − St ( z )} = power dissipated in the sheet per unit square area = SD (i)
where the power dissipated in the resistive sheet per unit square area
2
{ }
1 2 Exi 0 τ E2
S D = Re σ S2 Ext 0 =
2 2 ρS
Hint: To prove the above relationship (i), use the following:

1 − ρ E2 1 − ρE 2 Z1 ( Z 2 r + Z1 ) 1
= = =
Z1τ E2 Z1τ E Z1 ( Z 2 r + Z1 )2 Z 2 r Z2r
12.11 In Problem 12.10, if there is no resistive sheet on the interface z = 0, show that there will be no
energy dissipation in the dielectrics.
Sol. See Fig 12.7. In medium 1, there are incident and reflected waves.
In medium 2, there is transmitted wave only.
Fig. 12.7 Two loss-less media with incident wave.
Incident wave travelling in the +z-direction in medium 1:
Eix ( z ) = i x E xi 0 exp{ j (ω t − β1 z )}
and Hiy ( z ) = i y H iy 0 exp{ j (ω t − β1 z )}
Exi 0 µ1
= iy exp{ j (ω t − β1 z )}, where β1 = ω µ1ε1 , Z1 =
Z1 ε1
Reflected wave travelling in the z-direction in medium 1:
Erx ( z ) = i x E xr 0 exp{ j (ω t + β1 z )}
and H ry ( z ) = i y H yr 0 exp{ j (ω t + β1 z )}
Exr 0
= iy exp{ j (ω t + β1 z )}
Z1
Transmitted wave travelling in the +z-direction in medium 2:
Etx ( z ) = i x E xt 0 exp{ j (ω t − β 2 z )}
and Hty ( z ) = i y H ty 0 exp{ j (ω t − β 2 z )}
Ext 0
= iy exp{ j (ω t − β 2 z )},
Z2
µ2
where β 2 = ω µ 2ε 2 , Z 2 = .
ε2
Exr 0 and Ext 0 are unknowns and Exi 0 is known.

On the interface z = 0, Et1 = Et2 and H t1 = H t2 , since there is no surface current,
i.e. Exi 0 + Exr 0 = Ext 0 (i)
Exi 0 Exr 0 Et
and H iy 0 + H yr 0 = H ty 0 ⇒ − = x0
Z1 Z1 Z2
Z1 t
or Exi 0 − Exr 0 = Ex 0 (ii)
Z2
⎛ Z ⎞
2 E xi 0 = E xt 0 ⎜ 1 + 1 ⎟
⎝ Z2 ⎠
2 E xi 0 2Z2
\ E xt 0 = = E xi 0
Z1 Z 2 + Z1
1+
Z2
Subtracting (ii) from (i),
⎛ Z ⎞
2 E xr 0 = E xt 0 ⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟
⎝ Z2 ⎠
Z 2 − Z1 Z − Z1 i
\ E xr 0 = E xt 0 = 2 Ex 0
2Z2 Z 2 + Z1
Exr 0 Z 2 − Z1
\ Reflection coefficient, ρ E = =
Exi 0 Z 2 + Z1
E xt 0 2Z 2
and transmission coefficient, τ E = = = 1 + ρE
E xi 0 Z 2 + Z1
Hence, the wave equations in medium 1 are:
⎪⎧ Z − Z1 ⎪⎫
E x = i x E xi 0 ⎨exp ( − j β1 z ) + 2 exp ( j β1 z ) ⎬ exp ( jω t )
⎩⎪ Z 2 + Z1 ⎭⎪
Exi 0 ⎪⎧ Z 2 − Z1 ⎪⎫
and Hy = iy ⎨exp ( − j β1 z ) − exp ( j β1 z ) ⎬ exp ( jω t )
Z1 ⎪⎩ Z 2 + Z1 ⎪⎭
and the wave equations in medium 2 are:

2Z 2
E x = i x Exi 0 exp { j (ω t − β 2 z )}
Z 2 + Z1
2
and H y = i y Exi 0 exp { j (ω t − β 2 z )}
Z 2 + Z1
Power density calculations
Poynting vector associated with the incident radiation:
S iav = i z Eix || H iy cos θ , where q is the time phase angle
2
Exi
= iz (q = 0, for the incident wave and Ex and Hy are in time phase)
Z1
2
Exi 0
= iz
Z1
Poynting vector associated with the reflected radiation:
2
E xi 0 ⎛ Z 2 − Z1 ⎞
2
r
S av = − iz ⎜⎝ Z + Z ⎟⎠
Z1 2 1
In the medium 1,
2
E xi 0 ⎧ ⎛ Z − Z ⎞2⎫
⎪ ⎪
S av = i z ⎨1 − ⎜
2 1
⎟ ⎬
Z1 ⎪⎩ ⎝ 2 Z + Z1⎠ ⎪
⎭
2
E xi 0 4 Z1 Z 2 2 4Z2
= iz · 2
= i z E xi 0
Z1 ( Z 2 + Z1 ) ( Z 2 + Z1 ) 2
In the medium 2,
2
Ext 0
2
S av = Stav = iz
Z2
2
E xi 0 4 Z 22
= iz
Z2 ( Z 2 + Z1 ) 2
2 4Z 2
= i z E xi 0
( Z 2 + Z1 ) 2
\ There is no energy dissipation in the dielectrics or at the interface.
12.12 The wave number k = kr jki for plane waves in unbounded lossy media is obtained as
k = ω 2 µε − jω µσ (A)
where µ, e, s are the constitutive parameters of the medium.

From Eq. (A), deduce that
µε ⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪
kr = ω ⎨ 1 + 2 2 + 1⎬ (B)
2 ⎪⎩ ω ε ⎪⎭
µε ⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪
and ki = ω ⎨ 1 + − 1 ⎬ (C)
2 ⎪⎩ ω 2ε 2 ⎪⎭
For s /w e << 1, obtain the following approximations from Eqs. (B) and (C):
⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪
kr = ω µε ⎨1 + 2 2⎬
(D)
⎩⎪ 8ω ε ⎭⎪
σ ⎧⎪ µ σ 2 ⎫⎪
and ki = ⎨1 − 2 2⎬
(E)
2 ε
⎪⎩ 8ω ε ⎪⎭
For s /w e >> 1, show that Eqs. (B) and (C) may be approximated by
kr = ⎜1 + 2σ ⎟ (F)
2 ⎝ ⎠
and ki = 1− (G)
2 ⎜⎝ 2σ ⎟⎠
Sol. Since k = kr jki = ω 2 µε − jω µσ (A)
k 2 = kr2 − ki2 − j 2kr ki = ω 2 µε − jω µσ
kr2 − ki2 = ω 2 µε , 2kr ki = ω µσ
( kr2 + ki2 ) 2 = ( kr2 − ki2 ) 2 + 4kr2 ki2
⎪⎧ σ 2 ⎪⎫
= ω 4 µ 2ε 2 + ω 2 µ 2σ 2 = ω 4 µ 2ε 2 ⎨1 + 2 2 ⎬
⎪⎩ ω ε ⎪⎭
σ2
\ kr2 + ki2 = ω 2 µ ε 1 +
ω 2ε 2
By adding and subtracting respectively,
ω 2 µε ⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪
kr2 = ⎨ 1 + + 1⎬
2 ⎪⎩ ω ε
2 2
⎪⎭
ω 2 µε ⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪
and ki2 = ⎨ 1 + − 1⎬
2 ⎪⎩ ω ε
2 2
⎪⎭
Taking the square roots,
µε ⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪
kr = ω ⎨ 1 + + 1⎬ (B)
2 ⎪⎩ ω ε
2 2
⎪⎭
µε ⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪
and ki = ω ⎨ 1 + 2 2 − 1⎬ (C)
2 ⎪⎩ ω ε ⎪⎭
1 2 x4
Note: (1 + x2)1/2 = 1 + x − +"
2 2⋅4
1/ 2
⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪ 1 σ2 1 σ4
\ ⎨ 1 ± 2 2⎬
= 1± − ±"
⎩⎪ ω ε ⎭⎪ 2 ω 2ε 2 8 ω 4ε 4
σ
When << 1,
ωε
⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪ 1 σ2 ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪
⎨ 1 + 2 2 + 1⎬ ≈ 2 + ≈ 2 ⎨1 + 2 2⎬
⎩⎪ ω ε ⎪⎭ 2 ω 2ε 2 ⎪⎩ 4ω ε ⎪⎭
⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪ 1 σ 2 1 σ4 σ 2 ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪
and ⎨ 1 + 2 2 − 1⎬ ≈ − ≈ ⎨1 − ⎬
⎪⎩ ω ε ⎪⎭ 2 ω 2ε 2 8 ω 4ε 4 2ω 2ε 2 ⎩⎪ 4ω 2ε 2 ⎭⎪
µε ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪
\ kr ω · 2 ⎨1 + 2 2⎬
2 ⎩⎪ 4ω ε ⎭⎪
µε σ2 ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪
and ki = ω · ⎨ 1 − 2 2⎬
2 2ω 2ε 2 ⎩⎪ 4ω ε ⎭⎪
Hence,
1/ 2
⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ 1 σ 2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪
kr = ω µ ε ⎨1 + ⎬ ≈ ω µ ε ⎨1 + ⎬ ≈ ω µ ε ⎨ 1 + 2 2⎬
(D)
⎪⎩ 4ω 2ε 2 ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ 2 4ω 2ε 2 ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ 8ω ε ⎪⎭
1/ 2
σ µ ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪ σ µ ⎧⎪ 1 σ 2 ⎫⎪ σ µ ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪
and ki = ⎨ 1 − 2 2⎬
≈ ⎨ 1 − · 2 2⎬
≈ ⎨ 1 − 2 2⎬
(E)
2 ε ⎩⎪ 4ω ε ⎭⎪ 2 ε ⎩⎪ 2 4ω ε ⎭⎪ 2 ε ⎩⎪ 8ω ε ⎭⎪
σ ωε
When >> 1, then << 1.
ωε σ
Hence,
1/ 2 1/ 2
⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪ σ ⎧⎪ ω 2ε 2 ⎫⎪ σ ⎧⎪ 1 ω 2ε 2 1 ω 4ε 4 ⎫⎪
⎨ 1 + 2 2⎬
≈ ⎨1 + ⎬ ≈ ⎨1 + · − + "⎬ , then
⎩⎪ ω ε ⎪⎭ ωε ⎩⎪ σ 2 ⎭⎪ ωε ⎩⎪ 2 σ 2
8 σ 4
⎭⎪
⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪ σ ωε σ σ ⎛ ωε ⎞
⎨ 1 + 2 2 + 1⎬ ≈ + +1 ≈ 1+ = 1+
ω ε ⎪⎭ ωε 2σ ωε ωε ⎜⎝ σ ⎟⎠
⎩⎪
⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪ σ ωε σ σ ⎛ ωε ⎞
⎨ 1 + − 1 ⎬ ≈ + −1 ≈ −1 = 1−
⎪⎩ ω ε
2 2
⎪⎭ ωε 2σ ωε ωε ⎜⎝ σ ⎟⎠
1 1
Now, (1 ± x)1/2 = 1 ± x x2 ±
2 8
µε ⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪ µε σ ⎛ ωε ⎞
1/ 2
\ kr = ω ⎨ 1 + 2 2 + 1⎬ = ω · 1+ ≈ 1+ (F)
2 ω ε 2 ωε ⎜⎝ σ ⎟⎠ 2 ⎜⎝ 2σ ⎟⎠
⎩⎪ ⎪⎭
µε ⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪ µε σ ⎛
1/ 2
ωε ⎞ ω µσ ⎛ ωε ⎞
and ki = ω ⎨ 1 + 2 2 − 1⎬ = ω · ⎜1 − σ ⎟ ≈ ⎜1 − 2σ ⎟ (G)
2 ⎪⎩ ω ε ⎪⎭ 2 ωε ⎝ ⎠ 2 ⎝ ⎠
12.13 From Eq. (C) in Problem 12.12, find the expressions for the phase velocity vph, the wavelength l
and the group velocity vg. From these expressions, deduce the following approximations for
vph, l and vg which are valid for a good dielectric for which s /we << 1, i.e.
⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪ 1 2π v ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪
v ph = v ⎨1 − 2 2⎬
, v = and λ = ⎨1 − ⎬ , v = ⎨1 + ⎬ v.
⎩⎪ 8ω ε ⎭⎪ µε ω ⎪⎩ 8ω 2ε 2 ⎭⎪ g ⎩⎪ 8ω 2ε 2 ⎭⎪
Sol. We have
ω λ 1 1
v ph = , = and vg = or vpvg = c2 (in free space)
kr 2π kr dλ
dω
Note: vp and vph are same.
ω ω
v ph = =
kr µε ⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪
ω ⎨ 1 + 2 2 + 1⎬
2
⎩⎪ ω ε ⎪⎭
From Problem 12.12, we have

σ
when for the good dielectric << 1,
ωε
⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪
kr ≈ ω µε ⎨1 + 2 2⎬
(i)
⎪⎩ 8ω ε ⎪⎭
−1
ω ⎪⎧ σ 2 ⎪⎫ ⎪⎧ σ 2 ⎪⎫
\ v ph ≈ = v ⎨1 + 2 2⎬
≈ v ⎨1 − 2 2⎬
(ii)
⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪ ⎪ 8ω ε ⎪⎭
⎩ ⎩⎪ 8ω ε ⎪⎭
ω µε ⎨1 + 2 2 ⎬
⎪⎩ 8ω ε ⎭⎪
1
as v= and (1 + x)1 = 1 x + x2 j 1 x when x << 1.
µε
−1
⎡ ⎫⎪ ⎤
2π ⎢ µε ⎧⎪ σ2 ⎥
Next, λ = = 2π ω ⎨ 1 + 2 2 + 1⎬ ⎥
kr ⎢ 2 ⎪ ω ε
⎢⎣ ⎩ ⎪⎭ ⎥
⎦
σ
and in the limit as << 1, from (i), we have
ωε
2π v ⎪⎧ σ 2 ⎫⎪
λ = ⎨1 − ⎬ (' v = 1/ µε ) (iii)
ω ⎩⎪ 8ω 2ε 2 ⎭⎪
and vg = v2/vph. In this case too, in the limit
v2 ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪
vg = ≈ v ⎨1 + 2 2⎬
⎪⎧ σ 2 ⎫⎪ ⎪⎩ 8ω ε ⎪⎭
v ⎨1 − 2 2⎬
⎩⎪ 8ω ε ⎭⎪
Note: In free space vphvg = c2. In this medium (i.e. conducting), c will be modified to v which
is 1/µe.
12.14 The intrinsic impedance (also called the characteristic impedance) ηl = ηlr + jηlj (also
denoted by Zl) in an unbounded lossy medium is obtained as
µ
ηl = ηlr + jηlj = (A)
σ
ε− j
ω
where µ, e and s are the constitutive parameters of the medium and w is the wave angular
frequency. From (A), deduce that
µ ⎡ σ2 ⎤
ηlr2 = ⎢1 + 1 + ⎥ (B)
2ε ⎡1 + {σ 2 /(ω 2ε 2 )}⎤ ⎢⎣ ω 2ε 2 ⎥
⎦
⎣ ⎦
µ ⎡ σ2 ⎤
and ηlj2 = ⎢ −1 + 1 + ⎥ (C)
2ε ⎡1 + {σ 2 /(ω 2ε 2 )}⎤ ⎢⎣ ω 2ε 2 ⎥
⎦
⎣ ⎦
For s /w e << 1, obtain the following approximations for Eqs. (B) and (C):
µ ⎛ 3σ 2 ⎞
ηlr = ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ (D)
ε ⎝ 8ω 2ε 2 ⎠
µ σ ⎛ 5σ 2 ⎞
and ηlj = ⎜ 1 − ⎟⎟ (E)
ε 2ωε ⎜⎝ 8ω 2ε 2 ⎠
For s /we >> 1, show that Eqs. (B) and (C) may be approximated to
ωµ ⎛ ωε ⎞
ηlr = ⎜ 1 + 2σ ⎟ (F)
2σ ⎝ ⎠
ωµ ⎛ ωε ⎞
and ηlj = ⎜1 − 2σ ⎟ (G)
2σ ⎝ ⎠
Sol. From Eq. (A), by squaring, we get
σ
ε+ j
ηl2 = (ηlr + jηlj ) =2
·
µ ω
σ σ
ε− j ε+ j
ω ω
µ ⎛ σ⎞
or ηlr2 − ηlj2 + j 2ηlrηlj = ⎜ε + j ω ⎟
σ ⎝
2
⎠
ε2 +
ω2
µε
\ ηlr2 − ηlj2 = (i)
σ2
ε + 2
2
ω
σ
µ
and 2ηlrηlj = ω (ii)
σ2
ε2 + 2
ω
⎛ σ2 ⎞
µ 2 ε 2 ⎜1 + 2 2 ⎟
⎝ ω ε ⎠
Hence (ηlr2 + ηlj2 ) 2 = (ηlr2 − ηlj2 ) 2 + 4ηlr2 ηlj2 = 2
(iii)
⎛ σ2 ⎞
ε ⎜1 + 2 2 ⎟
4
⎝ ω ε ⎠
Taking the square root of (iii) and adding and subtracting it to (i), respectively, we get
⎧⎪
µ σ2 ⎫⎪
ηlr2 = ⎨1+ 1+ 2 2 ⎬ (iv)
⎪⎧ σ 2 ⎪⎫ ⎪ ω ε ⎭⎪
2ε ⎨1 + 2 2 ⎬ ⎩
⎩⎪ ω ε ⎭⎪
⎧⎪
µ σ2 ⎫⎪
and ηlj2 = ⎨ −1 + 1 + ⎬ (v)
⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪ ⎪ ω 2ε 2 ⎪⎭
2ε ⎨1 + 2 2 ⎬ ⎩
⎩⎪ ω ε ⎭⎪
σ
When << 1, then from
ωε
1 2 x4
(1 + x2)1/2 = 1 + x +
2 8
x2 3x4
and (1 + x 2 ) −1/ 2 = 1 − + − ",
2 8
we get
1/ 2
⎛ σ2 ⎞ σ2 σ4
⎜⎜ 1 + 2 2 ⎟⎟ ≈ 1+ − +"
⎝ ω ε ⎠ 2ω 2ε 2 8ω 4ε 4
σ2 ⎛ σ2 ⎞
\ 1+ 1+ ≈ 2 ⎜ 1 + ⎟
ω 2ε 2 ⎜ 4ω 2ε 2 ⎟⎠
⎝
σ2 σ2 ⎛ σ2 ⎞
and −1 + 1 + = ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
ω 2ε 2 2ω 2ε 2 ⎝ 4ω 2ε 2 ⎠
−1/ 2 1/ 2
µ ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎪⎫ ⎪⎧ σ2 ⎪⎫
\ ηlr = ⎨1 + 2 2 ⎬ ⎨1 + 1 + 2 2 ⎬
2ε ⎩⎪ ω ε ⎭⎪ ⎪⎩ ω ε ⎪⎭
1/ 2
µ ⎛ 1 σ2 ⎞ ⎛ σ2 ⎞ µ ⎛ σ2 ⎞⎛ 1 σ2 ⎞
≈ ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ 2 ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ ≈ ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎜ 1+ · ⎟⎟
2ε 2 ω 2ε 2 4ω 2ε 2 ε 2ω 2ε 2 ⎟⎜ 2 4ω 2ε 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
µ ⎛ 3σ 2 ⎞
≈ ⎜⎜ 1 − ⎟⎟ (vi)
ε ⎝ 8ω 2ε 2 ⎠
−1/ 2 1/ 2
µ ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪
and ηlj = ⎨1 + 2 2 ⎬ ⎨ −1 + 1 + 2 2 ⎬
2ε ⎩⎪ ω ε ⎭⎪ ⎪⎩ ω ε ⎪⎭
1/ 2
µ ⎛ σ2 ⎞ σ ⎛ σ2 ⎞
≈ ⎜⎜ 1 − ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
2ε ⎝ 2ω 2ε 2 ⎠ 2ωε ⎝ 4ω 2ε 2 ⎠
µ σ ⎛ σ2 ⎞⎛ 1 σ2 ⎞
≈ · ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎜ 1− · ⎟⎟
ε 2ωε 2ω 2ε 2 ⎟⎜ 2 4ω 2ε 2
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
µ σ ⎛ 5σ 2 ⎞
= ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ (vii)
ε 2ωε ⎝ 8ω 2ε 2 ⎠
σ ωε
When >> 1, then we have << 1 and hence
ωε σ
1/ 2 1/ 2
⎛ σ2 ⎞ σ ⎛ ω 2ε 2 ⎞ σ ⎪⎧ 1 ω 2ε 2 1 ω 4ε 4 ⎪⎫
+ = + = + − + "
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎨ ⎬
1 1 1
⎝ ω 2ε 2 ⎠ ωε ⎝ σ2 ⎠ ωε ⎪⎩ 2 σ2 8 σ4 ⎪⎭
σ2 σ ωε σ σ ⎛ ωε ⎞
\ 1+ 1+ ≈ 1+ + ≈ 1+ = 1+
ω ε
2 2
ωε 2σ ωε ωε ⎜⎝ σ ⎟⎠
σ2 σ ωε σ σ ⎛ ωε ⎞
and −1 + 1 + ≈ −1 + + ≈ −1 + = ⎜1 − σ ⎟
ω ε
2 2
ωε 2σ ωε ωε ⎝ ⎠
−1/ 2 1/ 2
µ ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪
\ ηlr = ⎨ 1 + 2 2⎬ ⎨1 + 1 + ⎬
2ε ⎩⎪ ω ε ⎭⎪ ⎪⎩ ω 2ε 2 ⎪⎭
µ ωε ⎪⎧ 1 ω 2ε 2 ⎪⎫ σ
1/ 2
⎛ ωε ⎞
≈ ⎨1 − ⎬ ⎜1 + σ ⎟
2ε σ ⎩⎪ 2 σ 2 ⎭⎪ ωε ⎝ ⎠
µ ωε ⎛ 1 ωε ⎞
≈ · 1 · ⎜1 +
2ε σ ⎝ 2 σ ⎟⎠
ω µ ⎛ ωε ⎞
= 1+ (viii)
2σ ⎜⎝ 2σ ⎟⎠
−1/ 2 1/ 2
µ ⎧⎪ σ 2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ σ2 ⎫⎪
and ηlj = ⎨ 1 + 2 2⎬ ⎨ − 1 + 1 + ⎬
2ε ⎩⎪ ω ε ⎭⎪ ⎪⎩ ω 2ε 2 ⎪⎭
² XF È r X F Ø T È XF Ø
F T ÉÊ T ÙÚ XF ÉÊ T ÙÚ
µ ωε ⎛ 1 ωε ⎞
·1 · ⎜1 − ·
2ε σ ⎝ 2 σ ⎟⎠
ωµ ⎛ ωε ⎞
= ⎜1 − 2σ ⎟ (ix)
2σ ⎝ ⎠
12.15 The surface impedance of a conductor is defined as the ratio Et /Ht at the surface, where Et and
Ht are the tangential components of E and H, respectively.
Note: Ht is numerically equal to the current per unit width in the conductor.
Show that the surface impedance of a good conductor is
1/ 2
⎛ ωµ ⎞ ⎛1+ j ⎞
(1 + j ) ⎜ ⎟ or ⎜ ⎟,
⎝ 2σ ⎠ ⎝ σδ ⎠
1/ 2
⎛ 2 ⎞
where δ=⎜ ⎟ = d 2.
⎝ ω µσ ⎠
1 ωµ
= is called the surface resistivity or surface resistance (per unit area) of the
σδ 2σ
conductor.
Hence obtain the energy dissipated per unit area of the conductor.
Sol. From Section 17.6 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition,
PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, for waves in the good conductor, we have
k 2 = − jω µσ ,
where k is the wave number.
ω µσ
\ k= − jω µσ = (1 − j )
2
ω µσ
Hence kr = ki =
2
2 λ
and δ = d 2= =
ω µσ 2π
Also the corresponding E and H waves are:
⎪⎧ ⎛ z ⎞ z ⎫⎪
E = i x E0 x exp ⎨ j ⎜ ω t − ⎟− ⎬,
⎪⎩ ⎝ d 2 ⎠ d 2 ⎪⎭
1/ 2
⎛ σ ⎞ ⎧⎪ ⎛ z π⎞ z ⎫⎪
H = iy ⎜ ⎟ E0 x exp ⎨ j ⎜ ω t − − ⎟− ⎬,
⎝ ωµ ⎠ ⎩⎪ ⎝ d 2 4 ⎠ d 2 ⎭⎪
E ωµ ωµ π
as = = exp j .
H k σ 4
\ Power absorbed from the wave per unit area of the conductor is the real part of the complex
Poynting vector, i.e.
P ⎛1 ⎞
= Re ⎜ E0 H 0* ⎟
Area ( A) ⎝ 2 ⎠
The characteristic impedance of the good conductor:
ωµ
Zc j
σ
1
\ Re ;D ) )
"
ÎÑ 1
Re Ï (1 j ) H 0
2 X µ ÞÑ
ß
ÐÑ 2 2T àÑ
1
H0
2 Xµ
2 2T
ωµ
Hence the surface resistance, RS =
2σ
and the average power absorbed from the wave per unit area of the conductor
dP 1 2
= = RS H 0
dA 2
12.16 The electric vector of a uniform plane wave in free space is given by
E = i y 5 exp{− j 2π (0.6 x + 0.8 z ) + jω t}
Show that the electric field given by the above equation is consistent with the Maxwells
equations provided that w has a certain value.
Evaluate the phase constant b, the wavelength l and the angular frequency w of the given
electric field. Also, find its direction of propagation and the associated magnetic field vector.
This wave meets a perfectly conducting surface on the plane z = 0. Write down the equations
for the reflected magnetic wavefronts.
Sol. Given that the incident wave is
E = i y 5 exp{− j 2π (0.6 x + 0.8 z ) + jω t}
To satisfy Maxwells equations, it must satisfy the equation
∂2 Ey
∇ E y = µε
2
∂t 2
∂2 Ey ∂2 Ey ∂2 Ey
or + = µε ⋅
∂x 2 ∂z 2 ∂t 2
or 4π 2 (0.6) 2 + 4π 2 (0.8) 2 = ω 2 µ0ε 0
10−9
µ0 = 4π × 10−7 , ε0 =
36π
10−16
\ µ 0ε 0 = and ω = 2π f
9
⎛ 10−16 ⎞
\ f2⎜ = (0.6) 2 + (0.8) 2
⎜ 9 ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
is the condition required to satisfy the Maxwells equations.
The equation for the wave is equivalent to
E f exp {− j β ( x sin θ + z cosθ ) + jω t}
Frequency: f 2 = 9 × 1016
\ f = 3 × 108 = 300 MHz, w = 6p × 108
−1/ 2
−1/ 2
⎛ 10−16 ⎞
u = c 0 = ( µ 0ε 0 ) = ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 3 × 108 m/s
⎜ 9
⎝ ⎠
ω 6π × 108
Phase constant, β = = = 2π
u 3 × 108
2π
Wavelength, λ = =1
β
The direction of propagation is (Fig. 12.8)
sinq = 0.6, cosq = 0.8
Fig. 12.8 Example 12.16.

Associated magnetic field

From
∂E y ∂H x ∂E y ∂H z
= µ0 and = − µ0
∂z ∂t ∂x ∂t
The H field components are:
5
Hx = − × 0.6 exp{− j 2π (0.6 x + 0.8 z ) + jω t}
Z0
5
Hz = × 0.8 exp{− j 2π (0.6 x + 0.8 z ) + jω t},
Z0
µ0
where Z0 = = 120π
ε0
The reflected waves from the perfectly conducting z = 0 surface are:
E y − = − i y 5 exp {+ j 2π (− 0.6 x + 0.8 z ) + jω t }
5
and Hz− = − i x × 0.8 exp {+ j 2π ( − 0.6 x + 0.8 z ) + jω t}
Z0
5
−i z × 0.6 exp {+ j 2π ( −0.6 x + 0.8 z ) + jω t}
Z0
12.17 In Problem 12.16, if the E vector of the uniform plane wave is

E = {i x 3 – i y 4 + i z (3 − j 4)} . exp [ − j 2.0 (0.8 x + 0.6 y ) + jω t ],
find b, l and w.
Also, find the direction of propagation of the wave and the associated magnetic field vector.
Sol. In this case, each component vector has to satisfy the wave equation
∂2 A ∂2 A ∂2 A
+ = µ 0ε 0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂t 2
10−16 10−9
\ 4(0.8) 2 + 4(0.6) 2 = ω 2 × , µ 0 = 4π × 10−7 , ε0 =
9 36π
3 300
Hence the frequency of the wave, w = 6 × 108, f = × 108 = MHz
π π
Velocity, u = c0 = (µ0e0)1/2 = 3 × 108 m/s
ω
Phase constant, b = =2
u
2π
and wavelength, l = = p.
β
The direction of propagation is in the xy-plane, in a direction which makes an angle q with the
x-axis such that cos q = 0.8, sin q = 0.6 (Fig. 12.9).
Fig. 12.9 Example 12.17.
Associated magnetic field

For simplicity, this wave can be considered to be made up of two uniform plane waves
E1 = (i x 3 − i y 4) exp {− j 2.0(0.8 x + 0.6 y ) + jω t}
and E2 = i z (3 − j 4) exp {− j 2.0(0.8 x + 0.6 y ) + jω t}

both propagating in the same direction.
E
For the wave 1, H1 will have only the z-component and = Z0
H
E x2 + E y2 9 + 16 5
\ Hz = = =
Z0 Z0 Z0
For the direction of H1, it must be such that E1 × H1 must be in the direction of propagation.
\ Hz must be in the z-direction.
5
\ H1 = − i z exp {− j 2.0(0.8 x + 0.6 y ) + jω t}
Z0
Note: E1 is a uniform plane wave.
\ Component in the direction of propagation = 0.
For the wave 2, H2 will lie in the xy-plane and will be of complex amplitude, i.e.
H2 = ixHx + iyHy
where Hx = Hxr + jHxi and Hy = Hyr + jHyi.
Since it is a uniform plane wave, it can have no component in the direction of propagation.
Now, this implies that
Hx cosq + Hy sinq = 0.8Hx + 0.6Hy = 0
4 4 4
\ Hy = − Hx or H yr = − H xr and H yi = − H xi
3 3 3
2 2 Er 3 16
Also H xr + H yr = = = H xr 1+
Z0 Z0 9
9 12
\ H xr = ± and H yr = B
5Z 0 5Z 0
Ei 4 16
and H xi2 + H yi2 = = − = H xi 1 +
Z0 Z0 9
12 16
\ H xi = B and H yi = ±
5Z 0 5Z 0
\ (E × H) gives the direction of propagation of E and H.
Knowing this and the direction of E, the Hx and Hy come out to be:
3−4j
H2 = (i x 3 − i y 4) exp {− j 2.0 (0.8 x + 0.6 y ) + jω t}
5Z 0
and the resultant H will be
1
H = {i x 3(3 − j 4) − i y 4(3 − j 4) − i z 25} exp {− j 2.0 (0.8 x + 0.6 y ) + jω t}
5Z 0
12.18 (a) Show that for a wave incident in air on a non-conducting magnetic medium, (E0r /E0i)P is
zero for
ε r (ε r − µ r )
tan 2 θ i =
ε r µr − 1
and hence show that the Brewsters angle exists only if er > µr.
(b) Show that (E0r /E0i)N is zero for
µ (µ − ε r )
tan 2 θ i = r r
ε r µr − 1
Sol. From Sections 17.1317.15, ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition,
PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, we have derived the Fresnels equations for the ratios
(E0r /E0i)P and (E0r /E0i)N for oblique incidence of waves on the interface between two media
of characteristic properties (µ1, e1) and (µ2, e2), respectively, which we shall make as the
starting point for this problem. So we write down the equation for the general condition as
n2 n
− cosθ i + 1 cos θ t
⎛ E0 r ⎞ µ2 µ1
⎜ ⎟ = ,
⎝ E0i ⎠ P n2 n1
cos θ i + cos θ t
µ2 µ1
where
n1 = µ r1ε r1 and n2 = µ r2ε r 2 are the indices of refraction with µ1 = µ 0 µ r1 , µ 2 = µ 0 µ r 2 ,
ε1 = ε 0ε r1 and ε 2 = ε 0ε r2
qi = angle of incidence in medium 1

qt = angle of transmission in medium 2
The above equation can be rewritten by eliminating n1 and n2 in terms of the characteristic
constants of the media as
µ 2ε 2 µ1ε1
− cos θ i + cos θ t
⎛ E0 r ⎞ µ2 µ1
⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ E0i ⎠ P µ 2ε 2 µ1ε1
cos θ i + cos θ t
µ2 µ1
The required condition for no reflection is
µ 2ε 2 µ1ε1
− cos θ i + cos θ t = 0
µ2 µ1
µ 2ε 2 µ1ε1 µ1ε1
or cos 2 θ i = cos 2 θ t = (1 − sin 2 θ t ) (i)
µ 22 µ12 µ12
From Snells law of refraction,
n1 µ r1ε r1 µ1ε1
sin θ t = sin θ i = sin θ i = sin θ i (ii)
n2 µ r 2ε r 2 µ 2ε 2
Combining Eqs. (i) and (ii),
⎧⎪ µε ⎫⎪
µ1ε 2 cos 2 θ i = µ 2ε1 ⎨1 − 1 1 sin 2 θ i ⎬
⎩⎪ µ 2ε 2 ⎭⎪
⎛ µ ε2 ⎞
or µ1ε 2 − µ 2ε1 = ⎜ µ1ε 2 − 1 1 ⎟ sin θ i
2
⎜ ε2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎧⎪ µ ε − µ ε ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ µ ε − µ ε ⎫⎪
\ sin 2 θ i = ε 2 ⎨ 1 2 2 2 21 ⎬ and cos 2 θ i = ε1 ⎨ 2 22 1 21 ⎬
⎪⎩ µ1 (ε 2 − ε1 ) ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ µ1 (ε 2 − ε1 ) ⎪⎭
ε 2 ( µ1ε 2 − µ 2ε1 )
Hence tan 2 θ i =
ε1 ( µ 2ε 2 − µ1ε1 )
\ For the first part of the present problem,
µ1 = µ0, e1 = e0, µ2 = µ0µr and e2 = e0er
ε 0 ε r ( µ 0ε 0 ε r − µ 0 µ r ε 0 ) ε (ε − µ r )
\ tan 2 θ i = = r r
ε 0 ( µ 0 µ r ε 0ε r − µ 0ε 0 ) µrε r − 1
and tan qi will be real only if er > µr,
i.e. the Brewsters angle qi exists only if er > µr.
(b) Next we consider the case of normal incidence, i.e.
n1 n
cos θ i − 2 cos θ t
⎛ E0 r ⎞ µ1 µ2
⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ E0i ⎠ N n1 n
cos θ i + 2 cos θ t
µ1 µ2
Going through a similar process as in the Part (a), we will get (for no reflection)
µ1ε1 µ 2ε 2
cos θ i − cos θ t = 0
µ1 µ2
µ1ε1 µ 2ε 2
or cos 2 θ i = (1 − sin 2 θ t )
µ12 µ 22
and from Snells law,
µ1ε1
sin 2 θ t = sin 2 θ i
µ 2ε 2
⎛ µ 2ε ⎞
\ µ2e1 µ1e2 = ⎜ µ 2ε1 − 1 1 ⎟ sin 2 θ i
⎜ µ 2 ⎟⎠
⎝
⎪⎧ µ ε − µ ε ⎪⎫ ⎪⎧ µ ε − µ ε ⎪⎫
Hence sin 2 θ i = µ 2 ⎨ 22 1 21 2 ⎬ and cos 2 θ i = µ1 ⎨ 22 2 2 1 1 ⎬
⎩⎪ ( µ 2 − µ1 )ε1 ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪ ( µ 2 − µ1 )ε1 ⎭⎪
µ 2 ( µ 2ε1 − µ1ε 2 )
\ tan 2 θ i =
µ1 ( µ 2ε 2 − µ1ε1 )
In this part of the present problem,
µ1 = µ0, e1 = e0, µ2 = µ0 µr, e2 = e0er
µ r ( µr − ε r )
\ tan 2 θ i =
µrε r − 1
The required condition for this Brewster angle to exist is µr > er.
12.19 A plane wave is reflected at the interface between two dielectrics whose indices of refraction
are slightly different. The wave is incident in the medium 1 and n1/n2 = 1 + a.
(a) Show that the coefficients of energy reflection for the waves polarized with their E vectors
in the plane of incidence and normal to this plane are both given by (approximately)
1+α − A
R=
1+α + A
where A2 = 1 2a tan2 qi,
qi being the angle of incidence.
(b) Show that A = 0 at the critical angle.
Note: In Section 17.15, pp. 599605 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications,

2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, it has been shown that the coefficient of energy
reflection R (defined as the ratio of the average energy fluxes per unit time and per unit area
at the interface) is given by
2
⎡ n1 ⎤
⎢ − cos θ i + n cos θ t ⎥
RP = ⎢ ⎥
2
⎢ n1 ⎥
⎢ cos θ i + n cos θ t ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
2
⎡ n1 ⎤
⎢ n cos θ i − cosθ t
⎥
RN = ⎢ ⎥
2
and
⎢ n1 ⎥
⎢ n cosθ i + cos θ t
⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
for non-magnetic, loss-less dielectrics (which is the case in this problem).
n1
Sol. Given = 1 + a, a << 1
n2
n1 sin θ t
By Snells law, =
n2 sin θ i
\ sin θ t = (1 + α ) sin θ i
Hence sin 2 θt = (1 + α ) 2 sin 2 θi ≈ (1 + 2α ) sin 2 θi (neglecting the α 2 term)
\ cos 2 θ t = 1 − sin 2 θ t = 1 − (1 + 2α ) sin 2 θ i
= 1 − sin 2 θ i − 2α sin 2 θ i
= cos 2 θ i − 2α sin 2 θ i = cos 2 θ i (1 − 2α tan 2 θ i ) = A2 cos 2 θ i

Hence cos θ t = A cos θ i
2
⎡ ⎛ n1 ⎞ ⎤
⎢ − cos θ i + ⎜ ⎟ cos θ t ⎥
⎝ n2 ⎠
\ RP = ⎢⎢ ⎥
⎥
⎛n ⎞
⎢ cos θ i + 1 cos θt ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜
⎝ n2 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
2
⎡ − cosθ i + (1 + α ) A cos θ i ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ cosθ i + (1 + α ) A cos θ i ⎦
2
⎡ −1 + (1 + α ) A ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 + (1 + α ) A ⎦
1 − 2(1 + α ) A + (1 + α ) 2 A2
=
1 + 2(1 + α ) A + (1 + α ) 2 A2
1 − 2(1 + α ) A + (1 + 2α + α 2 )(1 − 2α tan 2 θ i )

=
1 + 2(1 + α ) A + (1 + 2α + α 2 )(1 − 2α tan 2 θ i )
1 − 2 A + 1 + 2α
≈ (neglecting the higher order terms)
1 + 2 A + 1 + 2α
1+α − A
=
1+α + A
2
⎡ n1 ⎤
⎢ n cos θ i − cos θ t ⎥ ⎡ (1 + α ) cos θ i − A cos θ i ⎤
2
and RN = ⎢ 2 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ n1
cos θ + cos θ
⎥ ⎣ (1 + α ) cosθ i + A cos θ i ⎦
⎢n i t ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
2 2
⎡1 + α − A ⎤ ⎡ (1 + α ) − A ⎤ (1 + α )2 − 2(1 + α ) A + A2
= ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ =
⎣1 + α + A ⎦ ⎣ (1 + α ) + A ⎦ (1 + α )2 + 2(1 + α ) A + A2
1 + 2α − 2(1 + α ) A + 1 − 2α tan 2 θ i
≈ (neglecting higher order terms)
1 + 2α + 2(1 + α ) A + 1 − 2α tan 2 θ i
2 + 2α − 2 A
≈
2 + 2α + 2 A
1+α − A
=
1+α + A
⎛n ⎞
(b) For the critical angle θ c , θ i = θ c = sin −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ n1 ⎠
n2 1
\ = sin θ c = = (1 + α ) −1
n1 1+α
sin 2 θ c sin 2 θ c (1 + α ) −2
Now A2 = 1 − 2α tan 2 θ c = 1 − 2α = 1 − 2α = 1 − 2α
cos 2 θ c 1 − sin 2 θ c 1 − (1 + α ) −2
(1 − 2α ) 2α (1 − 2α )
= 1 − 2α · = 1− = 1 − (1 − 2α ) = 2α → 0
1 − (1 − 2α ) 2α
\ A = 0 for qc.
12.20 A loss-free transmission line is operating under ac conditions and has been terminated with a
resistance equal to half its characteristic impedance Z0. Show that the input impedance is
1 + 4 tan 2 β l
Z0
4 + tan 2 β l
where β = ω LC and l is the length of the line.
Sol. It has been shown that for a loss-free line of length l, the input impedance is
Z L − jZ 0 tan β l
Zin = Z 0
Z 0 − jZ L tan β l
1
Given Z L = Z0 .
2
1
Z 0 − jZ 0 tan β l
\ Zin = Z 0 2
1
Z 0 − j Z 0 tan β l
2
1 − j 2 tan β l
= Z0
2 − j tan β l
(1 − j 2 tan β l )(2 + j tan β l )

= Z0
(2 − j tan β l )(2 + j tan β l )
(2 + 2 tan 2β l ) + j (tan β l − 4 tan β l )

= Z0
4 + tan 2β l
⎧⎪ 2(1 + tan 2β l ) − j 3 tan β l ⎫⎪

= Z0 ⎨ ⎬
⎩⎪ 4 + tan 2β l ⎭⎪
Z0
Hence Z in = {4(1 + tan 2β l ) 2 + 9 tan 2β l}
4 + tan β l
2
Z0
= (4 + 8 tan 2β l + 4 tan 4β l + 9 tan 2β l )1/ 2
4 + tan 2β l
Z0
= (4 + 17 tan 2β l + 4 tan 4 β l )1/ 2
4 + tan 2β l
Z0
= {(4 + tan 2β l )(1 + 4 tan 2β l )}1/ 2
(4 + tan β l )
2
1/ 2
⎧⎪ 1 + 4 tan 2β l ⎫⎪
= Z0 ⎨ ⎬
⎪⎩ 4 + tan β l ⎪⎭
2
12.21 Show that the coefficient of energy reflection R and the coefficient of energy transmission T
are both equal to 0.5 at normal incidence on the interface between two dielectrics, if the ratio
of the indices of refraction is 5.83.
Sol. From Section 17.15, p. 605 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition,
PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, we have
2
⎡ ⎛ n1 ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ cos θi − cos θ t ⎥
⎝ n2 ⎠
RN = ⎢⎢ ⎥
⎥
⎛n ⎞
⎢ 1 cos θ i + cos θt ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ n2 ⎟⎠
⎜ ⎥⎦
⎛n ⎞
4 ⎜ 1 ⎟ cos θi ⋅ cos θt
⎝ n2 ⎠
TN = 2
and ⎡⎛ n1 ⎞ ⎤
⎢⎜ ⎟ cos θ i + cos θt ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ n2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
n1
Given = 5.83 and qi = 0° and so qt = 0° for normal incidence.
n2
2 2
⎛ 5.83 × 1 − 1 ⎞ ⎛ 4.83 ⎞ 2
\ RN = ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 0.707 = 0.4998 l 0.5
⎝ 5.83 × 1 + 1 ⎠ ⎝ 6.83 ⎠
4 × 5.83 × 1 × 1 23.32 23.32
and TN = 2
= 2
= ≈ 0.5
(5.83 × 1 + 1) (6.83) 46.65
12.22 Define the phase velocity vp and the group velocity vg of a travelling wave and show that
1 1 ω dv p
− = 2
v p vg v p dω
dv p
and vg = v p − λ
,
dλ
where w is the angular frequency of the wave and l its wavelength.
Sol. Phase velocity vp is the velocity of each point at constant phase.
From the mathematical expression for a travelling wave moving with time t, we have
ω t − β z = constant
Differentiating w.r.t. time,
dz
ω−β = 0
dt
dz ω
\ Phase velocity vp =
= (i)
dt β
Group velocity vg, the signal velocity, can be proved to be:
dω
vg = (ii)
dβ
Refer to Section 18.3.4, pp. 666668 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications,

From Eq. (i),
w = vp b
Differentiating w.r.t. b,
dω dv p
= vp + β (iii)
dβ dβ
Also
dv p dv p dω dv p ω dv p
β = β⋅ ⋅ =β⋅ vg = ⋅ ⋅ vg
dβ dω d β dω v p dω
From Eqs. (ii) and (iii),

dω ω dv p
= vg = v p + vg
dβ v p dω
ω dv p
or vg − v p = vg
v p dω
Dividing by vpvg, we get
1 1 ω dv p
(iv)
v p vg v 2p dω
Again considering Eqs. (ii) and (iii),
dω dv p
vg vp + β
dβ dβ
2π 2π
Now, β = or λ =
λ β
dλ 2π λ2 λ2
\ = − 2 = − 2π ⋅ 2 = −
dβ β 4π 2π
dv p
Also vg = v p + β
dβ
dv p dλ
= vp + β ·
dλ dβ
dv p ⎛ λ 2 ⎞
= vp + β ⎜− ⎟⎟
d λ ⎜⎝ 2π ⎠
2π ⎛ λ2 ⎞ dv p
= vp + ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
λ ⎝ 2π ⎠ dλ
dv p
= vp − λ (v)
dλ
12.23 Show that the input impedance of a loaded lossy transmission line is given by
⎡ Z + jZ c tanh γ l ⎤
Zin = Z c ⎢ L ⎥,
⎣ Z c + jZ c tanh γ l ⎦
where
g is propagation constant
Zc is characteristic impedance
ZL is load impedance
l is length of the line.
Z c2
Hence show that for a quarter wavelength line, Z in = .
ZL
Hint: The problem of lossy transmission line has been discussed in detail in Section 18.2.2,
New Delhi, 2009.
Sol. So we shall not repeat the initial part of the analysis. Instead, we shall directly write
down the derived expressions for the sending-end voltage (= VS) and the current (= IS), the
ratio of which is the input impedance, i.e.
VS = VR cosh γ l + Z c I R sinh γ l
⎛V ⎞
and IS = I R cosh γ l + ⎜ R ⎟ sinh γ l ,
⎝ Zc ⎠
where VR and IR are the receiving end voltage and current, respectively (where the load
resistance, which is the receiving end impedance in the case of loaded line, is connected), and
the evaluation of Z in is similar to that derived for non-lossy lines on pp. 636637 of the
textbook.
12.24 A transmission line consists of two parallel strips of copper forming the go and return
conductors, their widths being 6 times the separation between them. The dielectric is air. From
the Maxwells equations, applied to TEM waves, show that the ratio of voltage to current in
a progressive wave is 20p ohms.
Sol. Note that capacitance per unit width = 6e0.
\ Inductance per unit length = (1/6)µ0
L 1 µ0 1 36π 1
\ Z0 = = = 4π × 10−7 × −9 = × 2 × 6 × 10 × p = 20p ohms.
C 6 ε0 6 10 6
12.25 A coil has a complex impedance of resistance R and self-inductance L. It is connected in

parallel with a capacitor of capacitance C and an imperfect dielectric equivalent to a series
resistance which is also R. Find
(i) a value of R which makes the impedance purely resistive at all values of w and
(ii) a value of w which again makes the impedance resistive for all values of R.
Sol. If Zeff is the resultant impedance of the circuit (Fig. 12.10), then
for the coil Z L = R + jω L = R + jX L
1
and for the capacitor ZC = R + = R − jX C
jω C
Fig. 12.10 Coil and imperfect capacitor connected in parallel.
1 1 1
\ = +
Z eff R + jX L R − jX C
R − jX C + R + jX L
=
( R + jX L )( R − jX C )
2R + j( X L − X C )
= 2
( R + X L X C ) + jR ( X L − X C )
{( R 2 + X L X C ) + jR ( X L − X C )}{2 R − j ( X L − X C )}
\ Z eff =
4 R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
Numerator = {2R(R2 + XLXC) + R(XL XC)2} + j{2R2(XL XC) (R2 + XLXC)(XL XC)}
For Zeff to be resistive,
{2R2 (R2 + XLXC)}(XL XC) = 0
L L
\ Either 2R2 R2 XLXC = 0 Þ R2 = XLXC = Þ R=
C C
1 1
or X L XC = 0 Þ w2 = Þ w=
LC LC
12.26 In a rectangular waveguide operating in the TE10 mode, a narrow longitudinal slot may be cut
in the centre of the either of the wider sides for the purpose of investigating the character of
the internal fields. Explain why the operation of the guide will be unaffected by the presence
of the slot. Indicate a position in which a transverse slot might be cut if required for a similar
purpose.
Sol. The current flow is as shown in Fig. 12.11, allowing for the slot at AA¢.
On the vertical sides, By = 0 and hence the current is entirely in the y-direction and a transverse
slot like BB¢ will not affect such current flow.
Fig. 12.11 The rectangular waveguide with slots and showing the lines of current flow in the walls for TE10 mode
operation.
12.27 Rectangular waveguides are often made of brass or steel for economy and then silver plated
to provide the lowest losses. Assuming operation at 10 GHz with s = 6.17 × 107 mho/m for
silver, calculate the amount of silver required per mile to provide three skin-depth coatings on
a waveguide with an inner periphery of 10 cm. Density of silver = 10.5 g/cc.
1 1
Hint : Skin depth, d = = = 4.53 × 10−2 m
ω µσ 2π × 10 × 4π × 10
10 −7
× 6.17 × 10 7
Sol. Periphery of waveguide = 10 cm

and length of the waveguide = 1 mile = 1.6 km
\ Weight of the required silver = 3d × 10 × 102 × 1.6 × 103 × 10.5 × 103 × 10 6 = 2.28 kg
12.28 By using Maxwells equations, prove that a TEM wave cannot exist in a single conductor
waveguide such as rectangular or cylindrical waveguides.
Sol. In the rectangular waveguide shown in Fig. 12.12, we start with the electric field intensity
to be in the transverse direction to the direction of propagation of the wave, which is the
z-direction in this case.
\ Ez = 0 (TE mode)
Therefore, the magnetic and the electric field components satisfy the following equations
(which are the results of Maxwells equations as has been proved in Sections 18.3.3 and 18.3.3.1,
New Delhi, 2009).
H Ey – jX N Hx
H Ex jXN Hy
Fig. 12.12 A rectangular waveguide.
∂E y ∂E x
− = − jω µH z
∂x ∂y
∂H z
+ γ H y = jωε Ex
∂y
∂H z
+ γ H x = − jωε E y
∂x
∂H y ∂H x
− = 0
∂x ∂y
Expressing all these equations in terms of Hz, we get
γ ∂H z
Hx = −
k 2 ∂x
γ ∂H z
Hy = −
k 2 ∂y
ω µ ∂H z
Ex = −
k 2 ∂y
ω µ ∂H z
Ey =
k 2 ∂x
∂2 H z ∂2 H z
and + + k2 ⋅ Hz = 0
∂x 2 ∂y 2
Solving this equation by the method of separation of variables,

Hz = Hz (x, y) = XY
∂2 X ∂ 2Y
= − k x2 X , = − k y2Y
∂x 2 ∂y 2
where k x2 + k y2 = k 2 = γ 2 + ω 2 µε
\ X = Ax sin (kxx) + Bx cos (kx x)

Y = Ay sin (ky y) + By cos (ky y)
Hence Hz = ∑∑{A sin(k x) + B

kx ky
x x x cos(k x x)}{ Ay sin(k y y ) + By cos(k y y )}
The unknowns are Ax, Bx, Ay, By and kx, ky.

(i) At y = 0 and y = b, Ex = 0 and Ez = 0
(ii) At x = 0 and x = a, Ex = 0 and Ez = 0
These conditions reduce the solution to
mπ x nπ y
Hz = Hz (x, y) = H 0 cos cos ,
a b
where m, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, and H0 = BxBy, the constants.
It is to be noted that if Hz = 0, then the above boundary conditions cannot be satisfied.
\ H field is not transverse to the direction of propagation.
Hence, the rectangular waveguide cannot support a TEM wave.
Thus, the TEM does not exist as the cross-section is simply connected.
12.29 Prove that for all loss-less transmission lines,
µε µε
Z0 = and L =
C C
Sol. In Section 18.2.1, pp. 636642 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications,

2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, it has been shown that
1
u2 = ,
LC
u being the velocity of the wave.
1
Also u= .
µε
1
Q = u2
LC
1 µε µε µε
\ L = 2
= =
Cu C C
L µε µε
and Z0 = = 2
=
C C C
12.30 A perfect dielectric medium x < 0 is separated from a perfect conducting medium x > 0 by the
plane x = 0, as shown in Fig. 12.13. The electric field intensity in the dielectric is given by
E( x, y, z, t ) = i y [ E1 cos{ω t − β x cosθ − β z sin θ } + E2 cos{ω t + β x cosθ − β z sin θ }],
where E1, E2, b and q are constants.
Find the relationship between E1 and E2. Find also the magnetic field on the surface of the
conductor and show that the surface current density JS at the surface of the perfect conductor
is
2 E1 β
JS = i y cos θ cos(ω t − β z sin θ )
ωµ
Fig. 12.13 Plane x = 0 separating a perfect conductor from a perfect dielectric.
Sol. The boundary condition for x = 0 is Et = 0, that is

E y = E1 cos (ω t − β x cosθ − β z sin θ ) + E2 cos(ω t + β x cosθ − β z sin θ ) = 0
\ ( E1 + E2 ) cos (ω t − β z sin θ ) = 0 for all t and z
\ E1 + E2 = 0 or E1 = E2
\ E y = E1{cos(ω t − β x cosθ − β z sin θ ) − cos(ω t + β x cosθ − β z sin θ )}
= 2 E1 sin( β x cos θ ) sin(ω t − β z sin θ )
The associated magnetic field
ix iy iz
∂B ∂ ∂ ∂
For B field, ∇×E = − =
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
0 Ey 0
#
\ = + i x 2 β E1 sin θ ⋅ sin( β x cosθ ) ⋅ cos(ω t − β z sin θ )
U
+ i z 2 β E1 cos θ ⋅ cos( β x cos θ ) ⋅ sin(ω t − β z sin θ )
2 β E1
Hence B = − ix sin θ sin( β x cos θ ) ⋅ sin(ω t − β z sin θ )
ω
2 β E1
+ iz cos θ ⋅ cos( β x cos θ ) cos(ω t − β z sin θ )
ω
At the surface of the conductor,
x = 0, since sin(b x cos q ) = 0,
2 β E1
we have {B}x = 0 = i z cos θ ⋅ cos(ωt − β z sin θ )
ω
The surface current on the conductor surface is given by
Ñ × H = JS
Consider the closed path,
2 β E1
\ J S = − i x × {H}x = 0 = i y cos θ cos (ωt − β z sin θ )
ωμ
12.31 A plane electromagnetic wave is incident at an angle (say, q ) on a flat perfectly conducting
surface and E is normal to the plane of incidence.
(a) Draw carefully a set of equally spaced parallel lines representing the crests of E in the
incident wave at a given instant and draw dotted (or broken) lines for troughs. Draw similar
lines for the reflected wave.
(b) Where is E always equal to zero?
(c) Can you relate this pattern to the n = 1, 2, , etc. modes in a rectangular waveguide?
Sol. This problem has been considered mathematically in Section 17.17.2, pp. 616625 of
Figure 17.24 in that section is required for part (a) of this problem. The reader should study this
figure carefully to find the answers to parts (b) and (c) of this problem. Figures 17.23 and 17.25
would be further needed for the required clarifications to this problem.
12.32 (a) If the maximum allowed field strength in a coaxial line is Em, show that the maximum allowed
voltage is
ln( ro /ri )
Vm = ro Em
ro /ri
(b) Show that for a given value of ro, Vm is the greatest when ro /ri = e.
(c) Show that the characteristic impedance is then 60 W, if the line is air-insulated.
(d) Show that under these conditions, the maximum allowable current is (ro Em/163) amperes.
Sol. The complete mathematical analysis of the coaxial cable is given in Section 14.3.2
(pp. 447448) and Sections 14.4.1 and 14.4.2, pp. 451457 of ElectromagnetismTheory and
Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009 and the reader is referred to those
pages for the derivations of the expressions stated here. If V is the potential difference between
the conductors whose radii are ro and ri (ro > ri), then the E field in the annular space is given
by (Fig. 12.14)
Fig. 12.14 Section of a coaxial cable (air-insulated).
V
E = ,
r ln( ro /ri )
at the radial distance r in the annular space (ro > r > ri).
Now, E will be maximum for r = ri (for a given V )
V
\ Emax =
ri ln( ro /ri )
If the maximum allowable field strength is Em, then the maximum allowable voltage Vm will be
given by
⎛r ⎞
Vm = ri Em ln ⎜ o ⎟
⎝ ri ⎠
ln( ro /ri )
= ro Em
ro /ri
If ro is specified, then Vm will be the greatest when
ln( ro /ri ) ln x
, i.e. is a maximum
ro /ri x
which will be the case when ro /ri = e.
Now, the characteristic impedance, Z0 = L/C
where for the coaxial cable,
µ 0 ⎛ ro ⎞ 2πε 0
L = ln ⎜ ⎟ and C =
2π ⎝ ri ⎠ ln ( ro /ri )
L µ 0 ln( ro /ri ) 1 r
\ Z0 = = = 377. , as o = e
C ε0 2π 2π ri
= 60.03 l 60 W
Vm
The maximum allowable current =
Z0
ln( ro /ri ) µ 0 ln( ro /ri )

Now Vm = ro Em · and Z0 = ·
ro /ri ε0 2π
ro Em ro Em
\ I max = = (Q ro /ri = e)
µ 0 ( ro /ri ) 2.718
· 377 ×
ε0 2π 6.28
ro Em
= amperes.
163
12.33 Show that the Brewsters angle can be expressed as
1 − b2
sin 2 θ B =
( n1/n2 ) 2 − b 2
n1
and hence, cot θ B = (for non-magnetic media)
n2
where n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction of the two media through which the wave is
passing with oblique incidence at the interface (E field being parallel to the plane of incidence)
i.e.
µn
n1 = µ r1ε r1 , n2 = µ r 2ε r 2 and b = 1 2
µ 2 n1
Sol. We consider the case of the incident wave parallel to the plane of incidence
(Fig. 12.15).
Fig. 12.15 Oblique incidence of E field on the interface, E field being parallel to the plane of incidence.
The boundary conditions are (on the plane y = 0):

(a) Dn is continuous.
\ ε1 ( − E0i sin θ i + E0 r sin θ r ) = ε 2 ( − E0t sin θ t ) (i)
(b) Bn is continuous.
\ There is no z component of B.
(c) Et is continuous.
\ E0i cos θ i + E0 r cosθ r = E0t cos θ t (ii)
(d) Bn is continuous, which reduces to the same equation as from boundary condition (a).
ε 2 sin θ t
\ We have E0i − E0 r = E0t (iii)
ε1 sin θ i
sin θ t n
By Snells law, = 1 (iv)
sin θ i n2
Hence, we get
2
ε 2 n1 ε µ1ε1 µ1ε 2 ⎛ µ ⎞ µ 2ε 2 µ n
= 2 = = ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 1 · 2 = b (v)
ε1 n2 ε1 µ 2ε 2 µ 2ε1 ⎜ µ ⎟ µ1ε1 µ 2 n1
⎝ 2 ⎠
\ Equation (iii) becomes
E0i − E0 r = bE0t (vi)
and Eq. (ii) becomes
cos θ t
E0i + E0 r = E0t = aE0t (vii)
cos θ i
cos θ t
where a= (viii)
cos θ i
\ From Eqs. (vi) and (vii), we get
a−b 2
E0 r = E0i and E0t = E0 r .
a+b a+b
cos θ t 1 − sin 2 θ t 1 − {( n1/n2 )sin θ i }2

Note: a = = = .
cosθ i cos θ i cosθ i
For the complete extinction of the reflected wave, we require
ab=0
1 − ( n1/n2 ) 2 sin 2 θ i µ1n2

= = b
cos θ i µ 2 n1
Squaring,
1 − ( n1/n2 ) 2 sin 2 θ i = b 2 cos 2 θ i = b 2 (1 − sin 2 θ i )
1 − b2
\ sin 2 θ i = 2 2
= sin 2 θ B , θ B being the Brewsters angle.
( n1/n2 ) − b
Note: When µ1 = µ2, b = n2/n1.

b2
\ sin 2 θ B =
1 + b2
n2
and tan θ B =
n1
n1
\ cot θ B =
n2
12.34 The field near a Hertzian dipole of length l has the following principal components in spherical
polar coordinates:
ql cos θ ql sin θ µ 0 il sin θ
Er = , Eθ = , Bφ =
2πε 0 r 3
4πε 0 r 3
4π r 2
If i is oscillating and equal to I 2 cos ω t , prove that the predominant energy flow in this
region is likewise oscillatory, being such that a quantity of energy given by
I 2l 2
W=
6πε 0ω 2 r 3
flows out and back from a sphere of radius r, twice in each cycle of the dipole current.
Sol. In the present problem, our region of interest is the near field of the dipole for which
r/c is very very small and in the expressions given above, the retardation effects have been
justifiably neglected.
Since i (t ) = 2 I cos ω t ,
I 2
q (t ) = sin ω t
ω
I2
and hence sin 2ω t
i.q =
ω
The Poynting vector S = E × H has the following components:
iql 2 sin 2 θ
S r = Eθ Hφ =
16π 2ε 0 r 5
iql 2 sin θ cos θ

and Sθ = Er Hφ = −
8π 2ε 0 r 5
From iq, it is obvious that Sr and Sf oscillate with a frequency 2w.

π 2π
∫ ∫Sr sin θ dθ dφ
2
Energy flow out of the sphere of radius r = r
0 0
∫
= 2π r 2 Sr sin θ dθ
0
π
2π r 2l 2 I 2 sin 2ω t
∫ sin θ dθ
3
=
16π 2ωε 0 r 5 0
I 2l 2 sin 2ω t
=
6πε 0 r 3
Note: sin3q = 3sinq 4sin3q.

\ In time from 0 to p /2w, the energy flowing out is
π /(2ω )
I 2l 2 I 2l 2
6πε 0ω r 3 ∫
0
sin 2ωt dt =
6πε 0ω 2 r 3
12.35 The symmetry of Maxwells equations in free space implies that any system of travelling waves
defined by the field vectors E, B, has a dual in which E¢ = cB and B¢ = E/c. What source
would produce a field which is the dual of that set up by a Hertzian dipole?
Sol. In free space, the Maxwells equations are:
∇ ⋅ D = ρC or 0, if there are no charges
∇ ⋅ B = 0,
∂D
∇×H =
∂t
∂B
and ∇×E = −
∂t
Also the relevant constitutive relations for the free space are:
D = e0E and B = µ0H
So, as said above,
E¢ = cB and B¢ = E/c
\ Dual of Hertzian dipole = Varying magnetic dipole*
= Current loop carrying varying current.
* This duality will become obvious if we compare the expressions for E and B fields of the
Hertzian dipole and the varying magnetic dipole, which are stated next for convenience.
(a) Hertzian dipole
l cos θ ⎧ 2 ⎛ r⎞ 2 ⎛ r ⎞⎫
Er = ⎨− 3 f ⎜ t − ⎟ − 2 f ′ ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 ⎩ r ⎝ c ⎠ cr ⎝ c ⎠⎭
l sin θ ⎧1 ⎛ r⎞ 1 ⎛ r⎞ 1 ⎛ r ⎞⎫
Eθ = ⎨ 2 f ⎜ t − ⎟ + 2 f ′ ⎜ t − ⎟ + 2 f ′′ ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 ⎩r ⎝ c ⎠ cr ⎝ c⎠ c r ⎝ c ⎠⎭
µ 0l ⎧1 ⎛ r⎞ 1 ⎛ r ⎞⎫
Bφ = sin θ ⎨ 2 f ′ ⎜ t − ⎟ + f ′′ ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
4π ⎩r ⎝ c ⎠ cr ⎝ c ⎠⎭
Usually f (t) is a function varying sinusoidally with time.
\ q (t ) = f (t ) = Qm sin ω t ,
where Qm is the amplitude of the charge
⎛ r⎞ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
and f ′′ ⎜ t − ⎟ = − ω 2Qm sin ⎨ω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬ and so on.
⎝ c⎠ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
(b) Varying magnetic dipole
⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
m0 exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭ ⎧ ωr ⎫
Hr = ⎨1 + j ⎬ cos θ
2π r 3
⎩ c ⎭
⎧ ⎛ r⎞⎫
m0 exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎬
⎩ ⎝ c ⎟⎠ ⎭ ⎧⎪ ω 2 r 2 ω r ⎫⎪
Hθ = ⎨− +1+ j ⎬ sin θ
4π r 3 ⎪⎩ c c ⎪⎭
⎧ ⎛ r⎞⎫
µ0 m0 exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
⎩ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎭ ⎧⎪ ω 2 r ⎪⎫
Eφ = ⎨ jω − ⎬ sin θ
4π r 3 ⎪⎩ c ⎪⎭
where m0 = I0p a2 (= magnetic moment of the dipole).
12.36 Considering the far fields of the electric dipole and the magnetic dipole, show that they are
duals of each other.
Sol. For the far field, in the expressions for E and H, only the terms containing 1/r
predominate and the terms with higher powers of 1/r can be neglected.
\ The far field of the Hertzian dipole will be
Er = 0
l sin θ ⎛ r⎞ µ l sin θ ⎛ r⎞
Eθ = f ′′ ⎜ t − ⎟ = 0 f ′′ ⎜ t − ⎟
4πε 0 c r 2
⎝ c⎠ 4π r ⎝ c⎠
µ 0 l sin θ ⎛ r⎞
Bφ = f ′′ ⎜ t − ⎟
4π rc ⎝ c⎠
\ Eq = cBf
The far fields of the magnetic dipole are: (for r >> l):
Hr = 0
⎧⎪ m ω 2 ⎫⎪ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
Hθ = − ⎨ 0 2 sin θ ⎬ exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
⎪⎩ 4π rc ⎪⎭ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
⎧⎪ µ m ω 2 ⎫⎪ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
Eφ = ⎨ 0 0 2 sin θ ⎬ exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
⎪⎩ 4π rc ⎪⎭ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
\ Ef = Bc
Hence, the two fields are duals of each other.
Note: The above expressions can be deduced very easily from the expressions given in
Problem 12.35, by allowing the terms containing 1/r2, 1/r3, etc. ® 0.
12.37 Show that the phase velocity of H field of an oscillating dipole is
⎧⎪ c2 ⎫⎪
vφ = c ⎨1 + 2 2 ⎬ .
⎩⎪ ω r ⎭⎪
Show also that the phase velocities of r and q components of E field are:
⎪⎧ c 2 ⎪⎫ ⎪⎧ (ω r/c) − (ω r/c) + 1 ⎪⎫
4 2
v r = c ⎨1 + 2 2 ⎬ and vθ = c ⎨ 2 ⎬
, respectively.
⎩⎪ ω r ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪ (ω r/c) − 2(ω r/c) ⎭⎪
4
Sol. The charges of the dipole are ± Q0 exp ( jω t ).

dq
\ q (t ) = Q0 exp ( jω t ) and i (t ) = = jω Q0 exp ( jω t ).
dt
l cos θ ⎧ [ q ] [i ] ⎫
Scalar potential, V = ⎨ 2 + ⎬
4πε 0 ⎩r cr ⎭
⎡ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫ ⎤
⎢ exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬ jω exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬ ⎥
Q l cos θ ⎢ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭ ⎥
= 0 +
4πε 0 ⎣ ⎢ r 2
cr ⎥⎦
µ 0 l [i ]
and the vector potential, A = (i r cos θ − iθ sin θ )
4π r
µ 0 Q0 l j ω ⎧ r ⎫
= (i r cosθ − iθ sin θ ) exp ⎨ jω ⎛⎜ t − ⎞⎟⎬
4π r ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
The electric field components are:

∂V ∂Ar
Er = − −
∂r ∂t
Q0 l ⎧2 jω ω⎛ 1 ω ⎞ jω ⎫ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
= cos θ ⎨ 3 + 2 + j ⎜ 2 + j ⎟ − 2 · jω ⎬ exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 ⎩r cr c ⎝r cr ⎠ c r ⎭ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
Q0l ⎧2 2ω ⎫ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
= cos θ ⎨ 3 + j 2 ⎬ exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 ⎩r cr ⎭ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
1 ∂V ∂Aθ Q0l ⎧1 ω ⎛ jω ⎞ ⎫ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
Eq = − − = sin θ ⎨ 3 + j 2 − ⎜ 2 ⎟ jω ⎬ exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
r ∂θ ∂t 4πε 0 ⎩r cr ⎝c r⎠ ⎭ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
Q0l ⎧⎪ 1 ω 2 ω ⎪⎫ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
= sin θ ⎨ 3 − 2 + j 2 ⎬ exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 ⎪⎩ r c r cr ⎭⎪ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
Note: To find the phase velocity, we have to express these expressions as exp[ j{w [t] b r}]
so that vp = w /b.
2 2ω
For Er: exp (− j β r ) = cos β r − j sin β r = 3
+ j
r cr 2
−2ω /cr 2 ωr ⎛ ωr ⎞
\ tan β r = 3
= − ⇒ β r = tan −1 ⎜ − ⎟
2 /r c ⎝ c ⎠
ωr ⎛ ωr ⎞
\ ω [t ] − β r = ω t − − tan −1 ⎜ − ⎟ = constant.
c ⎝ c ⎠
Differentiating w.r.t. t,
ω dr −ω /c dr
ω− − = 0
c dt ω r dt
2 2
1+
c2
ω 2 r 2 /c 2 dr
or c =
1 + ω 2 r 2 /c 2 dt
dr ⎧⎪ c 2 ⎫⎪
\ vr = = c ⎨1 + 2 2 ⎬
dt ⎪⎩ ω r ⎪⎭
1 ω2 ω
For Eq : exp ( − j β r ) = − + j 2 = cos β r − j sin β r
r3 2
c r cr
−ω /cr 2 ω cr
\ β r = tan −1 = tan −1
1 ω 2
ω r − c2
2 2
3
−
r c2 r
ωr ω cr
Hence ω [t ] − β r = ω t − − tan −1 2 2 = constant.
c ω r − c2
dr dr
(ω 2 r 2 − c2 )ω c − ω cr 2ω 2 r
ω dr 1 dt dt = 0
ω− −
c dt ⎛ ω cr ⎞
2
(ω r − c )
2 2 2 2
1+ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟⎟
⎜ ω r − c2
⎝ ⎠
⎧⎪ 1 c(ω 2 r 2 − c 2 ) − 2ω 2 r 2 c ⎫⎪ dr ω 4 r 4 + c4 − ω 2 r 2 c 2 + c4 − 2ω 2 r 2 c 2 dr
\ 1= ⎨ + 2 2 2 2 2⎬
=
⎩⎪ c (ω r − c ) + ω r c ⎭⎪ dt ω 4 r 4 + c 4 − ω 2 r 2 c2
2 2
dt
dr (ω r/c) 4 − (ω r/c) 2 + 1
Hence vθ = = c⋅
dt (ω r/c) 4 − 2(ω r/c) 2
For Bf (magnetic field component):
1 ∂ 1 ∂
Bφ = ( rAθ ) − Ar
r ∂r r ∂θ
µ 0Q0 l ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
Ar = jω cos θ exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
4π r ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
µ 0Q0l ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
Aθ = − jω sin θ exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
4π r ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
1 µ0 Q0l ⎛ ω⎞ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞ ⎫ 1 µ 0Q0l ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
\ B fÿ = − jω sin θ ⎜ − j ⎟ exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬ − jω ( − sin θ ) exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
r 4π ⎝ c ⎠ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭ r 4 π r ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
µ 0Q0l ⎧⎪ ω 2 ω ⎫⎪ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
= sin θ ⎨− + j 2 ⎬ exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
4π r ⎪⎩ cr r ⎪⎭ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
ω2 ω
\ exp ( − j β r ) = cos β r − j sin β r = − + j 2
cr r
−ω /r 2 c
\ β r = tan −1 = tan −1
−ω /cr
2 ωr
ωr c
Hence ω [t ] − β r = ω t − − tan −1 = constant
c ωr
ω dr 1 c ⎛ −1 ⎞ dr
ω− − · = 0
c dt c 2
ω ⎜⎝ r 2 ⎟⎠ dt
1+
ω 2r 2
⎧ c ⎫
⎪ ⎪
⎪1 ⎪ dr 1⎧ ⎫ dr
1 = ⎨ + ω r2
2 2 1
or ⎬ = ⎪ ⎪·
⎪c 1 + c ⎪ dt c⎨ c2 ⎬ dt
⎪ 1 + ⎪
⎪⎩ ω 2r 2 ⎪⎭ ⎩ ω 2r2 ⎭
ES ÑÎ c ÑÞ
\ vG c Ï ß
EU ÑÐ X S Ñà
12.38 Two similar Hertzian dipoles placed at the origin and carrying currents of the same frequency
are arranged along the x- and z-axes, respectively. The dipoles are of the same length and their
currents are equal in magnitude and phase. What will be the polarization of the electric field of
this combination (a) at a point along the x-axis and (b) at a point along the y-axis? What will
be the polarization if the currents differ in phase by 90°?
µ 0 dl sin θ1 ⎛ di1 ⎞
Sol. Eθ 1 = ⎜ ⎟
4π r ⎝ dt ⎠
µ 0 dl sin θ 2 ⎛ di2 ⎞
Eθ 2 = ⎜ ⎟
4π r ⎝ dt ⎠
where q1 is measured from the z-axis and q2 is measured from the x-axis. See Fig. 12.16.
Case 1
(a) Along the x-axis, q1 = p /2, q2 = 0,
then Eθ 1 is Ez and Eθ 2 = 0.
Fig. 12.16 Two similar Hertzian dipoles arranged orthogonally at the origin of the coordinate system.
\ Linear polarization is along the z-axis.

(b) Along the y-axis, q1 = p /2, q2 = p /2.
\ Eθ 1 is Ez and Eθ 2 is Ex, and equal in magnitude.
\ Linear polarization is along the direction (ix + iz).
Case 2 i1 = I0 cos w t
i2 = I0 cos(w t + p /2)
(a) Along the x-axis, q1 = p /2, q2 = 0
\ Eθ 1 = Ez and Eθ 2 = 0.
\ Linear polarization is along the z-axis.
(b) Along the y-axis, q1 = p /2, q2 = p /2
µ 0 I 0 dl ⎛ r⎞
Eθ 1 = E z = sin ω ⎜ t − ⎟
4π r ⎝ c⎠
µ 0 I 0 dl ⎛ r π⎞
Eθ 2 = E x = sin ω ⎜ t − + ⎟
4π r ⎝ c 2⎠
\ The electric field is circularly polarized.
12.39 Two (identical) Hertzian dipoles are arranged orthogonally at a distance of l /4 as shown in
Fig. 12.17 and are excited by currents of same magnitude and phase. Find the resultant E field
in the xy-plane.
z
k/4
1
v1
2
r1
h2 y
r2
x
P (x, y, 0)
Fig. 12.17 Two Hertzian dipoles arranged orthogonally at a gap of l/4 along the z-axis.
Sol. Let each dipole have the charge ±Q exp( jw t).

\ i = jω Q exp( jω t ) = I exp( jω t )
The axis of the dipole 1 is along the z-axis and that of dipole 2 is parallel to the y-axis. We need
to find the resultant field due to this combination (on xy-plane) only.
\ For a point P(x, y, 0),
with reference to dipole 1,
r1 = x2 + y2 , θ1 = π /2, φ1 = tan −1 y/x

and with reference to dipole 2,
± ( x − λ /4)
r2 = {( x − λ /4) 2 + y 2 }1/ 2 , θ 2 = tan −1 , φ2 = 0 or π
y
\ Due to dipole 1,
Ql ⎧⎪ 2 2ω ⎫⎪ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
Er1 = cos θ1 ⎨ 3 + j 2 ⎬ exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − 1 ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 ⎩⎪ r1 cr1 ⎭⎪ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
Il ⎧⎪ 1 1 ⎪⎫ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
= cosθ1 ⎨ 2 − j 3⎬
exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − 1 ⎟ ⎬
2πε 0 ⎩⎪ cr1 ω r1 ⎭⎪ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
Ql ⎧⎪ 1 ω2 ω ⎫⎪ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
Eθ 1 = sin θ1 ⎨ 3 − 2 2 + j 2 ⎬ exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − 1 ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 ⎪⎩ r1 c r1 cr1 ⎪⎭ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
Il ⎧⎪ 1 ω 1 ⎫⎪ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
= sin θ1 ⎨ 2 + j 2 − j 3⎬
exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − 1 ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 ⎩⎪ cr1 c r1 ω r1 ⎭⎪ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
On the xy-plane, q1 = p / 2.
Il ⎧⎪ 1 ω 1 ⎫⎪ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
\ Er1 = 0 and Eθ 1 = ⎨ 2 + j 2 − j 3⎬
exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − 1 ⎟ ⎬ = Ez1
4πε 0 ⎩⎪ cr1 c r1 ω r1 ⎭⎪ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
Due to the dipole 2,
Il ⎧⎪ 1 1 ⎫⎪ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
Er 2 = cos θ 2 ⎨ 2 − j 2⎬
exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − 2 ⎟ ⎬
2πε 0 ⎪⎩ cr2 ω r1 ⎪⎭ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
Il ⎧⎪ 1 ω 1 ⎫⎪ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
Eθ 2 = sin θ 2 ⎨ 2 + j 2 − j 3⎬
exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − 2 ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 ⎩⎪ cr2 c r2 ω r2 ⎭⎪ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
\ Ex = Er 2 sin θ 2 + Eθ 2 cosθ 2
Il ⎧⎪ 3 ω 3 ⎫⎪ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
= sin θ 2 cosθ 2 ⎨ 2 + j 2 − j 3⎬
exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − 2 ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 ⎪⎩ cr2 c r2 ω r2 ⎪⎭ ⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
Ey = Er 2 cos θ 2 − Eθ 2 sin θ 2
Il ⎡ ⎪⎧ 2 2 ⎪⎫ 2 ⎪⎧ 1 ω 1 ⎪⎫ ⎤ ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
= ⎢⎨ 2 − j 3⎬
cos θ 2 − ⎨ 2 + j 2 − j 3 ⎬ sin 2 θ 2 ⎥ exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − 2 ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 ω r2 ⎭⎪ ω r2 ⎭⎪
⎣⎢ ⎩⎪ cr2 ⎦⎥ ⎩ ⎝
⎩⎪ cr2 c r2 c ⎠⎭
For large values of r,

2
λ ⎛λ⎞ λ
r22 = r12 − 2 · sin θ cos φ + ⎜ ⎟ sin 2 θ cos 2 φ ≈ r12 − 2 · sin θ cos φ
4 ⎝4⎠ 4
λ
\ r1 l r1 cos f first degree approximation
4
Il jω ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
\ Ex = sin θ 2 cos θ 2 exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − 2 ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 c r2
2
⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
Il jω ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
Ey = ( − sin 2 θ 2 ) exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − 2 ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 c r2
2
⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
Il jω ⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫
Ez = exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − 1 ⎟ ⎬
4πε 0 c r1
2
⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭
12.40 Two Hertzian dipoles are parallel and separated by a spacing 2a, their currents are in phase.
Taking spherical polar coordinates (r, q, f) centred at the centre of symmetry, calculate the E
and H fields at a great distance and deduce a formula for the distribution of the energy flow
as a function of the direction angle q.
Sol. Let each dipole have the charge ±Q exp( jw t).
Then, the retarded value at a distance r will be
⎧ ⎛ r ⎞⎫ ⎧ ⎛ 2π r ⎞ ⎫
± Q exp ⎨ jω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬ = ± Q exp ⎨ j ⎜ ω t − ⎬
⎩ ⎝ c ⎠⎭ ⎩ ⎝ λ ⎟⎠ ⎭
Let the point P have the coordinates (r, q, f) w.r.t. O. Then, using this coordinate system (as
shown in Fig. 12.18), we have
Fig. 12.18 Two parallel Hertzian dipoles with a gap of 2a.

r12 = ( r sin θ cos φ − a ) 2 + ( r sin θ sin φ ) 2 + ( r cosθ ) 2
= r 2 − 2ar sin θ cos φ + a 2
l r 2 − 2ar sin θ cos φ to first order

r1 = r − a sin θ cos φ to first order
and similarly r2 = r + a sin θ cos φ to first order
Hence, the phase difference in [q] due to change from r to r1 or r2 will be denoted by
⎧ ⎛ 2π ⎞⎫
exp ⎨ ± j ⎜ a sin θ cos φ ⎟ ⎬ and if a is comparable to l, this change is significant.
⎩ ⎝ λ ⎠⎭
But for large r, r1 ® r, r2 ® r, q1 ® q, q2 ® q, i.e. the differences are of the order a/r
and ® 0 as r ® ¥.
\ Use of two dipoles inserts the factor given by
⎧ ⎛ 2π a ⎞⎫ ⎧ ⎛ 2π a ⎞⎫ ⎛ 2π a ⎞
exp ⎨ j ⎜ sin θ cos φ ⎟ ⎬ + exp ⎨− j ⎜ sin θ cos φ ⎟ ⎬ = 2 cos ⎜ sin θ cos φ ⎟
⎩ ⎝ λ ⎠⎭ ⎩ ⎝ λ ⎠⎭ ⎝ λ ⎠
\ The resultant field components will be
Er = 0
µ 0Qlω 2 ⎧ 2π a ⎫ ⎧ ⎛ 2π r ⎞ ⎫
Eθ = − sin θ cos ⎨ sin θ cos φ ⎬ exp ⎨ j ⎜ ω t − ⎬
2π r ⎩ λ ⎭ ⎩ ⎝ λ ⎟⎠ ⎭
µ 0 Qlω 2 ⎧ 2π a ⎫ ⎧ ⎛ 2π r ⎞ ⎫
Bφ = − sin θ cos ⎨ sin θ cos φ ⎬ exp ⎨ j ⎜ ω t − ⎬
2π cr ⎩ λ ⎭ ⎩ ⎝ λ ⎟⎠ ⎭
⎧1 ⎫ µ Q 2 l 2ω 4 2 ⎛ 2π a ⎞
Sr = ⎨ Re (E × H*) ⎬ = 0 2 2 sin θ cos ⎜ sin θ cos φ ⎟
2
\
⎩2 ⎭r 8π cr ⎝ λ ⎠
That is, the energy flow is proportional to
⎛ 2π a ⎞
sin 2 θ cos 2 ⎜ sin θ cos φ ⎟
⎝ λ ⎠
12.41 The field of a magnetic dipole is such that V = 0 and A ¹ 0. Is it possible to have a radiation
field which has V ¹ 0 and A = 0?
Sol. The answer is No.
The reason for this answer is that the source in the magnetic dipole (or for that matter in the
electric dipole as well) is a time-varying current element which is a vector and as such
cannot be represented by a scalar potential only. There has to be a vector potential.
Hence, a radiation field is not possible in which V ¹ 0 and A = 0.
12.42 A sealed plastic box contains a transmitting antenna which is radiating electromagnetic waves.
How would you identify whether it is a magnetic or electric dipole?
Sol. For this perpose, a probe would be needed which would show the distinguishing
characteristics of the fields radiated by these two types of dipoles. So we will now state the
distinguishing features of these two types of dipoles, i.e. electric and magnetic dipoles.
(a) Electric dipole (Hertzian dipole)
The near field of the Hertzian dipole has the non-zero components of the electric and magnetic
fields Er, Eq and Bf.
The far field of the same dipole has Eq and Bf as the non-zero field components as Er becomes
zero when r is sufficiently large.
(b) Varying magnetic dipole
For the near field, the non-zero field components are Hr, Hq and Ef and for the far field
non-zero components are Hq and Ef.
So a probe to observe the behaviour of Er and Hr would be sufficient to identify the type of
the radiating dipole.
So what we need would be a small electric and/or magnetic dipole (or even a small search coil)
to measure these field components.
12.43 A Hertzian dipole made up of copper has the length l of wire of radius a. If the frequency of
the radiated wave is f, find the efficiency of the antenna, which is given by the ratio of the
average radiated power to the total average power delivered to the antenna.
Sol. The copper wire of the dipole would have some heat loss. So, part of the power
delivered to the dipole would be converted into heat in the dipole itself.
Let the amplitude of the dipole current be I
and the resistance of the wire be Rw .
1 2
\ Average power transformed into heat = I Rw
2
l
Note: Rw is not the dc resistance of the wire which is R0 = but is the high frequency
σπ a 2
resistance.
1 2
The average radiated power of the dipole = I Re (also denoted as Rrad),
2
which is given by Re or Rrad = 790l2/l2.
For the Hertzian dipole [refer to Eq. (19.22) of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications,
2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, p. 713].
1
\ Average total power delivered to the dipole = Ptotal = PJ + Prad = ( Rw + Rrad ) I 2
2
Prad Rrad 1
\ η = = =
Ptotal Rw + Rrad R
1+ w
Rrad
RSl ωµ 1
Note: Rw = , where RS = surface resistance = = , d being the skin depth.
2π a 2σ d 2
12.44 Discuss and draw the image of a horizontal dipole antenna above a perfectly conducting plane
and show that the currents in the image and the antenna flow in opposite directions. Discuss
and draw again the image of a vertical dipole (antenna) above a perfectly conducting plane
and show that in this case, the current in the image as well as in the dipole flow in the same
direction.
Sol. We have seen in ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition,
PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, Section 4.5.2, pp. 152155, that a perfectly conducting surface
can be treated as an equipotential surface, and the image of a positive charge will be an equal
negative charge located at the point of its optical image. Also since the electric current is
defined by the motion of the charges, its direction would be determined by the nature of the
image charges and so Fig. 12.19 would show the direction of the currents in the images, relative
to the source charges.
Fig. 12.19 Horizontal and vertical (Hertzian) dipoles in front of a perfectly conducting plane.
12.45 A small conducting loop is placed in an electromagnetic field radiated by a distant antenna. By
small, it is implied that the wavelength of the wave is much larger than the dimensions of the
loop. Show that the emf induced in the loop is given by
)(t ) = µSX H cos B sin X t ,
where the field at the location of the loop is
H(t) = H cos w t,
and
S = cross-sectional area of the loop
i n = unit vector normal to the plane of the loop

a = the angle between H and in
w = angular frequency of the field.
Sol. Figure 12.20 shows the loop and the direction of the field vectors.
The emf induced in the loop is
)(t ) vÔ E ¹ dl
C
Fig. 12.20 A small loop antenna in a radiated electromagnetic field.
By Stokes theorem,

)(t ) vÔ E ¹ dl ÔÔ (³ E) ¹ dS
C S

t ÔÔ B ¹ dS
S
Since the loop is assumed to be small,
B can be considered to be constant over its cross-sectional area S.
∂H (t )
\ )( t ) = − µ S i n · = μ S ω H cos α sin ω t
∂t
It should be noted that if the plane of the loop is normal to E or normal to the direction of wave
propagation, the induced emf in the loop is then zero,
i.e. if a = p /2, E = 0.
This phenomenon can be used for determining the direction of the wave (and hence in locating
a clandestine broadcasting station).
12.46 Two identical half-wave dipoles carrying currents Im and jIm, respectively, are orthogonally
located in the same plane as shown in Fig. 12.21. Find the resultant far field of the electric field
intensity in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the dipoles.
Sol. At a distant point M, in the direction normal to the plane of the dipoles, the E field
vectors with their directions have been shown in Fig. 12.21.
The E fields have the same magnitude but they differ in phase by p /2. So using the coordinate
system shown in the figure, if
Fig. 12.21 Two coplanar orthogonally located half-wave dipoles.
Ex = E cos ω t ,
then &Z & DPT X U Q /
The resultant E field intensity will be
Etotal = Ex2 + E y2 = E
and the angular displacement of Etotal from the x-axis will be given by
Ey sin ω t
tan α = = = tan ω t
Ex cos ω t
\ a = w t,
i.e. the resultant E field rotates at the point M with an angular velocity w. So the wave is
circularly polarized.
(This arrangement of antennae is usually known as Turn-stile type of antenna.)
12.47 We have seen that it is possible to define and derive completely the propagation equations from
the Maxwells equations by using a magnetic vector potential A and an electric scalar potential
y. Show that it is possible to describe the whole electromagnetic field by means of a single
vector Ze (called the electric Hertz vector) and also state its relationship with A and y.
Sol. The four Maxwells equations are:
∂D
∇×H = J + (i)
∂t
∂B
∇×E = − (ii)
∂t
Ñ·D = r (iii)
Ñ·B = 0 (iv)
s E = J, D = e E and B = µH (v)
where s, e, µ are constants in linear isotropic media. By taking the curl operation of the two
curl equations above, it has been shown that these equations reduce to the propagation
equation of the form
∂B ∂2B
∇ 2 B = µσ + µε 2 (vi)
∂t ∂t
and similarly (when the charge density r = 0)
∂E ∂ 2E
∇ 2 E = µσ + µε 2 (vii)
∂t ∂t
(Refer to Chapter 12, Section 12.5, pp. 389392 of ElectromagnetismTheory and
Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009.)
Then, we use a general magnetic vector potential A such that
B=Ñ×A (viii)
which together with Eq. (ii) gives
∂A
∇ ×E = −∇× (ix)
∂t
and so, we get
∂A
E = − − ∇ψ (x)
∂t
y being called the scalar electric potential.
It is convenient (but not necessary) if A and y can be made to satisfy the same propagation
equation as E and B, i.e.
∂A ∂2 A
∇ 2 A = µσ + µε 2 (xi)
∂t ∂t
∂ψ ∂ 2ψ
∇ 2ψ = µσ + µε 2 (xii)
∂t ∂t
(Refer to Chapter 13, Section 13.5, pp. 419423 of ElectromagnetismTheory and
Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009.)
Thus, by taking the divergence of Eq. (x) (and when r = 0), we get
∂
∇ 2ψ = − (∇ ⋅ ) as now Ñ·E = 0 (xiii)
∂t
Comparing Eq. (xiii) with Eq. (xii), we see that Eq. (xiii) holds if
∂ψ
∇ ⋅ A = − µσψ − µ ε (xiv)
∂t
To show the consistency of Eqs. (xiv) and (xi), take the gradient of both sides of Eq. (xiv).
∂
\ ∇(∇ ⋅ A ) = − µσ (∇ψ ) − µ ε (∇ ψ )
∂t
⎛ ∂D ⎞
L.H.S. = ∇(∇ ⋅ A ) = ∇ × ∇ × A + ∇ 2 A = ∇ × B + ∇ 2 A = ⎜ µ J + µ + ∇2 A
⎝ ∂t ⎟⎠
⎛ ∂E ⎞
\ L.H.S. = ⎜ µσ E + µε + ∇2 A
⎝ ∂t ⎟⎠
⎛ ∂A ⎞ ∂⎛ ∂A ⎞
R.H.S. = + µσ ⎜ E + ⎟ + µ ε ∂t ⎜ E + ∂t ⎟
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
∂E ∂A ∂E ∂2A
\ µσ E + µ ε+ ∇ 2 A = µσ E + µσ + µε + µε 2
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
Cancelling the common terms on both sides, we get
∂A ∂2A
∇ 2 A = µσ + µε 2 ,
∂t ∂t
which is Eq. (xi).
So from A and y, we define a new vector Ze such that
∂Z e
A = µσ Z e + µ ε and ψ = ∇ ⋅ Z e (xv)
∂t
These equations satisfy Eq. (xiv) and also Eq. (x) if
E = ∇(∇ ⋅ Ze ) − ∇ 2 Ze = ∇ × ∇ × Ze (xvi)
∂Z e ∂ 2 Ze
∇ 2 Z e = µσ + µε (xvii)
∂t ∂t 2
B is given by Eqs. (viii) and (xv) in terms of Ze as
∂
B = µσ (∇ × Z e ) + µσ (∇ × Z e ) (xviii)
∂t
Ze is called the Electric Hertz vector.
It is possible to define a similar magnetic Hertz vector Zm which is of the form
A = Ñ × Zm, V = 0
A similar analysis of this vector is left as an exercise for the interested readers.
12.48 Two identical magnetic dipoles are perpendicular to each other and have a common diameter.
(a) Show that its radiation pattern (i.e. amplitude as a function of q ) is a circle in a plane
perpendicular to the common diameter (in the far field zone) if one dipole leads the other by 90°.
(b) Explain the nature of the resulting field.
Sol. This problem is exactly similar to Problem 12.46 which has been analyzed for the electric
dipoles and so it is left as an exercise for the readers.
12.49 A rectangular waveguide of sides a × b, is closed at one end by a perfectly conducting plate
so that it is short-circuited. A source located at the far left transmits TE10 waves. Find the
resultant electromagnetic field in the guide.
Sol. See Fig. 12.22. The resultant field in the short-circuited waveguide would be the sum of
the incident and the reflected waves.
b x
d
a
O
Fig. 12.22 A rectangular waveguide short-circuited on the plane z = 0.
The components of the incident waves are:

Exi = 0
ω µa ⎛πx ⎞
E yi = − j
π
H 0 sin ⎜ ⎟ · exp ( − j β z ) (i)
⎝ a ⎠
βa ⎛πx ⎞
H xi = j
π
H 0 sin ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ exp ( − j β z ) (ii)
⎝ a ⎠
H yi = 0
⎛πx ⎞
H zi = H 0 cos ⎜ ⎟ · exp ( − j β z ) (iii)
⎝ a ⎠
The boundary conditions at the short-circuit z = 0 (used to determine the reflected waves) are:
( E yi + E yr ) z = 0 = 0 and ( H zi + H zr ) z = 0 = 0 (iv)
And since the reflected wave is travelling in the opposite direction, exp( jb z) in above
expressions will be replaced by exp (+ jb z).
\ The reflected waves are:
ω µa ⎛πx ⎞
E yr = j
π
H 0 sin ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ exp ( + j β z ) (v)
⎝ a ⎠
βa ⎛πx ⎞
H xr = j
π
H 0 sin ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ exp ( + j β z ) (vi)
⎝ a ⎠
⎛πx ⎞
H zr = − H 0 cos ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ exp ( + j β z ) (vii)
⎝ a ⎠
\ The resultant electromagnetic field will have the following components:
ω µa ⎛πx ⎞
E y = E yi + E yr = j
π
H 0 sin ⎜ ⎟ {exp ( + j β z ) − exp ( − j β z )}
⎝ a ⎠
2ω µa ⎛πx ⎞
= −
π
H 0 sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ( β z ) (viii)
⎝ a ⎠
2β a ⎛πx ⎞
H x = H xi + H xr = − j
π
H 0 sin ⎜ ⎟ cos β z (ix)
⎝ a ⎠
⎛πx ⎞
H z = H zi + H zr = − j 2 H 0 cos ⎜ ⎟ sin β z (x)
⎝ a ⎠
The resultant wave is thus seen to be a standing wave pattern as no energy can be transmitted
to the perfectly conducting short-circuiting end plate.
12.50 From Problem 12.49, show that an electromagnetic field can exist in a cavity which is made from
a rectangular parallelepiped. Give a qualitative analysis of the charge and current distribution
on the walls of such a resonant cavity.
Sol. From Eqs. (viii) and (x) of Problem 12.49, it will be seen that Ey and Hz will be zero at the
values of z given by
sin b z = 0 or b z = pp, where p = 1, 2,
2π
Since β = , Ey and Hz will have zeros at
λz
pπ λ
z = − λz = − p z
2π 2
So if a thin conducting (perfectly) foil is inserted at one of these planes, nothing will be
changed in the waveguide.
Thus, a box is then obtained with an oscillating electromagnetic field inside it, i.e. this becomes
a resonating cavity.
λ
We consider the lowest mode, i.e. for z = − p z , we make p = 1, thereby getting the TE10
2
mode.
λz 2π π
Let = d, then β = =
2 λz d
\ The field equations inside the cavity would then be

2ω µa ⎛πx ⎞ ⎛πz ⎞
Ey = − H 0 sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ d ⎟
π ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2a ⎛πx ⎞ ⎛πz ⎞
Hx = j H 0 sin ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟
d ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
⎛πx ⎞ ⎛πz ⎞
H z = − j 2 H 0 cos ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟,
⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
the other components being zero.
These equations indicate that the electromagnetic oscillations in the cavity are maintained.
There are induced electric charges on the upper and the lower faces (i.e. y = 0 and y = b) since
the normal component of E, i.e. Ey exists on these planes.
Surface currents in the y-direction appear only on the side-faces, i.e. x = 0 and x = b and
z = 0 and z = d, since at these faces Hx and Hz exist while Ey = 0.
So the oscillations of the electromagnetic field inside the cavity are accompanied by the
charges and currents on the walls.
Also there is a phase difference of p /2 in the electric and the magnetic fields as indicated by
⎧ ⎛ π ⎞⎫
the presence of j ⎨ = exp ⎜ j ⎟ ⎬ in the H expressions.
⎩ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎭
Thus, there will be instants of time when the walls have no currents and no charges. These
instants occur at intervals of T/4, where T = 1/f is the period of oscillation.
12.51 Find the total energy stored inside the cavity in Problem 12.50.
Sol. In this model, since no energy can be lost as the conductor and the dielectric are perfect,
and so the total energy must be constant in time. It oscillates from the energy stored in the
electric field at instants when H = 0 to the energy stored in the magnetic field when E = 0 at
all points at particular instants. So it would be sufficient to evaluate the energy at any of these
extreme instants.
\ The energy stored in the electric field when H = 0 is
a b d
1 1 1
W = We max = ∫∫∫ ε Emax ∫∫∫ ε | E ε µ 2 a 3bdω 2 H 02
2
dv = y |2 dx dy dz =
2
v
2
0 0 0
2π 2
⎡
⎢ Note: w is obtained from the cavity dimensions,
⎣
λz λ 1 ⎤
d = = and fc = ⎥
2 2 1 + f c2 /f 2 2 a µε ⎥
⎦
The resonant frequency of the cavity is
1 a2 + d 2
f 2 = f res
2
=
4 µε a 2 d 2
12.52 Two long parallel metal cylinders with radii r1 and r2 and potentials V1 and V2, respectively,
form a transmission line. When the cylinders are outside each other, not touching, with
centres at a distance s such that s > r1 + r2, they form an open-wire transmission line. On
the other hand, if one cylinder is within the other one (r1 < r2) such that s = | r1 r2 |, then
they form an eccentric cable. Find the capacitance of the system in either case.
Sol. Both the arrangements can be solved by using the bicylindrical coordinate system,
which has been described in Appendix 10 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Application,
2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009. Whether the two circles are on the opposite
sides of the y-axis (i.e. the two cylinders are on the opposite sides of yz-plane) as shown
in the Fig. 12.23(a), or on the same side of the y-axis (for the eccentric cable) as shown in
Fig. 12.23(b), the method of solving either of the arrangements is the same.
y
h2
h1 r2
r1
x
w1 w2
(a) s
h2
h1 r2
r1
x
w1 s
(b)
w2
Fig. 12.23 (a) Twin open-wire transmission line and (b) eccentric cable.
We designate the two cylinders by h1 and h2.
Note: The coordinate variables of the bicylindrical coordinate system are (h, q, z). Also this q is different
from the q of the spherical polar coordinate system, and this h is not to be confused with the
impedance notation.
The boundary conditions can then be expressed as:

For h = h1, V = V1 (i)
For h = h2, V = V2 (ii)
Since the potential V varies with respect to h only, this is a one-dimensional problem, and
the Laplaces equation simplifies to
d 2V
=0
dη2
and its solution will be of the form:
V = A + Bh
Using the boundary conditions (i) and (ii), we get
V1 − V2 V2η 1 − V1η2
B= , A=
η1 − η2 η1 − η2
so that the potential distribution is given by
1
V= { (V2η1 − V1η2 ) + (V1 − V2 )η }
η1 − η2
Special cases:
(a) For the eccentric cable, with the outer conductor grounded (i.e. V2 = 0) and the inner
conductor at the potential V0 (i.e. V1 = V0),
⎛ η − η2 ⎞
V = V0 ⎜
⎝ η1 − η 2 ⎟⎠
(b) For the open-wire line with conductors of equal diameter (i.e. h1 = h2) and V1 = V0,
V2 = V0, the potential distribution becomes
V0η
V=
η2
The electric field strength is given by
1 dV
E = grad V = i1
g1 d η
{Ref.: Appendix 4, Section. A.4.9., ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition,
PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009}.
V1 V2
\ E = ih (cosh I cos R )
a (I1 I2 )
The charge Q on one of the cylinders (over its unit axial length) is obtained by integrating
D over it, i.e.
Q = ε ∫∫ E . d S
S
For the cylindrical conductor h = h1 of a length l (generalizing from the unit length), the
element of area is
dS = l ( g 22 . d θ )
2Q
V1 V2
and hence, Q Fl
I1 I 2 Ô dR
0
2π εl (V1 − V2 )
=
η1 − η2
Q 2πεl
\ for h1 > h2, C= =
V1 − V2 η1 − η2
This result applies to the eccentric cable as well as to the open-wire transmission line (of
equal or unequal wires).
This capacitance can also be expressed in terms of distances. As mentioned in Eq. (A.10.6)
of Appendix 10, ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning,
New Delhi, 2009,
w1 = a coth h1, w2 = a coth h2
where a is the semi-polar distance of the coordinate system.
2
⎛ a⎞
sinh 2 η + 1 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + 1
r
\ w= a =a ,
sinh η a
r
Since the radius r of the cylinder is
a
r=
sinh η
\ w= a2 r 2
\ The spacing between the axes of the two cylinders is
s = w2 + w1, depending on the relative position of the cylinders
= a 2 r22 a 2 r12
From above,
⎛ a⎞ ⎛ a⎞
η1 = sinh −1 ⎜ ⎟ and η2 = sinh −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ r1 ⎠ ⎝ r2 ⎠
È aØ ÈaØ
\ I1 I2 sinh 1 É Ù sinh 1 É Ù
Ê r1 Ú Ê r2 Ú
2QF l
Thus, C=
È aØ È aØ
sinh 1 É Ù sinh 1 É Ù
Ê r1 Ú Ê r2 Ú
The positive sign is for the open-wire transmission line where the cylinders are on the
opposite sides of the yz-plane; and the negative sign is for the eccentric cable where one
cylinder is within the other, i.e. on the same side of the yz-plane.
Note: It should be noted that the above solution covers the answers for all the three
arrangements of the parallel-wire transmission lines shown in the Fig. A.7.1 (Appendix 7 of
ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009).
12.53 In a co-axial cable of radii r1 and r2 (r1 < r2), the inner conductor has been displaced from
its normal position such that the distance between the axes of the two cable conductors
is s. What is the resulting force on the inner conductor if the potential difference between
the two conductors is (V1 V2)?
Sol. The field of a normal co-axial cable can be analysed by using the cylindrical polar
coordinate system or by considering its equivalent circuit and using the circuit approach.
But the present problem (Fig. 12.24) cannot be solved by either of these approaches,
because the cylindrical polar coordinates cannot take account of the displaced centres of
the two circles and the circuit approach is incapable of dealing with any spatial dimensions.
So the only choice seems to be the use of bicylindrical coordinate system. But, superficially
even this coordinate system might appear inadequate, because in this problem for any
given radii r1, r2 and a (= semi-polar length), the displacement s between the centres of the
two circles is given by
s w2 w1 a 2 r22 a 2 r12 (see Fig. 12.24; as derived in Problem 12.52) which

is thus a fixed quantity.
However by considering a to be a variable quantity, complete flexibility is obtained, and the
problem can then be solved.
To calculate the force on the inner conductor, it is necessary to calculate the energy in the
electric field in the annular space of the displaced cable (which is now behaving as an
eccentric cable). So the capacitance of this damaged cable will be the same as calculated in
h = h1
h = h2
r1 r2
x
O
w1 s V = V1
w2
V = V2
Fig. 12.24 Damaged co-axial cable with displaced inner conductor.

Problem 12.52. This is done by taking the z-axis of the coordinate system as the line joining
the centres of the two circles (Fig. 12.24); and so the poles z = + a will lie on this line.
(Now the geometry becomes identical with that shown in Fig. 12.23(b)).
Hence the capacitance of the damaged cable will be
Q 2πεl
C = V −V = η − η
1 2 1 2
2πε l
= ,
⎛a⎞ ⎛a ⎞
sinh −1 ⎜ ⎟ − sinh ⎜ ⎟
r
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ r2 ⎠
where
l = length of the damaged cable,
V1, V2 = potentials of the inner and the outer conductors respectively,
V1 V2 = V0 (say).
Since the force on the inner displaced conductor has to be calculated, it is necessary to
evaluate the energy stored in the electric field.
Now, the energy stored in the electric field,
1 1
W= CV 2 = CV02 (in this case)
2 2
and denoting the force on the inner conductor by F, we have
dW d πε lV02
F= =
ds ds η1 − η2
⎛a⎞ ⎛a⎞
and η1 − η2 = sinh −1 ⎜ ⎟ − sinh −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ r1 ⎠ ⎝ r2 ⎠
dW πεl V02 ⎧ d η1 d η2 ⎫ da
\ F= =− ⎨ − ⎬
ds (η1 − η2 ) 2 ⎩ da da ⎭ ds
d η1 1 1
But = = (a 2 + r12 ) −1/ 2
da ⎧⎪ ⎛ a ⎞2 ⎫⎪ r1
⎨1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎝ r1 ⎠ ⎪⎭
d η2
and = (a 2 + r22 ) −1/ 2
da
Since s = (a 2 + r22 )1/ 2 − (a 2 + r12 )1/ 2
( ) ( )
ds 1 2 −1/ 2 1 2 −1/ 2
= a + r22 . 2a − a + r12 . 2a
da 2 2
(
a ⎡⎢ a 2 + r12 ) − (a + r )
1/ 2 1/ 2 ⎤
2 2
2 ⎥⎦
= ⎣
( ) (a + r )
1/ 2 1/ 2
a 2 + r12 2
2
2
(a ) (a + r )
1/ 2 2 1/ 2
da
2
+ r12 2
2
=
\
a ⎡⎢(a ) − (a + r ) 2 1/ 2 ⎤
ds 1/ 2
2
+ r12 2
2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎤
( ) (a + r )
1/ 2 2 1/ 2
πεV02 ⎢ a 2 + r12 2
−
1
−
1 ⎥. 2
\ F= 2 ⎢ 2 1/ 2 ⎥
(η1 − η2 )
( ) ( )⎡ 2
( ) − (a + r ) 2 1/ 2 ⎤
1/ 2 1/ 2
⎢⎣ a + r1 a 2 + r22
2
⎥⎦ a ⎢ a + r1
2 2
⎣
2
⎦⎥
πε V02
= +
a (η1 − η2 ) 2
1 4
^ `
1/ 2
where a= s 2s 2 (r22 r12 ) ( r22 r12 ) 2 :
2s
If the displacement s is very small, i.e. s << (r2 r1), then
r22 − r12
a
2s
⎧ ⎤ ⎫⎪
1/ 2
⎪⎛ a ⎞ ⎡⎛ a ⎞
2
−1 ⎛a⎞
and sinh ⎜ ⎟ = ln ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 1⎥ ⎬
⎝ r1 ⎠ ⎪⎝ r1 ⎠ ⎣⎢⎝ r1 ⎠ ⎥
⎦ ⎪⎭
⎩
r22 − r12
ln
sr1
⎛r ⎞
η2 − η1 ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ r1 ⎠
2Q F l V02 s
Then F= 2
Ë È r2 Ø Û
(r22
Ì ln É Ù Ü r12 )
Í Ê r1 Ú Ý
Thus, in normal position, when s = 0, the force F = 0.
If the displacement is slight, then F is proportional to s.
This force becomes quite large if (r22 − r12 ) is small.
12.54 The Hertz vector Ze has only a z-component and hence it satisfies the scalar wave equation
for a plane transmission line. Hence show that the potentials are
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
φ = V ( x, y ) f ⎜ z − t⎟ and A = iz με V ( x, y ) f ⎜ z − t⎟
⎝ με ⎠ ⎝ με ⎠
Show that when the scalar potential f is eliminated by using the equation
A A
E=
t NF Ô ³ ³ ¹ A
EU
U
# ³ A
The resultant new vector potential A¢ is identical with the form:
^ `
A = ³ U ( x, y ) f z – ( NF ) –1/ 2 t , where ³2 has been defined as

³2 i x iy
x y
Sol. Given that the Hertz vector has only the z-component, i.e.
Z e = iz Z (i)
and hence it satisfies the scalar wave equation which is
∂ 2W ∂ 2W ∂ 2W ∂ 2W
+ + − με =0 (ii)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂t 2
This equation can be broken up into two parts, each of which can be made equal to zero,
i.e.
∂ 2W ∂ 2W
+ =0 (iiia)
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂ 2W ∂ 2W
and − με =0 (iiib)
∂z 2 ∂t 2
The first equation is two-dimensional Laplaces equation and the second one is one-
dimensional wave equation.
Since Z satisfies both these equations, we can write Z as
Z = Z1Z2 (iv)
such that Z1 is the solution of Laplaces equation and Z2 is the solution of the one-
dimensional wave equation.
If Z1 is the solution of the two-dimensional Laplaces equation, then
Z1 = V(x, y) (v)
∂ 2V ∂ 2V
such that + =0 (vi)
∂x 2 ∂y 2
i.e. V(x, y) is a two-dimensional Laplacian potential distribution.

Z2 satisfies the one-dimensional wave equation, i.e.
∂2 Z2 ∂2 Z2
− με =0 (vii)
∂z 2 ∂t 2
\ {
Z 2 = F z − ( με ) −1/ 2 t } (viii)
Equation (viii) is obviously a solution of Eq. (vii),

\ Ze = iz Z1 Z2 = iz V(x, y) F{z (me)1/2 t} (ix)
From the definition of Hertz vector Ze, we have the scalar potential
ψ = − ∇ Ze
and the magnetic vector potential (x)
∂Z e
A = μσ Ze + με
∂t
In the present problem, since Ze has only one component, i.e. the z-component, then
ψ = − ∇ Ze
Ë

z Í
V ( x, y ) F ^ z ( NF ) t `ÛÝ1/ 2
{
= − V ( x, y ) F ′ z − ( με ) −1/ 2 t } (xia)
∂ Ze
and A = μσ Ze + με
∂t
^
= i z ËÍ NT V ( x, y ) F z ( NF )
1/ 2
`
t NF V ( x, y ) F z ( NF ) 1/ 2 t ^ `^( NF ) `ÛÝ
1/ 2
^
= i z ( NF ) V ( x, y ) F z ( NF )
1/ 2 1/ 2
t ` (xib)
since in the region under consideration s = 0 (free space or vacuo).
Writing {
F ′ z − ( με ) −1/ 2 t = f } { z − (με ) −1/ 2
t } (xic)
we get ψ = V ( x, y ) f { z − (με ) −1/ 2

t } (xii)
and A i z ( NF )1/ 2 V ( x, y ) f ^ z ( NF ) t ` 1/ 2
Next, we eliminate y, by considering the equations,
∂ψ ∂ψ ,
∇ A = − μσ ψ − με = − με (xiii)
∂t ∂t
since the medium under consideration is non-conducting (i.e. s = 0)
∂A ∂A 1
∂t με ∫
and E=− − ∇ψ = − + ∇ (∇ A) dt
∂t
A
(xiv)
t
∂A′ ∂A 1
∂t με ∫
\ = − ∇ (∇ A) dt
∂t
{
= i z (με )−1/ 2 V ( x, y ) f ′ z − (με )−1/ 2 t }{ − (με ) } −1/ 2
−
1
με ∫ ⎣
{
∇ ⎡(με )1/ 2 V ( x, y ) f ′ z − (με )−1/ 2 t ⎤ dt
⎦ } (xv)
{
= − i z V ( x, y ) f ′ z − ( με ) −1/ 2 t }
⎡ ⎡ ⎤⎤
− (με ) −1/ 2 ⎢∇ ⎢V ( x, y ) f { z − (με ) −1/ 2
t } (με1) −1/ 2 ⎥⎥
⎣⎢ ⎣ ⎦ ⎦⎥
{
= − i z V ( x, y ) f ′ z − ( με ) −1/ 2 t }
⎡ ∂V ∂V ⎤
+ ⎢i x
⎣ ∂ x
+ iy
∂y ⎥⎦
f { z − (με ) −1/ 2
t }
{
+ i z V ( x, y ) f ′ z − (με ) −1/ 2 t }
∂A ′ ⎡ ∂V ∂V ⎤
\ ∂t
= ⎢i x
⎣ ∂x
+ iy
∂y ⎥⎦
f { z − (με ) −1/ 2
t }
= ∇ 2 V ( x, y ) f { z − (με ) −1/ 2
t }
∂ ∂
where ∇2 ≡ i x + iy
∂x ∂y
Note: 1. Hertzian vector and its details have been discussed in Problem 12.47 and in
Chapter 13, Section 13.9 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications,
2. In this problem, the solution is of the form f (z u t) or f (z c t) in free space.
12.55 A linear quadrupole made up of the point charges q, + 2q, q is located at the points
z = a, 0, and +a respectively on the z-axis. Its moment is Q = a2q sin w t = Q0 sin w t.
Show that, for a << r, the electric and the magnetic field components are:
Q0 (1 − 3 cos 2 θ ) ⎡ 3β ⎛ 3 β2 ⎞ ⎤
Er = ⎢ 3 cos (ω t − β r ) + ⎜⎜ 4 − 2 ⎟⎟ sin (ωt − β r ) ⎥
4πε0 ⎣⎢ r ⎝r r ⎠ ⎦⎥
Q0 sin 2θ ⎡⎛ β 3 3β ⎞ ⎛ 3β 2 3 ⎞ ⎤
Eθ = ⎢⎜⎜ − 3 ⎟⎟ cos (ωt − βr ) + ⎜⎜ 2 − 4 ⎟⎟ sin (ωt − βr ) ⎥
4πε0 ⎣⎢⎝ 2 r r ⎠ ⎝ 2r r ⎠ ⎦⎥
Q0 β sin 2θ ⎡⎛ β 3 3β ⎞ 3β 2 ⎤
Bφ = ⎢⎜⎜ − 3 ⎟⎟ cos (ωt − β r ) + 2 sin (ωt − β r ) ⎥
8πωε0 ⎣⎢⎝ r r ⎠ r ⎦⎥
where X Q G C X X N F
D
Sol. A short explanatory note on the potentials of electric dipoles and multipoles is given
below:
The potential due to a point charge q at the point (x0, y0, z0) and a charge +q at the
point (x0 + d x0, y0, z0) will be considered first. The resultant potential at some arbitrary
point P (x, y, z) is V which can be expressed as
q È q Ø q q E x0 rOP
4QF 0 V É Ù
rOP x0 Ê rOP Ú rOP 2
4QF 0 rOP x0
q E x0 x x0 q E x0 rOP
x (i)
4QF 0 rOP
2
rOP 4QF 0 rOP
2
Now, the condition for the definition of a dipole is that δ x0 → 0 as q → ∞, such that
q δ x0 = finite.
The moment of the dipole is q d x0 = M, d x0 being directed from the negative charge to the
positive charge.
\ The potential due to a dipole located at the origin is
M cos q M¹r
V (ii)
4Q F 0 r 2
4QF 0 r 3
This concept can be extended further in two stages, i.e. the potential VP at the point P due
to a set of n charges, the radius vector from qi to P being ri, is given by
n
1 q
VP =
4πε 0
∑ ri (iii)
i =1 i
Extending this to a set of n dipoles of same strength and sign located at the same points
with axes parallel to (x, say),
∂VP n
q (x − x )
VP′ = − = ∑ i P 3i (iv)
∂xP i =1 4πε 0 ri
Hence by differentiating the expression for the potential of a unit electric dipole with
respect to any of the rectangular coordinates, the potential due to a unit quadrupole with
dimensions QL2 can be obtained. Thus,
1 ∂2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 ∂2 ⎛ 1⎞
⎜ ⎟, ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ , ...
4πε 0 ∂x 2 ⎝ r ⎠ 4πε 0 ∂x ∂y r
represent the potentials due to a linear quadrupole [Fig. 12.25(a)], square quadrupole
[Fig. 12.25(b)], etc.
y y
–q +q
x dy
+q –2q –q x
dx dx
+q –q
dx
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.25 Linear and square quadrupoles.
This above derivation is for static dipole and multipoles, and for the present problem will
now be extended to oscillating multipoles. Since the electric and the magnetic field
expressions are derivable from the scalar and the vector magnetic potentials (taking account
of the retardation effect), it should be possible to obtain the field expressions from the
Hertz vector as well, which of course combines both these potentials in it. However for
better understanding, we will also write down these two potentials in terms of the Hertz
vector as well. So we start with the Hertz vector, which is (Ze in this case):
ZF
A NT ZF NF BOE 7 ³ ¹ Z F (v)
U
Since s = 0 in this medium, the magnetic vector potential A simplifies to
ZF
A NF BOE 7 ³ ¹ ZF (vi)
U
We have seen earlier that V is obtained in Cartesian coordinates. Since in our problem
pertaining to antenna, we use spherical polar coordinates, we shall subsequently convert
to the requisite coordinate system.
Since in the present problem, the axis of the quadrupole is along the z-axis, the potential
expression for the linear oscillating quadrupole will be
G È Ø
U
7
É Ù
³ ¹ ZF
S BU UIF PSJHJO (vii)
QF [ Ê S Ú
The time-dependence for the quadrupole is given as sin w t, though at present, we are
keeping it quite general as f (t). Since the current in the quadrupole is along the z-axis only,
Ze has only z-component, and hence Ze can be obtained from V by integrating with respect
to z only, i.e.
Î1
N0 F 0 Þß
iz
Ze Ï f (t r (viii)
4QF 0 z Ð r à
⎛ 1⎞
taking account of the retardation effect ⎜⎝ μ0 ε 0 = ⎟ .
c⎠
For the problem f (t) = sin w t
and (
f t−r ) ⎛ r⎞
μ0 ε 0 = sin ω ⎜ t − ⎟
⎝ c⎠
ω
= sin (ωt − β r ) , β =
c
i z ∂ ⎧1 ⎫ z
\ Ze = ⎨ Q0 sin (ω t − β r ) ⎬ , note = cos θ
4πε 0 ∂z ⎩ r ⎭ r
Q0 ∂ ⎧ 1 ⎫
= − iz ⎨ sin (ωt − β r ) ⎬
4πε 0 ∂z ⎩ r ⎭
Q0 ⎧ 1 1 ⎫
= − iz ⎨ − 2 sin (ω t − β r ) + cos (ωt − β r ) ( −β ) ⎬ cos θ
4πε0 ⎩ r r ⎭
Q0 cos θ ⎧ 1 β ⎫
= + iz ⎨ 2 sin (ωt − β r ) + cos (ωt − β r ) ⎬
4πε0 ⎩ r r ⎭
Q0 cos θ
= + iz {sin (ωt − β r ) + β r cos (ω t − β r )} (ix)
4πε 0 r 2
Ze has only the z-component in this case, and now it will be expressed in spherical polar
coordinates, with the same origin, as
Ze =
Q0
4QF 0 r 2 î r cos 2 R – iR sin R cos R ` ^sin (X t – C r ) + C r cos (X t – C r )` (x)
= i r Z er i T Z eR
From this the scalar potential V can be calculated as
Î ; ; ; FR DPU R Þ
³ ¹ ZF Ï FS FS ;FR ß (xi)
Ð S S S R S à
Q0 Ë 2 cos 2 R
= Ì ^sin (X t C r ) C r cos (Z t C r )`
4QF 0 Í r 3
ÎÑ 2 cos 2 R
+ Ï– ^sin (X t – C r ) C r cos (X t – C r )`
ÐÑ r3
cos 2R

r2
^cos (X t C r ) ( C ) C cos (X t C r ) C r ^ sin (X t C r ) ( C )``
DPT R TJO R
^TJO X U C S
C S DPT X U C S
`
S
TJO R DPT R DPU R Û

^TJO X U C S
C S DPT X U C S
`Ü
S Ý
2 Ë DPT R
Ì ^TJO X U C S
C S DPT X U C S
`
QF ÌÍ S
C Û
DPT R TJO X U C S
Ü (xii)
S
Ý
Ze
A = NF
t
î r Ar iR AR `
Q0X ÎÑ cos 2 R sin R cos R ÞÑ

= 2 Ï r
i iR ß ^cos (X t C r ) C r sin (X t C r )` (xiii)
4QF 0 c ÐÑ r 2
r2 àÑ
Ar Ar V
\ Er = (grad V ) r
t t r
2 X DPT R
= ^ TJO X U C S
C S DPT X U C S
`
QF D

S
Q0 Ë –3 (3 cos 2 R – 1)
+ Ì ^sin (X t – C r ) C r cos (X t – C r )`
4Q F 0 Í r4
DPT R

S
^C DPT X U C S
C S TJO X U C S
C DPT X U C S
`
C 2 cos 2 R C 3 cos 2 R Û
sin (X t C r ) cos (X t C r ) Ü
r2 r Ý
Q0 (3 cos 2 R 1) Ë 3C È 3 C2Ø Û
= Ì 3 cos (X t C r ) É 4 2 Ù sin (X t C r ) Ü
4QF 0 ÌÍ r Ê r r Ú ÜÝ
Q0 (1 – 3cos 2 R ) Ë 3C È 3 C2Ø Û
= Ì cos (X t – C r ) É 4 – 2 Ù sin (X t – C r ) Ü (xiv)
4QF 0 ÍÌ r
3
Êr r Ú ÜÝ
AR 1 V
Eq =
t r R
2Î TJO R DPT R Þ X

= Ï ^ TJO X U C S
C S DPT X U C S
`
QF Ð S ßà D
2 Ë DPT R TJO R TJO X U C S
C S DPT X U C S
^ `
QF ÌÍ S
C Û

DPT R TJO R
TJO X U C S
Ü
S Ý
2 TJO R Ë È C C Ø DPT X U C S
È C Ø TJO X U C S
Û
= ÌÉ Ù É Ü (xv)
QF
ÍÌ Ê S S Ú Ê S S ÙÚ ÝÜ
1 1 Ar
Bf =
r r
^
r AR –
r R
`
Ë 2 X TJO R DPT R Û
= Ì ^DPT X U C S
C S TJO X U C S`Ü
S S ÍÌ QF D S ÝÜ
1 Ë Q0 X cos 2R Û
Ì ^cos (X t C r ) C r sin (X t C r )`Ü
r R ÌÍ 4QF 0 c 2
r 2
ÜÝ
2 C TJO R ËÈ C C Ø DPT X U C S
C TJO X U C S
Û
= ÌÉ Ü (xvi)
Q X F ÌÊ S
Í S ÙÚ S ÜÝ
12.56 From Problem 12.55, show that the average rate of energy radiated from the linear
16 π 5 c Q02 .
quadrupole is
15 λ 6 ε 0
Sol. To evaluate the radiated energy from the linear quadrupole, it is required to evaluate
the radial component of the Poynting vector S and integrate it over the surface of a large
sphere where centre is the mid-point of the quadrupole. Hence

iSSS EH ER ¹ H G ER BG
S
N
Hence the expressions for Eq and Bf from Problem 12.55 are:
2 TJO R Ë È C C Ø DPT X U C S
È C Ø TJO X U C S
Û
Eq = ÌÉ Ù É Ü
QF ÌÍ Ê S S Ú Ê S S ÙÚ ÜÝ
2 C TJO R ËÈ C C Ø DPT X U C S
C TJO X U C S
Û
Bf = ÌÉ Ü
QXF
ÍÌ Ê S S ÙÚ S ÝÜ
Since we are considering a large sphere with the quadrupole at its centre, the only terms in
1
Eq , Bf contributing to the energy radiation would be the terms containing , and the
r
⎛1⎞
terms containing the higher powers of ⎜ ⎟ would decay too fast to make any significant
⎝r⎠
contribution. Hence
1 1 Q0 sin 2R Q0 C sin 2R C 3 . C 3
Sr = E B cos 2 (X t C r )
N0 R G N0 4QF 0 8QXF 0 2r r
Q02 C 7 sin 2 2R X 2Q , 1
= cos 2 (X t – C r ), C= = N0F 0 =
64 Q X N 0F 02 r 2
2
c M c2
Q02 c2 128 Q 7 4 sin 2 R cos 2R

= cos 2 (X t C r )
64 Q F 0 X
2
M 7
r 2
8 Q02 Q 5 c2 sin 2R cos 2R

\ Sr = cos 2 (X t C r )
M F0X
7
r 2
To integrate Sr over the surface of the sphere, it has to be multiplied by (2p r sin q ) (rdq)
and integrated over the limits q = 0 to q = p. To find the average rate of energy radiation,
the time-varying term, i.e. cos2(w t b r) has to be integrated with respect to t over one
time-period. The mean value of this integrated term is 1/2. (Ref.: Section 19.2.3
ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009)
R =Q
8 Q02Q 5 c 2 . 1 sin 2 R cos 2 R .
\ Mean power =
M 7X F 0 2 Ô r 2
2Q r 2 sin R dR
R =0
Q
8 Q02 Q 6 c 2
=
M F 0 2Q c
6 Ô sin 3R cos2R dR , ωλ = 2π c
R 0
Now,
Q Q
Ë sin 2 R cos3 R 3 – 1 Û
Ô sin R cos R dR Ô cos 2 R sin R dR Ü
3 2
Ì–
0 Í 23 23 Ý0
Ë Q
Ì 2 ÑÎ cos3R ÑÞ ÛÜ 2 4
= 0 Ï ß ( 1 1)
Ì 5 ÑÐ 3 Ñà0 Ü 15 15
Í Ý
4 Q02 Q 5 c . 4 16 Q02 Q 5 c
\ Mean power, W
M 6 F 0 15 15 M 6 F 0
sin n −1 θ cos m +1 θ n − 1
∫ cos θ sin θ dθ = − cos m θ sin n − 2 θ dθ
m+n ∫
Ref.:
m n
+
m+n
12.57 A plane quadrupole consisting of charges q, +q, q, and +q, has them located at the
π 3π
corners of a square whose sides are of length a and are parallel to φ = 0, , π,
2 2
respectively. The moment of the quadrupole is 2 2 DPT X U RB DPT X U Prove that, for
r >> a, the field components are :
3Q0 sin 2R sin 2G Ë È 3 C 2 Ø 3C Û

Er = Ì É 4 2 Ù cos (X t C r ) 3 sin (X t C r ) Ü
8Q F 0 ÍÌ Ê r r Ú r ÝÜ
Q0 sin R cos 2G Ë È 3C 2 6Ø È 6C C 3 Ø Û
Ef = ÌÉ 3 4Ù
cos (X t C r ) É Ù sin (X t C r ) Ü
8QF 0 ÍÌ Ê r r Ú Êr 3
r Ú ÝÜ
Eq = Ef cos q tan 2f
Br = 0
Bf = Bq cos q tan 2f
2 C TJO R DPT G Ë C DPT X U C S

È C C Ø TJO X U C S
Û
Bq = Ì É S Ü
QF X ÌÍ S Ê S ÙÚ ÜÝ
Sol. This is a planar quadrupole, whose charges lie in the z = 0 plane, i.e. xy-plane, as
shown in Fig. 12.25(b).
The analysis is similar to that of Problem 12.55, though longer and relatively more tedious.
We use the Hertz vector (= Ze) as before to evaluate the field components. Now,
G È Ø
U
7 É Ù ³ ¹ ZF
QF Y Z Ê S Ú
S
1 Ë1 1 Ë1
and Ze = – i x
8QF 0 y ÌÍ r
f ^t – r N0F 0 `ÛÜ – i y
Ý 8QF Ì f ^t – r
0 x Í r
N0 F 0 `ÛÜ
Ý
Note: In this case x = r sin q cos f and y = r sin q sin f.
⎛ r⎞ ⎧ ⎛ r⎞⎫
In this problem, f ⎜ t − ⎟ = Q0 cos ⎨ω ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬ = Q0 cos (ω t − β r )
⎝ c⎠ ⎩ ⎝ c⎠ ⎭
2 Î Þ 2 Î DPT X U C S
Þ
\ Ze = i Y Ï DPT X U C S
ß i Z Ï ß
QF Z Ð S à QF Y Ð S à
2 Ë C Û
DPT X U C S
TJO X U C S
Ü TJO R TJO G
= iY Ì
QF Í S S Ý
Q0 Ë 1 C Û
iy
8QF 0 Ì r 2 cos (X t C r ) r sin (X t C r ) Ü sin R cos G
Í Ý

\ V = ³ ¹ ZF Z FY Z FZ
Y Z
2 Ë C
C
DPT X U C S
TJO X U C S
TJO X U C S

C C
Û
DPT X U C S
Ü
= Ì
QF Í S S S S Ý
sin 2 R sin G cos G

2 Ë DPT X U C S
C
TJO X U C S
C TJO X U C S
C C
DPT X U C S
Û
QF ÌÍ S S S S Ü
Ý
× sin 2 θ cos φ sin φ
Q0 sin 2 R . sin 2G ËÈ 2 C 2 Ø 2C Û
= ÌÉ 3 Ù cos (X t C r ) 2 sin (X t C r ) Ü
8QF 0 ÍÌ Ê r r Ú r ÝÜ
u Ze
and A = NF
ut
Q0 X Ë Î 1 C ÞÛ
= 2 Ì x
8QF 0 c Í
^ Ð r
`
i sin R sin G i y sin R cos G Ï 2 sin (X t C r ) cos (X t C r ) ßÜ
r àÝ
Since both Ze and A have been obtained in terms of their Cartesian components (i.e.
coefficients of ix and iy), it is possible to convert them to the spherical polar coordinate
system by using the following transformation, i.e.
⎡ Ar ⎤ ⎡ sin θ cos φ sin θ sin φ cos θ ⎤ ⎡ Ax ⎤

⎢ A ⎥ = ⎢cos θ cos φ cos θ sin φ − sin θ ⎥ ⎢A ⎥
⎢ θ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ y⎥
⎣⎢ Aφ ⎦⎥ ⎣ − sin φ cos φ 0 ⎦ ⎣⎢ Az ⎦⎥
In the present problem, both Az = 0, Zez = 0,
∂ Ar ∂ V
\ Er = − −
∂t ∂r
∂Aθ 1 ∂V
Eq = − −
∂t r ∂θ
"G 7
Ef =
U S TJO R G
and
Î
1 Þ
Br = Ï (r sin R AG ) (rAR )ß
r sin R Ð R
2
G à
1. r⎧∂ ∂ ⎫
Bq = ⎨ Ar − ( r sin θ Aφ ) ⎬
r sin θ ⎩ ∂φ
2
∂r ⎭
1 . r sin R Î Þ
Bf = Ï (rAR ) – ( Ar ) ß
r sin R Ð r
2
R à
Since the field components have been expressed in terms of V and A, we will write down
the components of A in spherical polar coordinate system, i.e.
– Q0 X
Ar = sin 2 R sin 2G ^sin (X t – C r ) C r cos (X t – C r )`
8QF 0 c 2 r 2
Q0 X
Aq = sin R cos R sin 2G ^sin (X t C r ) C r cos (X t C r )`
8Q F 0 c 2 r 2
Q0 X
Af = sin R cos 2G ^sin (X t C r ) C r cos (X t C r )`
8Q F 0 c 2 r 2
Substituting Ar, Aq , Af , and V in the expressions for Er, Eq, Ef and Br, Bq , Bf , it can be
easily shown that they reduce to the given expressions in the statement of the problem.
12.58 Prove that the plane quadrupole of Problem 12.57 radiates energy at the average rate of
4 Q 5 c Q02 .
5 M 6 F0
Sol. In this case, as in Problem 12.56, the average rate of energy radiation will be
obtained by integrating the radial component of S over the surface of a large concentric
sphere surrounding the quadrupole. But now that Eq , Ef , Bq , Bf are all non-zeros, the
Eθ Bφ Eφ Bθ
contribution to energy radiation will be due to as well as . Again, the
μ0 μ0
1 ⎛1⎞
contribution will be due to term only, the higher degree terms of ⎜ ⎟ will be neglected.
r ⎝r⎠
But in this case there is no f symmetry, and hence the integrating multiplier for the surface
will be r2 sin q dq df and the corresponding limits will be from q = 0 to q = p and f = 0
to f = 2p. The significant terms of the four field components are:
Q0 sin R cos 2G ÑÎ C ÑÞ
3
Ef = Ï sin (X t C r ) ß
8Q F 0 ÑÐ r Ñà
Q0 sin R cos R sin 2G ÎÑ C 3 ÞÑ

Eq = Ï sin (X t C r ) ß
8Q F 0 ÐÑ r àÑ
Q0 C sin R cos R sin 2G ÑÎ C ÑÞ

3
Bf = Ï sin (X t C r ) ß
8Q F 0 X ÑÐ r Ñà
Q0 C sin R cos 2G ÑÎ C ÑÞ
3
Bq = Ï sin (X t C r ) ß
8Q F 0 X ÑÐ r Ñà
ER BG Q02 C 7 sin 2 R cos 2R sin 2 2G

\ = sin 2 (X t C r ) ^ S R , say`
N0 64Q 2 F 02 X N0 r2 1
EG BR Q02 C 7 sin 2 R cos 2 2G

and = sin 2 (X t C r ) ^ S R , say`
N0 64 Q 2
X F 02 N0 r 2 2

TJO X U C S
when integrated over 1 time-period, would contribute a factor of 1/2 in both
cases, and hence the average radiated power,
Q02 È 128 Q 7 Ø 1 Q 2Q
sin 2R cos 2R sin 2 2G . 2
W É Ù
.
64Q 2 F 02 N0 X Ê M 7 Ú 2 R 0
Ô Ô r2
r sin R dR d G
G 0
Q02 È 128 Q 7 Ø 1 Q 2Q
sin 2 R cos 2 2G
É Ù
64Q 2 F 02 N0 X Ê M 7 Ú 2 R 0
Ô Ô r2
r 2 sin R dR d G
G 0
2Q
where C
M
Now,
2Q 4Q 4Q
1 1 Î1 1 Þ
Ô sin 2 2G d G
2 Ô sin 2 B d B Ï B sin 2B ß
2 Ð2 4 à0
Q
0 0
2Q 4Q 4Q
1 1 Î1 1 Þ
Ô cos 2 2G d G
2 Ô cos 2 B d B Ï B sin 2B ß
2 Ð2 4 à0
Q
0 0
Q
4
Ô sin R cos R dR
3 2
(Problem 12.56)
0
15
Q Q
Ô sin R dR
3 Ë 1
Í
2
^ Û
Ì 3 cos R sin R 2 Ü
Ý0
`
2
3
( 1 1)
4
3
0
Q02 Q 5 Ë 4 4Û 4 Q02 Q 6 c 2 . 6 ,
\ W 7 Ì
Q . Q . Ü where XM 2Q c
( N0 F 0 ) X F 0 M Í 15 3Ý M 7 XF 0 15
4 Q02Q 6 c2 . 2 8 Q02Q 6 c2 4Q02Q 5 c

=
M 6F 0XM 5 5M 6F 0 ¹ 2Q c 5M 6F 0
λ
12.59 A thin dipole antenna of length (2n + 1) carries a sinusoidal current I0 sin (b z). Show
2
that the far field expression for the antenna is
⎧ (2n + 1) π ⎫
jβr cos ⎨ cos θ ⎬
I0 e ⎩ 2 ⎭
Hf = j
2π r sin θ
Hence evaluate the time-average power density.

Sol. The linear dipole can be considered to be made up of infinitesimally small Hertzian
dipoles, each of length dz. The field due to each Hertzian dipole is obtained and then by
using the principle of superposition, the resultant field is obtained. This is shown in
Fig. 12.26 with the coordinate system as indicated. The observation point P is far enough
to enable the assumption of r and r1 to be parallel.
The Eq field at P, due to the Hertzian dipole element Idz is
C 2 sin R I z dz e j C r1 d Eθ
dEq = j and dHf = (i)
4QXF r1 η
and r1 = r z cos q, h = intrinsic impedance.

Equation 19.15(b) from ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI
Learning, New Delhi, 2009, is implicit in the above expression.
z r1
r
q¢
dz
q
(2n + 1) l
L= 2
~
Fig. 12.26 A thin linear dipole antenna.

Note: We could also obtain this field by considering the z-component of the vector
potential (taking account of the retardation effect).
In the expression for dEq , r1 in the denominator can be replaced by r, but not in the
exponent as it is being considered relative to the wavelength l. Hence,
C TJO R
dEq = K * [
¹ F C
K S C [ DPT R
E[ (ii)
QXF S
\ The total field due to the complete dipole will be
C 2 sin R ÎÑ 0 L/2 ÞÑ
Eq = j Ï Ô 1 I ( z ) dz + Ô I 2 ( z ) dz ß (iii)
4QXF r ÑÐ- L / 2 0 Ñà
where I1 ( z ) = I 0 sin {β ( L + z )} e jβ z cos θ
I 2 ( z ) = I 0 sin {β ( L − z )} e jβ z cos θ
β2 ω 2 / c 2 ωμ ε ωμ βη0
Now = = = = = 30b
4 πωε 4 πωε 4π ε 4π 4π
ÎÑ X N0 ÞÑ
Ï' C = = X N0 F 0 , I 0 120Q ? CI0 = X N ß
ÐÑ c F0 àÑ
and using
eax (a sin px + p cos px)

∫ e sin px dx =
ax
a2 + p2
In this problem a = jb cos q, p = b.

\ a + p = b ( cos q + 1) = b 2 sin2q
2 2 2 2
Substituting the limits of integration, we get
⎛ βL ⎞ ⎛ βL⎞
cos ⎜ cos θ ⎟ − cos ⎜ ⎟
e – jβ r ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Eq = j 60 I 0 (iv)
r sin θ
(2n + 1) λ , 2π
Now, L= β=
2 λ
⎧ (2n + 1) π ⎫
cos ⎨ cos θ ⎬
60 I 0 e− jβ r . ⎩ 2 ⎭
\ Eθ = j (v)
r sin θ
Eθ
and Hf =
η0
Î (2n 1)Q Þ
I 0 e j C r cos Ï cos R ß
Ð 2 à
= j (vi)
2Q r sin R
\ Time-average power density = Pav
=
1
2
{
Re Eθ × H*φ }
η0 2
= Hφ ir
2
⎧ (2n + 1) π ⎫
η0 I 02 cos 2 ⎨ cos θ ⎬
= ⎩ 2 ⎭i (vii)
r
8 π r sin θ
2 2 2
and time-average radiated power,
Prad = ∫∫ Pav . dS
⎧ (2n + 1) π ⎫
2π π η0 I 02 cos 2 ⎨ cos θ ⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭ r 2 sin θ dθ d φ
= ∫ ∫ 8π r sin θ
2 2 2
φ =0 θ =0
⎡ ⎧ (2n + 1) π ⎫ ⎤
cos 2 ⎢ ⎨
π ⎬ cos θ ⎥
η0 I 02 ⎣⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎦ dθ
= . 2π ∫
8π
2
θ =0
sin θ
⎡ ⎧ (2n + 1) π ⎫ ⎤
πcos 2 ⎢ ⎨ ⎬ cos θ ⎥
⎣⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎦ dθ
= 30 I 0 ∫
2
(viii)
θ =0
sin θ
where h0 = 120p, assuming free space as the medium of propagation.
λ
12.60 Two thin linear dipole antennae, each being (2n + 1) long, are positioned parallel to the
2
z-axis with centres at x = 0 and x = a. The one located at x = a lags 90° in phase behind
the one located at the origin of the coordinate system. Show that the radiation intensity of
this end-fire array is given by
(2n 1) Q ÎQ ØÞ
N0 c I 02 cos 2 ÎÏ Þ È 4a
cos R ß . cos 2 Ï ÉÊ1 sin R cos G Ù ß
Ð 2 à Ð4 M Úà
Power density =
2Q r sin R
2 2 2
where I0 is the magnitude of the current in both antennae.

Sol. Radiation Intensity = (Power Density)r2,
and
Power Density of a radiated wave = magnitude of the Poynting vector
= Pav
2
E (θ , φ )
=
η0
The arrangement of the array is similar to that in Problem 12.40, except that the reference
antenna is located at the origin of the coordinate system in this case.
The E field for this two-element array with currents of same magnitude, the total field at a
point P(r, q, f) can be written down from Eq. (19.66p) of ElectromagnetismTheory and
Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, as
&5 $ F * G G
Ë * F E F
CS
C E DPT G Û
K
K K
Ì Ü
S Í * Ý
In this problem,
a
d will be replaced by
2
cos f by sin q cos f
π
and d by −
2
and I1 = I2
⎧ (2n + 1) π ⎫
I 0 cos ⎨ cos θ ⎬
and I1 f (f) by ⎩ 2 ⎭
2π sin θ
(Refer to Problem 12.59.)
Î O
Q
* I F K CS
DPTÏ DPT R Þß Î Q
TJO R DPT G Þ
B
Ð à Ñ F C Ñ
^ &R 5 `
K K
\ &5 K Ï F
ß
Q S TJO R
ÐÑ àÑ
\ The multiplying factor for this two-element array will be
⎡π πa ⎤
= cos ⎢ − sin θ cos φ ⎥
⎣4 λ ⎦
⎡π ⎛ 4a ⎞⎤
= cos ⎢ ⎜1 − sin θ cos φ ⎟ ⎥
⎣4 ⎝ λ ⎠⎦
⎧ (2n + 1) ⎫ ⎧π ⎛ 4a ⎞⎫
I 0η0 e− jβ r cos ⎨ π cos θ ⎬ cos ⎨ ⎜⎝ 1 − sin θ cos φ ⎟ ⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎩4 λ ⎠⎭
\ Eq = j
2π r sin θ
Eθ μ0
and Hf = and m0 c = = η0
η0 ε0
\ Radiation intensity of this end-fire array
U (R , G ) (Power Density)r 2
and Power Density =

1
2
Re Ê R HG* `
2
1 E (R , G )
=
2 I0
Î O
Q ÎQ B ØÞ
* N D DPT Ï DPTR Þß DPT Ï ÈÉ TJO R DPT G Ù ß
Ð à Ð Ê M Úà
=
Q S TJO R
λ,
12.61 Show that when a = the directivity of the double antennae of Problem 12.60 is twice
4
that of a single antenna resonating in the same mode.
Sol. From Problem 12.60, the radiation intensity of the two-element array is
2
U (R , G ) Pav r 2 Sr r2
(2n + 1) Q ÎQ È ØÞ
I0 I 02 cos 2 ÎÏ Þ 4a
cos R ß cos 2 Ï É1 – sin R cos G Ù ß
Ð 2 à Ð4 Ê M Úà
(i)
=
2Q sin R
2 2
λ,
For this problem a = and hence
4
Î (2n 1) Q Þ ÎQ Þ
I0 I 02 cos 2 Ï cos R ß cos 2 Ï (1 sin R cos G ) ß
U array (R , G ) Ð 2 à Ð4 à (ii)
2Q sin R
2 2
From Problem 12.59, for the single antenna

U sa (θ , φ ) = Pavsa r 2
Î (2n 1) Q Þ
I0 I 02 cos 2 Ï cos R ß
Ð 2 à (iii)
8Q 2 sin 2 R
(the effect of time-averaging has been included in this expression)
and the time-average radiated power
Prad = ∫∫ Pav . dS
Î (2n 1) Q Þ
Q cos 2 Ï cos R ß
I0 I 02 Ð 2 à dR
=
4Q2 Ô sin R
(iv)
R 0
4π U max
\ Directivity, D = (v)
Prad
For the two-element array, to maximize radiation intensity I(q, f), it is necessary to maximize
⎧π ⎫
cos 2 ⎨ (1 − sin θ cos φ ) ⎬ .
⎩4 ⎭
i.e. 1 sin q cos f = 0
⎧ (2n + 1) π ⎫
η0 I 02 cos 2 ⎨ cos θ ⎬
\ U array (θ , φ ) = ⎩ 2 ⎭
2π sin θ
2 2
1.
The time-averaging of this would further introduce a factor
2
Thus, the directivity of the two-element array will be twice that of the single antenna
resonating at the same mode.
12.62 It has been shown in Section 13.9 of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd
Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, that when the plane waves are propagating in the
z-direction along a set of perfect conductors, the Hertz vector and the vector potential in
the z-direction are parallel to the currents. When the scalar potential is eliminated by using
the Hertz vector, a vector potential is obtained which is normal to z-direction. Obtain this
result, by solving directly the scalar propagation equation:
∂ 2W ∂ 2W ∂ 2W ∂ 2W
+ + − με = 0.
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂t 2
Sol. We rewrite the scalar propagation equation as
⎡ ∂ 2W ∂ 2W ⎤ ⎡ ∂ 2W ∂ 2W ⎤
⎢ 2 + ⎥+ ⎢ 2 − με ⎥=0 (i)
⎣ ∂x ∂y 2 ⎦ ⎣ ∂z ∂t 2 ⎦
and equate each part separately to zero, i.e.
∂ 2W ∂ 2W
+ =0 (ii)
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂ 2W ∂ 2W
and − με =0 (iii)
∂z 2 ∂t 2
Equation (ii) is now two-dimensional Laplaces equation, and (iii) is one-dimensional wave
equation in z and t.
Let V1(x, y), V2(x, y) be the solutions of the Laplaces equation in two dimensions.
The solutions of Eq. (iii) can be of the form
⎪⎧ t ⎪⎫ ⎪⎧ t ⎪⎫
f1 ⎨ z − ⎬ and f 2 ⎨ z + ⎬
⎪⎩ με ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ με ⎪⎭
⎧⎪ t ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ t ⎫⎪
\ W = V1 ( x, y ) f1 ⎨ z − ⎬ + V2 ( x, y ) f 2 ⎨ z + ⎬ (iv)
⎪⎩ με ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪ με ⎭⎪
Let W1 and W2 be complex potential functions. Then

W1 = U1 + jV1 = F1 ( x + jy ) and W2 = U 2 + jV2 = F2 ( x + jy ) (v)
Let us define ³2 as the two-dimensional vector operator, i.e.
∂ ∂
∇2 ≡ i x + iy
∂x ∂y
∂V ∂V
so that ∇ 2V = i x + iy
∂x ∂y
then
i [ ³7 ³6 BOE i [ ³6 ³7 ÞÑ

ß (vi)
and ³ ËÍ ³ 6 ^ G [
`ÛÝ i [ ³ ËÍ6 ^ G [
`ÛÝ àÑ
\ The vector potential for a transverse electric field is
ÎÑ t ÞÑ ÎÑ t ÞÑ
A = ³ î z W ` i z ³2V1 f1 Ï z ß i z ³2V2 f 2 Ï z ß
ÑÐ PH Ñà ÑÐ NF Ñà
ÎÑ U ÞÑ ÎÑ U ÞÑ
= ³6 Y Z
G Ï[ ß ³6 Y Z
G Ï[ ß (vii)
ÑÐ NF Ñà ÑÐ NF Ñà
where the first term represents the wave travelling in the positive z-direction, and the
second term represents a wave travelling in the negative z-direction.
The expressions for the fields are
⎧⎪ t ⎫⎪
B = ∇ × A = ∇ 2 V ( x, y ) f ′ ⎨ z B ⎬ (viii)
⎩⎪ με ⎭⎪
∂A 1 ⎧⎪ t ⎫⎪
and E=− =± U ( x, y ) f ′ ⎨ z B ⎬ (ix)
∂t με ⎩⎪ με ⎭⎪
The upper sign corresponds to the positive wave.

From Eqs. (vi), (viii) and (ix),
με E = B i z × B (x)
12.63 A set of p end-fire two-element linear dipole arrays described in Problems 12.60 and 12.61
are set at half-wave intervals along the y-axis. Show that the radiation intensity pattern
given by the Poynting vector is
⎧ pπ ⎫
S = S1 ⎩ 2 ⎭
2 ⎧π ⎫
sin ⎨ sin θ sin φ ⎬
⎩2 ⎭
U1 (θ , φ )
where S1 = for the two-element array discussed in Problems 12.60 and 12.61
r2
λ
with a = and the two elements in-phase.
4
Sol. Since for the two-element linear dipole array,
λ, (2n + 1) λ ,
a= L=
4 2
and the two dipoles are in-phase, the radiation intensity pattern S1 is
U1 (θ , φ )
S1 =
r2
⎧ (2n + 1) π ⎫ ⎧π ⎫
μ c I 02 cos 2 ⎨ cos θ ⎬ cos 2 ⎨ sin θ cos φ ⎬
= ⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎩4 ⎭
2π r sin θ
2 2 2
l/2
O y
a = l /4
Fig. 12.27 p-sets of end-fire arrays along y-axis.
In this problem, we use the technique of Pattern Multiplication, then

Resultant pattern = Unit pattern × Group pattern,
or
E (total) = E due to single element at the origin × Array Factor.
In the present problem, the single element is in fact the two-element dipole sub-array
described in Problems 12.60 and 12.61. Hence the E-field at the origin is
⎧ (2n + 1) π ⎫ ⎧π ⎫
I 0η0 e − jβ r cos ⎨ cos θ ⎬ cos ⎨ sin θ cos θ ⎬
Eq = j ⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎩4 ⎭
2π r sin θ
For the p sets of sub-arrays spaced along the y-axis, the Array Factor (AF) has to be
evaluated.
\ AF = 1 + e jψ + e j 2ψ + ... + e j ( p − 1) ψ
where
y = b × spacing between successive sub-arrays × sin q sin f
(Section 19.5.3 Linear Arrays in ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications,
(2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009)
2π , λ
β= spacing between successive sub-arrays =
λ 2
\ y = p sin q sin f
sin q sin f comes because the sub-arrays are arranged along the y-axis. Each sub-array is
fed with the same current I0 and they are all in-phase, i.e. phase angle a = 0. Since we are
interested in the far field, the distances from each sub-array to the observation point are
equal and can be considered as parallel.
(If the sub-arrays were arranged along the z-axis, y = b d cos q + a,
a being the phase difference between successive elements.)
1 − e jpψ
\ AF = where y = p sin q sin f
1 − e jψ
Z Z KQ
Z
F KQZ
KQ KQ
F F F
\ AF =
F KZ K
Z ¹ K
Z K
Z
F F F
⎛ pψ ⎞
sin ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
ψ
j ( p − 1)
2
AF = e
⎛ψ ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
ψ
j ( p − 1)
The phase factor e would not be present if the array were centred about the origin
2
of the coordinate system. So this term can be neglected.
⎧ pπ ⎫
⎩ 2 ⎭
\ AF =
⎧ π ⎫
⎩2 ⎭
⎧ (2n + 1) π ⎫ ⎧π ⎫ ⎧ pπ ⎫
I 0η0 e− jβ r cos ⎨ ⎬ cos ⎨ sin θ cos φ ⎬ sin ⎨ sin θ sin φ ⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎩4 ⎭ ⎩ 2 ⎭
\ Eq (total) =
⎧π ⎫
2π r sin θ sin ⎨ sin θ sin φ ⎬
⎩2 ⎭
⎧ pπ ⎫
U (θ , φ ) U1 (θ , φ ) . ⎩ 2 ⎭
\ =
r 2
r 2
⎧ π ⎫
⎩2 ⎭
12.64 p number of half-wave in-phase antennae are positioned end-to-end along the z-axis, show
that the radiation intensity at a great distance is
⎧π ⎫ ⎧ pπ ⎫
μ c I 02 cos 2 ⎨ cos θ ⎬ sin 2 ⎨ cos θ ⎬
U (θ , φ ) ⎩2 ⎭ ⎩ 2 ⎭.
=
r 2
⎧ π ⎫
8 π r 2 sin 2 θ . sin 2 ⎨ cos θ ⎬
⎩2 ⎭
Sol. This problem can be treated as a special simplified case of Problem 12.63. So we will
indicate the basic steps without going into each detailed step.
For a half-wave antenna with its centre at the origin and axis along the z-axis.
ÎQ Þ
I0 I 0 e j C r cos Ï cos R ß ER 1
Ð2 à, H
Eq 1 = j G
2Q r sin R 1 I0
1 2
Time-average power density, Pav = I0 H G ir
2
Radiation intensity = Pav × r2
To calculate the AF,
λ λ λ
d = inter- element spacing = + =
4 4 2
Since all the antennae are positioned along the z-axis, being in-phase antennae.
ψ = β d cos θ + α , α=0
2π . λ
= cos θ = π cos θ
λ 2
⎧ pπ ⎫
sin ⎨ cos θ ⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭
\ AF =
⎧π ⎫
sin ⎨ cos θ ⎬
⎩2 ⎭
Hence the radiation intensity will be as stated in the problem.
12.65 A rectangular cavity of dimensions a × b × d is made from a rectangular waveguide of

cross-sectional dimension a × b by putting conducting walls at z = 0 and z = d. The cavity
is operating in TE mode. Starting from the vector potential A for the rectangular waveguide,
which can be written in the form
∂2A ∂ 2Wte ,
∇ 2 A = με to ∇ 2Wte = με
∂t 2 ∂t 2
the vector A being expressed in terms of the scalar Wte as
A = Ñ × (izWte) and hence the magnetic field as
B = Ñ × (iz × ÑWte),
derive the field expressions for the cavity in the general TEmnp mode (m, n, p being not
equal to zeroes) and hence show that the quality factor Qte is given by
1
v NT E Q (m 2 b 2 + n 2 a 2 ) ( m 2b 2 d 2 n 2 a 2 d 2 p 2 a 2b 2 )3/ 2
4
Qte = 2 3 3 2
p a b ËÍ n a ( a d ) m 2b (b d ) ÛÝ d 3 (a b) ( m 2b 2 n 2 a 2 ) 2
where
d = skin-depth of the wall material
s = conductivity of the wall material.
Sol. See Fig. 12.28.
Fig. 12.28 The rectangular cavity.
The vector potential for the rectangular waveguide bounded by the walls x = 0, x = a,
y = 0 and y = b and operating in TE mode can be derived from the scalar function Wte where
A = Ñ × (iz Wte) (i)
(Refer Section 13.8.5, Eq. (13.102) of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition,
PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009.)
Wte can be expressed as
Wte = UteZte, U = U(x, y), Z = Z(z, t) (ii)
The time variation for the propagating wave would be sinusoidal (i.e. time-harmonic
function) so that the scalars U and Z can be made to satisfy the equations
d 2 Z te
∇ 22 U te ± β mn
2
U te = 0 and + ( β 2 B β mn
2
) Z te = 0 (iii)
2
dz
where w = 2p f, f being the frequency of propagation in the medium of the waveguide
whose permeability is m and permittivity is e, so that b 2 = w 2me;
∂2 ∂2 .
and ∇ 22 = two-dimensional Laplacian operator in x and y = +
∂x 2 ∂y 2
Using the boundary conditions for the guide tube operating in TE mode, on its four walls,
i.e. if n is a unit vector normal to the boundary surface, then on such a surface (for the
waveguide)
U te
n A te 0 n . ³ (i z Wte ) 0 (iiia)
n
the scalar function Ute can be expressed as
mπ x nπ y , ⎛ m2 n2 ⎞
U te = Cmn cos cos βmn
2
= π2 ⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟
⎜a (iv)
a b ⎝ b ⎟⎠
v2 ⎛ m2 n2 ⎞ v2
and
2
f mn = ⎜⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟⎟ = 2
4 ⎝a b ⎠ λmn
where
and lmn = wavelength of the TEmn mode.

1/ 2
Zte = (const) . exp B *mn z , *mn j C 2 – C mn
2
= B mn + j C mn
(v)
and the time-variation is [exp ( jw t)].

Since the cavity is formed by putting conducting walls at z = 0 and z = d, normal to the
direction of propagation, the travelling waves of the waveguide get converted to the
standing wave pattern by combining the forward and backward travelling waves of eqaul
amplitude, i.e.
pQ z
Wte ^ AU1 ( x, y) BU 2 ( x, y)`te sin cos (X p t Z p) te (in general terms) (vi)
d
and hence for this rectangular cavity,
mπ x nπ y pπ z
Wte = C . cos cos sin cos (ωt + ψ ) mnp (vii)
a 2 d
(for the general TEmnp mode)
Now, A = Ñ × (iz Wte)
The field components can be obtained by using the equations
∂A te , ⎫
Ete = − and ⎪
∂t ⎬ (viii)
B te = − ∇ × (i z × ∇Wte )⎪⎭
The field components come out as:
∂A te pπ z
Ete = −
∂t
= ω p (i z × ∇ ) sin
d
(
sin ω p t + φ p )
= i x Ex te + i y E y te
⎧ nπ mπ x nπ y pπ z ⎫
= − ⎨ω mnp C cos sin sin sin (ωt + ψ )mnp ⎬ i x
⎩ b a b d ⎭
⎧ mπ mπ x nπ y pπ z ⎫
+ ⎨ω mnp C sin cos sin sin (ωt + ψ )mnp ⎬ i y (ix)
⎩ a a b d ⎭
since Ez te would be zero for the TE mode.
and Bte = ix Bx te + iy By te + iz Bz te
= ³ A te = ³ >³ i z Wte @ = ³ (i z ³Wte )
Ë pQ pQ z pQ z Û
= Ì ³2 U te cos i z C mn
2
U te sin cos (X p t Gp )
Í d d d ÜÝ
⎧ ∂ ∂⎫
⎨ Note : ∇ 2 ≡ i x + iy ⎬
⎩ ∂x ∂y ⎭
⎡ pπ . mπ mπ x nπ y pπ z ⎤
= i x ⎢− C sin cos cos cos (ωt + ψ )mnp ⎥
⎣ d a a b d ⎦
pQ . nQ mQ x nQ y pQ z ¯
i y ¡ C cos sin cos cos (X t Z ) mnp °
¡¢ d b a b d °±
Ë ÎÑÈ mQ Ø 2 È nQ Ø 2 ÞÑ mQ x . nQ y pQ z Û
i z Ì C ÏÉ Ù É Ù ß cos cos sin cos (X t Z )mnp Ü (x)
ÌÍ ÑÐÊ a Ú Ê b Ú Ñ
à a b d ÜÝ
Note that for the standing wave-pattern in the cavity, its natural (resonant) frequency, fmnp, is
given by
v2 v2 v 2 ÎÑÈ mQ Ø
2
È nQ Ø
2
È pQ Ø ÞÑ
2
X mnp
2
2
f mnp C mnp
2
ÏÉ Ù ÉÊ ÙÚ ÉÊ Ù ß (xi)
Mmnp
2
4Q 2 4Q 2 ÑÐÊ a Ú b d Ú Ñà 4Q 2
for the TEmnp mode.

To evaluate the quality factor Qte, which is
⎧ Energy stored in the cavity ⎫

Qte = ω ⎨ ⎬ (xii)
⎩ Power loss in the cavity ⎭
Energy stored in the cavity = Average electrical energy stored (= We)
+ Average magnetic energy stored (= Wm )
But Wm = We.
\ Energy stored = Wm + We = 2Wm = 2We (xiii)
B C E

\ We =
F
Ô Ô Ô 3F E E EY EZ E[
Y Z [

and (xiv)
B C E
N
Wm = Ô Ô Ô 3F H ¹ H EY EZ E[
Y Z [

Hence for the present problem, we calculate Wm , i.e.
μ
a b d
1 2 ⎡⎛ pπ ⎞2 ⎛ mπ ⎞2 2 mπ x nπ y pπ z
Wm =
2μ 2
∫ ∫ ∫ 2C ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎢⎣⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠
⎟ sin
a
cos 2
b
cos 2
d
x =0 y =0 z =0
2 2
⎛ pπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ 2 mπ x nπ y pπ z
+⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ cos sin 2 cos 2
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ ⎠b a b d
⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎫⎪
2 ⎤
2 mπ x 2 nπ y 2 pπ z ⎥
+ ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ cos cos sin dx dy dz
⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ a b d ⎥
⎥⎦
⎡ 2 ⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ nπ ⎞ 2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ nπ ⎞ 2 ⎫⎪
2⎤
C 2 . abd ⎢⎛ pπ ⎞ ⎥
= ⎜ ⎟ ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬ + ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬
4 μ 8 ⎢⎝ d ⎠ ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
C 2 . abd ⎪⎧⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎪⎫ ⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎛ pπ ⎞ ⎪⎫

2 2 2 2 2
⎛ nπ ⎞
= ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ ⎨ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ (xv)
4μ 8 ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎭⎪
Hence the energy stored in the cavity will be twice the value of Wm.
Next to calculate the power loss in the cavity, we need to calculate the eddy current losses
in the six walls of the cavity, remembering that the losses in the parallel walls (i.e. x = 0 and
x = a, y = 0 and y = b, and z = 0 and z = d) are equal.
\ PL = PLx =0 + PLx = a + PLy =0 + PLy =b + PLz =0 + PLz = d
= 2 ( PLx = 0 + PLy = 0 + PLz = 0 ) (xvi)
1
Now, loss on any wall = (surface current )2 × RS,
2
where RS = the surface resistance of the wall (xvii)
= (ω μ ) /(2σ )
s = conductivity of the cavity wall (xviii)
In the present problem, since each wall contains two components of tangential H, there will
be two components of surface currents on it.
Hence on x = 0 and a,
JS ( x = 0) = J S ( x = a ) = i y H y ( x = 0) + i z H z ( x = 0)
JS ( y = 0) = JS ( y = b) = i z H z ( y = 0) + i x H x ( y = 0)
and JS ( z = 0) = J S ( z = d ) = i x H x ( z = 0) + i y H y ( z = 0) (xix)
Thus
Hx produces losses on y = 0 and z = 0 walls
Hy produces losses on z = 0 and x = 0 walls
Hz produces losses on x = 0 and y = 0 walls.
(and also on the corresponding parallel walls which are being accounted for by the factor 2).
B.
Since the magnetic fields have been obtained in terms of B, the corresponding H =
μ
So we calculate PL also as
PL = 2 ( PLH + PLH + PLH ) (xx)
x y z
2
1 C 2 ⎛ pπ ⎞ ⎛ mπ ⎞
2 ⎡ x=a z =d
⎧ 2 mπ x pπ z ⎫
\ PLH = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ S⎢ ∫
R ∫ ⎨sin cos 2 ⎬ dx dz
x 2 μ2 ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎢⎣ x =0 z =0 ⎩
a d ⎭
↑
y = 0 wall
x = a y =b
⎧ 2 mπ x ⎤
2 nπ y ⎫
+ ∫ ∫⎩ ⎨sin
a
cos
b
⎬
⎭
dx dy ⎥
⎥⎦
x =0 y =0
↑
z = 0 wall
2 2
C 2 ⎛ pπ ⎞ ⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎛ ad ab ⎞
= 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ RS ⎜ + ⎟ (xxia)
2μ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ 4 4 ⎠
2
1 C 2 ⎛ pπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞
2 ⎡ x=a y =b
⎧ 2 mπ x 2 nπ y ⎫
PLH = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ RS ⎢ ∫ ∫ ⎨cos sin ⎬ dx dy
y 2 μ2 ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎢⎣ x =0 y =0 ⎩ a b ⎭
↑
z = 0 wall
y b z d
Î 2 mQ y Û
2 pQ z Þ
Ô ÔÏ sin cos ß dy dz Ü
Ü
z 0Ð
a d à
y 0 Ý

x 0 wall
$ È QQ Ø È OQ Ø

34 ÈÉÊ BC CE ØÙÚ
= É Ù É Ù (xxib)
N Ê E Ú Ê C Ú
2
1 C2 ⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎫⎪ ⎡ y =b z=d
⎧ 2 nπ y 2 pπ z ⎫
PLH = ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬ RS ⎢ ∫ ∫ ⎨cos sin ⎬ dy dz
z 2 μ2 ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎢⎣ y =0 z =0 ⎩
b d ⎭
↑
x = 0 wall
x=a z =d ⎤
⎧ 2 mπ x 2 pπ z ⎫
+ ∫ ∫ ⎨ cos sin ⎬ dx dz ⎥
z =0 ⎩
x =0
a d ⎭ ⎥⎦
↑
y = 0 wall
2
C 2 ⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎫⎪
2 2
⎛ bd ad ⎞ .
= 2 ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ RS ⎜ + ⎟ (xxic)
2μ ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎝ 4 4 ⎠
Adding the above three quantities and multiplying by two to account for all six walls, and
rearranging terms
⎡ 2 2
C 2 RS ⎢ ⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎫⎪
2 2 2
⎛ pπ ⎞ ⎛ mπ ⎞
PL = 2 2 ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ d ( a + b) + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ a (b + d )
2 μ 4 ⎢ ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠
⎢⎣
2
⎛ pπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞
2 ⎤
+ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ b (a + d ) ⎥ (xxii)
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎥⎦
Time average energy stored

Now, Qte = 2π
Energy loss per cycle of oscillation
W ωW ⎛ 1⎞
= 2π = ⎜ since T = ⎟ (xxiii)
PL T PL ⎝ f ⎠
In this case w is wmnp, and hence
2C 2 abd ÎÑÈ mQ Ø È nQ Ø ÞÑ ÎÑÈ mQ Ø È nQ Ø È pQ Ø ÞÑ

2 2 2 2 2
ÏÉ
Ù É Ù ß ÏÉ
Ù É Ù É Ù ß X mnp
4 N 8 ÐÑÊ a Ú Ê b Ú àÑ ÐÑÊ a Ú Ê b Ú Ê d Ú Ñà
Qte
2C 2 RS Ë ÎÑÈ mQ Ø È nQ Ø ÞÑ Û
2 2
È pQ Ø È mQ Ø È pQ Ø È nQ Ø
2 2 2 2 2
Ì ÏÉÊ ÙÚ ÉÊ ÙÚ ß d ( a b) ÉÊ ÙÚ ÉÊ ÙÚ a (b d ) ÉÊ ÙÚ ÉÊ ÙÚ b( a d ) Ü
2 N 4 Ì ÑÐ a
2
b Ñà d a d b Ü
Í Ý
3/ 2
ÎÑÈ mQ Ø 2 È nQ Ø 2 ÞÑ ÎÑÈ mQ Ø 2 È nQ Ø 2 È pQ Ø 2 ÞÑ
ÏÉÊ ÙÚ + ÉÊ ÙÚ ß ÏÉÊ Ù + É Ù + ÉÊ Ù ß
1 N abd v ÐÑ a b àÑ ÐÑ a Ú Ê b Ú d Ú Ñà

4 RS Ë ÎÑ mQ 2 2 2
nQ Ø ÞÑ Û
È pQ Ø È mQ Ø È pQ Ø È nQ Ø
2 2 2 2
Ì ÏÉÈ Ø È
Ù + É Ù ß d ( a + b ) + É Ù É Ù a (b + d ) + É Ù É Ù b(a + d ) Ü
Ì ÐÑÊ a Ú Ê b Ú àÑ Ê d Ú Ê a Ú Ê d Ú Ê b Ú Ü
Í Ý
(xxiv)
ωμ , 1 2σ 2
Note: Since RS = = =σ =σ δ (xxiva)
2σ RS ωμ ωμσ
where d is the skin-depth of the wall material.
The notation d has been used for the skin-depth instead of d 2 of Eqs. (15.11) and
(15.12) of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New
Delhi, 2009, as in the present problem d is the z-dimension.
1 μ v abd 1
\ = μ v σδ abd , (xxv)
4 RS 4
and abd combined with the bracketted terms would reduce Qte to the required form as
given in the statement of the problem.
12.66 The rectangular cavity of Problem 12.65 is now operating in TM mode. Again, starting from
the vector potential A, written in terms of the scalar Wtm which again satisfy the same
equation, i.e.
∂2A ∂ 2Wtm ,
∇ 2 A = με to ∇ 2Wtm = με
∂t 2 ∂t 2
the vector A now being expressed in terms of the scalar function Wtm as
A = ∇ × (i z × ∇Wtm ) and the magnetic field
( )
B = − ∇ × i z β 2 ∇Wtm where β 2 = ωμε , with ω being the angular frequency of the time-
variation oscillations.
Derive the field expressions for the cavity in the general TMmnp mode (m, n, p being not
equal to zeroes) and show that the quality factor Qtm is given by
v μ σ δ π (m 2b 2 + n 2 a 2 ) (m 2 b2 d 2 + n 2 a 2 d 2 + p 2 a 2 b 2 )1/ 2
Qtm =
2 ⎡⎣ ab (2 − δ 0p ) (m 2 b 2 + n 2 a 2 ) + 2d ( n 2 a3 + m 2 b3 ) ⎤⎦
where δ p is the Kronecker delta and the other symbols have the same meanings as in
0
Problem 12.65.
Sol. The rectangular cavity of this problem is same as that of Problem 12.65, except that
it is now operating in TM mode. So, as before, we start from the rectangular waveguide
bounded by the walls x = 0, x = a, y = 0 and y = b, operating in TM mode and its vector
potential can be derived from the scalar function Wtm (which is explained in Section 13.8.5,
Eq. (13.102) of Electromagnetism Theory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning,
New Delhi, 2009), as
A = ∇ × (i z × ∇Wtm ) (i)
Wtm can be expressed as Wtm = UtmZtm where

U = U(x, y) and Z = Z(z, t), (ii)
the wave propagation being a time-harmonic function, i.e. sinusoidal time-variation. U and
Z again satisfy the equations:
d 2 Z tm
∇ 22 U tm ± βmn
2
U tm = 0, 2
+ (β 2 B βmn
2
) Z tm = 0, (iii)
dz
Utm being the function of transverse coordinates only.
The relevant boundary conditions (usually expressed in terms of the field vectors of the
waveguide) expressed in terms of the vector potential A and Wtm will be now:
n × {∇ × (i z × ∇Wtm )} = 0 = n × ⎡⎣i z ∇ 2 Wtm − i z . ∇ (∇ Wtm ) ⎤⎦ (iv)
which after some vector manipulations reduce to
∂U tm
U tm = 0 and =0 (v)
∂s
where s is a coordinate along the boundary surface.
Hence in this case the guide tube operating in the TM mode, will give the solution for Utm as
mπ x nπ y , ⎫
U tm = Cmn sin sin ⎪
a b ⎪
⎛ m 2
n 2 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 2
v m n 2 ⎞
v 2 ⎬ (vi)
βmn = π 2 ⎜⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟⎟ = + ⎟= 2 ⎪
2 2
and f mn ⎜
⎝a b ⎠ 4 ⎝⎜ a 2 b 2 ⎠⎟ λmn ⎪⎭
where (as in the previous Problem 12.65)

v = the velocity of propagation of the wave
lmn = wavelength of the TMmn mode.
Hence
Z tm = (const).exp (B *mn z ), *mn = j ( C 2 – C mn ) = B mn + j C mn

2 1/ 2
(vii)
and the time variation is [exp (jw t)].
As it is the same cavity of Problem 12.65 (Fig. 12.28), it has conducting walls at z = 0 and
z = d normal to the direction of propagation of the travelling wave in the waveguide. These
walls produce a standing wave pattern as a result of the interaction between the forward
and backward travelling waves of equal amplitudes. Hence
8 $ TJO NQ Y TJO OQ Z TJO QQ [ DPT X U Z

NOQ (viii)
UN
B C E
From this expression, and A in terms of Wtm and hence Etm and Btm can be calculated (from
the expressions in the statement of the problem). Since the cavity is operating in TM mode
now, Etm will have all the three components and Btm will have x- and y-components only.
A tm
\ Etm = – – i x Ex i y E y i z Ez
t
Î QQ NQ NQ Y OQ Z QQ [ Þ
= i Y ÏX NOQ $ DPT TJO TJO TJO X U Z
NOQ ß
Ð E B B C E à
Î QQ OQ NQ Y OQ Z QQ [
i Z ÏX NOQ $ TJO DPT TJO X U Z
NOQ Þß
TJO
Ð E C B C E à
$ ÑÏÈÉÊ NQ ØÙÚ È OQ Ø NQ Y TJO OQ Z DPT QQ [ TJO X U Z
ÎÑ Î Þ
Ñ ÞÑ
i [ Ï X NOQ É Ù ß TJO ß (ix)
ÐÑ B
Ê C Ú B C E NOQ
ÐÑ àÑ àÑ
and Btm = ixBx + iyBy
QQ [

= C NOQ i [ ³6 UN DPT DPT X U Z
NOQ
E
Î OQ NQ Y OQ Z QQ [ Þ
= i Y ÏC NOQ $ TJO DPT DPT DPT X U Z
NOQ ß
Ð C B C E à
Î
i Z Ï C NOQ $ NQ DPT NQ Y TJO OQ Z DPT QQ [ DPT X U Z
NOQ Þß (x)
Ð B B C E à
Its natural (resonant) frequency fmnp is given by
v2 v2 v 2 ÎÑÈ mQ Ø
2
È nQ Ø
2
È pQ Ø ÞÑ
2
X mnp
2
2
f mnp C mnp
2
ÏÉ Ù ÉÊ ÙÚ ÉÊ Ù ß (xi)
Mmnp
2
4Q 2 4Q 2 ÑÐÊ a Ú b d Ú àÑ 4Q 2
To evaluate the quality factor Qtm,
ω . Energy stored in the cavity
Qtm = (xii)
Power loss in the cavity
Energy stored in the cavity = Wm + We = 2Wm = 2We (xiii)
where Wm and We stand for average electrical and magnetic energy stored respectively.
B C E

Wm =
m
Ô Ô Ô 3F ^H ¹ H ` EY EZ E[
Y Z [

B C E
N Ë È OQ Ø NQ Y OQ Z QQ [
Ô Ô ÔC

= NOQ $ ÌÉ Ù TJO DPT DPT
ÌÍ Ê C Ú

N B C E
Y Z [
pπ z ⎤
2
⎛ mπ ⎞ 2 mπ x nπ y
+⎜ ⎟ cos sin 2 cos 2 ⎥ dx dy dz
⎝ a ⎠ a b d ⎥⎦
abd ÎÑÈ mQ Ø È nQ Ø ÞÑ
2 2
1
= C mnp
4
C 2 ÏÉ Ù É Ù ß (xiv)
4N 8 ÐÑÊ a Ú Ê b Ú Ñ
à
\ The energy stored in the cavity = 2Wm.
In this problem as well, the power loss in the cavity is the total eddy current losses in the
six cavity walls; and as before the losses in the parallel walls are also equal
\ 1- 1-Y
1-Z
1-[

(xv)
In this problem since there is no Hz component,
Hx produces losses on y = 0 and z = 0 walls, and
Hy produces losses on z = 0 and x = 0 walls
\ PL = 2 ( PLH + PLH ) (xvi)

x y
Note: The detailed intermediate steps explained in Problem 12.65 have not been repeated
in the present problem.
1 C ′2 4 ⎛ nπ ⎞
2 ⎡ a d 2 mπ x pπ z
\ PLH = β mnp ⎜ ⎟ RS ⎢ ∫ ∫ sin cos 2 dx dz
x 2 μ 2
⎝ b ⎠ ⎢⎣ x =0 z =0 a d
B C
NQ Y DPT OQ Z EY EZ ÛÜ
Ô Ô TJO

B C Ü
Y Z Ý
2
C ′2 ⎛ ad ab ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞
= β mnp
4
RS ⎜ + ⎟⎜ ⎟ (xviia)
2μ 2
⎝ 4 4 ⎠⎝ b ⎠
1 C ′2 4 ⎛ mπ ⎞
2 ⎡ a b
2 mπ x nπ y
\ PLH = β mnp ⎜ ⎟ S ⎢ ∫ ∫ cos
R sin 2 dx dy
y 2 μ2 ⎝ a ⎠ ⎢⎣ x =0 y =0 a b
b d
nπ y pπ z ⎤
+ ∫ ∫ sin 2
b
cos 2
d
dy dz ⎥
⎥⎦
y =0 z =0
2
C ′2 ⎛ ab bd ⎞ ⎛ mπ ⎞
= β mnp
4
RS ⎜ + ⎟⎜ ⎟ (xviib)
2μ 2
⎝ 4 4 ⎠⎝ a ⎠
C ′2 ⎡ ⎪⎧⎛ mπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ nπ ⎞ 2 ⎪⎫ ⎧⎪ ⎛ mπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎪⎫⎤
2
\ PL = 2 β 4
R
mnp S ⎢ ab ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ + d ⎨ b ⎜ ⎟ + a ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎥ (xviii)
8μ 2 ⎢⎣ ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪⎥⎦
ω . 2Wm
\ Qtm =
PL
abd ⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎫⎪
2 2
1
2 β mnp
4
C ′2 ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
4μ 8 ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪
= ω mnp
1 ⎡ ⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ ⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎫⎪⎤
2
2 C ′2 β mnp
4
RS ⎢ ab ⎨⎜ +
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ + d ⎨ ⎜
a ⎟ + b ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎥
8μ 2
⎢⎣ ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎪⎭⎥⎦
⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎫⎪
μ ω mnp abd ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪
=
⎡ ⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ ⎛ nπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎫⎪⎤
2
4 RS ⎢ ab ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬+d ⎨ ⎜
a ⎟ + b ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎥
⎢⎣ ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎪⎭⎥⎦
Substituting for wmnp from Eq. (xi) and for RS as
ωμ 1 2σ
RS = or = =σ δ
2σ RS ωμ
2
where d = = skin depth of the wall material,
ωμσ
1/ 2
ÎÑÈ mQ Ø 2 È nQ Ø 2 ÞÑ ÎÑÈ mQ Ø 2 È nQ Ø 2 È pQ Ø 2 ÞÑ
v NT E abd ÏÉ Ù É Ù ß ÏÉ Ù ÉÊ ÙÚ ÉÊ Ù ß
ÑÐÊ a Ú Ê b Ú Ñà ÑÐÊ a Ú b d Ú Ñà
Qtm = (xix)
Ë ÎÑ È mQ Ø 2 È nQ Ø 2 ÞÑ ÎÑ È nQ Ø 2 È mQ Ø ÞÑ Û
2
2 Ì 2ab Ï É Ù É Ù ß 2d Ï a ÉÊ ÙÚ b ÉÊ Ù ßÜ
ÌÍ ÑÐ Ê a Ú Ê b Ú Ñà ÑÐ b a Ú Ñà Ü
Ý
pπ z
It should be noted that when p = 0, then the cos 2 term in the integrand of Eq. (xiv)
d
becomes 1 (unity) and hence Eq. (xiv) reduces to
1 ⎧
2 abd ⎪⎛ mπ ⎞
2
⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎫⎪
2
Wm = β 4
mno C ′ ⎨⎜ ⎟ ⎜ + ⎟ ⎬ (xiva)
4μ 4 ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭
And by similar modifications in Eqs. (xviia) and (xviib), the value of PL in Eq. (xviii) becomes
1- $ CNOQ 34 Ì BC ÑÏÈÉÊ NQ ØÙÚ ÈÉÊ OQ ØÙÚ Ñß E ÑÏC ÈÉÊ NQ ØÙÚ B ÈÉÊ OQ ØÙÚ ÑßÜ
Ë Î Þ Î ÞÛ

N ÌÍ ÐÑ B C àÑ ÐÑ B C àÑÜÝ
Hence to incorporate these changes in Eq. (xix) to make the effects of the value of p = 0
inclusive, Eq. (xix) has to be modified to the following form, i.e.
1/ 2
⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ nπ ⎞2 ⎛ pπ ⎞2 ⎫⎪
v μ σ δ abd ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎪⎭
Qtm =
⎡ ⎧ 2
⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎫⎪
2 ⎧⎪ ⎛ mπ ⎞2 ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎫⎪⎤
2
0 ⎪⎛ mπ ⎞
2 ⎢ ab (2 − δ p ) ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ + 2d ⎨b ⎜ ⎟ + a ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎥
⎢⎣ ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭⎥⎦
where δ p is the Kronecker delta.

0
The above expression for Qtm is the same as the one given in the statement of the problem.
12.67 For the rectangular resonant cavity described in Problems 12.65 and 12.66, if d is the
shortest dimension, find the lowest possible frequency and show that for this frequency
when the cavity operates in the TM mode, the quality factor is given by
v μ σ δ π d (a 2 + b 2 )3/ 2
Qtm = .
2 ⎡⎣ ab (a 2 + b 2 ) + 2d ( a 3 + b3 ) ⎤⎦
Sol. This problem is very similar to Problem 12.66, except that the general integers m, n, p of the
general TM mode get replaced by specific values to be given for the lowest possible natural
frequency. This lowest possible frequency occurs when the integer corresponding to the
shortest dimension of the cavity (which in this case is d) is zero, and others are unity. Hence we
have, from the general frequency expression, fmnp as
1/ 2
v ⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ nπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ pπ ⎞ 2 ⎫⎪
f mnp = ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬ (i)
2π ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎪⎭
where
v = free wave velocity in the dielectric of permeability m of the cavity
s = the wall conductivity
d = the skin-depth.
Hence in this case p = 0, m = 1, n = 1 and
1/ 2
v ⎧⎪⎛ π ⎞2 ⎛ π ⎞2 ⎫⎪ ω110 v
f min = f110 = ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ = = β110 (ii)
2π ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ 2π 2π
As mentioned above, the method of solution of this problem is identical with that of
Problem 12.66 and hence we will not repeat all the detailed steps of the solution. We will
only write down the expressions for the field components and the integrals for the
evaluation of Wm and PL which would be sufficient help for the interested reader to work
out the remaining details necessary for the final solution. However as a short alternative
method we shall derive the expression for Qtm from the general Qtm expression by suitable
substitution of specific values of m, n and p. Hence, starting from the general method, the
field expressions for this mode of operation of the cavity are: (m = 1, n = 1, p = 0).
Etm = ix 0 + iy 0
Ë ÎÑÈ Q Ø 2 È Q Ø 2 ÞÑ Qx Qy Û
i z Ì X110 C ÏÉ Ù É Ù ß sin sin sin (X t Z )110 Ü (iii)
ÌÍ ÑÐÊ a Ú ÊbÚ Ñ
à a b ÜÝ
and
⎡ 2 π πx πy ⎤
Btm = i x ⎢ β11 C ′ sin cos cos (ωt + ψ )110 ⎥
⎣ b a b ⎦
⎡ 2 ′π πx πy ⎤
+ i y ⎢ −β11 C cos sin cos (ωt + ψ )110 ⎥ (iv)
⎣ a a b ⎦
1
a b d ⎡
2 ⎛π ⎞
2
2πx 2 π y ⎛π ⎞ 2πx 2πy
⎤
2
Wm = ∫ ∫ ∫ β110 C ′ ⎢⎢⎜⎝ b ⎟⎠ sin a cos b + ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠ cos a sin b ⎥⎥ dx dy dz
4
(v)
2μ x =0 y =0 z =0 ⎣ ⎦
1- 1-) Y 1-) Z
where
C ′2 ⎛π ⎞
2 ⎡ a d πx
a b
πx πy ⎤
PLH = β4
2 110
RS ⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ∫ ∫ sin 2 dx dz + ∫ ∫ sin 2 cos 2 dx dy ⎥ (vi a)
x 2μ ⎝b⎠ ⎢⎣ x =0 z =0 a x =0 y =0
a b ⎥⎦
and
C ′2 ⎛π ⎞
2 ⎡ a b πx 2 π y
b d
πy ⎤
PLHy = β4 R
2 110 S ⎜ ⎟
⎢ ∫ ∫ cos 2 sin dx dy + ∫ ∫ sin 2 dy dz ⎥ (vib)
2μ ⎝a⎠ ⎢⎣ x =0 y =0 a b y =0 z =0
b ⎥⎦
Hence Qtm110 can be evaluated and shown to have the value as stated.
Alternatively: We start from the general expression for Qtm obtained from Problem 12.66 as

WN T E BCE ÑÏÈÉÊ NQ ØÙÚ ÈÉÊ OQ ØÙÚ Ñß ÑÏÈÉÊ NQ ØÙÚ ÈÉÊ OQ ØÙÚ ÈÉÊ QQ ØÙÚ Ñß
Î Þ Î Þ
ÑÐ B C Ñà ÑÐ B C E Ñà
2
Ñ È NQ Ø È OQ Ø ÞÑ
Ë ÎÑ È NQ Ø È OQ Ø ÞÑ Û
UN
Î
Ì BC E
ÏÉ Ù É Ù ß E ÏC ÉÊ B Ü
ÌÍ ÑÐÊ B Ú Ê C Ú Ñà
Q
ÑÐ B ÙÚ ÉÊ C ÙÚ ßÑàÜÝ
For this problem, m = 1, n = 1, p = 0.
Hence
1/ 2
⎧⎪⎛ π ⎞2 ⎛ π ⎞2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪⎛ π ⎞2 ⎛ π ⎞2 ⎫⎪
v μ σ δ abd ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
Qtm 110 = ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪
⎡ ⎪⎧⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎪⎫
2 2 ⎧⎪ ⎛ π ⎞2 ⎛ π ⎞ ⎪⎫⎤
2
2 ⎢ ab (2 − 1) ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ + 2d ⎨b ⎜ ⎟ + a ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎥
⎢⎣ ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎪⎩ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎭⎪⎥⎦
{ }
3/ 2
v μ σ δ abd π 3 a 2 + b 2 ( a 3b3 )
=
( )
2π 2 ⎡ ab ( a 2 + b 2 ) + 2d a3 + b3 ⎤ (a 2 b 2 )
⎣ ⎦
v μ σ δ π d ( a 2 + b 2 )3/ 2
= (vii)
2 ⎡⎣ ab ( a 2 + b 2 ) + 2d ( a 3 + b3 ) ⎤⎦
12.68 If the cavity of Problem 12.67 is a rectangular box, i.e. a = b, then for the lowest TM mode,
show that the quality factor is given by
WNT E Q E
2UN
B E
Sol. Again, the method of solving this problem is same as that of Problem 12.66 or 12.67. So
as before we will not solve this problem in detail as shown in Problem 12.66. We shall merely
state the field expressions, the energy expressions and the wall losses. However we shall check
the correctness of the expression by deriving it from the Qtm of Problem 12.67.
Hence, for the lowest natural frequency, m = 1, n = 1, p = 0, and a = b, we have

W ÎÑÈ Q Ø È Q Ø ÞÑ W X W
C
ÏÉÊ ÙÚ ÉÊ ÙÚ ß (i)
Q Q Q
G NJO G
ÑÐ B B Ñà B
and next writing down the important expressions in the solution,

Etm = ix 0 + iy 0
Ë ÎÑ È Q Ø ÞÑ Q Y QZ Û
J[ ÌX $ Ï É Ù ß TJO TJO TJO X U Z
Ü (ii)
ÌÍ ÑÐ Ê B Ú Ñà B B ÜÝ
and
Ë Q QY QZ Û
B UN
i Y ÌC $

TJO DPT DPT X U Z

ÜÝ
Í B B B
Ë Q QY QZ Û
i Z Ì C $ DPT TJO DPT X U Z
Ü (iii)
Í B B B Ý
For stored energy,
1
a a d ⎡
2 ⎛π ⎞
2
2 πx 2 π y ⎛π ⎞
2
2 πx 2πy
⎤
Wm = ∫ ∫ ∫ β ′ +
4
110 C ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ sin cos ⎜ ⎟ cos sin ⎥ dx dy dz (iv)
2μ x = 0 y = 0 z =0 ⎢⎣⎝ a ⎠ a a ⎝a⎠ a a ⎥⎦
For power loss on walls,

PL = 2( PLH + PLH )
x y
where
C ′2 ⎛π ⎞
2 ⎡ a d πx
a a
πx 2πy ⎤
PLH = β4 R
2 110 S ⎜ ⎟
⎢ ∫ ∫ sin 2 dx dz + ∫ ∫ sin 2 cos dx dy ⎥ (va)
x 2μ ⎝a⎠ ⎢⎣ x =0 z =0 a x =0 y =0
a a ⎥⎦
and
C ′2 ⎛π ⎞
2 ⎡ a a πx 2 π y
a d
πy ⎤
PLH = β4 R
2 110 S ⎜ ⎟
⎢ ∫ ∫ cos 2 sin dx dy + ∫ ∫ sin 2 dy dz ⎥ (vb)
y 2μ ⎝a⎠ ⎢⎣ x =0 y =0 a a y =0 z =0
a ⎥⎦
Hence, as before Qtm110 for the rectangular box can be evaluated and shown to be having the
stated value.
Alternatively: Starting from the general expression for Qtm of Problem 12.66, we have:

ÎÑÈ NQ Ø È OQ Ø ÞÑ ÎÑÈ NQ Ø È OQ Ø È QQ Ø ÞÑ
W N T E BCE ÏÉ Ù É Ù ß ÏÉ Ù É Ù É Ù ß
ÑÐÊ B Ú Ê C Ú Ñà ÑÐÊ B Ú Ê C Ú Ê E Ú Ñà
2UN
Ë ÎÑÈ NQ Ø È OQ Ø ÞÑ ÎÑ È NQ Ø È OQ Ø ÞÑÛ

Ì BC E Q
ÏÉ
Ù É Ù ß E C
Ï ÉÊ B Ü
ÌÍ ÑÐÊ B Ú Ê C Ú àÑ ÐÑ B ÙÚ ÉÊ C ÙÚ ßàÑÜÝ
For this problem, m = 1, n = 1, p = 0 and a = b.

Hence
1/ 2
⎧⎪⎛ π ⎞2 ⎛ π ⎞2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪⎛ π ⎞2 ⎛ π ⎞2 ⎫⎪
v μ σ δ a d ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
2
Qtm 110 = ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎭⎪

⎡ ⎧⎪⎛ π ⎞2 ⎛ π ⎞2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ ⎛ π ⎞2 ⎛ π ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎤
2
2 ⎢ a 2 (2 − 1) ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ + 2d ⎨a ⎜ ⎟ + a ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎥⎦
v μ σ δ a 2 d π 3 2 2 / a3
=
2π 2 ⎣⎡ a 2 . 2 + 2d .2a ⎦⎤ / a 2
v μσ δ d π
=
(a + 2d ) 2
12.69 If the cavity of Problem 12.67 is cubical, i.e. a = b = d, then show that, for the lowest TM mode,
the quality factor is given by
v μσ δ π
Qtm =
3 2
where the symbols have the same meanings as in the previous problems.
Sol. Again, the same method used for Problem 12.66 applies to this problem and hence only
the important expressions written down for Problems 12.67 and 12.68 are reproduced here
without going into all the detailed intermediate steps. They are:
For the lowest natural frequency, m = 1, n = 1, p = 0 and a = b = d.
Hence
1/ 2
v ⎧⎪⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎫⎪ v ω110 v
f min = f110 = ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ = = = β110 (i)
2π ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎪⎭ a 2 2π 2π
The field components are:
Etm = ix 0 + iy 0
Ë ÎÑ È Q Ø ÞÑ QY QZ Û
i [ ÌX $ Ï É Ù ß TJO TJO TJO X U Z
Ü (ii)
ÌÍ ÑÐ Ê B Ú Ñà B B ÜÝ
and
Ë Q QY QZ Û
H UN
i Y ÌC $

TJO DPT DPT X U Z

ÜÝ
Í B B B
Ë Q QY QZ Û
i Z Ì C $ DPT TJO DPT X U Z
Ü (iii)
Í B B B Ý
For the stored energy
1
a a a ⎡
2 ⎛π ⎞
2
2πx 2 π y ⎛π ⎞
2
2πx π y⎤
Wm = ∫ ∫ ∫ 110 ⎢⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠
β 4
C ′ ⎢ sin cos + ⎜ ⎟ cos sin 2 ⎥ dx dy dz (iv)
2μ x =0 y =0 z =0 ⎣ a a ⎝a⎠ a a ⎦⎥
For power loss on the walls,
PL = 2( PLH + PLH )
x y
where
C ′2 ⎛π ⎞
2 ⎡ a a πx
a a
πx 2πy ⎤
PLH = β4 R
2 110 S ⎜ ⎟
⎢ ∫ ∫ sin 2 dx dz + ∫ ∫ sin 2 cos dx dy ⎥ (va)
x 2μ ⎝a⎠ ⎢⎣ x =0 z =0 a x =0 y =0
a a ⎥⎦
and
C ′2 ⎛π ⎞
2 ⎡ a a πx 2 π y
a a
πy ⎤
PLH = β4 R
2 110 S ⎜ ⎟
⎢ ∫ ∫ cos 2 sin dx dy + ∫ ∫ sin 2 dy dz ⎥ (vb)
y 2μ ⎝a⎠ ⎢⎣ x =0 y =0 a a y =0 z = 0
a ⎥⎦
Using these expressions, Qtm for the cubical cavity can be calculated by following the
procedure of Problem 12.66 and compared with the value given in the statement of this
problem.
For comparison, we start with the general expression for Qtm from Problem 12.66 which is
1/ 2
⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ nπ ⎞ 2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ nπ ⎞ 2 ⎛ pπ ⎞ 2 ⎫⎪
v μ σ δ abd ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎪⎭
⎩
Qtm =
⎡ ⎪⎧⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎪⎫
2 2
⎪⎧ ⎛ mπ ⎞
2
⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎪⎫⎤
2
2 ⎢ ab(2 − δ 0p ) ⎨⎜ +
⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎬ + 2 d ⎨ b ⎜⎝ ⎟ + a ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎬⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ a ⎠ b ⎪⎭⎥
⎩⎪ a b ⎪⎭ ⎩⎪ ⎦
For the present problem, m = 1, n = 1, p = 0, and a = b = d.
So,
1/ 2
⎧⎪⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎫⎪
v μ σ δ a ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
3
⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎩⎪⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎭⎪
Qtm110 =
⎡ ⎧⎪⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ π ⎞ ⎫⎪⎤
2
2 ⎢ a 2 (2 − 1) ⎨⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ + 2a ⎨a ⎜ ⎟ + a ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎥
⎢⎣ ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪ a
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎪⎥
⎭⎦
v μ σ δ a3 π 3 2 2 / a 3
=
2 ⎡⎣ a 2 .1.2 + 2a 2 .2 ⎤⎦ π 2 / a 2
v μσ δ π
=
3 2
12.70 A cavity is bounded by the planes x = 0, y = 0, x + y = a, z = 0 and z = d. Show that the

resonant frequency for the simplest TE mode is
v ( a 2 + d 2 )1/ 2
f =
2ad
and for the simplest TM mode is
v 5
f =
2a
Sol. The natural frequency of a rectangular cavity is
1/ 2
v ⎧⎪⎛ mπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎛ pπ ⎞ ⎫⎪
2 2 2
v v
f mnp = ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬ = = βmnp
2π ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎪⎭ λmnp 2π
where m, n, p are the integers for the x-, y-, and z-coordinates respectively and a, b and c are
the corresponding dimensions of the cavity. The lowest TE mode is for m = 1, n = 0,
p = 1 and the lowest TM mode is m = 1, n = 1, p = 0.
But this is not a rectangular cavity. It is a prismatic cavity with right-angled isosceles
triangular cross-section.
Fig. 12.29 Prismatic cavity, with right-angled, isosceles triangular cross-section
For the lowest TE mode, i.e. TE101 for m = 1, n = 0, p = 1, the section of the cavity in the x-z plane
is a rectangle.
2 ⎫1/ 2
v ⎧⎪⎛ 1. π ⎞ ⎛ 0. π ⎞ ⎛ 1. π ⎞
2 2
⎪
\ f101 = ⎨⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎬
2π ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎪⎭
1/ 2
v . ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ v (a 2 + d 2 )1/ 2
= π⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟ =
2π ⎝ a d ⎠ 2ad
For the lowest TM mode, i.e. TM110, for m = 1, n = 1, p = 0, the section of the cavity in the xy-
plane is a right-angled isosceles triangle, whose hypotenuse is the line x + y = a, i.e.
y = 0 at x = a and y = a at x = 0.
This line bisects the a × a square in the xy-plane.
1/ 2
v ⎧⎪⎛ 1.π ⎞ ⎛ 1. π ⎞ ⎛ 0.π ⎞ ⎫⎪
2 2 2
\ f110 = ⎨⎜ ⎟ ⎜+ ⎟ ⎜+ ⎟ ⎬
2π ⎪⎩⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a / 2 ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎪⎭
1/ 2
v . ⎧1 4⎫ v 5
= π⎨ + ⎬ =
2π ⎩ a 2 a 2 ⎭ 2a
12.71 A plane wave of angular frequency w in free space (m0, e0) is incident normally on a half-space
of very good conductor (m0, e0, s). Show that the ratio of the reflected to the incident time-
averaged Poynting vector is approximately RS = 1 2bd, where C X N F and d is the
skin-depth XNT

Sol. When a wave propagates in a conducting medium, the equation it satisfies is

& &
³ & NT NF (i)
U U
and E and H vectors with sinusoidal time variation come out as
E= JY &PY FYQ \ K X U L[
^ (iia)
È L Ø
and H= &PY É FYQ \ K X U L[
^ (iib)
Ê XN ÙÚ
JZ
where k comes to be
L X NF KXNT (iii)
However, if the conducting medium is a good conductor (or very good conductor), then
XF TBZ
T
then the above equations simplify because now
k2 = XNT
K (iv)
\ k= XNT
È XNT Ø K
(va)
É Ù LS KLJ
Ê Ú

and kr = k i = E E UIF TLJOEFQUI
(vb)
XNT
Now for plane polarized waves,
& XN XN È KQ Ø
= FYQ É (vi)
) L T Ê ÙÚ
Ë Î [ Þ [ Û
and E= JY &PY FYQ Ì K Ï U X ß Ü (viia)
Í Ð E à E Ý
T Ë Î [ QÞ [ Û
H= JZ &PY FYQ Ì K ÏX U ß Ü (viib)
XN Í Ð E à E Ý
In the present problem, a wave approaches the interface (plane) between free space and very
good conductor normally (Fig. 12.30).
z
Et
Ht
Good conductor
(m0, e0, s)
x O
Free space
(m0, e0)
Hi
Ei
Er Hr
Fig. 12.30 Reflection and transmission at a good conductor interface
(+ y-direction is normal to the plane of the paper and out of the paper).
Hence, we have
the incident waves:
Ei = JY &PJ FYQ < K X U L[
> (viiia)
Hi = JZ ) PJ FYQ < K XU L[
> (viiib)
the reflected waves:
Er = JY &PS FYQ < K X U L[
> (ixa)
Hr = JZ ) PS FYQ < K X U L[
> (ixb)
where
&PJ &PS N
= ; (x)
)PJ )PS F
Z0 being the intrinsic impedance of free space.
The transmitted waves in the good conductor are:
Ë Î [ Þ [ Û
Et = JY &PU FYQ Ì K ÏX U ß Ü (xia)
Í Ð E à E Ý
T Ë Î [ QÞ [ Û
Ht = JZ &PU FYQ Ì K ÏX U ß Ü (xib)
XN Í Ð E à E Ý
T Î Q
where Hot = & FYQ Ï K Þß (xii)
XN PU Ð à
To evaluate the unknown Eor and Eot, the two boundary conditions are:
(a) Etan is continuous, and
(b) Htan is continuous on the interface plane z = 0
The equations obtained from the boundary conditions are:

Ei + Er = Et and Hi Hr = Ht (xiii)
(Ref., Fig. 12.30).
\ Eoi + Eor = Eot (xiva)
and Hoi Hor = Hot (xivb)
From Eq. (xivb), we get
T K
Eoi Eor = ; &PU (xv)
XN
From Eqs. (xiva) and (xv)
T
Eoi Eor = ; K
&PJ &PS
XN
ÑÎ T ÑÞ ÑÎ T ÑÞ
or Eoi Ï ; K
ß &PS Ï ; K
ß
ÑÐ XN Ñà ÑÐ XN Ñà
T T
; K
K
&PS XN XF
\ =
&PJ T T
; K
K
XN XF
ÑÎ T ÑÞ T
Ï ß K
ÑÐ X F Ñà XF
= (xvi)
ÑÎ T ÑÞ T
Ï ß K
ÑÐ XF Ñà XF
Since our interest is in the ratio of the time-averaged Poynting vectors of the reflected and the
incident waves in the free space region of the problem and also the ratio of the H waves is

È N Ø &S
; É &R Y
this ratio would be the same as that of as obtained from Eq. (xvi).
F Ù
Ê Ú &J

ÑÎ T ÑÞ T
Ï ß
ÐÑ XF àÑ XF
\ RS =
ÎÑ T ÞÑ T
Ï ß
ÐÑ XF àÑ XF
TT

XF
XF
=
T T

XF XF
T
For good conductors, !!
XF
T XF

XF T
\ 34 =
T XF

XF T
XF X N F ¹
=
T XNT
ÎÑ ÞÑ
= ÏX N F ¹ ß
ÐÑ XNT àÑ
= 1 2 bd

where S X N F BOE E ¬ the skin depth of the conductor.
XNT
Note: This problem has also been solved in Appendix 12, Section A.12.2.2 of forthcoming
third edition of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, PHI Learning, New Delhi, by
using the concept of complex refractive index ne whereas here we have obtained the ab initio
solution without using complex n.
Electromagnetism and 13
Special Relativity
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The subject matter of this chapter is mainly to bring in the clarity of thought while looking at various
problems dealing with fields as observed in stationary as well as moving coordinate systems (relative
to the observer). So, we have electromagnetic field vectors E, D, H, B measured by an observer in
a given system of coordinates S and the corresponding field quantities E¢, D¢, H¢, B¢ measured by an
observer in another coordinate system S¢ which moves relative to S with a uniform velocity v. Then,
the equations relating these two sets of quantities are:
v × H⎫
E′ = E + v × B, D′ = D +
c 2 ⎪⎪
⎬ (i)
v×E
H′ = H − v × D, B′ = B − 2 ⎪
c ⎪⎭
Since S is moving relative to S¢ with a velocity v, the inverse equations can be written as:
v × H′ ⎫
E = E′ − v × B′, D = D′ −
c2 ⎪⎪
⎬ (ii)
v × E′ ⎪
H = H′ + v × D′, B = B′ +
c2 ⎪⎭
It will be immediately seen that these two sets of equations are not self-consistent. The errors
are, of course, of the order of (v/c)2 and for low velocities can be neglected. The equations, when
corrected for the relativistic effects, become self-consistent.

ÎÑ È v Ø ÞÑ
The correction factor, C Ï É Ù ß does not enter these equations as a constant factor and
Ê DÚ Ñ
ÐÑ à
hence the corrected equations cannot be expressed vectorially. Each component has to be considered
separately.
A point to be noted is that we have already included a number of moving media problems, in
particular dealing with electromagnetic induction in Chapter 6 along with other electromagnetic
induction problems for comparison purposes. It will be helpful for the understanding of readers, if
those problems are studied again along with the problems of this chapter.
855
13.2 PROBLEMS
13.1 A charged particle q is moving, with a velocity u, perpendicularly towards a long straight wire
in which flows a current i. When the particle is at a distance r from the wire, calculate, to the
first order
(a) the force on the particle and
(b) the resultant force on the wire.
Indicate the directions of forces by a sketch and show that they violate a well-known
dynamical principle.
13.2 Two charged particles q1 and q2 are situated, respectively, at the origin of the coordinate
system and at the point (x, 0, 0) in a frame of reference F. The charge q1 has a velocity u1
along the x-axis, q2 has a velocity u2 parallel to the y-axis. Find the magnitudes and the
directions of the forces on each particle as measured by an observer in F, showing that they
violate the same principle as the forces in Problem 13.1.
13.3 Under the influence of ultraviolet light, electrons are emitted with negligible velocities from
the negative plate of a parallel plate capacitor of separation d, which is situated in a magnetic
field with B parallel to the plates and across which a potential difference V is applied. Taking
a suitable coordinate system, write down the equations of motion of an electron and prove that
no electron current will reach the positive plate unless V exceeds (ed 2B 2)/(2m).
13.4 The electrodes of a diode are coaxial cylinders of radii a and b, with a < b. A potential
difference V is maintained between them and their common axis is parallel to a uniform
magnetic field B. The inner cylinder is the cathode, electrons leave it radially with negligible
velocity. Show that the electrons will reach the anode at grazing incidence, if
2
eB 2 b 2 ⎛ a2 ⎞
V = ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ .
8m ⎝ b ⎠
13.5 A penny-farthing bicycle has front and rear wheels with radii 1 m and 0.25 m, respectively.
The tyres are conducting and the machine is ridden at 6 m/s in an easterly direction along a
road with a conducting surface. The horizontal component of the Earths magnetic field is
18 mT. Calculate the emf tending to drive current through the frame of the bicycle and indicate
its direction.
13.6 A thick circular metallic tube has inner and outer radii r1 and r2, respectively, and is held in
a vertical position with its axis coincident with a very long vertical wire in which flows a
current I. Electrical contact with the tube is made through sliding contacts, on the same radius,
on the inner and outer walls; electrical contacts are connected to a ballistic galvanometer, the
resistance of the galvanometer circuit being R. Calculate the quantity of electricity discharged
through the galvanometer if the cylinder is allowed to fall through a distance l, and (a) when
the cylinder is non-magnetic and (b) when it is is made of iron.
13.7 Ferromagnetic particles are embedded in a solid dielectric material, so as to constitute a non-
conductor of high permeability. A disc of radius a is fashioned from this material and is rotated
ELECTROMAGNETISM AND SPECIAL RELATIVITY 857
at an angular velocity w between the plates of a capacitor which are parallel to the plane
surface of the disc. The capacitor is charged until the disc is traversed by an axial electric flux
density D. Determine the nature of the electromagnetic field as seen by a stationary observer.
13.8 A thin tube of dielectric material of permittivity Ke is enclosed between concentric metal
cylinders. The tube and each cylinder can be separately rotated about the axis. An electric
potential difference V is maintained between the cylinders. Find the magnetic flux density within
the dielectric from the standpoint of a stationary observer (a) when the tube and the cylinders
rotate together, (b) when only the cylinders rotate, and (c) when only the dielectric tube rotates.
Assume that, in the absence of emf, the charges on the cylinders remain at rest relatively to
the metal. The curvature may be neglected, the motion being regarded as linear.
Suppose that the dielectric is a gas contained in a thin shell and that its pressure is reduced so
that Ke tends to 1. Discuss the reasonableness of your results for this limiting case.
13.9 A sphere of radius R carries a uniformly distributed electric charge q and moves in a straight
line in free space with a constant (not very large) velocity v. Given that the magnetic field
outside the sphere is the same as would be produced by a point charge q at its centre, prove
that the magnetic energy stored in the whole space surrounding the sphere may be written as
1
me v 2 ,
2
where me (the electromagnetic mass) is given by
N R
NF
Q 3
The charge on an electron is 1.60 × 1019 coulomb and its apparent mass is 9.10 × 1031 kg.
Assuming that it can be regarded as a charged sphere, prove that its radius cannot be less than
1.88 × 1015 metres.
13.10 In Problem 13.9, show that the Poyntings method indicates that the moving sphere is
accompanied by a flow of electromagnetic energy. Prove that the power crossing the plane at
right angles to the line of motion, on which the centre of the sphere momentarily lies, is given by
R v
1
QF B

What is the reason for the existence of this energy flow?

13.11 A spherical balloon, having a charge uniformly distributed over its surface, is inflated so that
at a certain instant, every point has a radial velocity u. It can be shown that this radial
movement of charges produces no magnetic field at any point. Discuss, either in terms of
vector potential or in terms of displacement currents, why this is so.
13.12 A rod is at rest in F ¢, making an angle q ¢ with the axis O¢x¢. Its proper length or the length
measured in F ¢ is l0. What is its length as measured in F and what is its inclination to the axis
Ox in F ?
13.13 Calculate the Doppler shift in wavelength (using the relativistic formula) for light of
wavelength 6000 Å, when the source approaches the observer with velocity 0.1c.
13.14 A rigid rod, having a proper length of 12 cm, lies in the x-axis of a frame of reference F and
moves with a velocity 0.866c. A thin ring of internal diameter 8 cm, having its plane parallel
to Oxy, has its centre located on the x-axis in F and moves up it with velocity v. The timing
is such that the centres of the rod and of the ring reach the origin of F simultaneously as the
length of the rod as seen from F is only 6 cm on account of the Fitzgerald contraction, and the
ring is able to step over it.
From the standpoint of a frame F ¢ moving with the rod, however, the length of the rod is
12 cm, which exceeds the diameter of the ring. Describe the passage of the rod through the
ring as viewed by an observer in F ¢. Assume, for simplicity, that v/c is not large.
13.15 By applying the Lorentz transformation to the 4-potential of a stationary point charge, prove
that the exact formula for the vector potential of a charge q moving with velocity u and
momentarily located at the origin is given by
μ0 Bqu
Ax = , Ay = 0 = Az
4π ( β x + y 2 + z 2 )1/ 2
2 2
13.16 Derive the exact expressions for the components of E set up at (x, y, z) by the charge in
Problem 13.15. Hence, show that the magnitudes of E at a distance r from the charge along
the line of motion and at right angles to it are respectively b 2E0 and bE0, where
q
E0 =
4πε 0 r 2
13.17 A permanent magnet which is conducting has been magnetized axially so that it is axially
symmetrical. It is made to rotate about the axis with a uniform angular velocity w. Show that
E at a point inside the magnet is given by
E = − ∇ ( v ⋅ A)
where v = w × r and Ñ × A = B.
13.18 A body, moving with velocity v, contains a vector field A fixed in its body. The vector A is a
∂A
function of position in the body. If is the time-rate of change of A at a point fixed in the
∂t
stationary frame of reference, then show that
A
v ¹ ³
A
U
13.19 Three men A, B and C are riding a train which is travelling at a velocity v. A is in the front of
the train, B in the middle and C at the rear. A fourth person B¢ is standing by the side of the
rails. At the instant when B passes by B¢, light signals from A and C reach B and B¢. Both B
and B¢ are asked to tell who emitted the light signal first. What are their answers?
13.20 In a magnetron, the annular space between the pair of concentric circular conducting
cylindrical electrodes is evacuated, and charged particles (usually electrons) are set free at
the surface of the inner electrode with negligible initial velocity. The electrodes are
maintained at different potentials, the potential difference being V, so that the charges are
accelerated from the inner electrode of radius a to the outer electrode of radius b (b > a).
A magnetic field B which is a function only of rthe radial distance from the axisis
applied parallel to the axis of the cylinders. Find the value of B which is just sufficient to
prevent the particles from reaching the outer cylinder, when the potential difference is equal
to V between the cylinders.
13.21 Discuss the nature of forces between two charges moving in parallel paths.
13.22 Two Lorentz transformations with relative velocities u1 and u2 are carried out (in succession)
one after another. Prove that these two transformations are equivalent to a single Lorentz
transformation for which the relative velocity is
V V
V
VV D
Hence show that it is impossible to combine a sequence of Lorentz transformations into one
having a relative velocity greater than c.
13.23 A particle of rest mass m0 is to be accelerated such that its mass quadruples its real mass. What
is the required speed? Find its kinetic energy at the required speed. How does this value
compare with (1/2) m0 v2?
13.3 SOLUTIONS
13.1 A charged particle q is moving, with a velocity u, perpendicularly towards a long straight wire
in which flows a current i. When the particle is at a distance r from the wire, calculate, to the
first order
(a) the force on the particle and
(b) the resultant force on the wire.
Indicate the directions of forces by a sketch and show that they violate a well-known
dynamical principle.
Sol. At P (referring to Fig. 13.1),
μ0 qu sin θ cos 2 θ
B =
4π r 2
perpendicular to the plane as shown in the figure.
Fig. 13.1 A charged particle moving towards a current-carrying straight wire.

Also y = r tan q, \ÿÿ dy = r sec2q dq

+π / 2
μ0 qu sin θ cos 2 θ
So, force on the wire, FW = ∫
−π / 2
4π r 2
ir sec2 θ dθ
π /2
μ0 qui
= ∫
π
− /2
4π r
sin θ dθ = 0
μ0 i
Field at the charge due to current i is .
2π r
μ 0 qui
So, FC = q(u × B) = in the direction as shown in the figure.
2π r
Newtonian action and reaction is violated.

There is a torque TW on the wire in the direction as shown in the figure.
13.2 Two charged particles q1 and q2 are situated, respectively, at the origin of the coordinate
system and at the point (x, 0, 0) in a frame of reference F. The charge q1 has a velocity u1
along the x-axis, q2 has a velocity u2 parallel to the y-axis. Find the magnitudes and the
directions of the forces on each particle as measured by an observer in F, showing that they
violate the same principle as the forces in Problem 13.1.
Sol.
The magnetic force on q1 is not matched by any force on q2.
13.3 Under the influence of ultraviolet light, electrons are emitted with negligible velocities from
the negative plate of a parallel plate capacitor of separation d, which is situated in a magnetic
field with B parallel to the plates and across which a potential difference V is applied. Taking
a suitable coordinate system, write down the equations of motion of an electron and prove that
no electron current will reach the positive plate unless V exceeds (ed2B2)/(2m).
Sol. The force for the equations of motion is from Lorentz formula.
\ The equations of motion are:
eB ⎫
y
x = − (i) ⎪
m ⎪
⎬
eV eB
and
y = + x (ii) ⎪
md m ⎪⎭
m being the mass of the electron (coordinate system as shown in Fig. 13.2).
Fig. 13.2 A parallel plate capacitor with transverse magnetic field in the gap between
the plates, the electrons being emitted from the negative plate.
Integrating Eq. (i),

eB
x = − y,
m
since x = 0 when y = 0.
\ When the electrons reach the positive plate,
eB
x = − d
m
But the whole velocity at this point is u,
1 2
where mu = eV
2
2eV
or u2 =
m
2
2eV ⎛ eBd ⎞
\ The velocity is wholly tangential if = ⎜ ⎟
m ⎝ m ⎠
ed 2 B 2
or V=
2m
ed 2 B 2
If V < , no electrons will reach the positive plate.
2m
13.4 The electrodes of a diode are coaxial cylinders of radii a and b, with a < b. A potential
difference V is maintained between them and their common axis is parallel to a uniform
magnetic field B. The inner cylinder is the cathode, electrons leave it radially with negligible
velocity. Show that the electrons will reach the anode at grazing incidence, if

F# C È B Ø
7 É Ù
N Ê C Ú
Sol. Electrons are emitted from the cathode (inner cylinder). See Fig. 13.3.
Fig. 13.3 Section of coaxial cylindrical electrodes of a diode.
\ Circumferential force on electron = eBr in the direction of q increasing

\ m (r θ + 2rθ ) = eBr
d 2 eB eB d 2
or (r θ ) = rr = (r )
dt m 2 m dt
eB 2
Integrating, r 2θ = (r − a 2 ) ,
2m
since θ = 0 when r = a.
eB ⎛ a2 ⎞
At r = b, θ = ⎜⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟⎟
2m ⎝ b ⎠
If the electrons graze the anode (as in Problem 13.3), we get
2
2eV e2 B 2b 2 ⎛ a2 ⎞
= u 2 = b 2θ 2 = ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
m 4m 2 ⎝ b ⎠
2
eB 2b 2 ⎛ a2 ⎞
or V = ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
8m ⎝ b ⎠
13.5 A penny-farthing bicycle has front and rear wheels with radii 1 m and 0.25 m, respectively.
The tyres are conducting and the machine is ridden at 6 m/s in an easterly direction along a
road with a conducting surface. The horizontal component of the Earths magnetic field is
18 mT. Calculate the emf tending to drive current through the frame of the bicycle and indicate
its direction.
Sol. Consider changes of flux in the marked circuit when the cycle advances by d l
1 2 δl Rδ l rδ l
(Fig. 13.4). The shaded areas are R = and , respectively.
2 R 2 2
1
\ The area diminishes by (R r)d l
2
1
and the flux diminishes at a rate (R r)Bu.
2
1
\ The emf = × 0.75 × 18 × 106 × 6 = 40.5 mV, in the direction as shown in Fig. 13.4.
2
Fig. 13.4 "Penny-farthing" bicycle moving on a conducting road.
Note: This problem and the subsequent problems have been solved by means of the first order
relativity theory, in which u/c is taken into account but u2/c2 is neglected.
13.6 A thick circular metallic tube has inner and outer radii r1 and r2, respectively, and is held in
a vertical position with its axis coincident with a very long vertical wire in which flows a
current I. Electrical contact with the tube is made through sliding contacts, on the same radius,
on the inner and outer walls; electrical contacts are connected to a ballistic galvanometer, the
resistance of the galvanometer circuit being R. Calculate the quantity of electricity discharged
through the galvanometer if the cylinder is allowed to fall through a distance l, and (a) when
the cylinder is non-magnetic and (b) when it is made of iron.
Sol. This is the famous Cullwick experiment which (with its modification) has already been
discussed in Problem 6.34 (Electromagnetic Induction and Quasi-static Magnetic Fields).
However, there we solved the problem by direct method and now we shall solve it by the
moving frame of reference approach. We shall though repeat the direct solution here as well
for convenience of reference (Fig. 13.5).
A. Direct solution
Consider emf in the loop shown, comprising a path round the edge of the cylinder.
μ0 I
In air, B=
2π r
y
G y¢
B
B x x¢
I
r
(a) Sectional view for direct solution (b) Sectional view for moving frame
of reference
Fig. 13.5 Cullwick experiment set-up made up of metallic tube and the galvanometer circuit with sliding contacts [not shown in (b)].
So, the extra flux in the length l is

μ0 Il ⎛ r2 ⎞
ln ⎜ ⎟
2π ⎝ r1 ⎠
If the fall of the tube (for this length) takes time T, then
μ0 Il ⎛ r2 ⎞
generated emf = ln ⎜ ⎟
2π T ⎝ r1 ⎠
μ0 Il ⎛r ⎞
current in the circuit = ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
2π RT ⎝ r1 ⎠
μ0 Il ⎛ r2 ⎞
and the charge = ln ⎜ ⎟
2π R ⎝ r1 ⎠
This is independent of the material of the cylinder.

B. Moving frame of reference solution
In the stationary frame F,
I
H = Hq = (= Hz)
2π r
1
In the moving frame of reference F ¢, potentially D¢ = (u × H)
c2
uI
giving Dy′ =
2π c2 r
μ0 I
or E ′y = u
2π r
This is short-circuited by the conductor and gives rise to an emf
r2
μ0 uI r2
) = ∫ E ′ dr =
r1
y
2π
ln
r1
dx
If u = , this gives a charge.
dt
T
) ⎧⎪ μ I ⎛ r ⎞ ⎫⎪
∫
0
R
dt = ⎨ 0 ⋅ ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎬ × distance moved
⎪⎩ 2π R ⎝ r1 ⎠ ⎭⎪
This argument is independent of the material of the cylinder.
13.7 Ferromagnetic particles are embedded in a solid dielectric material, so as to constitute a non-
conductor of high permeability. A disc of radius a is fashioned from this material and is rotated
at an angular velocity w between the plates of a capacitor which are parallel to the plane
surface of the disc. The capacitor is charged until the disc is traversed by an axial electric flux
density D. Determine the nature of the electromagnetic field as seen by a stationary observer.
Sol. This problem is the dual of the Faraday disc.

A radial mmf of value
1
ω a2 D
2
is set up, creating the field as shown in Fig. 13.6.
Fig. 13.6 High permeability, non-conducting disc rotating in the gap of a parallel plate capacitor.
13.8 A thin tube of dielectric material of permittivity Ke is enclosed between concentric metal
cylinders. The tube and each cylinder can be separately rotated about the axis. An electric
potential difference V is maintained between the cylinders. Find the magnetic flux density
within the dielectric from the standpoint of a stationary observer (a) when the tube and the
cylinders rotate together, (b) when only the cylinders rotate, and (c) when only the dielectric
tube rotates.
Assume that, in the absence of emf, the charges on the cylinders remain at rest relatively to
the metal. The curvature may be neglected, the motion being regarded as linear.
Suppose that the dielectric is a gas contained in a thin shell and that its pressure is reduced so
that Ke tends to 1. Discuss the reasonableness of your results for this limiting case.
Sol. See Fig. 13.7. Curvature is neglected and so the motions are assumed to be linear.
We use primes for the moving frame.
So, the potential difference is V ¢ in the moving frame in the dielectric.
Fig. 13.7 Section of the dielectric tube.
(a) If the dielectric tube and the two cylinders all rotate together, then we have the static
condition in the moving frame with
⎛ V′ ⎞
E¢ = ⎜ 0, , 0⎟, B′ = 0
⎝ d ⎠
⎛ u V′ ⎞ u V′
\ B = ⎜ 0, 0, 2 ⎟, i.e. Bz =
⎝ c d ⎠ c2 d
(b) If only the two cylinders rotate, then we have
V′
the charge density, ±s ¢ = ± e0Ke
d
V′
giving currents, ±e0Ke u per unit width
d
This mmf applied to the stationary non-magnetic core gives
V′
Bz = e0m0Ke u
d
u V′
or Bz = K e
c2 d
(c) Superimpose on (a) the effect of (b) with u replaced by u and we get
u V′
Bz = − ( K e − 1)
c2 d
Extended solution
Refer to Cullwick, E.G., Electromagnetism and Relativity, p. 36. See Fig. 13.8.
Fig. 13.8 Section of the dielectric tube.
We again use primes for the moving frame.

(a) If the plates and the dielectric both move, we have static conditions in F ¢.
σ′
D y′ = σ ′, E y′ = , also B¢ = 0.
ε0 Ke
⎛ u ⎞ u σ′ σ′
Hence, B = ⎜ 0, 0, 2 E y′ ⎟ , i.e. Bz = 2 = μ0 u (i)
⎝ c ⎠ c ε0 Ke Ke
Now, E = E¢ (u × B¢), so E = E¢ in this case.
V′
Hence, E ′y = E y =
d
u V′
and Bz = (ii)
c2 d
The motion of the charges ±s ¢ alone would set up a magnetic field m0us ¢. To account for the
value in (i), we must suppose induced on the dielectric surface, a charge density s ², such that
σ′
s¢ + s² =
Ke
⎛ 1 ⎞
or s ² = − ⎜1 − ⎟ σ ′ (iii)
⎝ Ke ⎠
This is in line with the other ideas on the polarization of dielectrics.
(b) If only the plates move (i.e. the cylinders), carrying charges ±s ¢, they set up in the frame
F a magnetic field
Bz = m0us ¢ (iv)
In F ¢, there is an electric flux density Dy′ = σ ′
1
and D¢ = D + (u × H)
c2
u u2
whence Dy′ = Dy − H z = Dy − σ′
c2 c2
The added term is second order, thus

σ′
Dy ≈ σ ′, E y ≈
ε 0 Ke
σ′ V′
and the potential difference V ¢ is related by = as before.
ε0 Ke d
u V′
Hence, Bz = K e (v)
c2 d
(c) If only the dielectric moves, we get a condition derived from the foregoing by
interchanging the primed and unprimed quantities and changing the sign of u, i.e.
Bz′ = − μ0 uσ (vi)
u u2
Also Dy = D′y + H z′ = D ′y − σ , so once again
c2 c2
σ V
=
ε 0 Ke d
u V
Thus, Bz′ = − K e
c2 d
u u V u V u V
and Bz = Bz′ + 2
E z′ = − K e 2
+ 2 = − ( K e − 1) 2 (vii)
c c d c d c d
This could be ascribed to the motion of charges s ² given by Eq. (iii).
As Ke ® 1, (a) and (b) rightly tend to the same value (rotation of nothingness is meaningless).
Also (c) gives Bz = 0 (one cannot have flux cut by nothingness).
13.9 A sphere of radius R carries a uniformly distributed electric charge q and moves in a straight
line in free space with a constant (not very large) velocity v. Given that the magnetic field
outside the sphere is the same as would be produced by a point charge q at its centre, prove
that the magnetic energy stored in the whole space surrounding the sphere may be written as
1
me v 2 ,
2
where me (the electromagnetic mass) is given by
μ0 q 2
me =
6π R
The charge on an electron is 1.60 × 1019 coulomb and its apparent mass is 9.10 × 1031 kg.
Assuming that it can be regarded as a charged sphere, prove that its radius cannot be less than
1.88 × 1015 metres.
qv sin θ
Sol. At P (Fig. 13.9), H = Hx =
4π r 2
Fig. 13.9 A sphere of radius R carrying uniformly distributed electric charge.
∞ π 2
1 ⎛ qv sin θ ⎞
∫∫ μ0 ⎜ ⎟ 2π r sin θ dr dθ
2
Total energy =
R 0
2 ⎝ 4π r 2 ⎠
∞ π
μ0 q 2 v 2 sin 3 θ
=
16π ∫∫
R 0
r2
dr dθ
μ0 q 2 v2 4
=
16π 3R
1 μ q2
= me v 2 , where me = 0
2 6π R
4π × 10−7 × 2.56 × 10−38

Electromagnetic mass of the electron = .
6π R
This cannot exceed the apparent mass.
10.24 10− 45
Hence, R </ ×
54.6 10−31
</ 1.88 × 1015 metres

13.10 In Problem 13.9, show that the Poyntings method indicates that the moving sphere is
accompanied by a flow of electromagnetic energy. Prove that the power crossing the plane at
right angles to the line of motion, on which the centre of the sphere momentarily lies, is given
by
R v
1
QF 3
What is the reason for the existence of this energy flow?

qv sin θ
Sol. See Fig. 13.10. H = Hx =
4π r 2
q
E = Er =
4πε 0 r 2
− q 2 v sin θ
S = − Sθ =
16π 2 ε 0 r 4
Fig. 13.10 Moving charged sphere.
\ Energy flow across the equatorial plane is

∞
q 2 v 2π r dr
P= ∫
R
16π 2ε 0 r 4
∞
q2v dr
=
8πε 0 ∫
R
r3
q2 v
=
16πε 0 R 2
The energy flow is due to the collapse of electric and magnetic fields behind the sphere and
their build up in front of the sphere.
13.11 A spherical balloon, having a charge uniformly distributed over its surface, is inflated so that
at a certain instant, every point has a radial velocity u. It can be shown that this radial
movement of charges produces no magnetic field at any point. Discuss, either in terms of
vector potential or in terms of displacement currents, why this is so.
Sol. See Fig. 13.11. When the balloon has radius R, we have a radial current density given by
qu
Jr =
4π R 2
Fig. 13.11 A spherical balloon carrying uniformly distributed charge being inflated.
\ A is everywhere radial and is a function of r only.

Hence, curl A = Ñ × A = B = 0
In terms of current, we have the above convection current exactly balanced by a displacement
current due to the collapse of the electric field. Actually each, separately, creates a zero field.
Note: In next the five problems, the primed coordinates (x¢, y¢, etc.) are measured relatively
to a frame of reference F ¢ and the unprimed coordinates (x, y, etc.) relatively to F. The axes
in F and F ¢ are parallel and the origin of F ¢ moves along Ox with velocity u.
13.12 A rod is at rest in F ¢, making an angle q ¢ with the axis O¢x¢. Its proper length or the length
measured in F ¢ is l0. What is its length as measured in F and what is its inclination to the axis
Ox in F ?
Sol. See Fig. 13.12. x = b (x¢ + ut¢)
y = y¢
z = z¢
⎛ ′ ux ⎞
t= b ⎜t + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
Fig. 13.12 Fixed F and the moving frame F¢ of reference and the rod.
The extremities of the rod in F ¢ are (0, 0, 0) and (l0 cos q ¢, l0 sin q ¢, 0).
ux′
At t = 0, we have t¢ = −
c2
Thus, at the end A at t = 0, x = y = z = 0.
ul0 cos θ ′
Also at the end B at t = 0, t¢ = , so
c2
⎧⎪ u 2 ⎫⎪ l cos θ ′
x = β ⎨1 − 2 ⎬ x′ = 0
⎩⎪ c ⎪⎭ β
Also, y = l0 sin q ¢
2
⎛ cos θ ′⎞
⎜⎝ β ⎟⎠ + (sin θ ′ )
2
\ Length in F = l0
⎛ u2 ⎞
= l0 ⎜ 1 − 2⎟
cos 2 θ ′ + sin 2 θ ′
⎝ c ⎠
u2
= l0 1 − 2
cos 2 θ ′
c
Also, tan q = b tan q ¢
13.13 Calculate the Doppler shift in wavelength (using the relativistic formula) for light of
wavelength 6000 Å, when the source approaches the observer with velocity 0.1c.
Sol. Consider the light source at O¢, frequency w ¢ in F ¢ (Fig. 13.13). Let each wave crest
be an event. An event at x¢ = 0, time t¢ appears from F as being at
x = b ut¢, t = b t¢
The signal from this event reaches O at
β ut ′ ⎛ u⎞
t= b t¢ + = b t¢ ⎜1 + ⎟
c ⎝ c⎠
Fig. 13.13 Two frames of reference.

since it travels distance x with velocity c.

2π
The next wave crest is emitted at t¢ + , so the signal reaches O at
ω′
⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ u⎞
β ⎜ t ′ + ⎟ ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ ω⎠⎝ c⎠
and the time-interval between the signals is
2π 2π ⎛ u⎞
= β 1+ ⎟
ω ω ⎜⎝ c⎠
⎛ u⎞ c+u
\ λ = β ⎜1 + ⎟ λ ′ = λ
⎝ c⎠ c−u
For an approaching wave, u = 0. So,
9
λ = 6000 = 5427 Å
11
i.e. Doppler shift = 573 Å
Note: Classical theory would give 545 Å.
13.14 A rigid rod, having a proper length of 12 cm, lies in the x-axis of a frame of reference F and
moves with a velocity 0.866c. A thin ring of internal diameter 8 cm, having its plane parallel
to Oxy, has its centre located on the x-axis in F and moves up it with velocity v. The timing
is such that the centres of the rod and of the ring reach the origin of F simultaneously as the
length of the rod as seen from F is only 6 cm on account of the Fitzgerald contraction, and the
ring is able to step over it.
From the standpoint of a frame F ¢ moving with the rod, however, the length of the rod is
12 cm, which exceeds the diameter of the ring. Describe the passage of the rod through the
ring as viewed by an observer in F ¢. Assume, for simplicity, that v/c is not large.
Sol. See Fig. 13.4(a).
x = b (x¢ + ut¢)
y = y¢
z = z¢
⎛ ux ⎞
b
⎜⎝ t ′ + 2 ⎟⎠
t=
c
(a) Viewed from F [Fig. 13.14(a)], at the time t, the ends of the rod are at
x = b (±a + ut¢)
⎛ ua ⎞
where t = b ⎜⎝ t ′ ± 2 ⎟⎠ .
c
⎛ u2a ⎞ a
\ x ut = b ⎜⎜ ± a ± 2 ⎟⎟ = ±
⎝ c ⎠ β
2a
With the numbers given, b = 2, a = 6 cm, = 6 cm.
β
Hence, the rod contracts to 6 cm length, slipping through the 8 cm diameter ring.
z¢ z
F¢
u F
Rod
a
x¢
O¢ x
O
v
Ring
Fig. 13.14(a) Moving rod and ring in the two frames of reference.
(b) Viewed from F ¢ [Fig. 13.14(b)], at the time t¢, the ends of the ring are at
x¢ = b (± b ut)
and z¢ = vt
⎛ ub ⎞
where t¢ = b ⎜t B 2 ⎟ .
⎝ c ⎠
t ′ ub
Thus, t = ± , giving the coordinates of the ends of the ring.
β c2
⎛ u2 ⎞ b
x¢ = − ut ′ ± β b ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ = − ut ′ ±
⎝ c ⎠ β
Fig. 13.14(b) View from the frame F¢.

⎛ t ′ ub ⎞
z¢ = v ⎜ ± 2 ⎟
⎝β c ⎠
β ub ⎛ β u2 1 ⎞
\ z¢ = 0 when t ¢ = B 2 , x¢ = ± ⎜
⎜ c2
+ ⎟b
c ⎝ β ⎟⎠
or x¢ = ±b b = ±8 cm
Thus, the points AB are 16 cm apart, and the rod slips between them.
b uv
At t¢ = 0, x¢ = ± and z¢ = ± b, giving the position A¢B¢ as shown in the figure, and the
β D
diameter approximately 2b/b = 4 cm.
Viewed from F ¢, the ring slips over the rod in tilted position.
13.15 By applying the Lorentz transformation to the 4-potential of a stationary point charge, prove
that the exact formula for the vector potential of a charge q moving with velocity u and
momentarily located at the origin is given by
μ0 Bqu
Ax = , Ay = 0 = Az
4π ( β x + y 2 + z 2 )1/ 2
2 2
Sol. The transformation equation is
⎡ 0 ⎤
⎡ A1 ⎤ ⎡ β 0 0 − jβ u/c ⎤ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢A ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 2⎥ = ⎢ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ A3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ jq ⎥
⎣⎢ A4 ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ + jβ u/c 0 0 β ⎦⎥
⎢⎣ 4πε 0 cr ′ ⎥⎦
− jβ u jq μ β qu
Hence, A1 = Ax = = 0 and A2 = A3 = 0.
c 4πε 0 cr ′ 4π r ′
Let t = 0 when the frames coincide, then x¢ = b x, y¢ = y, z¢ = z.
Hence, r¢2 = x¢2 + y¢2 + z¢2 = b 2 x 2 + y2 + z 2

μ0 β qu
So, Ax = , Ay = Az = 0
4π ( β x + y 2 + z 2 )1/ 2
2 2
13.16 Derive the exact expressions for the components of E set up at (x, y, z) by the charge in
Problem 13.15. Hence, show that the magnitudes of E at a distance r from the charge along
the line of motion and at right angles to it are respectively b 2E0 and b E0, where
q
E0 = .
4πε 0 r 2
Sol. From Problem 13.15,

βu q
Ax =
c 4πε 0 r 2
2
Also from the same transformation,

βq
φ =
4πε 0 r ′
∂φ ∂Ax G S "Y S
\ Ex = − − = ¹ ¹
∂x ∂t S Y S U
C R È S u S Ø
= É Ù
QF Ê S Y c S U Ú
Also r¢2 = b 2(x ut)2 + y2 + z2
∂r ′ β 2 ( x − ut ) ∂r ′ β 2 u( x − ut )
So = , = −
∂x r′ ∂t r′
C R È u Ø
\ Ex = Y u U
É Ù
QF S Ê c Ú
βq x
= at t = 0
4πε 0 ( β x + y 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
2 2
∂φ ∂φ ∂r ′
Also Ey = − = −
∂y ∂r ′ ∂y
βq y βq y
= 2 = 4πε
4πε 0 r′ r ′ 0 (β x + y + z )
2 2 2 2 3/ 2
1 q
If x = r, y = z = 0, E = Ex =
β 4πε 0 r 2
2
q
If y = r, z = x = 0, E = Ey = β
4πε 0 r 2
13.17 A permanent magnet which is conducting has been magnetized axially so that it is axially
symmetrical. It is made to rotate about the axis with a uniform angular velocity w. Show that
E at a point inside the magnet is given by
E = − ∇ ( v ⋅ A)
where v = w × r and Ñ × A = B.
Sol. Using a cylindrical coordinate system, with z-direction along the axis of the magnet
(Fig. 13.15), we have only the z-component of B in the magnet, and the f component of A. If
the magnet rotates, then a stationary observer will see an electric field given by
Fig. 13.15 Axially symmetrical cylindrical bar magnet which is conducting.
E = v × B = v × (Ñ × A) (since B = Ñ ´ A)
Expanding this by vector identity,
E = -Ñ (v × A) + {A × (Ñ × v)} + (A × Ñ)v + (v × Ñ)A
Since v and A are parallel, v × A = 0.
Ñ × (v × A) = v Ñ × A A Ñ × v + (A × Ñ)v (v × Ñ)A = 0
Since A is solenoidal, Ñ × A = 0, and so also Ñ × v = 0
\ From above (A × Ñ) v = (v × Ñ) A
and since v = w × r, Ñ × v = 2w and hence from E, we get
E = Ñ (v × A) + 2(A × w) + 2(A × Ñ)v
It can be easily shown that A × w = irw Af and (A × Ñ)v = irw Af
\ E = Ñ (v × A)
13.18 A body, moving with velocity v, contains a vector field A fixed in its body. The vector A is a
∂A
function of position in the body. If is the time-rate of change of A at a point fixed in the
∂t
stationary frame of reference, then show that
∂A
= − ( v ⋅ ∇) A.
∂t
Sol. Let Q be a point fixed in the coordinate system and P be a point in the body of the
magnet such that if P occupies its shown position at the instant of time t, then it would have
moved to point Q (in the coordinate system) in a time interval d t (Fig. 13.16).
Then PQ = vδ t = i x dx + i y dy + i z dz
Now, if the vector field A has a value A at the time t, then after a time interval dt, it will have
changed to A + dA which, since A is fixed in the body, will be the same value of the field at
P and at the time t.
∂Ax ∂A ∂A
\ Ax − ( Ax + dAx ) = dx + x dy + x dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
Fig. 13.16 Coordinate system for the magnet.
with similar expressions for Ay and Az.

∂Ax ⎛ ∂A dx ∂Ax dy ∂Ax dz ⎞
Hence, = −⎜ x + + ⎟ = − v ⋅ ∇Ax
∂t ⎝ ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt ⎠
There will be similar expressions for Ay and Az. Hence, adding the components
∂A
= − v ⋅ ∇ (i x Ax + i y Ay + i z Az )
∂t
13.19 Three men A, B and C are riding a train which is travelling at a velocity v. A is in the front of
the train, B in the middle and C at the rear. A fourth person B¢ is standing by the side of the
rails. At the instant when B passes by B¢, light signals from A and C reach B and B¢. Both B
and B¢ are asked to tell who emitted the light signal first. What are their answers?
Sol. Bs reply: A and C emitted their signals simultaneously. B¢s reply: C emitted his
signal before A.
13.20 In a magnetron, the annular space between the pair of concentric circular conducting
cylindrical electrodes is evacuated, and charged particles (usually electrons) are set free at
the surface of the inner electrode with negligible initial velocity. The electrodes are
maintained at different potentials, the potential difference being V, so that the charges are
accelerated from the inner electrode of radius a to the outer electrode of radius b (b > a).
A magnetic field B which is a function only of rthe radial distance from the axisis
applied parallel to the axis of the cylinders. Find the value of B which is just sufficient to
prevent the particles from reaching the outer cylinder, when the potential difference is equal
to V between the cylinders.
Sol. Figure 13.17 shows the cross-section of the annular space of the given magnetron.
The charges will just reach the outer electrode (i.e. at grazing incidence) when at r = b,
dr dR
= r = 0, so that the particle velocity will be purely peripheral i.e. v m b bR.
dt dt
Fig. 13.17 Cross-section of the annular space of the magnetron.
Since the motion is in spiral, we set the rate of change of angular momentum as equal to
the torque acting, and so we have
d
(mr 2θ ) = − erB r (i)
dt
where
m = mass of the moving electron
e = charge of the electron.
At the starting point, on the inner electrode, θ = 0 (i.e. negligible initial velocity), and at
the end rR vm , where r = b, and m = m0b1.

Integrating Eq. (i) over this path (the limits being r = a to r = b),
b
m0 C1 b v m e Ô Br dr (ii)
a
Next, we express B in terms of the total flux (denoted by N) passing between the cylinders.
It should be noted that in this problem B is axial and not uniform over the annular space of
the magnetron. So to calculate the total flux, we take elemental circumferential strips at
radius r of radial thickness dr, so that
The area of such a strip is = 2prdr,
over which the flux density B is constant.
r =b b
\ N= ∫ 2π rBdr = 2π ∫ rBdr
r =a a
since B is a function of r only.
eN
\ m0 C1 b v m (iii)
2Q
Since the charge (i.e. electron) has acquired all the energy by falling through the potential
V, we have
eV = (β1 − 1) m0 c2 (iv)
Eliminating b1 between (iii) and (iv), N can be obtained in terms of m0, vm, and b.
13.21 Discuss the nature of forces between two charges moving in parallel paths.
Sol. (A) The magnetic force between the charges.
Two +ve charges Q1 and Q2 are situated at the points P and Q; at a given instant (see Fig. 13.18)
let their velocities be v1 and v2 which are very small compared with c1 relative to the observer,
and r = distance PQ between the charges.
Q1
P v1
a
Fm
r
Fm
Q v2
Q2
Fig. 13.18 Two charges P and Q moving in parallel paths.
The moving charge Q1 sets up a magnetic field at the point Q, which is given by
#2 N
2 W TJO B
Q S
its direction being perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
The charge Q2 moving at right angles to this field, would experience a force by their field
which is
F m = B Q Q2 v 2
2 2 W W TJO B
= N
Q S
and the charge Q1 experiences an equal force due to its motion in the magnetic field of Q2.
The forces Fm are in the plane of the paths, and perpendicular to the direction of motion.
(B) The total force between the two charges, moving side by side in parallel paths with equal
velocities.
So, now, let a = p /2, and v1 = v2 (= v).
Then the magnetic force between the charges becomes a simple attraction which is given by
'N N
2 2 W
Q S
so that if it is assumed that the electrostatic repulsion (= Fs) remains unaltered by the motion,
then the calculated value of net repulsion between the charges will be
22 N
2 2 W
|F| = |Fs Fm| =
QF S Q S
Î W ÑÞ
= 'T ÑÏ ß XIFSF N F
ÑÐ D Ñà D
Because of the assumption v << c, it would seem that the modification in F due to the motion
is quite negligible, but this simplified conclusion cannot be taken as satisfactory, because of
the following two reasons:
1. In h.v. cathode-ray tubes, the electrons move with velocities comparable to the speed of
light.
2. By special theory of relativity, a deeper insight into the nature of magnetic forces between
the current-carrying circuits is obtained.
Now, the modifications imposed on the elementary equations for the simple case under
consideration are:
Suppose an observer to be at rest in an electrostatic (or magnetic) field which he observes to
have a value E (or B). Then another observer, moving with uniform velocity v perpendicular
& È # Ø
to the field, will find that it has a value É PS Ù where b = v/c, but if his
C ÉÊ C ÙÚ
motion is parallel to the field, then its value appears to be unaltered.
If, however, a charge Q is moving through the field with a velocity v relative to the first
observer, the physical phenomena as measured by that observer will be consistent with the
assumption that the force experienced by the charge is still given by EQ (or by BQv).
Applying these principles to the simple example of two charges moving side by side, the
charge Q1 will be observed by an observer, stationary at the point Q where Q2 is momentarily
located, with an electric field given by
& 2

QF S
C
and a magnetic field given by
# N 2 W
Q S C
Thus the charge Q2, moving in these fields, experiences forces given by:
(a) An electrostatic repulsion, ' 2 2

BOE
QF S
T
C
(b) A magnetic attraction 'N N 2 2 W

Q S C
Thus, there is net repulsion, given by
2 2 ÎÑ W ÞÑ
' 'T 'N = Ï ß
QF S Ñ C D C Ñà
Ð
= 'T C
where Fs is the electrostatic repulsion measured by an observer moving with the charges.
This equation is, in fact, a general relativistic result for the relation between the force acting
on a stationary body and the same force as measured by an observer moving with the velocity
v relative to the body and at right angles to the force.
13.22 Two Lorentz transformations with relative velocities u1 and u2 are carried out (in succession)
one after another. Prove that these two transformations are equivalent to a single Lorentz
transformation for which the relative velocity is
V V
V
VV D
Hence show that it is impossible to combine a sequence of Lorentz transformations into one
having a relative velocity greater than c.
Sol. The equations for the first transformation of relative velocity u1 are:
x¢ = b1 (x u1t)
y¢ = y (i)
z¢ = z
È V YØ
t¢ = C É U Ù
Ê D Ú

È V Ø
where b1 = É Ù
Ê D Ú
The equations for the next transformation of relative velocity u2 are:
x² = b2 (x¢ u2t¢)
y² = y¢ (ii)
z² = z¢
È V Y Ø
t² = C É U Ù
Ê D Ú

È V Ø
where b2 = É Ù
Ê D Ú
Combining the two successive transformations to obtain the single equivalent transformation,
⎡ ⎛ u x ⎞⎤
x² = β 2 ⎢ β1 ( x − u1t ) − u 2 β1 ⎜ t − 12 ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ c ⎠⎦
y² = y¢ = y and z² = z¢ = z (iii)
Ë È V YØ V Û
t² = C Ì C É U Ù C Y VU
Ü
Í Ê D Ú D Ý
Ë È VV Ø Û
x² = CC Ì Y É Ù V V
U Ü
Í Ê D Ú Ý
Ë Û
È VV Ø Ì V V Ü
= CC É Ù ÌY UÜ (iv)
Ê D Ú Ì VV Ü

ÍÌ D ÝÜ
y² = y and z² = z
Ë È VV Ø YÛ
t² = CC Ì U É Ù V V
Ü
Í Ê D Ú D Ý
Ë Û
È VV Ø Ì V V Y Ü
= CC É Ù Ì U Ü
Ê D Ú Ì VV D Ü
ÍÌ D ÜÝ
Now, for the single equivalent transformation,

Ë Î Þ Û
Ì ÑÑ V V ÑÑ Ü
be = Ì Ï ß D Ü
Ì Ñ VV Ñ Ü
Ì ÑÐ D Ñà Ü
Í Ý

È VV Ø ËÈ VV Ø V V
Û
= É Ù Ì É Ù Ü
Ê D Ú Ê D Ú D
ÍÌ ÝÜ

È VV Ø Ë V V V V Û
= É Ù Ì Ü
Ê D Ú ÍÌ D D D ÝÜ

È VV Ø ËÈ V Ø È V Ø Û È VV Ø
= É Ù Ì É Ù É Ù Ü ÉÊ ÙÚ CC
Ê D Ú D ÚÊ D Ú ÜÝ D
ÍÌ Ê
Therefore,
Î Þ
ÑÑ V V ÑÑ
x² = CF Ï Y Uß
Ñ VV Ñ

ÑÐ D Ñà
y² = y
z² = z
Î Þ
ÑÑ V V Y ÑÑ
t² = CF ÏU ß
Ñ VV D Ñ
ÐÑ D Ñà
From the expression for the effective relative velocity u (or ue),
V V
i.e. VF
VV

D
it is obvious that the larger the value of u2 (the velocity of the second transformation, the
smaller will be the effective velocity, because the denominator increases faster than the
numerator, and is always greater than 1.
Hence it is impossible to combine a sequence of Lorentz transformations which would give a
relative velocity greater than c.
Therefore, (the relative velocity) will always be less than c.
13.23 A particle of rest mass m0 is to be accelerated such that its mass quadruples its real mass. What
is the required speed? Find its kinetic energy at the required speed. How does this value
compare with (1/2) m0v2?
Sol. The dynamic mass of a body (= m) going at a speed v relative to Lorentzian frame is
related to its rest mass m0 (in that frame) as
N N

ÑÎ W ÑÞ
Ï ß
ÑÐ D Ñà
Since the dynamic mass is to be four times the rest mass, we get
m = N
N
ÎÑ W ÞÑ
Ï ß
ÐÑ D Ñà
W D
\ =
PS W
D
D
\ The required speed = W

The kinetic energy of the body has been interpreted as the square of the velocity of light
multiplied by the change in mass [Ref., Eq. (20.50k)] in the textbook i.e. Electromagnetism:
Theory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009, p.784.
T= N N
D
= 3m0c2 in this case (since m = 4m 0) (1)

Energy by using the formula (1/2) m0v2 gives us

8
N D

N D (2)
The increase in energy in (1) is due to the increase in mass of the particle.
Appendix 1
Roths Method
This method for solving the composite Laplacian and Poissonian field problems was originally
described and discussed in the context of electrical engineering problems by a French engineer
E. Roth in a long series of papers in 1920s. A good description of this method will be found in
Hague1, and Binns and Lawrenson2.
This method is a sort of extrapolation of the solutions obtained by the method of separation of
variables. Roth, initially, applied it to Cartesian geometry problems in which the Poissonian field
region boundaries had to be parallel to the outside boundaries of the composite region. This
restriction has now been overcome and the method is applicable to a much wider class of problems.
However, here, we shall consider some of the initial type of problems as simple illustrations of the
capability of this method. If such a composite region problem were to be solved by the method of
separation of variables, the whole region would have to be sub-divided into sub-regions by extending
the boundary lines of the Poissonian field region (Fig. A1.1). Thus, such a problem would have to be
divided into 9 sub-regions, and while solving for each sub-region, the interface continuity conditions
would have to be specified and applied to obtain the final solution. Roths method eliminates all these
complications and as the problem is treated as a single region problem, the interface continuity
conditions do not exist explicitly, and it can be checked that they get satisfied automatically. There is no
restriction on the type of outer boundaries, which can be either Dirichlet, Neumann or Mixed type.
In a two-dimensional field problem (Laplacian or Poissonian), solved by the method of
separation of variables, the solution is obtained as a single infinite series in which the function of one
variable is of orthogonal type whereas the function of the other variable is of non-orthogonal type. In
Outer boundaries with

2
specified boundary
Ñ V=0 conditions
2
Ñ V=k Interface lines separating
the Poissonian and
Laplacian fields
x
Fig. A1.1 A typical composite LaplacianPoissonian field problem in Cartesian geometry, showing the interface sub-regions.
887
888 APPENDIX 1: ROTHS METHOD
Cartesian geometry problems, this implies that one function is trigonometric while the other is
hyperbolic or exponential. The choice of the type of function of the variables is decided by the types
of boundary conditions on the outer boundaries. In Roths method, the solution is written in the form
of a double infinite series of orthogonal functions in both or all the independent variables (depending
on whether it is a two-dimensional or three-dimensional problem). In Cartesian geometry problem,
this means that the solution will be a double infinite series in trigonometric functions, as shown below.
V = ∑ ∑ ( A cos k x cos k
kx ky
1 x yy + A 2 cos k x x sin k y y
+ A3 sin k x x cos k y y + A4 sin k x x sin k y y )

The unknowns A1, A2, A3, A4, kx and ky will get evaluated using the boundary conditions. The
field equation would be
Ñ2V = K
where K will be non-zero in the parts where the source or sources exist, and zero elsewhere. If the
source was a point source, then K will be a Dirac-delta function. For simplicity, initially we will
consider a problem with the boundaries as specified in Problem 3.15, i.e.
(i) at x = 0, V = 0,
(ii) at x = a, V = 0,
(iii) at y = 0, V = 0, and
(iv) at y = b, V = 0.
We now evaluate the unknowns by using the above boundary conditions. Considering the
boundary condition (i), at x = 0, V = 0, we get
∑ ∑ ( A cos k
kx ky
1 yy + A 2 sin k y y ) = 0 for all y.
\ A1 = 0, A2 = 0
Hence, the solution simplifies to
V = ∑ ∑ (A
kx ky
3 sin k x x cos k y y + A 4 sin k x x sin k y y )
Next, considering the boundary condition (iii), at y = 0, V = 0, we get
∑∑ kx ky
A3 sin k x x = 0 for all x
\ A3 = 0
Hence the solution further simplifies to
V = ∑∑ kx ky
A 4 sin k x x sin k y y
APPENDIX 1: ROTHS METHOD 889
Considering the boundary condition (ii), at x = a, V = 0, we get
∑∑A
kx ky
4 sin k x a sin k y y = 0 for all y.
Hence, sin kxa = 0 = sin np, where n = 1, 2, 3, ...

nπ
\ kx =
a
Considering the boundary condition (iv), at y = b, V = 0, we get
∑∑ A 4 sin k x x sin k y b = 0 for all x.

kx ky
\ sin kyb = 0 = sin mp, where m = 1, 2, 3, ...

Hence the solution is
∞ ∞
nπ x mπ y
V = ∑ ∑
m =1,2,... n =1, 2,...
Anm sin
a
sin
b
The still unknown Anm is the double Fourier coefficient which would get evaluated when V is
integrated over the whole region in a Fourier coefficient type integration. Here, we have considered
Dirichlet-type outer boundaries, as per Problem 3.15, though these boundaries can be a mixture of
Dirichlet, Neumann or Mixed-type or any combination of these types. For the evaluation of the double
Fourier coefficient Amn, Roth had specified the boundaries of the Poissonian sub-region or sub-regions
to be parallel to the outer boundaries. However this restriction is no longer necessary, as it has been
shown now that this method is applicable to problems containing Poissonian region or regions with
any mathematically definable internal boundaries (Pramanik3). It is now possible to apply this method
to line sources (which are equivalent to point sources in two-dimensional problems) using the
Dirac-delta function.
This method was originally derived for two-dimensional rectangular problems by Roth. But this
has now been extended to three-dimensional problems (Pramanik 4), and also with adjoining regions
with eddy current distributions. So, we shall now show the use of this method for some three-
dimensional rectangular geometry problems (e.g. of the types in Problems 3.16 and 3.17).
So, we consider a rectangular box bounded by six conducting planes, so that the potential on
all these planes is taken as zero, i.e.
(i) on x = 0, V = 0,
(ii) on x = a, V = 0,
(iii) on y = 0, V = 0,
(iv) on y = b, V = 0,
(v) on z = 0, V = 0, and
(vi) on z = c, V = 0.
Thus, all the boundaries are of homogeneous Dirichlet type.
We have seen in previous two-dimensional problems that the general solution expression
contained four terms because the problem contained two independent variables. In the three-
dimensional problem, there are three independent variables (i.e. x, y and z). So the general solution
would contain eight terms, as indicated next.
V = ∑ ∑ ∑ ( A cos k x cos k 1 x yy cos k z z + A2 cos k x x cos k y y sin k z z

kz ky kx
+ A3 cos k x x sin k y y cos k z z + A4 cos k x x sin k y y sin k z z
+ A5 sin k x x cos k y y cos k z z + A6 sin k x x cos k y y sin k z z
+ A7 sin k x x sin k y y cos k z z + A8 sin k x x sin k y y sin k z z )
Here the unknowns are A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, A7, A8 and kx, ky and kz. We shall evaluate these
using the boundary conditions already stated. Applying the boundary condition (i), at x = 0, V = 0,
we get
∑ ∑ ∑ ( A cos k
kz ky kx
1 yy cos k z z + A2 cos k y y sin k z z
+ A3 sin k y y cos k z z + A4 sin k y y sin k z z ) = 0 for all y and z

\ A1 = 0, A2 = 0, A3 = 0, A4 = 0
Hence V simplifies to
V = ∑ ∑ ∑ (A
kz ky kx
5 sin k x x cos k y y cos k z z + A6 sin k x x cos k y y sin k z z
+ A7 sin k x x sin k y y cos k z z + A8 sin k x x sin k y y sin k z z )

Next, we apply the boundary condition (ii), at y = 0, V = 0, and thus get
∑ ∑ ∑ (A 5 sin k x x cos k z z + A6 sin k x x sin k z z ) = 0 for all z and x.

kz ky kx
\ A5 = 0, A6 = 0
Hence V simplifies to
V = ∑ ∑ ∑ (A
kz ky kx
7 sin k x x sin k y y cos k z z + A8 sin k x x sin k y y sin k z z )
Next we apply the boundary condition (ii), at x = a, V = 0 and get

V = ∑ ∑ ∑ (A 7 sin k y y cos k z z + A8 sin k y y sin k z z ) sin k x a = 0 for all y and z.
kz ky kx
\ sin kxa = 0 = sin np, where n = 1, 2, 3, ...

nπ
which gives kx =
a
Similarly, applying the boundary condition (iv), at y = b, V = 0, we get
∞
⎛ nπ x nπ x ⎞
V = ∑∑ ∑ ⎜⎝ A7 sin
a
cos k z z + A8 sin
a
sin k z z ⎟ sin k y b = 0 for all z and x.
⎠
kz ky n = 1, 2,...
\ sin kyb = 0 = sin mp, where m = 1, 2, ...

mπ
which gives ky =
b
Hence the expression for V simplifies to
∞ ∞
⎛ nπ x mπ y nπ x mπ y ⎞
V = ∑ ∑ ∑ ⎜⎝ A7 sin
a
sin
b
cos k z z + A8 sin
a
sin
b
sin k z z ⎟
⎠
kz m = 1, 2,... n = 1, 2,...
Next, we apply the boundary condition (v), at z = 0, V = 0 and get

∞ ∞
nπ x mπ y
V = ∑ ∑ ∑ A 7 sin
a
sin
b
= 0 for all x and y,
kz m = 1, 2,... n = 1, 2,...
which gives A7 = 0
Hence the expression for V further simplifies to
∞ ∞
nπ x mπ y
V = ∑ ∑ ∑ A8 sin
a
sin
b
sin k z z
kz m =1, 2,... n =1,2,...
Finally, we apply the boundary condition (vi), at z = c, V = 0 and get

∞ ∞
nπ x mπ y
V = ∑ ∑ ∑ A8 sin
a
sin
b
sin k z c = 0 for all x and y.
kz m = 1, 2,... n =1,2,...
\ sin kzc = 0 = sin lp, where l = 1, 2, ...
lπ
which gives kz =
c
Thus, the expression for V reduces to

OQ Y NQ Z MQ [
7
M
Ç

Ç

N
Ç

"
O
MNO
TJO
B
TJO
C
TJO
D
We are left with the unknown coefficient Almn (or Anml) which is the triple Fourier coefficient
which can be evaluated by a Fourier coefficient-type integration (i.e. after multiplying both sides by
suitable trigonometric functions) over the whole volume of the box. Note that in Problem 3.16, there
is a point source in the box and so the R.H.S. of the Poissons equation becomes a three-dimensional
Dirac-delta function.
Next, we consider the rectangular box of Problem 3.17 which is again a three-dimensional
Cartesian geometry box and its boundary conditions are same as those of the previous problem in
x and y coordinates [i.e. (i) to (iv)] and they differ for the z-variables which in this case are:
(v) at z = + c, V = 0, and
(vi) at z = c, V = 0
Since, the x- and y-boundaries are identical in the two problems, we do not repeat the steps of
those variables, but start with the expression
∞ ∞
⎛ nπ x mπ y nπ x nπ y ⎞
V = ∑ ∑ ∑ ⎜⎝ A7 sin
a
sin
b
cos k z z + A8 sin
a
sin
b
sin k z z ⎟
⎠
kz m = 1, 2,... n = 1, 2,...
\ Applying the boundary condition (v), at z = + c, V = 0, we get

∞ ∞
nπ x mπ y
V = ∑ ∑ ∑ ( A7 cos kz c + A8 sin k z c ) sin
a
sin
b
= 0 for all x and y.
kz m =1, 2,... n =1, 2,...
\ A7 cos kzc + A8 sin kzc = 0

or A7 = A8 tan kzc
Next, applying the boundary condition (vi), at z = c, V = 0, we get
∞ ∞
nπ x mπ y
V = ∑ ∑ ∑ ( A7 cos kz c − A8 sin k z c ) sin
a
sin
b
= 0 for all x and y.
kz m =1, 2,... n =1, 2,...
\ A7 cos kzc A8 sin kzc = 0

or A7 = +A8 tan kzc
These two conditions to be satisfied, can be expressed in two different ways as follows:
(a) A7 = A8 tan kzc and A7 = +A8 tan kzc
(b) A7 cot kzc = A8 and A7 cot kzc = + A8
Hence, we have
lπ
A7 = 0, kz = , l = 2, 4, 6, ...
2c
lπ
and A8 = 0, kz = , l = 1, 3, 5, ...
2c
Hence the solution of this problem is
∞ ∞ ∞
nπ x mπ y lπ z
V = ∑ ∑ ∑
n =1, 2,... m =1,2,... l =1,3,...
Anml sin
a
sin
b
cos
2c
∞
nπ x mπ y l ′π z
+ ∑
l ′= 2, 4,...
′ ′ sin
Anml
a
sin
b
sin
2c
It should be noted that in the present description we have not discussed the evaluation of the
Fourier coefficient Anml and so on, as this has been described in detail in standard books on applied
mathematics. A point to be further noted is that the Roths method can be applied to similar composite
region problems in other coordinate systems as well.
REFERENCES
1. Hague, B., The Principles of Electromagnetism Applied to Electrical Machines, Dover,
London, 1962.
2. Binns, K.J. and P.J. Lawrenson, Analysis and Computation of Electric and Magnetic Field
Problems, 2nd ed., Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1973.
3. Pramanik, A., Extension of Roths Method to Two-dimensional Rectangular Regions
Containing Conductors of any Cross-section, Proc. I.E.E., 116(7), p. 1286, 1969.
4. Pramanik, A., Magnetic Field and Eddy-current Distributions in the Core-end-regions of AC
Machines, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Birmingham, 1967.
Solid Angles
Appendix 2
Elsewhere we have defined solid angle as follows:
We consider a point O inside a closed surface S. Then, we take an element of surface dS on S
and a point P in this surface element. Then, the distance OP is taken as r and r1 is the unit vector
along r.
Let a be the angle between r and d S.
dS cos α
Then = Solid angle subtended by O at d S on S
r2
= Surface of the portion of the sphere of unit radius with the centre at O,
cut by the cone subtended by d S with the vertex at O.
To derive a mathematical expression for the solid angle in terms of the cone semi-angle at the
vertex, we consider a sphere and its circumscribing cylinder (Fig. A2.1). Let the sphere have a
cylinder drawn about it, the base diameter, and the height of the cylinder being each equal to the
diameter of the sphere. Now, let us imagine a series of planes parallel to the ends of the cylinder.
These planes divide the surface of the sphere and the lateral surface of the cylinder into zones.
It should be noted that the area of any zone of the sphere is equal to the area of the corresponding
zone of the cylinder.
Fig. A2.1 Sphere and its circumscribing cylinder.
894
APPENDIX 2: SOLID ANGLES 895
So, now we consider a sphere with centre O and radius OA. The area of the segment cut off by
AB (Fig. A2.2) will be equal to that of the corresponding zone of the cylinder.
Fig. A2.2 Segment of the sphere.
The circumference of this zone = 2π AO = 2π ( x 2 + r 2 )1/ 2
Axial width of the zone = AO − x = ( x 2 + r 2 )1/ 2 − x
{
Its area = 2π ( x 2 + r 2 )1/ 2 ( x 2 + r 2 )1/ 2 − x }
This is the area of the cylindrical strip of this zone, and hence is also the area of the segment
of the sphere.
\ The solid angle W =

Area of the segment
=
{ }
2π ( x 2 + r 2 )1/ 2 ( x 2 + r 2 )1/ 2 − x
(Radius) 2 x2 + r 2
=
{
2π ( x 2 + r 2 )1/ 2 − x } = 2π ⎧1 − x ⎫
⎨ ⎬
(x + r )
2 2 1/ 2
⎩ (x + r )
2 2 1/ 2
⎭
= 2p (1 cos q )
From the above formulae, it is obvious that when a cylinder circumscribes a sphere, i.e. a
cylinder having the same diameter and height as the diameter of the sphere (= R), then the surface
area of the sphere (= 4p R2)
= Lateral (or curved) surface area of the cylinder
= (2p R) × 2R
= 4 p R2
We shall now prove this to be true for every zone of the sphere, i.e. when the sphere and the
cylinder are cut by two parallel planes which are parallel to the diametral plane of the sphere and
normal to the axis of the enclosing cylinder (Fig. A2.3), then the area of the zone, of which ab is a
section, as in this figure, cut off from the surface of the sphere, is equal to the area of the
corresponding band mn cut off from the cylinders surface.
896 APPENDIX 2: SOLID ANGLES
Fig. A2.3 Sphere and the circumscribing cylinder.
If the cross-sections are very near together, then ab is approximately a straight line.
\ ab is approximately coincident with the tangent at b.
\ ÐOba is a right angle
and ÐObe = Ðabc
But Ðacb = one right angle = ÐOeb
\ The Ds abc and Oeb are equiangular and
Ob ab
=
eb bc
or Ob × bc = ab × eb
In the limit, when the sections are very close,
fa = eb
\ Area of the zone of the sphere = ab(2p × eb)
= bc(2p × Ob)
= mn(2p × en)
= Area of the band of the cylinder
This result is true for all such cross-sections which can be drawn.
\ The whole area of the spheres surface
= Lateral or curved surface of the circumscribing cylinder (= 4p r2)
Note: The surface of a sphere is thus four times the area of a circle of same diameter as the sphere.
Appendix 3
Poynting Vector: A Proof
The Poynting vector corresponding to the combination of an electric field produced by a set of
conductors maintained at different potentials and a magnetic field produced by other conductors
carrying some currents, gives a power flow which merely circulates locally in the (dielectric) medium.
Proof: Given E and H are the electric and the magnetic field intensities, respectively, in the fields
described above and S is the Poynting vector. Then
S=E×H
and div S = Ñ × S = Ñ × (E × H)
= E × curl H H × curl E
= E × (Ñ × H) H × (Ñ × E)
Now, since the only electric field is an electrostatic one, Ñ × E = 0.
\ Ñ × S = E × (Ñ × H)
Now, outside the current-carrying conductors, Ñ × H = 0.
\ Outside these conductors, Ñ × S = 0 and inside these conductors,
E=0
\ Here also Ñ×S=0
Hence, Ñ × S = 0 everywhere.
Hence, the lines of S can have no beginning or end, but must form closed loops.
(This proof is due to J. Slepian.)
897
Appendix 4
Magnetic and Electric
Fields in Poynting Vector:
A Proof
Where the electric and magnetic fields are given as the sum of several electric and magnetic fields,
respectively, the resulting Poynting vector is the sum of the Poynting vectors corresponding to the
combination of each component electric field with each component magnetic field.
Proof: We have
S=E×H
If E = E1 + E2 and H = H1 + H2,
then S = E × H = (E1 + E2) × (H1 + H2)
= (E1 × H1) + (E2 × H2) + (E1 × H2) + (E2 × H1)
by the distributive law of multiplication.
(This proof is due to J. Slepian.)
898
Appendix 5
Bicylindrical Coordinate System
and Associated Conformal
Transformations
The bicylindrical coordinate system required for solving twin-cylindrical transmission line problems
by field approach has been described and explained in detail in Appendix 10 of Electromagnetism
Theory and Applications, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2009. This coordinate system
enables us to solve problems involving parallel cylindrical systems, whatever be the radii of the
cylinders and their relative positions, i.e. the cylinder being external to one another or one inside the
other mounted eccentrically. Such a coordinate system is shown in Fig. A.5.1. This coordinate system
transforms the rectangular Cartesian coordinate system into two orthogonal sets of co-axial circles (or
cylinders in three-dimensions), one set being of non-intersecting type passing through two fixed points
(the distance between these two fixed points being denoted by 2a the bipolar distance of the
coordinate system). The non-intersecting circles have their centres on the x-axis (as are the two poles
at x = +a too) and the orthogonal set of the intersecting circles have their centres on the y-axis. The
conformal transformation used to generate this coordinate system from Cartesian coordinates is
a (e w 1)
z* (A.5.1)
ew 1
where z x jy (so that z* = x jy) and w = u + jv.
Subsequently u and v are replaced by h and q respectively so that the non-intersecting co-axial
circles with their centres on the x-axis are h = constant circles and all these circles are drawn about
the two poles x = +a. The orthogonal set of intersecting co-axial circles have their centres on the
y-axis and all the members of this set pass through the two poles x = +a. These circles are denoted
by q = constant.
The relationship between the Cartesian coordinate variables x, y and the bicylindrical variables
h, q have been shown to be:
a sinh I a sin R
x y (A.5.2)
cosh I cos R cosh I cos R
This coordinate system has been used to calculate the capacitance (per unit length) between two
parallel cylindrical conductors of unequal radii (R1 and R2, R1 ¹ R2), lying either internally (in an
eccentric position) or externally as in Problem 12.52. The values of the capacitance are shown to be
899
900 APPENDIX 5: BICYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM AND ASSOCIATED CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATIONS
z = const
q = const
(q > 0)
h=0
1
q r
h = const
(h < 0)
w
x
q= ±p q=0
h –•
a a
w
h = •
h=0
q = const
(q < 0)
Fig. A.5.1. Bicylindrical coordinates. The surfaces h = const are circular cylinders
with axes in the xz-plane, surfaces q = const are portions of circular cylinders
with axes in the yz-plane, surfaces z = const are parallel planes.
APPENDIX 5: BICYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM AND ASSOCIATED CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATIONS 901
2QF
C (A.5.3)
sinh (a / R1 ) sinh 1 (a / R2 )
1
where the +ve sign in the denominator applies to the cylinders external to one another and the ve
sign pertains to the arrangement of internal eccentric cylinders. It should be noted that the above
expressions have been obtained in terms of the bipolar distance a.
The same problem has been solved in Problem 3.40 by using a slightly different conformal
transformation without the use of the bicylindrical coordinate system formally. The transformation
used here is
z ja
W K . ln (A.5.4)
z ja
where W = U + jV and z = x + ju (Fig. 3.25).
The relationship between the U, V coordinates and x, y coordinate variables in this case comes
out as
a sin V a sin U
x y (A5.5)
cosh U cos V cosh U cos V
Comparing Eqs. (A.5.5) with Eqs. (A.5.2), it is seen that now the x and y coordinates have merely
been interchanged compared with those of the bicylindrical coordinate system. This is shown in
Fig. 3.25 which shows only the two equipotential surfaces having their centres on the y-axis. Since
the two orthogonal sets of co-axial circles are not shown in Fig. 3.25, we have redrawn these
configurations in detail in Fig. A.5.2. This figure shows both sets of orthogonal co-axial circles, i.e.
the non-intersecting co-axial equipotential circles with their centres on the y-axis, and the orthogonal
set of co-axial stream function intersecting circles with centres on the x-axis, all of which pass through
poles y = +a. This figure also shows both the arrangements of the equipotential circles, i.e. two
eccentric circles one inside the other in Fig. A5.2(a) and two external circles shown in Fig. A5.2(b).
In Problem 3.40, the capacitance between the two cylinders has been calculated as
Ë ÑÎ D R1 R2 ÑÞ Û
2 2 2
C 2 QF 0 Ì cosh 1 Ï ßÜ (A5.6)
ÍÌ ÑÐ 2 R1 R2 Ñà ÝÜ
where the +ve sign is taken when the cylinders are external to each other [Fig. A.5.2(b)] and the ve
sign when one cylinder is inside the other [Fig. A.5.2(a)].
The expressions of the two solutions, i.e. Eqs. (A.5.3) and (A.5.6) should match as they are
essentially the solution of the same problem, but apparently they seem to be different because the first
solutions are expressed in terms of the bipolar distance a and the radii of the cylinders whilst the
second solutions of Eq. (A.5.6) are expressed in terms of the distance between the centres of the
circles (=D) and their radii.
So now we proceed to evaluate the bipolar distance 2a in terms of the distance D between the
centres of the two equipotential circular cylinders of radii R1 and R2 and at potential U1 and U2
respectively. In Problem 3.40, we have been that
R1 a cosec U1 , R2 a cosec U 2 (A.5.7a)
and D a ^ coth U1 coth U 2 ` (A.5.7b)

where, as before, the +ve sign is taken when the cylinders are external to one another and the ve
sign for the case of one cylinder being inside the other [Fig. A.5.2(b) and A.5.2(a)]
y y
R1 R2 D
R1
a a
x x
a a
Ra
(a) (b)
Fig. A5.2. Parallel equipotential circular cylinders with orthogonal stream function circles (i.e. lines of force)
for both the arrangements of the cylinders: (a) circular cylinders eccentrically located one inside the other and
(b) cylinders external to one another. Cylinders of radii R1 and R2 have their centres on the y-axis,
the distance between the centres being D; and the poles of the system are at y = +a.
a ^ cosh U1 sinh U 2 cosh U 2 sinh U1 `

\ D
sinh U1 sinh U 2
a {sinh (U 2 U1 )} cosech U1 cosech U 2 (A5.8)
We also have
D 2 R12 R22
cosh (U2 U1) = (A.5.9)
2 R1 R2
\ sinh (U2 U1) = ^cosh 2

(U 2 U1 ) 1 `
ÎÑ ( D 2 R12 R22 ) 2 ÞÑ
= Ï 1 ß
ÐÑ 4 R12 R22 Ñà
^D `
1/ 2
4
( R12 R22 ) 2 2 D 2 ( R12 R22 )
= (A.5.9a)
2 R1 R2
APPENDIX 5: BICYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM AND ASSOCIATED CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATIONS 903
^ `
1/ 2
a ( R12 R22 ) 2 2 D 2 ( R12 R22 ) D 4
\ D= . R1 . R2 (A5.10)
2 R1 R2 a a
^(R `
1/ 2
2
1 R22 ) 2 2 D 2 ( R12 R22 ) D 4
\ a= (A5.11)
2D
Note: It should be noted that the above expression is same as that given in Problem 12.52, where
the semi-bipolar distance a has been given in terms of s, r1, r2 (in the present problem these
three quantities are denoted by D, R1 and R2 respectively).
We now consider the case of the two parallel cylinders of equal radii, i.e. R1 = R2 = R0 and
external to each other. Then the expression for a reduces to (from Eq. (A5.11)):
^0 2D `
1/ 2
2
2 R02 D 4 1
a= ( D 2 4 R02 ) (A5.12)
2D 2
or 4a2 = D 2 4 R02
Next when D becomes equal to 0, the arrangement then degenerates to that of a co-axial cable.
This problem can be and has been solved by using the cylindrical polar coordinate system and for
this case, the bicylindrical coordinate system is not required.
We now go back to the general arrangement of the cylinders in Fig. A.5.2, and evaluate the
distances between the centres of the two circles and the x-axis. In terms of the bicylindrical coordinate
system as shown in Fig. A.5.1 these distances will be equivalent to the distance between the centre of
the circle and the y-axis, i.e. = w. Hence, we have
w12 = a 2 R12 and w22 a 2 R22 (A5.13)
referring to Appendix 10, Eq. (A.10.7) of ElectromagnetismTheory and Applications, 2nd Edition,
Substituting for a in Eq. (A.5.13) from Eq. (A.5.11), we get
w12 = a 2 R12
=
^D 4
( R12 R22 ) 2 2 D 2 ( R12 R22 ) `R 2
2 1
4D
=
^D 4
( R12 R22 ) 2 2 D 2 ( R12 – R22 ) `
2
4D
^D `
2
2
( R12 R22 )
\ w12 = (A5.14)
4D2
D 2 ( R12 R22 )
\ w1 = (A5.15a)
2D
D 2 ( R22 R12 )
and w2 = (A5.15b)
2D
so that w1 + w2 = D.
Considering the limiting arrangement of two parallel cylinders of equal radius R0, we get
R1 = R2 = R0. Then
w1 = w2 = D/2 (A5.16)
from Eq. (A5.15).
Bibliography
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Electromagnetism Problems&amp; Solutions Ashutosh Pramanik

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ELECTROMAGNETISM

Problems with Solutions

Fifth Printing (Third Edition) ... ... ... September, 2012

This book is a companion volume to the textbook on Electromagnetism (Electromagnetism:

0.2 SOME VECTOR OPERATORS IN THE THREE COORDINATE SYSTEMS

∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az

Ar ∂Ar 1 ∂Aφ ∂Az

2 Aρ ∂Aρ 1 ∂Aθ cot θ 1 ∂Aφ

0.3 DELTA FUNCTION (CONCENTRATED FORCE)

But the volume integral ÔÔÔ (³ ¹ V) dv is zero.

0.3.1 The One-Dimensional Dirac-delta Function

The above equation then generalizes to

0.3.2 The Three-Dimensional Delta Function

Show that its acceleration is

0.18 Prove that

0.21 A line integral vÔ

taken over the volume of the tetrahedron is given by

0.25 By transforming to a triple integral, evaluate

0.33 Evaluate the integral

where v is the volume of a sphere of radius R with centre at the origin.

where a is a fixed vector and its magnitude | a | = a.

0.38 Evaluate the integral

0.40 Show that

0.44 From Problem 0.43, prove the identity

0.48 Prove vectorially that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.

Sol. Show that A × (A ´ B) = 0 (Why?)

0.2 Under what circumstances are the vectors A ´ (B ´ C) and B ´ (A ´ C) equal?

0.4 Evaluate the divergence of F at the origin for the following:

Sol. (a) F = ix x2y2z2 + iy 9 sin y + iz ( y + z)

0.5 Find the curl of the following vectors:

Sol. F1 = 1{i x 1 + i y 0 + i z 0 + 0 (i x 0 + i y 0 + i z 1)}

Fig. 0.3 Forces represented graphically.

= Fx (x2 - x1) + Fy ( y2 - y1) + Fz (z2 - z1)

Fig. 0.5 Rotating paddle wheel suspended in the water channel.

Sol. Given | A | = krn

From r2 = x2 + y2 + z2, we have

dA dAx dAy dAz

dAx ∂Ax ∂Ax dx ∂Ax dy ∂Ax dz

⎧ ∂Ax ∂Ax ∂Ax ⎫

⎧ ∂Ay ∂Ay ∂Ay ⎫ ⎧ ∂Az ∂Az ∂Az ⎫

⎡ ⎧ ∂A ∂Ay ∂Az ⎫ ⎧ ∂Ay ∂Az ⎫ ∂Ax ∂Ax ⎤

⎡ ⎧ ∂A ∂Ay ∂Az ⎫ ⎧ ∂Ax ∂Ay ⎫ ∂Az ∂Az ⎤

The first bracket in the above three lines is div A = Ñ × A.

⎡ ⎧⎛ ∂Ay ∂Ax ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ax ∂Az ⎞ ⎫

⎧⎛ ∂Az ∂Ay ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ay ∂Ax ⎞ ⎫

⎧ ∂Ax ∂Az ⎞ ⎛ ∂Az ∂Ay ⎞ ⎫⎤

Fig. 0.6 A moving point in a cylindrical polar coordinate system.

Show that its acceleration is

r(t + dt) iv(t) ir(t)

Fig. 0.7 The representation of the point P.

0.18 Prove that

⎧ ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az ⎫ ⎧ ∂S ∂S ∂S ⎫

0.20 A vector A is given in cylindrical coordinates by

Fig. 0.8 The path to be traversed by the vector.

The line integral solution

= ∫ (2r cos 0)dr + φ ∫

The surface integral solution

0.21 A line integral vÔ

Fig. 0.9 The path to be traversed by the vector.

The line integral solution

0.22 A vector field F is expressed in Cartesian coordinates as

Fig. 0.10 Volume of integration.

= −0+ ⎥ ⎥ −0+ ⎥ ⎥ −0+ ⎥ ⎥

∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz

Electromagnetism Problems& Solutions Ashutosh Pramanik

Electromagnetism Problems& Solutions Ashutosh Pramanik

Ô Ô Ô ³ ¹ (sP) dv Ô Ô Ô s(³ ¹ P) Ô Ô Ô P ¹ (³s) dv w

= a2b2 a2b2 cos2 q = a2b2 (1 cos2 q)

1.3 GAUSS THEOREM AND ELECTRIC FLUX

7 $ TJO R TJO G XIFSF $ JT B DPOTUBOU

Fig. 1.10 Two point charges +Q and 2Q.

or (x a)2 = 2(x + a)2