Aristotle proposed the Theory of Spontaneous Generation (Abiogenesis), that life arose from

non living material so long as the material contained pneuma (vital heat). This theory persisted
into the 17th century

In 1668, Francesco Redi disproved this theory through an experiment in which meat is placed in
six containers, two of which were left open, two covered with gauze, and two fully sealed to
prevent infiltration by flies. As no maggots appeared in the covered or sealed containers, he
could tell that the presence of maggots in the open ones must be linked to the presence of flies,
concluding that maggots must come from fly eggs/ maggots are young flies.

In 1745, John Needham performed an experiment in which he boiled broth containing animal
and plant matter with the intention of killing all microbes therein, before sealing it and watching
for microbe development. While he did find microbes in his samples, it’s believed he did not boil
the broth for long enough to kill all the preexisting microbes.

Lazzaro Spallanzani later performed the same experiment with extended boiling times and
significantly more trials, and noticed no surviving microbes. Needham explained these results
away, saying the extended boiling times destroyed the inherent “life force” of the broth, and that
microbes would form the instant it was exposed to air again.

Louis Pasteur filtered air through a gun cotton filter and discovered the presence of airborne
microbes. To fully disprove spontaneous generation, Pasteur stored boiled broth in a twisted
neck container that, while open to air, had a low bend where any particles would come to rest,
before sloping up again and into the broth itself. The broth remained microbe free, disproving
spontaneous generation.

Cell theory: All cells come only from other cells, and cells are the fundamental units of
organisms. Robert Hooke coined the term “cell” in 1665 when referring to small chambers in a
piece of cork he examined under a microscope In 1852, Robert Remak claimed that cells come
exclusively from cellular division. Rudolf Virchow made a similar claim, stating “All cells come
from other cells”. As Virchow technically plagiarized Remak by stating his claiming his ideas as
his own, credit for cell theory is a controversial topic.

Endosymbiotic Theory: Mitochondria and chloroplasts arose as prokaryotic cells that

established a symbiotic relationship with eukaryotes.

Mitochondria joined eukaryotic cells before chloroplasts, explaining the presence of chloroplasts
in the same cells as mitochondria, but the ABSENCE of cells with ONLY chloroplasts and NO
mitochondria.

Germ Theory of Disease: Girolamo Fracastoro claimed diseases come from microbial
infection. Robert Koch’s postulates attribute each disease to a given microbe.
All cells, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic, possess cytoplasm, a gel matrix composed of water
and chemicals used for growth, and ribosomes, organelles used for protein production.

Eukaryotes have a nucleus a complex structure that protect genetic material and is surrounded
by a nuclear membrane, while prokaryotes do not.

Prokaryotes have a single circular chromosome contained in a nucleoid. Eukaryotes have

multiple rod shaped chromosomes in the nucleus.

Common Prokaryotic Cell Shapes

Coccus: Ball
Bacillus: Rod
Vibrio: Curved rod
Coccobacillus: Short, stubby rod
Spirillum: Wavy rod
Spirochete: Corkscrew

Common Prokaryotic Cell Arrangements

Coccus: Ball
Diplococcus: Two cocci attached to one another
Tetrad: Four cocci forming a square
Streptococcus: A chain of cocci
Bacillus: Rod
Streptobacillus: A chain of bacilli

Prokaryote Parts?

Cell Wall: Envelops the cell membrane, and protects it from harsh environments and osmotic
pressure. In bacteria, cell walls are made primarily from peptidoglycan, a mesh of alternating
molecules of N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM) in gram negative
cells, tetrapeptides directly link NAM cells together. The outer layer of gram negative bacteria is
lipopolysaccharide (LPS) an endotoxin. Behind that lies an outer membrane, periplasmic space,
thin peptidoglycan wall, and an inner membrane.
Gram positive cells, the tetrapeptides are link by pentaglycine cross bridges. They are also
supplemented by teichoic acids (TA), which stabilize and solidify the peptidoglycan.
Plasma Membrane: Semipermeable membrane that allows the passage of water and select
solutes. Built in the fluid mosaic model format, contains a patchwork of carbohydrates
glycoproteins and glycolipids.
Nucleoid: The region in which DNA is concentrated in prokaryotic cells.
Plasmids: Small, circular, double stranded DNA molecules. Hundreds per cell. Found in
Archaea and Eukaryotes.
Ribosomes: Responsible for protein synthesis. Found in the cytoplasm in prokaryotes.
Inclusions: Nutrient storage structures in the cytoplasm. Stores nutrients in a polymerized form.
Volutin/metachromatic granules are an example of inclusions that store inorganic
phosphates.
Endospores: Structures that protect the bacterial genome when the environment is
unfavourable.
G cells have glycocalyxes, which are sugar coats. Slime coats are disorganized, capsules
are organized
LPS is composed of lipid A, a core polysaccharide, and an O side chain
Some Archaea survive WITHOUT CELL WALLS

Fimbriae:Short, numerous, bristle like structures build for used to stick the cell to surfaces
‘Pili: Long structures used to adhere to surfaces. F or Sex pili are used in DNA transfer
Flagella: Structures used to move bacteria
● Monotrichous: An individual flagellum at one pole of the bacterium
● Lophotrichous: A tuft of flagella at one pole of the bacterium
● Amphitrichous: Individual or tufts of flagella at both poles of the bacterium
● Peritrichous: Whole bacterium is covered in flagella

Bacteria move in response to certain signals, phototaxis (photosignals), chemotaxis (chemical

signals), magnetotaxis (changes in magnetic fields).

Eukaryotes have
● Low surface area-to-volume ratios
● A nucleus
● Multiple linear chromosomes (haploid and diploid) that contain histones
● Undergo meiosis and mitosis
● Membrane bound organelles

Eukaryotic Parts

Cytoskeleton: Internal network that supports transport of intracellular components and helps
maintain cell shape. Made of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.

Nucleus: Structure that contains and protects the DNA of eukaryotes. Bound by two lipid
bilayers (the nuclear membrane/envelope)

Nucleolus: Dense region of the nucleus, site of rRNA synthesis and assembly of ribosomes.

Ribosomes: Structure that performs protein synthesis

● Free Ribosomes: Found in the cytoplasm. Synthesizes water-soluble proteins.
● Membrane-Bound Ribosomes: Found in the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Synthesizes proteins for insertion into the cell membrane or export from the cell
Endomembrane System: Membrane bound organelles involved in transport.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Takes part in lipid biosynthesis, carbohydrate metabolism,
and detoxification of toxic compounds.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Contains membrane-bound ribosomes.

Golgi Apparatus: Processes proteins and lipids, converting them into glycoproteins and
glycolipids.

Lysosomes: Digesters that break down particles ingested by endocytosis (for small
particles) and phagocytosis (for big particles). also breaks down damaged intracellular
components.

Mitochondria: Site of cellular respiration. Outer membrane, cristae, inner membrane,

mitochondrial matrix (contains mitochondrial DNA).

Chloroplasts: Site of photosynthesis.

Plasma Membrane: Same as prokaryotic except it contains sterols which alter membrane
fluidity, glycoproteins, and glycolipFmids.

Flagella: Structurally different from prokaryotic flagella, but still help with locomotion

Cillia: Similar to flagella, shorter, used for feeding, locomotion, and movement of extracellular
particles.

Strictly speaking, prokaryotes can be found anywhere on the planet, only needing access to
water and nutrients.

Symbiotic Relationships

Mutualism: Both parties benefit.

Commensalism: One party benefits, the other is unaffected.
Parasitism: One party benefits, the other is harmed.
Ammensalism: One party is harmed, the other is unaffected.
Neutralism: Neither party is affected.

Prokaryotes are classified by gene sequencing.

Archaea

Archaeal cell membranes are composed of ether linkages with branched isoprene chains
Archaeal Cell walls lack peptidoglycan, and have a similar substance called
pseudopeptidoglycan or pseudomurein instead.
Crenarchaeota: Extremely diverse phyla of Archaea. Aquatic and ubiquitous. Contains
genuses specialized for high temperatures (80c), High acidity (pH 2-3) and oxidization of sulfur
instead of oxygen.

Euryarchaeota: Contains methanogens, organisms that can reduce carbon dioxide in the
presence of hydrogen.