Technical Instruction No.

6
6th October, 2005
RIVER TRAINING AND PROTECTION

1. INTRODUCTION
Railway Engineers are constantly engaged in tackling with flowing
water. The flow may be small or huge coming from small streams or a
very large river. At times, these cross Railway alignments requiring
bridging. At other times, such flow occur close to a running line, which
did not cause any problem at the initial stage but on subsequent
developments resulting in changes in the pattern of flow, the flow either
actually damages the embankment or poses a grave threat to do so.
During various interaction with Railway engineers at different
levels, it has come to light that there is general ignorance about the
behaviour or pattern of river flow. This is mainly because, many of them
may not have enough exposure in dealing with river training works or
they may have dealt with the problem in rather ad-hoc manner. In either
case, the result has not been satisfactory.
The Indian Railways have a long history of over 150 years of
dealing with rivers of various description in the sub-continent. In fact,
the Indian Railway is uniquely placed as far as all important rivers of the
country are concerned in as much as they have bridged all of them.
Illustrious bridge engineers of the past acquired in-depth knowledge in
design and construction of such structures. Somehow, many of simple
rules and knowledge have been lost in course of time. Today even old
Figure No.s are also not readily available. Some Railways have their own
standard specifications dealing briefly about some of them. But
surprisingly, they have been largely gone out of use.
Through this note, an attempt has been made to present the basics
concerning the river behaviour and approach to tackle them. Although a
large number of literatures are available but this attempt is to bring in a
concise form what is considered necessary to appreciate the dynamics of
river flow. Those, who wish to examine higher level of the science, are
welcome to study further material available in the References given at the
end of the note. I must, however, state that these aspects, if they are
followed and practiced, will take care of most of general problems
associated with the flow mechanism. They are time tested and are cost
effective.
2. RIVER BEHAVIOUR : MEANDERING - CUT-OFF
The flow in river is derived from two sources - tidal and fresh
water. Some basic knowledge of river types and their behaviour is
essential, whenever any construction work is involved, be it river
protection / erosion etc. River reaches can be divided according to
topography of river basins - upper, middle and end reaches. The upper
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reaches belong to hilly and sub-mountainous regions. The middle is of

flood plains. The end is of tidal and delta regions.
Hilly and mountainous region are characterized by steep slope,
high current and largely inerrodible bed consisting of boulders / shingles
/ gravels. This has high capacity to transport sediments, which it loses
as soon as it meets the plains. Sediments, therefore, deposit forming an
alluvial fan.
Rivers in flood plains or Alluvial rivers are characterized by
meandering from one bank to another. It erodes constantly materials
from concave bends and deposits either on the bed itself forming a bar or
deposits along the convex banks of successive bends. The flow pattern
along its path changes considerably from flood to flood. The shape of
cross-section and bed slope are dependent upon the sediment load and
erodibility of the bed and banks.
Rivers in flood plain can be aggrading, degrading or stable. If the
bed is being built up, river is aggrading like one caused by obstruction
like a dam or barrage. Degrading river causes erosion of the bed from
year to year which is characterized above a cut-off or below a dam. A
stable river has a stable alignment, slope and regime and has very minor
variation from year to year but may vary within the year. A river is
usually in its reach can be aggrading, degrading and stable.
A river, whose flow changes periodically due to tides, is called tidal.
Before joining the sea and before becoming a tidal river, it may branch off
into several streams forming a delta. The last portion is called a delta
river.
3. RIVER BEHAVIOUR, CHANNEL PATTERNS
A view in plan of a river is characteristically known as channel
pattern. Channel patterns are classified broadly as meandering, braided
and straight. Meandering patterns have been divided further into
tortuous, irregular and regular meanders. The river in its entire reach
can be meandering, braided or straight. As the term indicates, braided
channel is characterized by a number of spills or sub-flows carrying
different discharges. They may be spaced at a considerable distance. A
straight channel runs straight within well defined banks. Out of these
flow patterns, meandering may cause many problems in construction
and maintenance of hydraulic structures and hence is described briefly
to acquaint with its basic features for proper appreciation.
i) Meandering river
Many views / theories have been put forward to explain causes of
meandering. Most acceptable view is that it results from local bank
erosion caused by local disturbances. It has something to do with non-
uniform and non-homogenous flow because of heavy sediment load and
presence of scourable bed. Shape, size and mobility are the most
important characteristics of a meander. They should be understood and
appreciated properly for design and maintenance of engineering
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structures, e.g. bridges, barrages, dams, guide banks, marginal or flood

embankments etc.

SHAPE OF A MEANDER
Figure No. - I
Dimension of meander:
LR = length along max. depth LR = Tortuosity ratio
LV
LV = Valley length
W = Width of the channel
R = Radius of bend MB = Meander Belt
ML = Meander length Q = Angle of bend
Meander shape can be circular / sinusoidal or parabolic. In case of
circular curve, arc of a circle is used as the elementary form to describe a
meander. A tortuosity ratio of 1 describes a straight channel. A ratio of
5.5 is a limiting value, when consecutive bends cut into one another.
Tortuosity ratio uniquely determines the shape of a meander.
Meander size:
The meander size is defined by the ratio of the radius of center line
of bend or a meander and surface width of the channel.
Size = R or MB
W W
Implication of Meander:
In a meandering river, position of deep channels and shoals
change continuously in the wide khadir of the river. The shift of the main
channel cannot be predicted. This will call for necessary measures to
protect a structure.
ii) Cut-off
Meander is a hydraulic phenomenon dependant upon the
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discharge, bed slope, sediment load and capability of river flow to erode
the bed and banks. This will have the function of velocity also. Meander
shape is, thus, the most efficient hydraulic flow under these given flow
conditions.
Any change in the above pattern is only possible, if the present
channel flow condition becomes hydraulically less efficient and the river
is able to find a more efficient path. One such condition is an alternative
channel known as cut-off. This can be a natural development by the river
itself. Alternatively, it can be artificially developed by cutting a pilot
channel.
Depending upon the location of cut-off, it can be either a neck or
loop cut off and chute cut off.
Loop cut off occurs due to progressive bank erosion at the neck of
acute bends, as shown in the Figure No.. This is more commonly
occurring natural case of cut off. A chute cut off occurs at the flat of a
meander and is less common as compared to neck cut off. This is shown
in the Figure No. 2:

Cut - off
Figure No. - 2
This generally develops along a remanant side channel, which develops
further due to high floods and because of growing resistance on the
normal meander course due to presence of sand bars etc.
Following factors contribute towards formation of a cut off:
(a) High ratio of length of the bend to that of the chord. Very
roughly this is tortuosity ratio. A value of over 5.5 to 7 are
likely to suit development of a cut off.
(b) Flood duration
Short duration flood may not succeed. With a long enough
flood, the main channel say about 10 / 16 km along the curve
with velocity due to bed slope of 0.2 m / km and a side chord
having a length of 3 km with the same fall, will have much
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better hydraulic flow property. More flow and consequent high

velocity would develop cut off faster.
(c) Sharp curvature for discharge:
Too sharp a curvature may induce a cut off. Ratio r/ Q, where r
is radius of curvature and Q is discharge can also be an
important consideration for development of a cut-off as shown
in some cases.
iii) Effects of cut-off
Immediately after a cut off takes place, there are lot of changes in
the flow pattern both up and downstream of the cut off. There are heavy
erosions of banks and the new channel readjusts itself to the new
alignment. There can be local deposits on the downstream side, where
the cut off channel meets the main channel. This, however, is removed in
a season or two during succeeding floods.
iv) Artificial cut off
The artificial cut off can be designed, if proper hydraulic
consideration are taken into account. Important considerations are:-
a) The alignment of pilot channel should be tangenital to the main
flow at both ends.
b) Its curvature should be a lot flatter than that of the main
channel.
c) The entrance to the cut off channel should be bell mouth. On
the outlet side, it is not necessary.
d) If the flow is unlikely to cause scour in the artificial channel, it
should be cut as deep as the main flow, if not more.
e) Lacey’s Regime formula, RS² (R hydraulic mean radius of the
particle, S slope) is applicable. Assuming the particle size as
the same, RS² of the cut channel should be at least as high as
the dominant channel.
Since slope of cut and river is inversely proportional to the
length, in order that the cut channel is self-scourable R/L² of
the cut channel should be greater than the dominant channel,
where L is the length of the reach.
f) The pilot cut should be as deep as possible, as the tractive effort
is directly proportional to the depth. Thus, a deeper cut would
help development of cut off rapidly.
For cut off, a dozer, suction dradger, drag line or excavator can be used
with imagination and to suit the particular situation and design to divert
flow into cut off. Use of permeable screen has also been used with good
design and imagination. Most importantly, we must use hydraulic flow
basis to select cut off, location as well as its alignment.
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4. FLOOD DATA COLLECTION

For design of any hydraulic structure, it is essential to know the
design discharge and other related parameters. This is in a broad sense
knowing the hydraulic geometry, which is used to establish relationships
between width, depth, velocity of flow and the characteric discharge.
River slope is also included in the key parameters.
Different approaches have been made to determine such a
relationship by treating these aspects of hydraulic geometry as
independent variables. In emperical approach, regime type of equation
has been derived by using observed data. In statistical approach, a
relationship is derived by statistical means between each of channel
dimensions and other relevant parameters.
Discharge can be expressed in terms of product of velocity and
cross sectional area of the channel. For rigid bed channels, Manning’s or
Chezy’s formula has been used. In case of mobile bed channels, where
bed form changes, coefficient of roughness ‘n’ in Manning’s formula and
C, Chezy’s coefficient are used.
Without going into nuances of a host of various approaches, in
Railway’s, the method of estimation of discharge is described in the Code
of practice for Bridges & substructures. This has been used with
success and confidence so far and, therefore, this may be adopted for all
general use. The discharge estimation is derived from, wherever possible
using procedures evolved from actual hydro meteorological observations
of the same or similar catchment. If the discharge values are actually
available for sufficiently long time, design discharge can be computed by
either using actual data or by statistical method for the desired
recurrence interval.
It is very important to do gauging of the stream to establish stage-
discharge relationship and the discharge can be found at the known
HFL.
Following are important hydraulic parameters to be used:
(i) Discharge: By known meteorological detail or by flood hydrograph
as described in the Code.
(ii) Frequency: Design discharge is normally for 50 years return
period. For important bridges, return period of 100
years have been used. More than this is not
recommended. The risk factor can be calculated by R =
1 – (1 – 1/T)n where T is return period and n design life
of structure both in years.
(iii) Design Discharge for foundation/ protection works:For catchment
area less than 500 sq.km., 30% more. For catchment area more than
500 sq.km. to 5000 sq.km. varying linearly from 30% more to 20% more.
For catchment of more than 5000 sq.km. to 25000 sq.km., 20% more to
 7

10% more. For catchment area greater than 25000 sq.k.m. less than
10%. This will not be used for fixing free board.
(iv) Water way: For alluvial beds, Lacey’s formula has been found to be
quite suitable Pw=1.811 C√Q
Pw= wetted perimeters, which is nearly equal to width or waterway
Q= discharge in cusecs
C=2.67 but may vary between 2.5 to 3.5 according to local condition
depending upon bed slope and bed material Sharper the slope and
smaller the bed material, smaller is value of C
In case, the bed materials are not alluvial or not erodible, Lacey’s
formula for waterway is not applicable. Width, in this case, should be
determined by actual flow pattern and presence of firm banks through
which the flow is largely negotiated.
In case of river of wide and shallow sections, the bed being
alluvium, the discharge is generally confined to smaller width. The value
of width as obtained from Lacey is also small. In such cases, the flow
should be constricted by constructing well designed guide bund/s for
both hydraulic efficiency and economy.
The value of scour depth can be determined using guidelines
available in Bridge and substructure codes.

5. MOST IMPORTANT CONCERN OF ENGINEERS AS FAR AS

HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES ARE CONCERNED
Unlike design/construction of concrete and steel structures for other
than hydraulic purposes, there is a large variation in the way hydraulic
structures are designed or constructed. Where as for other structures,
basic loading and behaviour patterns can be determined with great deal
of accuracy, it is not so in case of hydraulic structures. Even parameters
like discharge and bed slopes can vary and estimation of them are largely
emperical. Even for construction, the parameters can be different which
must be appreciated properly in order to succeed in the effort. Most
importantly, there cannot be any surety of the measures succeeding and
there are chances of failures, cost of which at times can be very high
indeed. However, based on vast amount of experience already available
and proper application, it is possible to tackle such problems more
effectively. Some of important considerations are given below for
guidance:
(i) The river flow pattern is broadly different for alluvium and
inerodible beds. Most of rivers in Northern India including those in
Gangetic/Brahmaputra plains follow similar characteristics except rivers
in bouldry stage.
Southern rivers are generally having inerodible bed.
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Difference between the two is mainly due to erosion of the bed.

Thus, during high floods, alluvium rivers may initially register high HFL
but this may come down as soon as full scour takes place. Rise,
therefore, may not be high. In other cases, since practically no scour
takes place, there is very high spill and water may overflow the banks
causing large scale inundation.
(ii) For hydraulic design, most important parameters are discharge,
gauge level/HFL, scour and physical layout of the channel.
The details are required for flood discharge. For not very important
rivers, flood discharge may be calculated based on guidelines given in the
Bridge and Substructure Code. For important rivers, data are generally
available. It requires to be properly interpolated or extrapolated.
Sometimes the discharge is worked out on the basis of Gauge-Discharge
curve. This is also a fairly reliable estimate. Apart from design
discharge, it is also necessary to define the return period. This is already
given in the Bridge and Substructure Codes. Only in case of very
important structures, return period is taken as 200 years. For other
cases, 50-60 years is generally adequate.
The discharge should be known for design of pier as well as
protection works. Most importantly, discharge should also be known for
the lean period, when construction work will be undertaken. This will
decide how temporary works should be designed to enable construction
activities.
More often, it is for the lower discharge, when pitching, bank
slopes fail. This is because of high surface velocity at lower discharge,
when scour has not fully developed.
Gauge level at the site of construction is another very important
field data. If there is no gauge fixed, this should be done as quickly as
possible. For past records, nearest available gauge level should be used
after making correction for bed slopes, which is also roughly the water
level. With gauge level, discharge can be co-related. This will also give
useful data on the maximum time available for construction activities.
The pitching, temporary protection works, bottom of well cap levels etc.
can be fixed with relation to low water level given by the gauge.
Scour data can also be had from the evidence left behind by the
river for past discharges. This requires careful survey and inquiry made
by local people. Known waterholes or sounding of some structures
upstream can give very useful information. This needs to be verified by
calculations either made by some emperical methods or by hydraulic
model studies. Again scour depth likely to be there for lower discharge
during construction is also very important data. This is necessary for
designing temporary works required during construction.
Physical layout of channel upstream and downstream is very
important. In fact its importance cannot be overemphasized.
The meander, curvilinear flow and approach to the bridge are very
 9

important considerations. In general, the flow can have more than one
streams/channels carrying varying discharge during different parts of
the year. The flow may be braided. The channels may be spaced at
considerable distance in the Khadir*. Particularly, while designing
waterway, it is a very important consideration in such a situation. The
water way may have to be adjusted to suit the construction depending
upon physical layout of the channel. For example, if the mole head of
the guide bund is in a flowing channel, it will be difficultt to construct
the guidebund, unless the discharge is small during construction lean
period and it is possible to divert the flow. Otherwise span length may
have to be increased only on this consideration.
Irrigation, flood control and Bridge Engineers are all concerned
with river flow. Where as Flood Control Engineers’ most important
concern is the flood discharge, velocity and scour, Irrigation Engineers
are concerned about available discharge for irrigation during non-flood
conditions. For maintenance/construction engineers of Bridges,
although flood discharge is an important consideration but it is so mostly
for design. For construction, it is non flood flow data which are of
paramount importance. These data are sometimes not readily available
or are not correctly appreciated.

6. USEFUL MEASURES FOR PROTECTION WORKS INCLUDING

TEMPORARY WORKS/MAINTENANCE AND CONSTRUCTION
For Railways, approach embankments, guide bunds, bridge
piers/abutments etc are required to be adequately designed for all kinds
of river discharge. If these are properly designed and correctly
constructed, there are normally no occasion to have any threat or a
problem. Occasions, however, occur when a river changes its course
because of meanders and accordingly causes an attack on the portion of
unarmoured/unprotected embankment or even on the bridge itself. In
such cases, some protection works or measures are required to be taken
in order to protect the works. It may be necessary also to repair the
works and thereafter provide suitable protection measures according to
the hydraulic design.
There is no doubt that before such a thing happens, the river gives

Note: Khadir is not an English word. But in terms of river hydrology, Khadir is used to define extent
or width of the river bed within which the river is likely to flow either during lean or flood season.
Khadirs are generally bounded by high and firm banks. It can be very wide (6 to 8 Kms) and is
particular to rivers in alluvium terrain.
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enough of warning. Only when they are not heeded or ignored, a grave
situation may emerge causing for emergency measures.
Some useful action in this regard are:
(i) History of flow/channel to be kept.
(ii) Any important addition of hydraulic structure on the regime of the
flow should be taken note of, both on upstream as well as on
downstream. On downstream side, effects are rarely beyond 5 kms.
Such changes may be in the form of additional spans/works
provided by highways on upstream side. This may be also due to
construction of barrage/dam/waterstorage structures. These are
considered as Railway affecting works and any change may cause
serious implication on the Railway bridge.
(iii) Shift in flow channel because of meander: This should be studied
particularly with reference to acuteness of the meander given by
tortuosity ratio described earlier
(iv) Any large scale deforestation on upstream will cause heavy
sediment load leading to change in flow pattern.
It is important to have a plane table survey of the floor so that any
serious change can be taken note of. Nowadays, satellite pictures taken
by Remote Sensing Agencies also give very accurate picture for over all
appreciation of flow pattern.
7. SOME IMPORTANT DESCRIPTION OF PROTECTION
MEASURES
Cardinal principle about river training or protection is to use the
river to aid protection and training. Brute force has seldom succeeded.
Apart from being very expensive, they are difficult to construct. Some of
the measures described as under are time-tested, proven and are very
inexpensive. They do not cause heavy changes suddenly in the flow
pattern. But by gradual change caused in the flow direction, sediment
load of the flow bring in the desired effect.
(i) Porcupines
It is not known how this name has been derived. These are made
of 50/65 mm dia-bamboos nailed in a square shape of 600 mm plain
dimension as per the typical Figure No. 3. They are suitable up to 1200
mm depth (4’ feet) of flow. They can form a typical permeable spur or if
used in combination can work as screen. For good effect, they are filled
with bushes of branches of tree/grass. In case of screen, in between a
series of porcupines, a nylone rope is tied to which a number of twigs,
branches with leaves/bushes are tied. They are very effective in
dampening the flow and they cause heavy siltation of the bed and if used
intelligently, they can be very effective in causing diversion of the existing
flow into a different channel. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure
No.-4:
 11

Fig - 3
12
 13

Figure No. - IV

Porcupines
Figure No.- 4
These porcupines are weighed down either with boulders or sand bags.
As scour takes place, they get fixed in the bed. Even if they fall they
remain as effective.
(ii) Permeable Screen
For depth of flow more than 4 feet, permeable screen made of
bamboos are more effective. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure
No. 5. They are also filled with bushes/branches/grass. They also serve
the same purpose as in case of porcupines. They can be conveniently
put to function like a permeable spur.
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Permeable Screen
Figure No.- 5
(iii) Boulder Crates
They are formed by filling boulders in a crate made of galvanized
wire – generally of 4 SWG in important works. For ordinary works, 6
SWG wire may be used. Size of the crate is dependent on the discharge.
Ordinary principle is that the crated boulder should not be lifted by
water flow. According to IS 8408-1979, the size of stone required for a
velocity of 4m/sec. is 300 kg, if isolated boulders are used. Relationship
is V=4.893 d1/2 where V is velocity and d is diameter of stone. For 300
 15

kg stone, crated boulder is an option. Size of crate should be determined

on these considerations.
(iv) Sausage Crates
These are crated boulders of circular cross section of diameter
varying from 2’-0” to 3’-0” (600 mm to 900 mm). They can be long and
are usually very good for protecting slopes of an embankment. A typical
arrangement is shown in Figure No. 6.

Figure No.- 6
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(v) Spurs
They are either made of permeable or solid type constructed across
the flow. They can be at right angle to the flow and may be at angle away
or towards the flow. Spurs must be properly anchored at the bank.
Otherwise they are likely to be outflanked. A byepassed spur is useless
and will serve no purpose. Permeable spurs are less expensive and more
useful than solid ones. Permeable spurs can be made of porcupines,
permeable screens or sal ballies driven in the bed. Solid ones are similar
to guide bund and having strong protection of slopes as well as
nose/shanks. They are also known as groynes.

Spurs
Figure No.- 7
More common and safe are normal spurs. Other two types
should not be done without proper model study. They can do more harm
than relief if not properly selected designed and constructed. Length of
spur should not be less than 21/2 times local scour depth. Local scour
can be taken as 2 to 2.5 times the normal scour depth calculated by
Lacey’s formula D=0.47 (Q/f)1/3, where Q is discharge in cumecs and f is
silt factor. If the depth is taken from model study, it need not be
multiplied by 2 or 2.5 factor to find local scour. This is to keep scour
hole away from the bank. Location of spur is most important. If the
purpose is to deflect the flow away from the bank, it would be
advantageous to provide on convex portion/curvilinear flow as shown
below.
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Figure No.- IX

Figure No. - 8

8. DESIGN FOR FLOOD PROTECTION

(A) Minor Bridges
Most of minor bridges are on open foundation. They have to be
properly protected by a well designed flooring system. This will include
floor, curtain and drop wall. Length of floor and depth of drop wall will
be on the basis of scour depth. This can be determined either by local
observation or by using empirical value of Lacey, based on design
discharge. Depth of drop wall will be 1.25 times the normal scour depth.
Floor should cover the entire width and length of abutment including
wing wall as shown in the typical Figure No.- 9 and 10.

Figure No. - 9
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Figure No.- 10
By and large, this takes care of protection in case of minor bridges. The
slope of floor should match the bed slope and also the wall should match
the slope. If necessary, local dressing may be done. It is essential to do
proper protection of the box culvert which relies on uniform ground
support for its designed structural behaviour. If the underside is
scoured, the box culvert gets unevenly supported. For this purpose,
properly designed floor system as described above should be provided.
Sometimes, instead of splayed wing wall, straight return wall is provided
particularly on high bank or in case of a box, another box is provided to
function like a wing wall. Similar protection work is called for in such
cases.

(B) Major/Important Bridges

As far as bridges on open foundations are concerned, it is generally
on rocky/in-erodible bed and not requiring any particular protection. In
other cases, flooring with drop walls as in minor bridges may have to be
provided.

For well/pile foundations, they are designed for the scour and
hence no protection is necessary even in case of a local scour.
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The bridge itself, however, may need a well designed guide bund
with proper protection on the approach embankments. Design of guide
bunds is not dealt with in Bridge Substructure Codes. In case of
important bridges, the guide bund design is finalized in course of model
studies. But in case where no model studies have been done and where
it is not considered necessary to do so, the design can be done on the
basis of guidelines given in this technical note. ‘River Training &
Protection Works for Railway Bridges’, published by IRICEN has also any
useful details. ‘River Behaviour Management and Training – Publication
No.204’ of Central Board of Irrigation and Power has also many useful
guidelines. They may be referred to for more details. But for all practical
purposes, this technical note should serve the purpose of a Practising
Engineer. Most important consideration for guide bundh design are :-

(i) Shape in Plan

The guide bundhs can be either divergent, convergent or parallel.
They are shown in the Figure No. 11 For important bridges, elliptical
guide bunds have found favour particularly for wide and shallow rivers to
induce the flow to hug the guide bund better. This is also advocated in
IS-8408-1976. Straight guide bund with composite curve on upstream
has also proved very well. Ganga Bridge at Mokamah is such an
example. A good example of elliptical guide bundh is on river Gandak of
Chhitauni - Bagah Railway Line. As a rule, unless model studies have
been conducted and for smaller works, straight parallel guides should be
provided.
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Figure No.- 11
(ii) Length of Upstream/Downstream Guide Bund
There are a large number of opinions on this. But the most
important consideration for determining the length are maximum
obliquity of the current which must be limited to a reasonable value and
 21

that it should provide protection to the approach embankments against

maximum possible embayment behind the nose of the training works.
An obliquity of 300 to 340 flow through bridge axis is
considered the upper limit.
Upstream length of guide bund should vary between 1.25 L
to 1.5 L depending upon the discharge linearly between 21000 m3/sec to
42500 m3/sec. Here L is length of bridge between abutments.
Most of the rivers have their own channel pattern and guide bund
should be designed to take care of these characteristics.
From the river survey, most acute bend has to be found. The
radius of curvature (R) may be taken as average curvature. A large
number of studies have revealed that the radius of worst embayment
loop can be taken as 2 to 2.5 of the average radius ‘R’. For rivers of
maximum discharge above 5660 m3/sec, this may be taken as 2 and for
those up to 5660 m3/sec it may be taken as 2.5.
Downstream size of the guide bund 0.25 L for all sizes of rivers.
Typical effects of obliquity and embayment is shown in the Figure
No.- 12 and 13 below :-

Figure No.- 12
 22

Figure No.- 13

Worst embayment behind head of guide bundh shown single or double

loop.
(iii) Radius of Curved Head
This is radius of curved upstream mole head. This may be taken
as 0.45 L (L is waterway width determined from Lacey’s formula subject
to minimum of 150 m and maximum of 600 m). The downstream curved
tail may be kept as 0.3 to 0.5 times the radius of upstream curved head.
The angle of sweep of curved head should range from 1200 to 1450
according to river curvature that of the tail head may be kept as 450 to
600.
For smaller rivers, one single radius is good enough. For smoother
flows, for important rivers multi radii are selected generally after model
studies.
(iv) Top Width and Side Slopes
Top width of the shank of the guide bundh should be wide enough to
permit plying of trucks and for keeping reserve boulders for
maintenance. From these considerations, top width should be between 6
m to 9 m (20 feet to 30 feet).
Side slope should be 2:1. It is customary to allow construction of
the guide bundh with local river bed material. This is the case also with
approach embankment. For borrowing earth (which can be generally
non-cohesive, sandy material after top vegetation layer is cleared), it
should be taken from upstream side, not from the downstream side.
 23

(v) Slope Protection of Approach Embankment and Guide Bund

Side slopes need protection on following counts :-
a) Wave action on the upstream side.
b) Water current along the slopes
c) Wind action.
d) Rain cuts/Rain Water.
On upstream of approach embankment and rear of guide bundh,
there can be heavy ponding of water. This water body is particularly
large in case of long guide bunds. Due to wind, there is heavy build up
of water wave causing severe splash, which causes washing away of core
of the guide bund or approach embankment. On upstream/river side,
there is heavy water current. There will be large water current on the
rear side of guide bund and upstream side of approach bank, when pond
level goes down. This has also the same effect and particularly toe of the
banks are severely affected.
The slopes of guide bund and approach embankment, therefore, needs
protection. Most common method is to provide stone pitching. It is
necessary to provide graded filter 20 cm to 30 cm thick, satisfying the
standard criteria conforming to IS 8237-1976, below the pitching.
Stone used for pitching is generally man size boulder of 35 to 55 kg
so that they cannot be easily displaced by the current. For small works,
one stone thick pitching (25 to 30 cm) will suffice. Gaps in between
could be filled up by smaller pieces.
Thickness of stone pitching for larger works can be worked by
formula given by Inglis.
T=0.06 Q1/3 T=Thickness stone in feet and
Where Q=discharges in cusecs
The thickness is not less than 25/30 cm but not more than 1.0 m.
Size of stone has been recommended by IS 8408-1976, which is related
to velocity. V=4.893 D1/2 where D is diameter of the stone. The weight –
Velocity – Diameter is given by the curve shown in (Figure No. 14). It
may be seen that up to velocity of 2.5 m/sec, 35-55 kg stone is generally
good enough. Beyond that either they have to be in a grid, with proper
pointing. From these considerations, concrete blocks have also been
recommended. It is, however, very difficult to maintain. After long and
general experience, concrete blocks should not be provided unless the
bed is inerodible and in general there is no chance of scour and the
current is high. Such cases are on foot hills where river is in bouldery
stage. Typical arrangement for the laying of pitching has been shown in
the Figure No.-15 for Chitauni-Bagah bridge and the bridge over
Bramhaputra at Tezpur.
 24

In case of guide bundh, the pitching should continue right up to

the top of the formation for the riverside, including the curved head on
both sides, tail head. For important rivers or having large ponding etc.,
the pitching should be done on the rear side of the guide bund also. For
approach embankment, on the upstream side, the pitching should
continue up to the free board level which should be determined not only
on HFL but also to take care of velocity head (V2/2g), wave action etc.
For the downstream side, pitching may be done up to the water
level, observed either in case of hydraulic model study or the general
water level observed. Otherwise, toe protection with about a 1 m height

Figure No.- 14
 25

Figure No.- 15
should be good enough only in Khadir portion of the river. In addition to
this, a toe protection with a short apron width of 1 m wide, one stone
thick 25 cm to 30 cm should be considered alright. For rest of the slope,
a well designed turfing is generally considered adequate. No filter is
generally provided on downstream of the approach embankment.
A good drainage is a key for protection of slopes from rain cuts,
particularly on high banks of over 6 m. Longitudinal and cross drains
will have to be provided. Arrangements made for this purpose, in case of
Tezpur bridge and Chhitauni bridge are shown in the Figure No. 16 for
guidance.
 26

Figure No.- 16
 27

(vi) Apron
The guide bund particularly on the river side has to be provided
with suitably designed apron to take care of scour of the bed due to high
current. The slope pitching at the toe is particularly to be protected. For
currents higher than 2m/sec, normally crated boulders of man size
weighing 30 to 55 kg stone are provided. The idea is to allow the apron
to launch because of scour, so that the entire scoured slope is protected
with launched boulders. Adequate quantity of stone is to be provided to
ensure this and to take care of inevitable loss in course of launching of
apron. For alluvium beds, the apron should be like a carpet and should
be capable of adjusting itself due to uneven scour. In such cases,
concrete blocks are not useful and are not recommended. However, for
in-erodible bed/rocky/bouldery beds having very high current (over
4m/sec) concrete blocks are provided which are properly chained and
anchored. For ordinary situations, boulder aprons with or without crates
are considered proven and established solutions.
Following elements require designing of apron :-
a) Thickness of apron.
b) Level at which the apron is to be laid
c) Width of apron.
a) Thickness
Thickness of apron is governed by thickness of slope of the guide
bund. In general, thickness of launched apron is to be kept at 1.25 T
(where T is thickness of slope pitching). In more severe case, this may be
kept as 1.50 T.
b) Level at which Apron is to be Laid
This is the most important consideration. Normally apron should
be laid on dry bed, as low as possible. Since this is done manually, the
apron is not possible to be laid beyond water depth of knee, i.e., 2 to 3
feet of water (0.6 to 0.9 m). If this is not available, the bed should be
made up by temporary filling. In case of current, the stream has to be
diverted by taking useful measures. Generally, the bed may be
excavated up to LWL to lay the Apron. The excavated material is used for
construction of guide bundh, approach bank.
c) Width of Apron
This has to be determined by depth of scour. For ordinary
alluvium conditions, where Lacey’s formula is applicable, normal scour
depth is worked out by D=0.47 (Q/f)1/3, where D is depth of scour below
HFL, Q is discharges in m3/sec and f is silt factor. Depending upon the
location, scour depth varies. This may be adopted as 2.5D for the
upstream curved head of guide bund and as 1.5D for the straight reach
of the guide bund including tail on the downstream side of the bank. For
very large radius of guide bund, having severe attack, depth up to 2.75D
 28

has also been adopted. But these are special situations, normally
indicated by the model studies.
Side slope of apron is taken as 2:1, which is the same as the slope
of guide bund.
The width of apron is generally kept as 1.5 Dmax, where Dmax is
the normal scour depth multiplied by the factor 1.5/2.5 as mentioned
above due to the locations of part of guide bund.
This thickness of guide bund is generally kept on wedge shape
having thickness equal to the slope pitching at the inner and linearly
varying to 2.25 at the outer end.
Total volume of boulders required is worked out by following
relationship :-

Figure No.- 17
R=Rise of flood above low water or the level at which the apron is laid
D=Depth of scour below the level, the apron is laid
F=Free Board
 29

r1=Radius of the nose at the top of the slope

r2=Radius at the toe of the slope
r3=Radius at the toe of the laid apron
r4=Radius at the toe of the launched apron
r=r2+r4
2
T=Thickness of stone pitching on slope
Thickness to be adopted = 1.25 t
Surface area to be covered after full launching = r 5D
Volume= r 5DX1.25T
Since r= r2+r4 = r1+2(F+R)+D
2
Volume of stone = 2.81 DT[(r1+2(F+R)+D]
This quantity is to be laid in an area = (r32 – r22)
2
All cardinal elements are shown in the figures 18 and 19 for Tejpur
bridge over Brahmaputra and Gandak bridge respectively

Figure No.- 18 (Brahmputra Bridge)

 30

Figure No.- 19 (Gandak Bridge)

The apron arrangement in typical important bridge over River Gandak is
shown in Figure No.19. On the rear side of the guide bund 15m wide
apron has been provided.
 31

Figure No.- 20

The approach embankment is generally provided a smaller width of

apron on the upstream side. In most of the ordinary cases, a width of
1m is considered adequate. For other important works, 3 to 5 meterwide
apron, 30 cm thick, is considered adequate.
 32

9. REPAIR, MAINTENANCE AND PROTECTION OF

EMBANKMENTS
If embankments are properly designed and executed, there should
not be occasions to have any serious problems in their proper
functioning or any difficulty in their maintenance. Some reasons, which
may lead to problems, are as follows :-
(i) Faulty Construction
This will include construction of guide bund and approach
embankments – particularly in khadir of the river when done in two
stages or in two seasons without proper construction joints. As a matter
of rule, these must be constructed in one go in one season. It is very
difficult to provide continuity in two stage construction, particularly, if
subjected to floods. Classical example of failure is the guide bund of old
Chitauni bridge over River Gandak in 1924. The guide bund was
constructed in two seasons without proper joint. This was breached at
the joint. In case this becomes unavoidable, at least, a wedge size equal
to angle of internal friction of the old construction should be removed
and the next construction should be done with proper benching. An over
lap may be provided of slope protection and also an apron.
A high bank, with inadequate cross and longitudinal drain can
induce very high run off velocity causing frequent failures. Proper
drainage is a must. Good turfing is also very essential. In construction
involving river bed material, geogrid (of jute) etc. is very effective both for
growth of vegetation as well as for dampening the effect of run off along
the slopes and preventing rain cuts. This can be laid on the slopes and
fixed as per procedures prescribed by the manufacturers.
Good construction also includes proper quality control e.g.
compaction, moisture control and proper layer by layer constructions.
Toe protection is very essential in Khadir. This has been already
described earlier.
(ii) Change of River Course
This happens mainly due to meandering effect of the river. In case of
meander, it is possible to know the maximum radius of curvature from
which it should be possible to estimate the likely area of effect. One
thing is quite clear that this does not happen suddenly. The river gives
adequate prior warning. It is, therefore, necessary to keep the behaviour
of the river under close watch and one should take remedial action in
time. If adequate study and data are kept, design of protection measures
may be easier, cost effective and simpler.

As explained earlier, meander is basically a matter of hydraulic energy

which is dissipitated in a particular manner. So in case the tortutosity
 33

ratio is high, the help can be got by artificially increasing the resistance
to flow in the concave part and by doing necessary deflection in the
convex part of the curvilinear flow. For this purpose, permeable spur
made of permeable screens, porcupines etc. are very effective. With their
help, smaller spills can be closed also. This was successfully
demonstrated in diversion/closure of multiple stream of river Gandak for
construction of guide bunds and approach embankments. This was
presented as a technical paper in National Seminar on Bridge
Engineering in North-East organized by Indian Institution of Bridge
Engineers in October, 1998.
For protecting or repairing a bank affected by such flow, the best
way is to provide a series of spurs with proper toe protection. After
providing suitable pitching, a layer or two or sausage crates followed by
aprons are very effective. This was done for Bagmati River approach
bank. A typical Figure No. will illustrate the arrangement and principle
behind the same (Figure 21). It is very essential to provide proper
anchorage to the spur against scour. This should be protected by proper
pitching, apron or using sand bags.

(R.R. JARUHAR)
MEMBER ENGG.
 34

C.L.OF TRACK
UPSTREAMSIDE DOWNSTREAMSIDE
7500
FORMATIONLEVEL 77.57M.
3:1 0.75M. THICKHANDPACKEDBOULDERPITCHING
TURFING TURFING
SINGAL LAYEROF 0.3M. THICK 2:1 INSLOPEWITH1:3 CEMENTMORTARPOINTING
HANDPACKEDBOULDEROF30 TO60 Kg. R.L. 74.50M.
6400(APPROX.) BOULDERCRATESOF SIZE 3X1.5X0.9M. IN
DESIGNPONDLEVEL 73.45M. (APPROX.) TWOLAYERSWITHBOULDERSOF30 TO60 Kg.
3000 WATERLEVEL 71.70 .(APPROX.)
GROUND LEVEL
(ON23-7-93)
900

1800
0.9M. DIAWIRESAUSAGE(ROLL)
15000
O.6M. THICKBOULDERPITCHINGUNDERWATER
BOTTOMOF SCQUREDBANK

BOULDERCRATESOFSIZE3X1.5M. IN
ONELAYERSWITHBOULDERSOF
30 TO60 Kg.

SECTIONATA- A
(APPROACHBANK)
B B

RAIL LEVEL 77.94 M.

FORMATION LEVEL 77.57 M.

TOPOF PITCHING74.50 M.

0.75 M. THICKHANDPACKEDBOULDERPITCHING 1:1

INSLOPEWITH1 : 3 CEMENTMORTERPOINTING
BOULDERCRATESOF SIZE3X1.5M.
0.75 M. TH. INTWOLAYERSWITHBOULDERSOF30 TO60 Kg.
TOPOF WELL 67.92 M.
1800

15000
4.0M. WIDEAPRON
0.9M. DIAWIRESAUSAGE(ROLL) INTWOLAYERS.

POINTING IN
BOULDER
SLOPE
TURFING ON
SLOPE
23900

FORMATION
C.L.OFTRACK

(7.5M.)

7.5M.
TOBAIRAGIN TODHANG
40000
TURFING ON
SLOPE

SECTIONATC- C
WESTABOUTMENTNO. 1 PIERNO. 14
POINTING IN SLOPE
BOULDER

TOBAIRAGINIA TODHANG

15.0M. WIDEAPRON
STACKINGYARD
600M.
U/S
°

C.L.OFTRACK
83

50M.
50M.

BR. NO. 89(15X30.5M.)

X
50M.

PLAN
50M.
KEYPLAN

x
600M.
(NOT TOSCALE)
REARSIDE RIVER SIDE
BOULDERPITCHINGWITH30 TO60 TOKg.
6000 0.15M.THICKHANDPACKEDBOULDERPITCHINGINSLOPE
600 600 TOP LEVEL WITH1:3 CEMENT MORTORPOINTING
BOULDERCRATESOF SIZE3X1.5X0.9M.
3390(APPROX) INTWOLAYERSWITHBOULDERSOF30 TO60Kg.
2:1 0.2M. TH. WBM.
0.9M. DIAWIRESAUSAGE(ROLL) 0.9M. DIAWIRESAUSAGE
WATERLEVEL 71.17M. (POLL)INTWOLAYERS
GROUNDLEVEL BEDLEVEL 67.02 M. (APPROX)

LOWWATERLEVEL 67.83 2:1

3000
2:1
BOULDERCRATESOF SIZE3X1.5X0.9M. 0.8 M. TH. BOULDERPITCHINGUNDERWATER
INONELAYERWITHBOULDERSOF30 TO60 Kg.

0.6M. TH. BOULDERPITCHING

SECTIONATB-B
(GUIDEBUND) Sd------- Sd------- Sd------- Sd-------

TRACEDBY. CHECKED BY. C.D.M/CW DRAWNBY

Figure - 21
 35

LIST OF FIGURE NO./FIGURE NO.S

1. Figure No. 1 Dimension of meander

2. Figure No. 2 Neck and chute cut off
3. Figure No. 3 Typical details of porcupines
4. Figure No. 4 Typical arrangement of dampening of flow to
induce siltation
5. Figure No. 5 Details of permeable screen
7. Figure No. 6 Details of sausage crate
8. Figure No. 7 Types and cardinal dimension of spur
9. Figure No. 8 Location of Spur to aid diversion
10. Figure No. 9 Plan view of bridge floor with curtain and drop
wall
11. Figure No. 10 Typical section of bridge floor
12. Figure No. 11 Different forms of guide bundh
13. Figure No. 12 Typical dimension of guide bundh showing
extend of obliquity
14. Figure No. 13 Worst embayment behind head of guide bundh
showing single or double loop
15. Figure No. 14 Size of apron stone V/s.Velocity
16. Figure No. 15 Typical arrangement of laying of stone pitching
on slope for bridge over river Brahmaputra near
Tezpur and river Gandak for Chitauni-Bagah
Project
17. Figure No. 16 Typical arrangement of longitudinal and cross
drains for approach embankment provided for
bridge over river Brahmaputra near Tezpur
18. Figure No. 18 Details of guide bund (Brahmputra Bridge)
19. Figure No. 19 Details of guide bund (Gandak Bridge)
20. Figure No. 20 Apron arrangement/guide bundhs for Chitauni-
Bagah over river Gandak and River
Brahmaputra at Tezpur
21. Figure No. 21 Protection arrangement for embankment in
Bagmati River
===
 36

References

1. River Behaviour Management and Training

Publication No.204, Central Board of Irrigation & Power.
2. River Training and Protection Works, Director/IRICEN/Pune.
3. Key Design Parameters.
4. Bridging River Brahmaputra, Published by N.F.Railway
(Construction)
5. Chitauni Bagha Bridge over River Gandak.
6. North Eastern Railway – Engineering Department Standard
Specifications.
7. IRS Bridge and Sub-structure Code.
37