applied

sciences
Article
Experimental and Numerical Investigation of the
Internal Temperature of an Oil-Immersed Power
Transformer with DOFS
Yunpeng Liu 1 , Xinye Li 1 , Huan Li 2 , Jiaxue Wang 1 and Xiaozhou Fan 2, *
1 Hebei Provincial Key Laboratory of Power Transmission Equipment Security Defence, North China Electric
Power University, Baoding 071003, China; liuyunpeng@ncepu.edu.cn (Y.L.); lxy@ncepu.edu.cn (X.L.);
wjx@ncepu.edu.cn (J.W.)
2 State Key Laboratory of Alternate Electrical Power System with Renewable Energy Sources,
North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China; lih@ncepu.edu.cn
* Correspondence: fxz@ncepu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-0312-752-2314




Received: 31 July 2020; Accepted: 14 August 2020; Published: 18 August 2020


Abstract: To accurately detect and monitor the internal temperature of an operating power transformer,
the distributed optical fiber sensor (DOFS) was creatively applied inside an oil-immersed 35 kV
transformer through high integration with the winding wire. On the former basis, the power
transformer prototype with a completely global internal temperature sensing capability was
successfully developed and it was also qualified for power grid operation through the ex-factory
type tests. The internal spatially continuous temperature distribution of the operating transformer
was then revealed through a heat-run test and the numerical simulation was also applied for further
analysis. Hotspots of windings were continuously located and monitored (emerging at about 89%/90%
height of low/high voltage winding), which were furtherly compared with the IEC calculation results.
This new nondestructive internal sensing method shows a broad application prospect in the electrical
equipment field. Also, the revelation of transformer internal distributed temperature can offer a solid
reference for both researchers and field operation staff.

Keywords: condition monitoring; distributed optical fiber sensing; hotspot location; power transformer;
Raman scattering; temperature detection

1. Introduction
Transformer is the core equipment of power systems, and its safe operation is of great significance
to the stability of the power supply. The failure of a large power transformer often leads to a blackout
in an entire area, causing huge economic losses. As such real-time dynamic monitoring of the online
transformer status has aroused wide interest [1–3].
The internal temperature of a transformer, especially the winding hotspot, has a direct influence
on the insulation performance and its service life. Overheating during operation will decrease the life
expectancy of the insulated materials and thus threaten the safety of the local grid, while running at
a lower temperature means less load and the sacrifice of economic benefits [4]. Hence, the optimal
balance between safety and economy requires actual data-based criterion to grasp. Moreover, the
dynamic capacity-increasing and energy-saving control of the transformers are both empirical models,
still lacking quantitative, reliable support [5]. It is therefore necessary to obtain the real time temperature
distribution inside the transformer.
Currently, the traditional transformer temperature monitoring methods can be primarily divided
into four types: empirical formula method [6,7], numerical simulation, infrared measurements [8,9]

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5718; doi:10.3390/app10165718 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5718 2 of 17

and contact measurements (including thermocouples, fiber Bragg grating (FBG) and fluorescence
optical fiber, etc.) [10,11].
Among them, the empirical formula method has gradually become mature after many amendments
since it was first proposed in 1911 and has been widely applied in actual operations [12]. In IEC 60076
standard, different coefficients are suggested for transformers with different heat dissipation modes,
which can be directly used for the temperature calculation of transformer hotspots under different
load conditions and operating conditions [13]. This method can reflect the relationship between the
hotspot temperature and the transformer operating state. It is simple and thus has a wide range of
applications [6]. However, it has been proved that in some cases, the calculation result holds a large
error compared with the actual measurements [14]. Meanwhile, it is also difficult to keep pace with the
instantaneous load changes, which inevitably leads to the lack of real-time response [15]. Therefore,
the empirical formula based detecting method is more suitable for a rough but fast calculation.
However, the method above only focuses on the hotspot temperature, lacking the thermal
information of the entire internal area. The numerical simulation, which establishes the partial
differential equations for the internal convective heat exchange process according to the fluid mechanics,
could solve this problem theoretically through a global computing by relevant algorithms [16]. J. Mufuta
and El Wakiln were the first to make great progress in this area through a 2D thermodynamic modelling
of an oil-immersed transformer [17,18]. Then, J. Smolka further obtained a more detailed 3D temperature
distribution by combining genetic algorithms with the multi-physics coupling [19]. In order to reduce
the modelling complexity, J. Gastelurrutia furtherly simplified the transformer heat source and
boundary conditions, and hereby proposed an equivalent calculation model [20]. However, limited by
the inevitable simplifications and the convergence of algorithms, the simulation result usually has
deviations in reflecting the real state of a transformer, and in most cases, it only serves as a theoretical
reference [21].
Besides the aforesaid calculation methods, direct detection usually stands out for its simple and
intuitive properties. The remote non-contact measurement with infrared camera is convenient for
people to operate, but it can be easily affected by the ambient temperature, electromagnetic signals
or the shooting position, bringing inevitable measurement errors [8]. Moreover, this camera-based
method is also unable to measure the internal temperature distribution of a transformer in real time.
Thus, the infrared detection could only provide an external overall thermal situation.
In comparison, the contact measurement is a method to detect the temperature of a certain position
inside the transformer by thermocouples, fluorescent fiber, fiber gratings, etc. It is simple and effective,
but the location of the sensor has a strong empirical dependence and it still cannot realize the whole
area temperature sensing, leaving a large monitoring blind area [11]. The remarkable achievement was
a measurement performed in 2012 by Kweon on a 154 kV transformer during the temperature-rise
test. The fluorescent fiber sensors were placed in advance on the windings for a local temperature
measurement [22]. This was followed by Arabul, who had arranged large quantities of fluorescent
fiber sensors in the oil passages between each adjacent winding wire for the detection of overheated
regions in a 1.5 MVA transformer [23]. However, affected by the complicated circumstances inside
transformer, the different positions chosen for the sensors may lead to different results. There are also
leaving numerous sensor probes and complex internal leads. Some new horizons are thereby required
to minimize the monitoring blind zones.
The distributed optical fiber sensing technology, developing rapidly in recent years, has gradually
applied in some super projects like geo-environmental monitoring, bridge and tunnel monitoring,
petroleum and gas lines monitoring, power lines monitoring, and so forth, due to its spatiotemporally
continuous monitoring and excellent real-time performance. Among these, the ROTDR (Raman Optical
Time Domain Reflection) technology has been successfully applied by NASA (National Aeronautics and
Space Administration) and ANDRA (French National Radioactive Waste Management Agency) in the
harshest environments such as a space shuttle [24] and an underground nuclear waste repository [25].
Yahei, from Japan, has further obtained a 0.01 ◦ C temperature resolution through coherent OTDR
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

Lu has applied
Appl. Sci. 2020, the DOFS to a laboratory energized transformer core based on Rayleigh scattering,
10, 5718 3 of 17
but its limited detecting range is hard to monitor the field power transformer [27]. In commercial
products, the Sensornet ltd (Hertfordshire, British) has reached a resolution of 0.02 °C per meter along
(Optical Time Domain Reflection) technology [26]. Lu has applied the DOFS to a laboratory energized
the sensing
transformerfibercore
for 45 kmon
based inRayleigh
each direction, andbut
scattering, can
itswithstand up to 700
limited detecting range°Cisin a corrosive
hard to monitorsituation
the
[28]. field power transformer [27]. In commercial products, the Sensornet ltd (Hertfordshire, British) has
Therefore, it exhibits
reached a resolution great
of 0.02 ◦ Cpotential
per meterfor DOFS
along (Distributed
the sensing Optical
fiber for 45 km Fiber
in eachSensor) application
direction, and can in
the electrical up to 700 ◦ Cfield.
withstand apparatus In this situation
in a corrosive contribution,
[28]. according to the actual structures of an oil-
immersedTherefore,
35 kV power it exhibits great potential
transformer, for DOFS
different laying(Distributed
schemes were Optical Fiber Sensor)
designed for theapplication in
DOFS. Verified
the electrical apparatus field. In this contribution, according to the actual structures
by the corresponding tests, the transformer prototype with built-in distributed sensing fibers was of an oil-immersed
35 kV power
successfully transformer,
developed and was different laying schemes
up to standard weregrid
for power designed for the
operation DOFS. the
through Verified by thetype
ex-factory
corresponding tests, the transformer prototype with built-in distributed sensing fibers was successfully
tests. Moreover, the internal real-time online temperature of an operating power transformer was
developed and was up to standard for power grid operation through the ex-factory type tests. Moreover,
also revealed in a distributed manner. The hotspots were accurately located and continuously
the internal real-time online temperature of an operating power transformer was also revealed in
monitored. Assisted by numerical simulations, the actual detected data were also compared with the
a distributed manner. The hotspots were accurately located and continuously monitored. Assisted
IEC traditional
by numerical calculation
simulations,results. Thesedetected
the actual first-hand data
data may
were provide
also a solid
compared reference
with the IEC for the delicate
traditional
management
calculationofresults.
powerThesetransformers.
first-hand data may provide a solid reference for the delicate management of
power transformers.
2. Sensing Principle
2. Sensing Principle
When light transmits in an optical fiber, the light waves will be scattered to different degrees
When light transmits in an optical fiber, the light waves will be scattered to different degrees under
under the influence of medium molecules, resulting in a scattering spectrum with different
the influence of medium molecules, resulting in a scattering spectrum with different frequencies [28].
frequencies [28]. Thus, the elastic scattering (Rayleigh scattering) and inelastic scattering (Brillouin
Thus, the elastic scattering (Rayleigh scattering) and inelastic scattering (Brillouin scattering and Raman
scattering and Raman scattering) can be identified according to their frequency (Figure 1). While
scattering) can be identified according to their frequency (Figure 1). While Raman scattering, including
Ramantwoscattering, including
different frequency twohas
parts, different frequency
been discovered parts,a strong
to have has been discovered
temperature to have
sensitivity a strong
among
temperature sensitivity
these scattered lights,among these
especially scattered
in its lights, region.
high frequency especially in its high frequency region.

Figure 1. Spontaneous scattering in optical fiber.

Figure 1. Spontaneous scattering in optical fiber.
When light propagates through the fiber, the luminous flux of Stokes Raman scattering generated
When
by each light propagates
light pulse throughin the
[29] is presented fiber,(1):the luminous flux of Stokes Raman scattering
Equation
generated by each light pulse [29] is presented in Equation (1):
ΦS = KS · S · v4S · φe · RS (T ) · exp[−(α0 + αS ) · L] (1)
Φ S = K S ⋅ S ⋅ vS4 ⋅ φe ⋅ RS (T ) ⋅ exp[−(α 0 + α S ) ⋅ L ] (1)
The luminous flux of anti-Stokes Raman scattering can be expressed as Equation (2):
The luminous flux of anti-Stokes Raman scattering can be expressed as Equation (2):
Φ =K · S · v4 · φ · R (T ) · exp[−(α + α ) · L] (2)
4AS
Φ ASAS= K ASAS⋅ S ⋅ v AS ⋅ φee ⋅ R AS
AS
(T ) ⋅ exp[−(α00 + αAS
AS ) ⋅ L ] (2)
where KS and KAS are the cross-section coefficients of optical fiber related to Stokes scattering and
where KS and KAS are the cross-section coefficients of optical fiber related to Stokes scattering and
anti-Stokes scattering, respectively; S is the backscattering factor of the fiber; vS and vAS are the
anti-Stokes scattering, respectively; S is the backscattering factor of the fiber; vS and vAS are the
frequencies of Stokes and anti-Stokes scattering photons; φe is the number of incident laser pulse
frequencies of Stokes and anti-Stokes scattering photons; ϕe is the number of incident laser pulse
photons; α0 , αS and αAS are the average propagation loss factors of incident light, Stokes scattering
photons; α0, αS and αAS are the average propagation loss factors of incident light, Stokes scattering
light and anti-Stokes scattering light, respectively; L is the distance between the incident end of fiber
and the measured point; and RS(T) and RAS(T) are the corresponding coefficients, related to the
particle distribution of fiber molecules at different energy levels, which act as the temperature
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5718 4 of 17

light and anti-Stokes scattering light, respectively; L is the distance between the incident end of
fiber and the measured point; and RS (T) and RAS (T) are the corresponding coefficients, related to
the particle distribution of fiber molecules at different energy levels, which act as the temperature
modulation functions of Stokes Raman scattering and anti-Stokes Raman scattering [30], as shown in
Equations (3) and (4):
RS (T ) = [1 − exp(−h∆v/kT )]−1 (3)

RAS (T ) = [exp(h∆v/kT ) − 1]−1 (4)

where h is the Planck constant (h = 6.626 × 10−34 J·s); ∆v is the Raman phonon frequency (∆v = 1.32 × 1013 Hz);
k is the Boltzmann constant (k = 1.38 × 10−23 J·K−1 ); and T is the thermodynamic temperature.
As the anti-Stokes Raman scattering has an obvious temperature sensitivity, it can be further used
as the signal channel. Also, the temperature field can be obtained through the demodulation of these
two scatterings from their ratio, as shown in Equation (5):

ΦAS (T )/ΦS (T ) = KAS /KS · (vAS /vS )4

(5)
·RAS (T )/RS (T ) · exp[−(αAS − αS ) · L]

It can be further displayed as Equation (6) when substituting Equations (3) and (4) into the above
formula at the temperature of T0 .

ΦAS (T0 )/ΦS (T0 ) = KAS /KS · (vAS /vS )4

(6)
· exp[(αS − αAS ) · L − h∆v/kT0 ]

In order to perform temperature calibration, some front sections of the fiber sensor are selected
as the calibration fiber, which will be placed in a thermostatic bath at temperature T0 [29]. Hereby,
in practical application, the temperature distribution curve along the entire optical fiber can be obtained
by just measuring out the electrical levels of ΦAS (T), ΦS (T), ΦAS (T0 ) and ΦS (T0 ) after the photoelectric
conversion, as shown in Equation (7):

ΦAS (T )/ΦS (T )
" !#
h∆v 1 1
= exp − − (7)
ΦAS (T0 )/ΦS (T0 ) k T T0

The relative sensitivity (SR ) of this demodulation method can be calculated out by differentiating
the temperature T of Equation (6), as exhibited in Equation (8):

h∆v exp(h∆v/kT0 ) − 1
SR = · · exp(h∆v/kT ) (8)
kT2 [exp(h∆v/kT ) − 1]2

In the range of 0 ◦ C to 120 ◦ C, the average temperature sensitivity SR = 1.065%/◦ C.

The working process of the optical fiber temperature sensor is shown in Figure 2. The pulsed laser
enters the fiber through one end of the integrated wavelength division multiplexer (involving a 1 × 2
bidirectional coupler (BDC) and an optical fiber wavelength division multiplexer (OWDM)). Then its
back scattering will be divided into Stokes and anti-Stokes Raman light by the integrated wavelength
division multiplexer. After the photoelectric conversion in avalanche photodiode (APD) and high-speed
analog-to-digital conversion, the processed signal will be delivered to a computer for temperature
demodulation and data storage to achieve online distributed temperature measurement [30].
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5718 5 of 17

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17

Figure 2. Power transformer temperature monitoring principle based on distributed optical fiber
sensing.

3. Development
Figure of the
Figure2.2.Power
Power DOFS Integrated
transformer temperature
transformer Power
temperature Transformer
monitoring principle
monitoring and
based
principle Platform
on distributed
based Setupfiber
optical
on distributed sensing.
optical fiber
sensing.
3. Development of the DOFS Integrated Power Transformer and Platform Setup
3.1. Design of the Distributed Optical Fiber Sensor Laying Scheme
3. Development of the DOFS Integrated Power Transformer and Platform Setup
3.1.The
Design of the Distributed
transformer prototypeOptical Fiber Sensor
developed Laying
in this Scheme
paper adopts a layered winding structure and its
specific parameters
The transformer
3.1. Design are listed in
prototype
of the Distributed Table 1.
developed
Optical The detecting
in this
Fiber Sensor equipment
paper
Laying is a commercial
adopts a layered
Scheme product (BY-DTS-
winding structure and its
4020, Weihai
specific Beiyangare
parameters Optoelectronic
listed in Table 1.Info-Tech Co. Ltd.,
The detecting Weihai,
equipment is aChina) and product
commercial the relative parameters
(BY-DTS-4020,
The transformer prototype developed in this paper adopts a layered winding structure and its
of Weihai
the optical fiberOptoelectronic
Beiyang and the instrument areCo.
Info-Tech alsoLtd.,
listed below.
Weihai, The high
China) voltage
and the (HV)
relative windingof
parameters utilizes
the
specific parameters are listed in Table 1. The detecting equipment is a commercial product (BY-DTS-
theoptical
roundfiber
copper
andwire while the low
the instrument arevoltage (LV)
also listed winding
below. Theuses
highthe composite
voltage wire. Theutilizes
(HV) winding opticalthe
fiber
4020, Weihai Beiyang Optoelectronic Info-Tech Co. Ltd., Weihai, China) and the relative parameters
round
laying copperon
scheme wire
thewhile the low
windings voltage
is shown in(LV) winding
Figure 3. uses the composite wire. The optical fiber
of the optical fiber and the instrument are also listed below. The high voltage (HV) winding utilizes
laying scheme on the windings is shown in Figure 3.
the round copper wire while the low voltage (LV) winding uses the composite wire. The optical fiber
laying scheme on the windings is shown in Figure 3.
Coating
Cladding
Insulating Sheath Winding Outermost
Paper Transformer Coating
Oil Core DOFS
Cladding
Winding Outermost
…
Insulating …Sheath … …
Paper Transformer Oil Core DOFS
Wire
… … … …
… …
Wire

… …
(a)

(a)
Spirally Winded DOFS Winding Outermost

Spirally Winded DOFS Insulating

Winding Outermost
… … Paper
Oil
… … Insulating
Paper
Wire

…Oil …Wire
… …
(b)
Fiberlaying
Figure3.3.Fiber
Figure laying scheme
scheme(cross-section
(cross-section (b) on (a)
structure)
structure) onlow
(a)voltage (LV) winding;
low voltage (b) high voltage
(LV) winding; (b) high
(HV)
voltage winding.
(HV)
Figure winding.
3. Fiber laying scheme (cross-section structure) on (a) low voltage (LV) winding; (b) high
voltage (HV) winding.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5718 6 of 17

Table 1. Specifications of the transformer and the distributed optical fiber sensor (DOFS).

Power Transformer Prototype DOFS

Rated capacity 200 kVA Temperature resolution <0.5 ◦ C
Rated voltage 35 kV/400 V Temperature accuracy <1.0 ◦ C
Rated current 3.3 A/288.7 A Positioning accuracy 80 cm
Core type Shell Operating temperature range −30–270 ◦ C
Cooling method ONAN Response time 2–10 s
Height: 465 mm Fiber type multimode fiber
HV winding size
Width: 310 mm Fiber size 50/125/250/900 µm 1
Height: 460 mm Fiber material (shealth/coating) ETFE/PI
LV winding size
Width: 186 mm Effective monitoring range 2 km
1 The size is fiber core/cladding/coating layer/sheath in external diameter.

The LV winding of the 35 kV transformer is composed of composite conductors, the unit of

which consists of six parallelly flat copper wires. This leaves no oil ducts between each adjacent wire
(as shown in Figure 3a). Temperature sensing can be realized by attaching the optical fiber to the
wire surface of the outermost turn. Actual field experience shows that the optical fiber will be highly
integrated with the winding due to the friction and stress generated from the laying process. In our
experiment, the fiber did not break and the mechanical stress was moderate all the time. Meanwhile,
a layer of insulating paper will be wrapped around the fiber composite wire to weaken the negative
deviation of measurement caused by the cooling medium.
The HV winding is made up by enameled round copper conductors, which also means the direct
contact between adjacent wires. For the convenience of fiber laying, a layer of insulating paper (0.2 mm)
will be applied to the surface of the winding in advance, after which the optical fiber will be spirally
winded on the paper closely attached to the wire (as exhibited in Figure 3b). The remaining steps are
the same as aforesaid.
Through the high integration and close contact of the DOFS and the winding wire, the temperature
of the designed optical fiber will be synchronized with the adjacent conductor during the actual
operation of a transformer. Thus, the real time distributed temperature monitoring of the whole
winding can be achieved. Meanwhile, a pulley guide should be utilized during the fiber laying process
to ensure that the DOFS is evenly winded and closely adheres to the winding. The optical fiber was
laid between the wire and the insulating paper, which will maintain the original winding structure
and helps to buffer the possible vibrations and knocks during the manufacturing process. The iron
core limbs and the inner wall of the oil tank were also uniformly winded by the distributed optical
fiber sensors. The whole system is based on Raman scattering and it is only temperature-related,
which means that the mechanical stress or the possible vibrations will not cause any interference.

3.2. Pre-Experiments
To ensure that the optical fiber works stably under the high temperature environment of transformer
and has good compatibility with transformer oil, in our former series work [31], the safety test
was performed through the accelerated thermal aging method (the optical fiber was immersed in
the transformer oil at 130 ◦ C for 576 h) which can be considered as equal to the fiber working
continuously for 21 years under the normal operation of transformers according to IEC standards [13].
Tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) and polyimide (PI) were finally selected as the optical fiber sheath and
coating layer material due to their stable performance after the long-term aging process in the insulating
oil. Meanwhile, the electric performance of the selected optical fiber was also qualified for the actual
operating of a transformer due to its good insulation properties [11].
 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5718 7 of 17

To furtherly test the hot region measuring accuracy of the as designed DOFS composite transformer
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10,ax temperature-rise
windings, FOR PEER REVIEWexperiment was performed on an assembled winding. The schematic7 of 17
diagram
Appl. Sci. of xthe
2020, 10, FORtest platform
PEER REVIEWis shown in Figure 4. 7 of 17

Figure 4. Schematic graph of the test platform.

Figure 4. Schematic graph of the test platform.
Figure 4. Schematic graph of the test platform.
The distributed optical fiber sensor was fixed upon the outermost turn of winding with
The distributed optical fiber sensor was fixed upon the outermost turn of winding with insulating
insulating
paper, paper,
The distributed while
while the inner the
opticalinner
side fiber
of side
the of thewas
sensor
winding winding
wire wire
uponwas
fixedclosely
was theclosely
adhered to a adhered
outermost
heatingturnto of
tape atoheating
winding tape
realize the to
with
realize
insulatingthepaper,
temperaturetemperature
while thecontrolling.
controlling. inner
The heating The
side of heating
theadopted
tape winding tape
wireadopted
wassampling
multi-point multi-point
closely adhered sampling
to a heatingthrough
through thermocouples tape
to to
thermocouples
realize the that
ensure to ensure
temperature that the
controlling.
the temperature temperature
Thewould
control error control
heating
reachtape error
◦
0.1 C. would
adopted reach 0.1
multi-point
The hot region °C.
detecting The
sampling hot region
accuracy through
was
detecting accuracy was explored by temperature
heating the discontinuous ◦ C to 75 ◦stable
thermocouples
explored by to ensure
heating thethat the
discontinuous winding control error winding
turns to different would turns (55
stablereach
states to
0.1different
°C. The Chot every states
region
◦
(55 °C
5 to
detectingC a75 °C every
state)
accuracyandwas 5 °C
the a state)by
measuring
explored and the
results aremeasuring
heating shown results5. are
in Figure
the discontinuous shown turns
winding in Figure 5.
to different stable states
(55 °C to 75 °C every 5 °C a state) and the measuring results are shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5.5.Hot
Figure Hotregion
regiondetecting accuracytest
detecting accuracy testresult.
result.
Figure 5. Hot region detecting accuracy test result.
The The experimentaltest
experimental test shows
showsthat thethe
that as designed
as designedDOFS composite winding has
DOFS composite a spatial resolution
winding has a spatial
of 0.8 m (each hot region is 3.2 m wide and consists of four sampling points) and a temperature
resolution of 0.8 m (each hot region is 3.2 m wide and consists
The experimental test shows that the as designed DOFS composite winding has a spatial of four sampling points) and a
accuracy less than 0.3 ◦ C. For the continuously winded windings inside the transformer, this accuracy
temperature
resolution ofaccuracy
0.8 m (each less than
hot 0.3 °C. For
region them
is 3.2 continuously winded windings
wide and consists inside thepoints)
of four sampling transformer,
and a
is sufficient to locate the exact local overheating turn. Meanwhile, there is no oil passages between each
this adjacent
accuracywire
temperature is insufficient
accuracy to
less than
a layered
locate
0.3 °C.
structure
the
Forexact
winding,thethus, local overheating
continuously winded
the temperature
turn.
along
Meanwhile,
windings
windingsinside
will bethe
there isand
no oil
transformer,
uniform
passages
this between
accuracy
continuous. eachcaseadjacent
isInsufficient
the wire
to locate
of densely in exact
the
winded aDOFS,
layered
local structure
massive winding,
overheating
data can turn. thus,
be hereby theand
Meanwhile,
obtained temperature
there is no
interpolation along
oil
windings
passages
method will be
between uniform and
each adjacent
can be utilized continuous.
wire
to estimate thein In the case
a layered where
temperature of densely
structure winded
winding,
located DOFS,
thus,
under the massive
theresolution.
spatial data
temperature alongcan be
hereby obtained
windings The beand
willcommercial interpolation
uniform hasmethod
and continuous.
product already Incan becase
the
integratedutilized
aof to estimate
densely
section windedthe DOFS,
of calibratingtemperature
opticalmassive where located
dataand
fiber inside can be
under
herebythethe spatialand
reference
obtained resolution.
temperature is stable
interpolation according
method cantobe the manufacturer.
utilized However,
to estimate the equipment
the temperature was also
where located
calibrated
The before
commercial the
under the spatial resolution. experiment.
product has The temperature
already integrated calibration
a was
section conducted
of through
calibrating the
optical thermostatic
fiber inside and
the reference temperature
The commercial is stable
product according
has already to the manufacturer.
integrated However, the
a section of calibrating equipment
optical was also
fiber inside and
calibrated
the reference before the experiment.
temperature The temperature
is stable according calibration
to the manufacturer. was conducted
However, the equipment through
was alsothe
thermostaticbefore
calibrated bath withthe aexperiment.
temperatureThe errortemperature
of 0.01 °C. Also, in the actual
calibration was experiments,
conducted through a sectiontheof
fiber was exposed
thermostatic bath with directly into the ambient
a temperature error of 0.01 environment
°C. Also, in and
theitactual
was also compared
experiments, with the
a section of
thermocouples
fiber was exposed (exhibited
directlyin Figure
into the6). The ambient
ambient temperature
environment anddetecting
it was error
also (in average)with
compared was less
the
 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5718 8 of 17

bath with a temperature error of 0.01 ◦ C. Also, in the actual experiments, a section of fiber was exposed
directly into the ambient environment and it was also compared with the thermocouples (exhibited in
Figure 6). The ambient temperature detecting error (in average) was less than 0.3 ◦ C, indicating that
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17
the 2020,
Appl. Sci. instrument
10, x FOR was reliable.
PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Figure 6. Ambient temperature detecting results during the whole test.

Figure 6. Ambient
Figure temperature
6. Ambient temperature detecting resultsduring
detecting results duringthethe whole
whole test.test.
3.3. Platform Setup
3.3. Platform Setup
3.3. Platform Setup
The distributed optical fiber sensor integrated power transformer was fabricated based on the
The distributed optical fiber sensor integrated power transformer was fabricated based on the
aforesaid laying schemes
The distributed opticaland fiber it was in strict accordance with the normalwas manufacturing process.onAn
aforesaid laying schemes and itsensor
was inintegrated power
strict accordance transformer
with fabricated based
the normal manufacturing process. the
optical
aforesaid fiber
laying flange
schemes was sealed
andsealed on the
it wasoninthe oil tank
strict for signal
accordance extraction. The transformer prototype was
An optical fiber flange was oil tank for signalwith the normal
extraction. manufacturing
The transformer process.
prototype was An
up
optical to standard for power grid operation through the corresponding ex-factory tests performed
up fiber flangeforwas
to standard powersealed
grid on the oilthrough
operation tank forthesignal extraction.
corresponding The transformer
ex-factory prototype
tests performed strictly was
up strictly
to according
standard for to the grid
power relevant IEC industry
operation through standards
the [13] (including
corresponding
according to the relevant IEC industry standards [13] (including induced over voltage withstand
induced
ex-factory overperformed
tests voltage
withstand test, power-frequency
test,according
power-frequency voltagetest,withstand test,
test, tightness test,no-load
load loss lossand no-load loss
strictly to thevoltage
relevant withstand
IEC industry tightness
standards load loss(including
[13] and inducedmeasurement,
over voltage
measurement,
dielectric dielectric
routine tests, routine
etc.). tests, etc.).
withstand test, power-frequency voltage withstand test, tightness test, load loss and no-load loss
ItItserves
serves asasaastrong
strong proof that the
prooftests,
that the as designed distributed optical fiber sensor enjoys a high
measurement, dielectric routine etc.).as designed distributed optical fiber sensor enjoys a high
safety and stability inside the transformers
safety and stability inside the transformers and and can
canbe
befurtherly
furtherlyusedusedininactual
actual industrial
industrial application.
It serves as a strong proof that the as designed distributed optical fiber sensorapplication.
enjoys a high
The
Thereal
realtime
time internal distributedtemperature
internal distributed temperature information
information waswas obtained
obtained through
through the temperature-
the temperature-rise
safety and stability inside the transformers and can be furtherly used in actual industrial application.
rise
test. The optical fiber was connected to an analysis equipment through the fiber flange. Theflange.
test. The optical fiber was connected to an analysis equipment through the fiber sensingThe
Thesensing
real time internal
framework distributed
is in
shown temperature information was obtained through the temperature-
framework is shown Figurein7Figure
and the7 field
and application
the field application
is exhibited is in
exhibited
Figure 8.in Figure 8.
rise test. The optical fiber was connected to an analysis equipment through the fiber flange. The
sensing framework is shown in Figure 7 and the field application is exhibited in Figure 8.

Figure 7. 35 kV power transformer online monitoring platform.

Figure 7. 35 kV power transformer online monitoring platform.

Figure 7. 35 kV power transformer online monitoring platform.

 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5718 9 of 17
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17

Figure
Figure 8. Field
8. Field applicationof
application ofthe
the DOFS
DOFS integrated
integratedpower
powertransformer.
transformer.
4. Actual Detected Temperature and Numerical Simulation Results
4. Actual Detected Temperature and Numerical Simulation Results
4.1. Fully Distributed Internal Temperature Revelation
4.1. FullyThe
Distributed Internaltest
temperature-rise Temperature
was strictlyRevelation
performed according to the corresponding IEC standard [13],
simultaneously, the spatiotemporal
The temperature-rise temperature
test was strictly changes
performed inside thetooperating
according transformer IEC
the corresponding werestandard
also
monitored in a distributed manner. The temperature-rise test was performed with the short-circuit
[13], simultaneously, the spatiotemporal temperature changes inside the operating transformer were
method. It was composed of two steps, that is, applying total losses (first 8 h) and applying the rated
also monitored in a distributed manner. The temperature-rise test was performed with the short-
current (the last hour). The as designed optical fiber sensor displays an effective sensing performance
circuit method. It was composed of two steps, that is, applying total losses (first 8 h) and applying
under the complex thermal conditions inside the power transformer and works stably all the time.
the rated current
The fiber laying(the
lengthlastofhour). The as designed
each monitoring optical
area is also fiberinsensor
exhibited Figure displays
9. an effective sensing
performance under
For all the complex
the windings, thermal
the sensing conditions
fibers inside with
were connected the power transformer
each other through the and works
optical stably
fiber
all the time.
patch The
cord on fiber laying
the outer sidelength of each
of the fiber monitoring
flange (data of thesearea is also
extra fibersexhibited in Figure
are not included 9. results).
in the
Fortemperature
The all the windings, the sensing
distribution fibers
of the iron corewere
limbsconnected
and the oil with each other
tank inside wall arethrough
shown the optical
in Figure 10.fiber
patch cord As on
for Figure
the outer9a,c,e, theof
side HV winding
the temperature
fiber flange (data presents
of thesean increasing
extra fibers trend
are notwith the height
included in the
(the fiber was uniformly and spirally winded along the winding surface, so
results). The temperature distribution of the iron core limbs and the oil tank inside wall are shown in the fiber length can be
normalized
Figure 10. to the percentage of winding height). The hotspot gradually appeared after 3 h (80% of the
highest temperature), around 44 ◦ C, 43 ◦ C, and 42 ◦ C for phase A, B, and C, respectively. At the end of
As for Figure 9a,c,e, the HV winding temperature presents an increasing trend with the height
first step (8 h), the hotspot appeared at around 89%, 90%, and 91% of the winding height for phase A,
(the fiber was uniformly and spirally winded along the winding surface, so the fiber length can be
B and C, respectively.
normalized to the percentage of winding height). The hotspot gradually appeared after 3 h (80% of
The LV winding displays a higher temperature compared to the HV winding due to its higher
the highest
current, temperature),
as shown in Figure around 44 The
9b,d,f. °C, 43 °C, and 42
temperature °C for phase
increases with the A,winding
B, and C, respectively.
height except forAta the
end downtrend
of first stepin(8theh),top
thearea,
hotspot
whichappeared at around
may be caused by its89%, 90%,better
relatively and 91%
heat of the winding
dissipation height for
conditions.
phaseTheA,hotspot
B and gradually
C, respectively. ◦
arose after 2 h, almost 60 C located at 85~92% of the winding height. The hotspot
The LV winding
continued to spreaddisplays
to a largera region
higherwith
temperature
the passagecompared
of time. And to at
the HV
8 h, thewinding
hotspot for due to its
phase A, higher
B,
and C
current, asappeared
shown in at Figure
88%, 91% and 88%
9b,d,f. Theoftemperature
the winding height,
increases respectively.
with the winding height except for a
For the core limbs, exhibited in Figure 10a–c,
downtrend in the top area, which may be caused by its relatively betterthe temperature distribution shows a positive
heat dissipation conditions.
correlation with the height for each phase. The hotspot appeared
The hotspot gradually arose after 2 h, almost 60 °C located at 85~92% of the winding between 94% and 96% of the limb The
height.
height for phase A, B, and C, respectively. However, there is little magnetic flux in the iron core
hotspot continued to spread to a larger region with the passage of time. And at 8 h, the hotspot for
during the short-circuit temperature-rise test and thus, the detected temperature may have a lower
phase A, B, and C appeared at 88%, 91% and 88% of the winding height, respectively.
value compared to the actual situations. The temperature along the inner wall of oil tank is shown in
For the core limbs, exhibited in Figure 10a–c, the temperature distribution shows a positive
Figure 10d, which displays an increasing trend with time. However, the temperature distributed in an
correlation
uneven with
way due the to
height for each phase.
the continuously Theoilhotspot
unstable appeared
flows along the tank between
wall and94% and 96%
the hotspot of the limb
appeared
height for phase
alternately A, upper
on the B, andorC, respectively.
lower part of tank.However, there is little magnetic flux in the iron core
during the short-circuit temperature-rise test and thus, the detected temperature may have a lower
value compared to the actual situations. The temperature along the inner wall of oil tank is shown in
Figure 10d, which displays an increasing trend with time. However, the temperature distributed in
an uneven way due to the continuously unstable oil flows along the tank wall and the hotspot
appeared alternately on the upper or lower part of tank.
Appl.
Appl. Sci.
Sci.2020,
2020,10,
10,x5718
FOR PEER REVIEW 10
10of
of17
17

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)
Figure
Figure 9.
9. Spatiotemporally
Spatiotemporallycontinuous
continuoustemperature
temperaturedistribution
distributionalong
along the
the (a,c,e)
(a,c,e) HV
HV winding,
winding, phase
phase
A,
A, B,
B, and
and C,
C, respectively
respectively and
and (b,d,f)
(b,d,f) LV winding, phase
LV winding, phase A,
A, B,
B, and
and C,
C, respectively.
respectively.

The hotspots of all the windings were closely monitored and continuously located, as exhibited in
Figure 11. And the DOFS detecting results are compared with the IEC traditional calculating results in
Table 2.
As shown in Figure 11, the hotspots gradually came to a steady position after around 1 h for both
the HV and LV windings. It can be possibly attributed to the fact that the oil gradually started to
circulate at around 1 h. Before this time, the cold oil has a relatively large viscosity and there is almost
no heat convection process inside the transformer, leading to a random position of the hotspot.
 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17

Appl. Sci.
Appl.2020, 10, x 10,
Sci. 2020, FOR PEER REVIEW
5718 11 of 11
17 of 17

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 10. Spatiotemporally continuous temperature distribution along the (a–c) iron core limbs,
phase A, B, and C, respectively and (d) inside wall of the oil tank.

The hotspots of all the (c) windings were closely monitored and continuously (d) located, as exhibited
in Figure 11. And the DOFS detecting results are compared with the IEC traditional calculating results
Figure
in Table 10.
2. Spatiotemporally
Figure 10. Spatiotemporallycontinuous temperature
continuous temperature distribution
distribution alongalong theiron
the (a–c) (a–c)
coreiron core
limbs, limbs,
phase
phaseA,A,
B, B,
andand C, respectively
C, respectively andinside
and (d) (d) inside
wall ofwall of the
the oil tank.oil tank.

The hotspots of all the windings were closely monitored and continuously located, as exhibited
in Figure 11. And the DOFS detecting results are compared with the IEC traditional calculating results
in Table 2.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 11. Hotspots trajectory
trajectory of
of (a)
(a) HV
HV windings
windingsand
and(b)
(b)LV
LVwindings.
windings.

(a) (b)
 Phase A Phase B Phase C
Monitoring Method
Pos. (%) Temp. (°C) Pos. (%) Temp. (°C) Pos. (%) Temp. (°C)
1 1 1

HV winding 89.5 54.8 90.2 53.7 91.1 51.9

Appl. Sci. LV
2020, 10, 5718 winding 88.4 72.9 91.3 77.8 88.7 74.8 12 of 17
DOFS
Core limb 94.3 52.9 94.4 53.7 96.2 50.9
Oil tank Tmax: 66.2 Pos.: upper or lower part
HVTable 2. Hotspot detecting results
winding compared
Pos.: cannot be with the IEC
obtained calculation.
Temp.: 57 °C
LV winding Phase A Pos.: cannot be obtained
Phase B Temp.: 79 °C Phase C
IEC method Method
Monitoring
2
Core limb Pos. 1 (%) Temp. (◦ C)
cannot
Pos. 1 (%)
be obtained
Temp. (◦ C) Pos. 1 (%) Temp. (◦ C)
Oil tank cannot be obtained
HV winding 89.5 54.8 90.2 53.7 91.1 51.9
1On averageLV
and within 2% fluctuation
winding 88.4 (possibly
72.9 caused91.3
by the oil flows).
77.8 2 Based on thermocouples
88.7 74.8
DOFS
Core limb 94.3 52.9 94.4 53.7 96.2
and assumes that the hotspot always appears at the top of the windings and there is no difference 50.9
Oil tank Tmax : 66.2 Pos.: upper or lower part
between three phases [13].
HV winding Pos.: cannot be obtained Temp.: 57 ◦ C
LV winding Pos.: cannot be obtained Temp.: 79 ◦ C
IECAs shown
method 2 in Figure 11, the hotspots gradually came
Core limb
to a steady position after around
cannot be obtained
1 h for
both the HV and Oil
LVtank
windings. It can be possibly attributed
cannottobethe fact that the oil gradually
obtained started
to circulate at around
1 On average 1 h.
and within 2%Before this(possibly
fluctuation time, the cold
caused oiloil
by the has a relatively
flows). 2 Based onlarge viscosity
thermocouples andand there is
assumes
almost that
notheheat
hotspot always appears
convection at the
process top ofthe
inside the windings and there
transformer, is no difference
leading between
to a random three phases
position [13].
of the hotspot.
The actual status and life expectancy of a transformer is mainly determined by its insulation
The actual status and life expectancy of a transformer is mainly determined by its insulation
condition which is directly influenced by the hotspot temperature (HST). According to the traditional
condition which is directly influenced by the hotspot temperature (HST). According to the traditional
IEC calculation [13], the hotspot always appears at the top of windings with a relatively higher
IEC calculation [13], the hotspot always appears at the top of windings with a relatively higher
temperature, which may be attributed to the ignoration of the top area heat dissipation conditions in
temperature, which may be attributed to the ignoration of the top area heat dissipation conditions in
its idealized model. In fact, the cooling conditions in top area exhibit a great impact and cannot be
its idealized model. In fact, the cooling conditions in top area exhibit a great impact and cannot be
easily ignored, as shown in Table 2, which will cause different shifts of hotspot location for different
easily ignored, as shown in Table 2, which will cause different shifts of hotspot location for different
windings. Meanwhile, the IEC standard model also cannot obtain the distributed temperature data
windings. Meanwhile, the IEC standard model also cannot obtain the distributed temperature data for
for different windings and lacks information about the iron core, oil tank, etc.
different windings and lacks information about the iron core, oil tank, etc.
Obviously, the actual internal temperature distribution exhibits a strong position dependence,
Obviously, the actual internal temperature distribution exhibits a strong position dependence,
which can be possibly attributed to the different surrounding circumstances, such as irregular oil
which can be possibly attributed to the different surrounding circumstances, such as irregular oil flows,
flows, various structural components, etc. Thus, the point-type detecting method would inevitably
various structural components, etc. Thus, the point-type detecting method would inevitably exist huge
exist huge monitoring blind zones, leaving hidden dangers for the transformer’s safe operation.
monitoring blind zones, leaving hidden dangers for the transformer’s safe operation.
Thus, the direct contact detection of DOFS is of great significance for the field applications
Thus, the direct contact detection of DOFS is of great significance for the field applications
compared to the traditional model-based calculation and point-to-point measuring methods.
compared to the traditional model-based calculation and point-to-point measuring methods.
The hotspot spatial distribution (phase A) and the transient temperature changes are also
The hotspot spatial distribution (phase A) and the transient temperature changes are also exhibited
exhibited in Figures 12 and 13.
in Figures 12 and 13.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure12.
12.Hotspots
Hotspotsdistribution
distributionin
inphase
phaseAAof
of(a)
(a)HV
HVwindings,
windings,and
and(b)
(b)LV
LV windings.
windings.

The transient hotspot temperature showed a rapid increase before 1 h and then a slow upward
trend. This phenomenon was caused by the insulating oil flow. At the very start, the cold oil was static,
resulting in a fast local temperature rise (no flow means no heat convection). However, with the heat
generated from windings continuing to accumulate, once the oil lifting force was larger than its gravity
(1 h for this transformer), the static oil which carried lots of heat, began to circulate. This process
explains the slow ascent of the temperature in the later part.
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci.2020, 10,x5718
2020,10, FOR PEER REVIEW 13of
13 of17
17

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure13.
13.Hotspots
Hotspotstransient
transienttemperature
temperaturechanges
changesof
of(a)
(a)HV
HVwindings
windingsand
and(b)
(b)LV
LV windings.
windings.

4.2. Finite Elelmenthotspot

The transient Simulation Results showed a rapid increase before 1 h and then a slow upward
temperature
trend.The
This phenomenon
revelation of the was causedtemperature
distributed by the insulating oil flow.
information At the
inside very start,power
an operating the cold oil was
transformer
static, resulting in a fast local temperature rise (no flow means no heat convection).
has provided massive detailed data for both researchers and field staff. However, the DOFS detecting However, with
the heat generated
method fromadvantages
only has great windings continuing to accumulate,
in the temperature sensingonce
andthe oilstill
it is lifting
hardforce was understand
to fully larger than
its gravity (1 h for this transformer), the static oil which carried lots of heat,
what is happening inside the power transformer. Thus, the FEM (Finite Element Method) has beenbegan to circulate. This
process
utilizedexplains
to further the slow ascent
analyze of the physical
the internal temperature in the later part.
process.
The transformer internal transient process was mainly focused in this simulation based on
4.2.
the Finite Elelment Simulation
hydrokinetics theories. TheResults
corresponding parameters used in the calculation are all from the
manufacturers and areoflisted
The revelation the in Table 3. Thetemperature
distributed simulation results are exhibited
information insideinanFigure 14.
operating power
transformer has provided massive detailed data for both researchers and field staff. However, the
DOFS detecting method only 3. Corresponding
Tablehas parameters
great advantages for the simulation.
in the temperature sensing and it is still hard to
fullyProperties
understand Density
what is(kg·m
happening
−3 ) inside the power −1transformer.
Heat Capacity (J·kg ·K )−1 Thus, the FEM (Finite Element
Thermal Conductivity (W·m−1 ·K−1 )
Method) has been utilized to further analyze the internal physical process.
Tank/Fins 7900 460 47
The transformer internal
Windings 8940
transient process386was mainly focused in this simulation340
based on the
hydrokinetics
Cardboards theories. The
900 corresponding parameters
2000 used in the calculation
0.21 are all from the
manufacturers
Washers and are listed
750 in Table 3. The simulation
2310 results are exhibited in0.17Figure 14.
Blocks 960 1720 0.13
Table 3. Corresponding parameters for the simulation.
According toDensity
the real structure of the studied 35 kV oil-immersed power transformer, a 3D
Heat Capacity
Properties
thermal-fluid simulation Thermal Conductivity (W·m−1·K−1)
(kg·m−3)model(J·kg
has −1been
·K−1)established. The calculation model maintains as much as
structural components
Tank/Fins 7900as possible, such
460 as wood padding blocks, insulation47 cardboards, detailed iron
core (composed
Windings of many
8940 layers of laminates),
386 insulation washers, cooling
340 fins, oil tank, windings,
etc. However, it is 900
Cardboards impossible to 2000
totally and accurately reconstruct a0.21real transformer due to the
model complexity
Washers and
750 the calculating
2310 time (or rather the convergence).
0.17 Thereby, some necessary
simplifications
Blocks are inevitable.
960 In this model,
1720 the windings are considered as coaxial cylinders, ignoring
0.13
the detailed electromagnetic wire structures and the insulating papers wrapped around due to that it
has adopted the layered winding structure. This simplification can leave out plenty of tiny components
which only add the calculating difficulties and weaken the convergence.
The whole simulation was based on the COMSOL MUTIPHYSICS software (5.4, COMSOL AB,
Stockholm, Sweden) and it took around 60 h according to our current hardware facility. The whole
model has around 6 million elements in total, including 1.66 million mesh vertices, 70 thousand edge
units, etc. The mesh independency was also proven when further increasing the element density
(no more than 3% changes in the result). Meanwhile, the structured grid (mainly the hexahedral
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5718 14 of 17

elements) and10,
Appl. Sci. 2020, unstructured grid (basically the tetrahedral elements) were applied for different areas
x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17
according to their characteristics.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure14.
Figure 14.Transient
Transientsimulation
simulationresults
resultsofof(a)(a)temperature
temperaturefield
field(b)
(b)fluid
fluidfield
field(c)(c)vector
vectordiagram
diagramofofoiloil
stream and (d) thermal flux distribution.
stream and (d) thermal flux distribution.

According
The to the
thermal field real structure
transient simulation of result
the studied
(Figure3514a)kV oil-immersed
showed a similar power transformer,
temperature a 3D
distribution
tothermal-fluid simulation
the actual detected data. model
The HV has been established.
winding The calculation
hottest temperature reachedmodel ◦
aboutmaintains
57 C, a littleas much
higheras
structural
than components
the measured value.as possible,
The flowsuch fieldassimulation
wood padding resultblocks, insulation
is exhibited cardboards,
in Figure detailed
14b. There wereiron
core (composed
several of manyappearing
obvious vortexes layers of laminates),
in the top insulation
area of thewashers,
windings cooling
with afins, oil tank,flow
maximum windings,
velocity etc.
ofHowever,
2 cm/s. For it is
animpossible
ONAN power to totally and accurately
transformer, reconstruct
the circulation a real transformer
of insulating oil is mainly due to theby
driven model
the
complexity
heat generatedand from the
thecalculating time the
windings. Thus, (or heated
rather oiltheflows
convergence).
tend to climb Thereby,
up alongsome necessary
the windings
orsimplifications
the cardboardsare andinevitable.
gather in the In top
thisarea
model,wherethethe
windings are considered
heat emission conditions as arecoaxial
relativelycylinders,
better.
ignoring
Then, part the detailed
of the cooledelectromagnetic
oil begins to sinkwire alongstructures andfins
the cooling the while
insulating papers
the rest would wrapped
fall down around due
directly
to that it has adopted the layered winding structure. This simplification
and meet the upward streams to continuously form the vortexes (shown in detail in Figure 14c). can leave out plenty of tiny
components
The thermal flux which only add the
distribution, calculating
displayed difficulties
in Figure and weaken
14d, shows theprocess
a similar convergence.
with the fluid field
that theThe
main whole
heatsimulation was based
flux is basically alongonthe thewindings
COMSOL MUTIPHYSICS
and software
reaches the highest (5.4,inCOMSOL
value the top area AB,
Stockholm, Sweden) and it took around 60 h according to our current hardware
(the total heat exchange along the fins is also very active but it is not obvious when split into each facility. The whole
model
one). has
The around
internal 6 million
heat elements
convection processin total, including
is almost 1.66 million
completed by the mesh vertices,
circulating 70 thousand
oil and it is thus edge
not
units, etc. The mesh independency was also proven
strange that these two field simulations share a similar distribution. when further increasing the element density (no
more than 3% changes in the result). Meanwhile, the structured grid (mainly the hexahedral
elements) and unstructured grid (basically the tetrahedral elements) were applied for different areas
according to their characteristics.
fall down directly and meet the upward streams to continuously form the vortexes (shown in detail
in Figure 14c). The thermal flux distribution, displayed in Figure 14d, shows a similar process with
the fluid field that the main heat flux is basically along the windings and reaches the highest value in
the top area (the total heat exchange along the fins is also very active but it is not obvious when split
into
Appl. each one).
Sci. 2020, The internal heat convection process is almost completed by the circulating oil 15
10, 5718 and it
of 17
is thus not strange that these two field simulations share a similar distribution.
The vector diagram of the oil streams is displayed in Figure 15, where different perspectives are
The vector
presented to aiddiagram of the oil streams is displayed in Figure 15, where different perspectives are
further understanding.
presented to aid further understanding.
The flow vectors exhibit a same whole-region oil circulation with the aforesaid process. Indeed,
The flowgood
the relatively vectors exhibit
cooling a same whole-region
conditions oil top
in the winding circulation withhave
area would the aforesaid process.
a considerable Indeed,
impact on
the relatively good cooling conditions in the winding top area would have a considerable
the hotspot locations, which is usually ignored by the field operation and maintenance staff or the impact on
the hotspot locations, which is usually ignored by the field operation and maintenance
manufacturers. Also, the real location of the winding hotspot tends to appear at around 90% of the staff or the
manufacturers.
winding Also, the
height rather thanreal
thelocation
windingoftop
theaccording
winding hotspot tends to appear
to our simulation at around
and actual 90%
detected of the
data.
winding height rather than the winding top according to our simulation and actual detected data.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 15.
15. Oil
Oilstream
streamvector
vector diagram
diagram from
from the
the (a)
(a) front
front view
view and
and (b)
(b) side
side view.
view.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this
In this paper,
paper, the
the DOFS
DOFS waswas applied
applied inside
inside an
an operating
operating power
power transformer
transformer and
and verified
verified by
by the
the
corresponding tests. Then, the transformer with a completely internal temperature
corresponding tests. Then, the transformer with a completely internal temperature sensing capabilitysensing capability
was successfully
was successfullydeveloped
developedand andqualified
qualified forfor actual
actual application
application through
through the ex-factory
the ex-factory typetype
tests.tests.
The
The internal temperature was obtained in a distributed manner and it can serve
internal temperature was obtained in a distributed manner and it can serve as an important reference as an important
reference
for both theforfield
bothoperation
the field operation staffrelevant
staff and the and theengineers.
relevant engineers.
From this
From this research,
research,ititwas
wasproven
proventhat
thatthe thedistributed
distributedoptical fiber
optical sensors
fiber cancan
sensors be applied intointo
be applied the
power transformers for a spatiotemporally continuous temperature monitoring
the power transformers for a spatiotemporally continuous temperature monitoring with a space with a space resolution
of 80 cm and temperature accuracy less than 0.5less◦ C. For the large transformers, the spatial positioning
resolution of 80 cm and temperature accuracy than 0.5 °C. For the large transformers, the spatial
accuracy is enough to locate the exact overheated
positioning accuracy is enough to locate the exact overheatedwinding turn. For the small transformers,
winding turn. For theespecially
small
transformers, especially the ones with layered winding structure, the proposed denselyscheme
the ones with layered winding structure, the proposed densely winded optical fiber laying winded is
possibly a practical way to obtain the temperature where located under the spatial resolution.
Meanwhile, the real time internal temperature revelation shows that the hotspot real location is
more likely at 90% of the winding height rather than the conventional cognition which asserts the
hottest region is always at the winding top. The followed numerical simulation may partially account
for this 10% deviation from the fluid field and thermal flux perspective.
In conclusion, the distributed sensing technology displays a promising future in the power
transformer online temperature monitoring and may play an increasingly important role in the future
electrical apparatus field.

Author Contributions: Y.L. and X.L. proposed the idea and designed the experiment; H.L. and X.L. performed
the calculation; J.W. conducted the experiment; X.L. and X.F. prepared the paper. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Science and Technology Project of State Grid Corporation of China
(SGCC) (No. SGHEDK00DYJS1900063).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5718 16 of 17

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