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End-Region Behavior of Pretensioned I-Girders Employing 0.7 in. (17.8 mm)

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Article  in  Aci Structural Journal · January 2018

DOI: 10.14359/51700783

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 ACI STRUCTURAL JOURNAL
Title No. 115-S07
End-Region Behavior of Pretensioned I-Girders Employing
0.7 in. (17.8 mm) Strands
by J. Salazar, H. Yousefpour, R. Alirezaei Abyaneh, H. Kim, A. Katz, T. Hrynyk, and O. Bayrak
This paper presents an experimental study on transfer length,
end-region cracking, and transverse end-region stresses in preten-
sioned concrete I-girders fabricated using 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diam-
eter strands on a 2 x 2 in. (51 x 51 mm) grid. The full-scale specimens
consisted of two Tx46 and two Tx70 girders that were fabricated in
a controlled laboratory environment using different strand patterns
and concrete release strengths. The detailing for mild-steel rein-
forcement was done according to the current practice in Texas
for girders with smaller-diameter strands. The measured 24-hour
transfer lengths from the specimens exceeded estimates by both
AASHTO LRFD and ACI 318-14 provisions. The observed crack
widths in the specimens within 28 days after prestress transfer were
generally limited to 0.007 in. (0.18 mm), indicating satisfactory
performance for exposure to deicing chemicals according to ACI
224R guidelines. However, noticeably greater transverse forces
were observed in the end regions of the specimens compared to the
resistance required by AASHTO LRFD specifications.
Keywords: 0.7 in. strands; bursting stresses; end-region cracking; preten-
sioned; spalling stresses; splitting resistance; transfer length.
INTRODUCTION
Pretensioned concrete bridge girders are currently fabri-
cated using 0.5 or 0.6 in. (12.7 or 15.2 mm) diameter
prestressing strands. In recent years, however, it has become
of interest to use 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diameter seven-wire
strands in pretensioned elements. These larger-diameter
strands have so far been used primarily for mining applica-
tions and cable bridges.1 In addition to reducing the number
of required strands, the increase in the strand diameter will
allow for a greater concentration of steel to exist closer to the
tensile face of the cross section. Therefore, nominal flexural
and shear capacities are expected to be greater in members
with larger-diameter strands. Such capacity increases may
offer improvements in attainable span capabilities, slen-
derness of bridge superstructure, and transverse spacing
between girders.2
In pretensioned concrete elements, the stress in the strand
increases from zero at the end face of the member to the full
prestress level over a distance referred to as “transfer length.”
A longer transfer length results in a more gradual develop-
ment of prestress with distance from the end face and, there-
fore, reduces the end-region damage at the time of prestress
transfer. However, reduced prestress levels developed within
the transfer length might negatively affect the strength of
pretensioned girders, especially under shear-critical loading
conditions.3 Therefore, the transfer length ltr is a critical
design parameter. In most design provisions, ltr is considered
primarily a function of strand diameter db. A value of 60db
is used in AASHTO LRFD 2014 Bridge Design Specifica-
ACI Structural Journal/January 2018
TECHNICAL PAPER
tions.4 In ACI 318-14 provisions,5 ltr is taken as (fse/3000)db,
in which fse is the effective stress in the strands after prestress
losses in psi, or (fse/21)db if fse is in MPa. Therefore, on the
basis of these provisions, an increase in the strand diameter
is expected to result in an increase in the transfer length.
However, studies supporting the aformentioned provisions
were done considering strands with diameters that were less
than or equal to 0.6 in. (15.2 mm),6 and the applicability of
such provisions to larger-diameter 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) strands
has yet to be verified.
To minimize the impact of transitioning to larger-diameter
0.7 in. (17.8 mm) strands on fabrication facilities, it is of
considerable interest to use these strands on the 2 x 2 in. (51 x
51 mm) grid that is typically used for 0.5 and 0.6 in. (12.7 and
15.2 mm) strands. However, incorporating 0.7 in. (17.8 mm)
strands in this configuration is believed to increase the stresses
that develop within the end region of pretensioned girders
and, as such, may lead to end-region damage that is not found
in girders constructed with smaller-diameter strands.
Transfer of prestress within girder end regions results in
transverse stresses that are generally categorized as bursting
and spalling stresses.7 Bursting stresses are mostly due to
Poisson’s effect at the time of release. When the strands
are released, they tend to return to their original diameter,
causing radial stresses in the surrounding concrete.8 These
stresses are typically located in the bottom flange of preten-
sioned girders and can result in longitudinal crack develop-
ment along the strands. Spalling stresses are due to compat-
ibility of the strains near the end face of the girders and are
dependent on the eccentricity of the strands. These stresses
might result in horizontal or inclined cracks that are close to
the end face of the member but are typically located at some
distance from the elevation of the strands.
To alleviate concerns regarding the serviceability and
durability of girders, appropriate reinforcement detailing is
essential for controlling the width of potential cracks due
to bursting and spalling stresses. Confining reinforcement
surrounding the strands and transverse reinforcement in the
web, near the ends of the member, should be used to resist
bursting and spalling stresses, respectively. The amount of
such reinforcement in current detailing practice has been
primarily based on experience or from the results of previous
experimental studies on members with 0.5 and 0.6 in. (12.7
and 15.2 mm) diameter strands. Therefore, the suitability of
ACI Structural Journal, V. 115, No. 1, January 2018.
MS No. S-2016-309.R2, doi: 10.14359/51700783, received February 13, 2017, and
reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright © 2018, American Concrete
Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s
closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journal’s date if the discussion
is received within four months of the paper’s print publication.
91
Table 1—Summary of previous studies on specimens with 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) strands
Reported transfer
lengths, in.
Release
Source Specimen type Nspec Strand layout fpi/fpu fci′, ksi method ltr,initial ltr,t t, days Notes
Tadros and
96 x 7 x 7 in. 4 One strand 0.75 6.0 G 26 to 28 26 to 28 28 Small-scale prism
Morcous1
One or two
Dang et al.9 216 x 6.5 x 12 in. 16 0.75 5.9 to 9.2 G 23 to 28 26 to 31 28 Small-scale prism
strands
Vadivelu10 AASHTO Type I 1 2.0 x 2.0 in. 0.75 10.0 F 21 to 22 — — —
T-girders 6 2.0 x 2.0 in. 0.75 9.0 G 19 to 25 21 to 26 28 —
Tadros and
NU900 1 2.0 x 2.0 in. 0.66 12.0 F 26 — — UHPC
Morcous1
BDT 1 2.0 x 2.0 in. 0.60 12.0 F 14 to 20 17 to 21 14 UHPC
Morcous et al. 11
NU900 1 2.2 x 2.3 in. 0.75 6.7 F 35 — — —
Morcous et al. 12
NU1350 2 *
2.0 x 2.0 in. 0.75 6.0 to 10.0 F 32 36 14 Bridge application
*
Morcous et al.12 reported transfer length measurements from two girders out of 20 fabricated girders.
Notes: Nspec is number of specimens tested; fpi is jacking stress; fpu is ultimate strength of prestressing steel; fci′ is compressive release strength; ltr,initial is transfer length immediately
after prestress transfer; ltr,t is transfer length at t; G is gradual release; F is flame cut; and BDT is bridge double tee; 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ksi = 6.9 MPa.

such detailing for girders employing 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diam-
eter strands needs to be investigated.
Relatively few experimental studies have addressed
prestress transfer or end-region behavior in girders
employing 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diameter strands. A summary
of those studies is provided in Table 1. As can be seen in
this table, some of the studies were conducted on small-
scale specimens that were reinforced with only one strand.
Such studies do not provide a realistic representation of the
boundary conditions or of the interaction between adjacent
strands, and the applicability of results from such studies to
full-scale girders is questionable.
Full-scale specimens have been used in a few studies to
evaluate transfer length and constructability issues for girders
employing 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diameter strands. The transfer
length, which was determined using mechanical measure-
ments of surface strains in all these studies, was reported to
be noticeably less than the estimates from ACI 318-14 and
AASHTO LRFD 2014. Very little information was reported
in any of these studies regarding the cracks developed within
the end regions of the specimens. Moreover, the magnitude of
bursting and spalling stresses was not measured in any of the
studies, providing little insight into any need to modify the
end-region detailing for use in girders with 0.7 in. (17.8 mm)
diameter strands. Furthermore, in most of these studies, the
prestress transfer was performed at a concrete release strength
considerably greater than what is commonly used in practice.
Therefore, the behavior of the specimens and the observed
transfer lengths may not be indicative of the performance of
actual pretensioned girders used in the field.
This paper presents an experimental research program on
full-scale pretensioned I-girders that were fabricated using
0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diameter strands in the controlled laboratory
environment. The compressive strength of concrete at the time
of release ranged from 5.2 to 8.3 ksi (35.8 to 57.2 MPa), and
the girders were extensively instrumented to monitor bursting
stresses, spalling stresses, and transfer length.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
The use of 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diameter prestressing strands
might influence the serviceability and strength of preten-
sioned girders due to increased transfer length and greater
end-region stresses. The experimental study presented
in this paper is a major contribution to the knowledge
regarding the performance of full-scale girders employing
these larger-diameter strands at the time of prestress transfer,
in which different strand patterns, girder cross section sizes,
and concrete release strengths have been investigated. More-
over, this study presents the first set of data on bursting and
spalling stresses and progression of end-region cracking
within the first few weeks after the fabrication of girders
with 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diameter strands.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Four pretensioned Texas Bulb-Tee girders, commonly
referred to as Tx-girders, were fabricated using straight
0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diameter seven-wire strands that were
located on a 2 x 2 in. (51 x 51 mm) grid. These specimens
included two Tx46 and two Tx70 girders, each with a length
of 30 ft (9 m) and the cross-sectional geometry shown in
Fig. 1. The cross-sectional properties of the specimens are
listed in Table 2.
A summary of the design parameters for the specimens
is shown in Table 3. While the Tx46 specimens represent
the mid-sized bulb-tee cross sections that are widely used
in Texas, the Tx70 specimens represent the deepest girders
among this family of precast sections and have been shown
to likely experience the greatest benefit from using larger-
diameter strands.2 Different strand patterns were used among
the specimens, as shown in Fig. 2. The strands in Tx46-I
and the Tx70 specimens were placed conventionally—that
is, at the greatest possible eccentricity within the specimen
cross section—to generate the maximum spalling stresses
within the specimen end regions. In Tx46-II, the strands
were concentrated near the centroid of the cross section to
represent critical conditions for bursting stresses.

92 ACI Structural Journal/January 2018

Fig. 1—Standard detailing for mild-steel reinforcement in Tx-girders.13 (Note: Clear distance between first pair of S-bars and
end face: 1.5 in. [38 mm]; 1 in. = 25.4 mm.)

Table 2—Cross-sectional properties of Tx46 and Table 3—Specimen design parameters

Tx70 girders13 Tx46-I Tx46-II Tx70-I Tx70-II
Property Tx46 Tx70 Max. Max. Max.
Gross cross-sectional area, in.2 761 966 Design objective eccentricity Max. Pi eccentricity eccentricity

Distance from bottom fiber to center of gravity of Design fci′, ksi 5.5 5.2 5.5 7.8
20.1 31.9
girder, in. Top 4 4 4 4
No. of
Moment of inertia around x-axis, in.4 198,089 628,747 strands Bottom 24 30 28 42
Moment of inertia around y-axis, in.4 46,478 57,579 Top strands 44.0 44.0 68.0 68.0
Weight, lb/ft 819 1040 yp, in. Bottom
3.3 10.4 3.5 4.5
Notes: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 in.2 = 645 mm2; 1 in.4 = 416,000 mm4; 1 lb/ft = 1.5 kg/m.
strands
Top strands 157.5 202.5 110.0 202.5
The specimens were designed based on AASHTO LRFD
fpi, ksi
Specifications.4 According to these specifications, the allow- Bottom
202.5 202.5 202.5 202.5
able stresses at the time of prestress transfer are 0.65fci′ in strands
compression and k√fci′ in tension, where fci′ is the compres- σpredicted, Top fiber 0.23 (T) 1.13 (C) 0.55 (T) 0.55 (T)
sive strength of concrete at the time of prestress transfer, ksi Bottom fiber 3.57 (C) 3.40 (C) 3.53 (C) 5.04 (C)
and k is 0.24 or 0.63, if fci′ is in ksi or MPa, respectively. In
Notes: Pi is initial prestressing force; yp is distance from bottom fiber of girder to
addition to the strands in the bottom flange, all specimens centroid of strands; fpi is jacking stress; σpredicted is predicted concrete stress after
included four 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diameter strands within the prestress transfer; (C) is compression; (T) is tension;. 1 ksi = 6.9 MPa; 1 in. =
top flange to control the stresses within the cross section at 25.4 mm.

ACI Structural Journal/January 2018 93

Fig. 2—Strand patterns within bottom flange of specimens.
diameter, Grade 270 strands were procured from a commer-
cial prestressing steel manufacturer. Reusable strand chucks
were used for anchoring the 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diameter
strands at each end, which had an external diameter of 2 in.
(51 mm). To remove the slack and ensure uniform stressing
of the strands, each strand was individually stressed to 2 kip
(9 kN), after which the main hydraulic rams were used to
“gang-stress” the strands—that is, stress all strands simul-
taneously. Gang-stressing of the strands was carried out
in a minimum of 10 increments. The prestress level was
controlled through measurements of hydraulic pressure in
the rams using pressure transducers. The elongation of the
strands was measured using a series of linear potentiome-
ters at each end of the prestressing facility and verified to be
within 5% of the calculated value after each increment. Once
Fig. 3—Prestressing facility at FSEL. the strands were stressed to the desired level, installation of
transverse reinforcement was carried out.
the time of prestress transfer. The stress level in these strands
Typically, each specimen contained 90 electrical resistance
was variable among the specimens to optimize the capacity
strain gauges (SGs) on the strands to measure the transfer
of the specimens and maximize the number of strands that
length. At each end of the specimen, four strands were
could be accommodated in the specimens. The end-region
instrumented, as shown in Fig. 4. Among the instrumented
and shear reinforcement detailing for the specimens followed
strands, the SGs were installed at two intervals—12.0 in.
the standard drawings developed by the Texas Department
(305 mm) and 6.0 in. (152 mm)—to examine any potential
of Transportation (TxDOT)13 for girders with 0.5 and 0.6 in.
changes in transfer length due to the presence of SGs. The
(12.7 and 15.2 mm) diameter strands, as shown in Fig. 1.
SGs were continued up to a distance of 60 in. (1.52 m) from
Specimens Tx46-I, Tx46-II, and Tx70-I were designed
the end face of the specimens. One SG was also installed
assuming concrete release strengths that are typically used
outside the specimen on each of the instrumented strands
for prestressed concrete superstructures in Texas. However,
to serve as a reference measurement representing the stress-
a greater concrete release strength was considered for the
free strain condition of the strand after prestress transfer. All
design of Tx70-II to investigate the behavior of girders fabri-
strand SGs were installed on the helical wires. An example
cated with a greater number of 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diameter
of strain gauge application on a strand is shown in Fig. 5(a).
strands. As a result, Tx70-II could accommodate an addi-
Each specimen also contained a considerable number of
tional row of strands compared to Tx70-I.
SGs on the transverse reinforcement to determine bursting
The specimens were fabricated using the prestressing
and spalling stresses as well as strains at the time of future
facility at Ferguson Structural Engineering Labora-
structural tests. At a minimum, the first 15 stirrups (R-bars
tory (FSEL) (Fig. 3), which is designed to accommodate
in Fig. 1) from each end of the specimen were instrumented.
prestressing forces up to 2500 kip (11,120 kN). Steel bulk-
Three SGs were installed on each instrumented stirrup, as
heads measuring 12 in. (305 mm) thick are used at each
shown in Fig. 4. The stirrup leg that contained two SGs was
end of the prestressing facility to anchor the strands. The
alternated from one stirrup to the next. The initial installa-
bulkhead at one end is fixed, while the bulkhead at the other
tion of a SG on one of the stirrups, prior to applying protec-
end is supported by four 800 kip (3500 kN) hydraulic rams,
tive layers, is shown in Fig. 5(b).
which are extended for stressing the strands and retracted at
The specimens were also instrumented using three
the time of release. These two ends are herein referred to as
vibrating wire strain gauges (VWGs) that were embedded at
the dead and live ends, respectively. Two adjustable cross
the midspan of the specimen (Fig. 5(c)). Measurements from
beams are also used within the prestressing facility, making
VWGs were used to develop a strain profile at the midspan
it possible to apply prestressing forces of up to 300 kip
section and to estimate prestress losses due to elastic short-
(1330 kN) to top strands in different types of cross sections.
ening, shrinkage, and creep over the life of the specimen.
Fabrication of each specimen began by placing the 0.7 in.
To measure the hydration temperatures in the concrete, six
(17.8 mm) diameter strands in the prestressing facility and
thermocouples were placed in a section located within 2 ft
installing the anchorage devices. The 0.7 in. (17.8 mm)
(0.60 m) from the end face of the specimens. As shown in

94 ACI Structural Journal/January 2018

Fig. 4—SG locations for monitoring transfer length and transverse reinforcement stresses. (Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm.)
Table 4—Summary of measured mechanical
properties
Test
Property method Tx46-I Tx46-II Tx70-I Tx70-II
ASTM
fci′, ksi 5.7 5.2 6.5 8.3
C3914
ASTM
Concrete Eci, ksi — 4940 4490 4900
C46915
ASTM
f ′c,28, ksi 7.3 7.0 10.7 12.7
C3914
fy, ksi 60.7 72.2
No. 4 bars
fu, ksi ASTM 99.3 111.6
fy, ksi A37016 74.0 67.7
No. 6 bars
fu, ksi 114.7 106.7
Ep, ksi 27,810
ASTM
Strands fpy, ksi 232.0
A106117
fpu, ksi 276.1

Notes: fci′ and Eci are compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete at
prestress transfer, respectively; fc,28′ is 28-day compressive strength of concrete;
1 ksi = 6.9 MPa.

precast manufacturing plant and transported to FSEL. In all

Fig. 5—Instrumentation application.
Fig. 5(d), these thermocouples were distributed within the
cross section to capture the variability of concrete curing
temperatures within the end region of the girders.
The properties of concrete mixtures used within the test
program are provided in Appendix A.* Type III portland
cement and crushed limestone with a maximum aggregate
size of 3/8 in. (10 mm) were used in all mixtures. The clear
spacing between the prestressing strands was approximately
1.3 in. (33.0 mm), which exceeds 1.33 times the maximum
size of the aggregates, 1 in. (25.4 mm), and the strand
diameter. Therefore, the minimum spacing requirements of
ACI 318-14 and AASHTO LRFD 2014 were satisfied.
The mixtures used for the Tx46 specimens were batched
and mixed at FSEL. The concrete comprising the Tx70
specimens was batched and mixed by a nearby commercial
*
The Appendixes are available at www.concrete.org/publications in PDF format,
appended to the online version of the published paper. It is also available in hard copy
from ACI headquarters for a fee equal to the cost of reproduction plus handling at the
time of the request.
cases, a combination of internal and external vibration was
used to ensure satisfactory consolidation of concrete.
Forty-eight 4 x 8 in. (100 x 200 mm) match-curing concrete
cylinders were cast using the concrete comprising each spec-
imen. These cylinders were connected to a relay system that
maintained the same temperatures within the cylinders as
those measured from the embedded thermocouples. There-
fore, eight cylinders were match-cured based on each of
the six thermocouples shown in Fig. 5(d), which made it
possible to capture the variability of concrete strength within
the specimen cross section.
In the hours following the concrete placement, match-
cured specimens were periodically tested to identify the
appropriate timing for formwork removal and subsequent
prestress transfer. Prestress transfer commenced as soon as
the compressive strength of match-cured cylinders based
on all thermocouple measurements exceeded the desired
release strength. The prestressing strands were released
through gradual retraction of hydraulic rams in 20 steps,
which typically took 1 hour. As the strands were being
released, the compressive strength and modulus of elas-

ACI Structural Journal/January 2018 95

ticity of match-cured concrete specimens were measured to Table 5—Transfer length estimates from live and
obtain the mechanical properties at prestress transfer. The dead ends of specimens
average compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of Live end Dead end
the match-cured specimens at the time of prestress transfer
lplateau, ltr, lplateau, ltr,
are presented in Table 4.
in. in. n in. in. n
Along with the match-cured cylinders, additional cylin-
ders were prepared to measure mechanical properties of At Max 42 40 48 47
1 4
concrete at 28 days. Moreover, the mechanical properties of release Min. 42 40 42 40

Tx 46-I
the prestressing strands and the mild-steel reinforcing bars Max. 48 45 48 46
used in the construction of the girders were determined by 24 hour 1 3
Min. 48 45 42 41
performing ASTM-compliant tests at FSEL, which are also
presented in Table 4. Each mechanical property reported At Max. 42 35 48 41
4 4
in this table is an average value from a minimum of three release

Tx 46-II
Min. 36 29 36 29
samples tested by the research team. Max. 54 52 54 48
Data acquisition from the instrumentation commenced 24 hour 3 3
Min. 48 44 48 45
immediately prior to prestress transfer and was continued
for 24 hours after the end of the release operation. After the At Max. 42 39 42 41
4 3
release operation was completed, the specimens were care- release Min. 36 29 36 34

Tx 70-I
fully examined for end-region cracking. Max. 48 46 54 51
24 hour 3 2
Min. 36 31 36 35
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Transfer length At Max. 48 43 42 40
4 3
The transfer length was determined by comparing the data release
Tx 70-II Min. 36 34 36 34
obtained from the SGs before the release operation with those Max. 48 45 48 45
obtained immediately after release and 24 hours after release. 24 hour 2 3
Min. 48 45 48 41
To determine the transfer lengths, a modified version of the
95% average maximum strain (AMS) method introduced by At Max. 48 43 48 47
13 14
Summary

Russell and Burns6 was used. With the increase in distance release Min. 36 29 36 29
from the end face, the strains gradually increased from zero Max. 54 52 54 51
until reaching a plateau. For each end of each specimen, the 24 hour 9 11
Min. 36 31 36 35
strains in the plateaued region were averaged to determine
the average maximum strain. The transfer length is defined Notes: n is number of strands used for determining the transfer length; 1 in. = 25.4 mm.
as the distance at which the strain-versus-distance plot inter-
sects the 95% of AMS. The strains used in this procedure
were obtained from SGs that were installed on helical wires,
which are linearly correlated to the average axial strain in
the strand.18 Therefore, using these strains as opposed to the
average axial strain in the strand is not expected to affect the
transfer lengths.
Detailed information related to the evaluation of the transfer
lengths for the specimens is provided in Appendix B. Table 5
provides a summary of the distances corresponding to the start
of the plateau region, lplateau, and to the 95% AMS at dead and
live ends of each specimen. Because some of the strain gauges
did not function properly, determining the transfer length was
not possible for all instrumented strands. For each end region,
the number of strands from which a reliable transfer length Fig. 6—Comparison between measured transfer lengths and
could be determined is shown in the table. code predictions. (Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ksi = 6.9 MPa.)
In general, the transfer lengths obtained from live and which is consistent with the known effect of time-dependent
dead ends of each specimen were similar. This observation deformations of concrete on transfer length.19 At 24 hours
comes as no surprise because the gradual release of strands after release, the shortest and longest transfer lengths were
by hydraulic rams is expected to result in little difference recorded as 31 in. (790 mm) and 52 in. (1320 mm), obtained
between the live and dead ends of the specimens. Imme- from the live end of Tx70-I and the live end of Tx46-II,
diately after release, the shortest transfer length was 29 in. respectively.
(740 mm), which was obtained from both ends of Tx46-II. Figure 6 provides a comparison between the transfer
The longest transfer length at this time was 47 in. (1190 mm), lengths determined in this study with estimates from
which was found at the dead end of Tx46-I. AASHTO LRFD Specifications and ACI 318-14. The
Table 5 also shows a noticeable increase in the transfer vertical bars in this figure present the average transfer length
lengths measured within the first 24 hours after release, determined for each specimen at release and at 24 hours. The

96 ACI Structural Journal/January 2018

observed range between maximum and minimum transfer
lengths is also illustrated using the vertical black lines. The
transfer length calculation in ACI 318-14 is dependent on
effective stress in the strands after prestress losses and there-
fore varies among the specimens. The prestress loss due to
elastic shortening, ∆fES, was estimated using data obtained
from the VWGs and is shown in Table 6.
Figure 6 shows that the transfer lengths immediately
after release were generally shorter than those predicted by
ACI 318-14 and AASHTO LRFD provisions. However, after
24 hours, the transfer length in all specimens, except Tx70-I,
exceeded the estimates by both provisions. In Tx70-I, the
average 24-hour transfer length was very close to estimates
by both codes, but transfer lengths greater than code esti-
mates were also observed. A greater increase in the transfer
lengths is anticipated for all specimens over time. However,
monitoring the growth in transfer length after 24 hours was
not considered in this study.
The transfer lengths observed in this study were greater
than those reported in previous studies noted in Table 1. In
those studies, the overestimation of transfer length by the
design codes were deemed to be primarily due to the high
release strength of concrete, which is not explicitly consid-
ered in code equations. However, observations from Fig. 6
do not support that reasoning. As can be seen in the figure,
the transfer lengths immediately after and 24 hours after
release were not correlated with the release strength, indi-
cating that the improved bond due to greater compressive
strength is not the only factor affecting the transfer length.
The use of strain gauges in this study is believed to provide
a more precise picture of stress changes in the strands
compared to the mechanical measurements of surface
strains. However, the presence of strain gauges could also
potentially have a negative effect on the prestress transfer
within the instrumented strands. Thus, the transfer lengths
from strands instrumented at 6 and 12 in. (150 and 300 mm)
intervals were compared. The results showed that the
transfer lengths from strands with 6 in. (150 mm) spacing
were consistently greater than those with gauges placed
at 12 in. (300 mm) spacing. However, the difference was
generally limited to 6 in. (150 mm), which is the resolution
of the estimated transfer lengths. Therefore, the presence of
strain gauges does not seem to be the major contributor to
the greater transfer lengths measured in this study.
Cracking patterns
All specimens were carefully inspected for cracks imme-
diately after prestress transfer. Moreover, a final survey of
the specimens for cracks was conducted at least 28 days after
the specimen was cast. For Tx70-II, in addition to the initial
and final measurements, cracks were also measured and
documented at ages of 7 and 13 days. The age of the speci-
mens at the time of final crack measurements, t, is presented
in Table 6. This table also includes the prestress losses in the
bottom strands at the time of final measurements, ∆ftotal,t, as
determined from VWGs.
The measured cracking patterns of the specimens are
presented in Fig. 7. This figure shows both end faces but
only the side of each specimen containing the greatest crack
ACI Structural Journal/January 2018
Table 6—Short- and long-term prestress losses
Tx46-I Tx46-II Tx70-I Tx70-II
∆fES, ksi 21.5 18.9 24.1 30.7
t at final
131 40 39 28
measurement
∆ftotal,t, ksi 45.1 35.6 38.7 45.9
Note: 1 ksi = 6.9 MPa.
width observed. Similar figures reflecting the cracking
patterns on the other side of each specimen are included in
Appendix C. In Fig. 7, the small circles are used to present
the measured width of the cracks at each location at the
time of final crack measurements. In the regions where no
circles are shown, the crack width was less than or equal
to 0.004 in. (0.10 mm). The widths of the cracks in the first
three specimens were measured using a crack comparator
with a resolution of 0.002 in. (0.05 mm). For Tx70-II, a
7× magnifying loupe was used with reticles that provided
a crack measurement resolution of 0.0004 in. (0.01 mm).
However, for brevity and simplicity, crack widths shown for
Tx70-II are also categorized in a manner similar to that used
for the other specimens.
The three specimens constructed with a conventional
strand pattern revealed spalling cracks in their end regions.
As the prestressing force increased near the bottom fiber of
these specimens, the spalling cracks extended further into
the beam. Tx46-II, which was designed to accommodate
the greatest prestressing force, showed bursting cracks that
were primarily limited to the bottom flange. All specimens
showed near-continuous cracking at the interface between
the web and the bottom flange within the end region. In all
specimens except Tx46-II, such cracking was also observed
through the width of the web at the end faces. In Tx70-II,
cracks parallel to the outermost strands, which are indicative
of bond-related damage, were also observed.
The maximum crack width recorded over the course of
the entire test program was 0.008 in. (0.20 mm). This crack
width was observed immediately after prestress transfer in
the spalling cracks within the web of Tx46-I and Tx70-I.
Note that the crack widths in both specimens were recorded
with a resolution of 0.002 in. (0.05 mm). The maximum crack
widths in Tx46-II and Tx70-II were recorded as 0.004 in.
(0.10 mm) and 0.007 in. (0.18 mm), respectively. In Tx46-I
and Tx70-I, the reported maximum width was observed only
in an isolated length of few cracks. However, in Tx70-II,
crack widths between 0.006 and 0.007 in. (0.16 and
0.18 mm) were measured at several locations. The greatest
crack width was observed in the dead end of all specimens
except Tx70-I. However, the overall difference in patterns or
widths of cracks between the two ends was not significant.
All specimens demonstrated noticeable changes in their
cracking conditions over time. These changes included
growth in the length and width of cracks that were
detected immediately after prestress transfer, as well as the
development of new cracks, especially in the Tx70 speci-
mens. However, in most end regions, the widest crack did
not demonstrate noticeable growth between the time of
release and the time of final measurement. Periodic observa-
97
Fig. 7—Crack patterns and widths in specimens. (Note: 1 ft = 0.30 m; 1 mm = 0.039 in.)
tions from Tx70-II also showed that most of the new cracks
formed within the first week after the prestress transfer.
There is no globally accepted limit for the permissible
crack width within the end regions of pretensioned concrete
elements. To evaluate the performance of the specimens in
this test program, three references were used, as follows:
1. ACI 224R-01,20 a report by ACI Committee 224 on
concrete cracking, provides general guidelines on acceptable
crack widths in reinforced concrete flexural elements under
service loads.
According to these guidelines, the “reasonable” crack
width is 0.007 in. (0.18 mm) for elements exposed to deicing
chemicals and 0.012 in. (0.30 mm) for elements exposed to
humidity, moist air, and soil. Table 4.1 in these guidelines
notes that a portion of the cracks in the structure might have
widths that exceed these limits.
No cracks within the end regions of the girders exceeded
the limit recognized by ACI 224R as tolerable for humidity
and soil exposure. In Tx46-I and Tx70-I, isolated cracks
exceeding 0.007 in. (0.18 mm) were observed. However, as
noted previously, a few cracks with widths greater than the
listed limits are considered acceptable. Therefore, according
98
to ACI 224R, all girders comprising this test program met
the conditions for use in exposure to deicing chemicals.
2. NCHRP Report 654, a comprehensive study on the
acceptance criteria for the width of end-region cracks by
Tadros et al.21 recommends that no action be taken for any
end-region cracks that are 0.012 in. (0.30 mm) in width or
less. The observed crack widths in this study did not exceed
the recommended limit. Therefore, no repair is required
according to these guidelines.
3. TxDOT specifications for construction and maintenance
of highways, streets, and bridges22 require corrective action
if cracks exceeding 0.005 in. (0.13 mm) form within the end
regions of I-girders. While the specimens did not satisfy this
strict requirement, crack widths up to 0.010 in. (0.25 mm)
are occasionally observed in Tx-girders currently fabricated
using 0.6 in. (15.2 mm) diameter strands and containing
identical detailing for mild-steel reinforcement. Therefore,
the implementation of 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diameter strands on
a 2 x 2 in. (51 x 51 mm) grid in Tx-girders does not appear
to cause new concerns regarding the serviceability or dura-
bility of pretensioned girders.
ACI Structural Journal/January 2018
Fig. 8—Stresses within end-region reinforcement of specimens. Gray shades in figure represent h/4 distance from end face.
(Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ksi = 6.9 MPa.)
Stresses in transverse reinforcement
Figure 8 provides a graphical representation of
stresses inferred from strain measurements in the transverse
reinforcement of all four specimens. Detailed information
regarding the stresses in the transverse reinforcement is
provided in Appendix D. As can be seen in Fig. 8, among
Tx46-I, Tx70-I, and Tx70-II, which had conventional strand
patterns, the increase in the transverse reinforcement stress
levels is correlated with the increase in the total prestress
force. The maximum stress level in the specimens was
26 ksi (179 MPa), which was observed in Tx70-II. The
greatest stresses in all specimens were observed at the inter-
face between the web and the bottom flange, mostly due to
the change in geometry and the flow of the stresses from
the bottom flange into the web. However, the stresses also
remained large at the centroids of these three specimens. In
ACI Structural Journal/January 2018
Tx46-II, which was designed to represent critical bursting
conditions, smaller stresses were detected compared to
Tx46-I, despite a greater prestressing force. Large stresses
were observed only at the interface between the web and the
bottom flange in this specimen.
In the specimens constructed with conventional strand
patterns, the stresses in transverse reinforcement were found
to diminish very quickly with distance from the end face of
the specimen. Stresses greater than 15 ksi (103 MPa) were
observed only in the first three stirrups, which were located
within 8.5 in. (220 mm) from the end face of the girder. Typi-
cally, diaphragms are not used at supports for Tx-girders.
However, in any bridge application, this distance is normally
in the overhang segment—that is, outside the main span.
Therefore, while excessive cracking in this region might
have negative effects on the durability of the girder, these
99
stresses are not expected to affect the load-carrying perfor-
mance under in-service conditions. Typical detailing used
for Tx-girders includes a 9 in. (230 mm) overhang segment,
and an 8 in. (200 mm) support width for Tx46 and a 9 in.
(230 mm) support width for Tx70 girders. Using this
detailing, the first four stirrups in the girders are not expected
to be mobilized under external loads. The stresses in other
stirrups were generally less than 10 ksi (69 MPa).
Tx46-II exhibited transverse stresses that extended over
3 ft (910 mm) into the beam. This distance was considerably
greater than that in the other three specimens. The stresses
were primarily concentrated along the web-bottom flange
interface, and only small stresses were detected at the centroid
depth and at the interface between the web and the top flange.
The maximum stresses were not observed in the first few
stirrups, but in the stirrups that were farther away from the
end face of the girder. Large stresses within this region are
known to increase the likelihood of horizontal shear distress.23
However, the magnitudes of these stresses were generally
limited to 10 ksi (69 MPa), which was small compared to
stresses observed in the other three specimens. These observa-
tions are consistent with the results obtained by O’Callaghan18
from Tx-girders that employed 0.6 in. (15.2 mm) diameter
strands on a layout resembling that of Tx46-II.
If the specimens with conventional strand patterns in
the current test program were to be fabricated using 0.5 or
0.6 in. (12.7 or 15.2 mm) diameter strands, more strands
would be needed to achieve the same flexural capacity.
Consequently, the distance between the centroid of strands
and the web-bottom flange interface would be decreased,
resulting in stress distribution similar to that in Tx46-II or
in girders reported by O’Callaghan.18 Such a change in the
configuration of the girder is expected to result in a greater
spread of transverse stresses and potentially large stirrup
stresses in the main span of the girder rather than in the
overhang region. Therefore, the use of 0.7 in. (17.8 mm)
diameter strands might be beneficial in containing the trans-
verse stresses due to prestress transfer within the overhang
region, therefore preventing these end-region stresses from
affecting the performance of the girder under shear-critical
loading conditions.
Section 5.10.10 in AASHTO LRFD4 describes require-
ments for resisting the tensile forces generated in the end
regions of pretensioned elements due to bursting and
spalling stresses. In these provisions, the resistance of the
end region against vertical tensile forces is referred to as
“splitting resistance”, and no distinction is made between
forces generated due to bursting and spalling stresses. Split-
ting resistance Pr is taken as fsAs,h/4, where fs is the stress in
steel, not to exceed 20 ksi (138 MPa); As,h/4 is the total area
of reinforcement within a distance of h/4 from the end of
the girder; and h is the height of the girder. AASHTO LRFD
provisions require this splitting resistance to be greater than
4% of the total prestressing force at transfer.
In this testing program, the h/4 distance is equal to 11.5
and 17.5 in. (292 and 445 mm) for the Tx46 and the Tx70
specimens, respectively. On the basis of the standard details
for Tx-girders, the steel required to provide the splitting
resistance is limited to the first four pairs of R- and S-bars in
100
Table 7—Splitting resistance in specimens
according to AASHTO LRFD4 compared to initial
prestressing force
Specimen As,h/4, in.2 Pr = fsAs,h/4, kip Pi, kip Pr/Pi, %
Tx46-I 5.12 102.4 1614 6.3
Tx46-II 5.12 102.4 2024 5.1
Tx70-I 7.68 153.6 1796 8.6
Tx70-II 7.68 153.6 2738 5.6
Notes: fs is taken as 20 ksi (138 MPa); 1 in.2 = 645 mm2; 1 kip = 4.4 kN.
Fig. 9—Comparison between transverse forces determined
in this study and those in database of bursting and spalling
stresses (adapted from Dunkman24 with additional data
points). (Note: 1 kip = 4.45 kN.)
the Tx46 specimens and the first six pairs of R- and S-bars in
the Tx70 specimens. Observations from Fig. 8 support this
selection. In specimens with conventional strand patterns,
noticeable stresses were observed in the reinforcement
located within the h/4 region, which is shown by the gray
shade in the figure.
Figure 8 shows that maximum detected stresses in the
Tx70 specimens in this test program exceeded 20 ksi
(138 MPa). However, because the stresses diminished
very quickly with distance from the end face, the average
stresses within the bars located in the first h/4 distance
from the end face was less than 20 ksi (138 MPa); there-
fore, all girders comprising this test program effectively met
the stress limit defined in AASHTO LRFD. It is important
to note that the area of mild-steel reinforcement provided
within the h/4 distance of Tx-girders considerably exceeds
the requirements in AASHTO LRFD. As shown in Table 7,
the use of closely spaced R- and S-bars within the end region
of Tx-girders results in a splitting resistance that ranges
between 5.1 and 8.6% of the initial prestressing force in
each specimen.
Figure 9 includes the transverse forces developed within
the distance of h/4 from the end face of the girders inves-
tigated in the current study and those from a database of
bursting and spalling stresses developed by Dunkman.24
This database includes the results from eight inverted-tee
specimens, four U-girders, and 53 I-girders fabricated with
0.5 or 0.6 in. (12.7 or 15.2 mm) diameter strands.
ACI Structural Journal/January 2018
 As can be seen in Fig. 9, the transverse force developed
over the distance of h/4 of all previous points in the data-
base was less than or equal to 0.04Pi, where Pi is the initial
prestress force in the bottom flange before elastic shortening
losses. However, in this study, noticeably greater bursting and
spalling forces were observed in all specimens except Tx46-II,
which had a nonconventional strand pattern. In both end
regions of Tx70-I, the magnitude of bursting and spalling
forces reached up to 5.7% of the initial prestressing force.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Four full-scale Tx-girder specimens employing 0.7 in.
(17.8 mm) diameter seven-wire strands on a 2 x 2 in. (51 x
51 mm) grid were designed and fabricated to investigate
their end-region behavior at the time of prestress transfer.
The specimens were extensively instrumented to provide a
detailed picture of transverse stresses within reinforcement,
transfer length, and prestress losses. Moreover, each spec-
imen was carefully examined for end-region cracking after
prestress transfer and at least 28 days after prestress transfer.
The primary conclusions regarding the end-region behavior
of the specimens were as follows:
Transfer length: The strain measurements from the
strands revealed that the 24-hour transfer length, which
is known to be less than the final transfer length, slightly
exceeded the transfer lengths predicted using AASHTO
LRFD and ACI 318-14 equations. While there is a possi-
bility that the presence of strain gauges contributed to an
increased transfer length, further research on full-scale spec-
imens is necessary to ensure accurate transfer lengths are
used for the design of girders that employ 0.7 in. (17.8 mm)
diameter strands.
Cracking patterns: The patterns of cracks developed
within the specimens were similar to those observed in
typical Tx-girders employing 0.5 or 0.6 in. (12.7 or 15.2 mm)
diameter strands. In all specimens, there was noticeable
cracking at the web-bottom flange interface. Most cracks in
the test program had a width that was less than 0.007 in.
(0.18 mm), with a width of 0.008 in. (0.20 mm) observed
in a few isolated locations in two specimens. Within the
first 28 days after prestress transfer, the length and width of
end-region cracks increased, and new cracks appeared in all
girders. However, the maximum width of the cracks within
each specimen did not show a noticeable change.
Stresses within transverse reinforcement: The greatest
stresses in all specimens were observed at the interface
between the web and the bottom flange. A maximum stress
level of 26 ksi (179 MPa) was observed in Tx70-II. In speci-
mens with conventional strand patterns, large stirrup stresses
were observed only in the overhang region of the girders.
For the nonconventional strand pattern used within Tx46-II,
the maximum stresses were not observed in the first few stir-
rups but in stirrups located further away from the end face
of the girder.
Necessity of modifications to detailing of end-region
reinforcing bars: Because the typical crack widths in the
specimens did not exceed those frequently observed in
girders with smaller-diameter strands, the use of 0.7 in.
(17.8 mm) diameter strands on the standard 2 x 2 in. (51 x
ACI Structural Journal/January 2018
51 mm) grid does not seem to trigger a need to modify the
end-region detailing in Tx-girders. Based on the guidelines
of ACI 224R-01, all specimens in this test program met the
criteria for use in exposure to deicing chemicals.
End-region reinforcement requirements: The trans-
verse force observed within the first h/4 length of specimens
with conventional strand patterns exceeded 4% of the initial
prestressing force. The relatively satisfactory performance
of the girders within this test program might be attributed
to the use of considerably greater amounts of transverse
reinforcement compared to that required by AASHTO
LRFD. The observations of this test program indicate a
potential need to reevaluate the requirements for end-region
reinforcement in AASHTO LRFD provisions when used for
girders employing 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diameter strands.
A few alternatives for modifications to reinforcement
detailing in Tx-girders have been examined computation-
ally by Alirezaei Abyaneh25 to reduce the width of end-
region cracks, potentially below the strict 0.005 in. (0.13 mm)
limit required by TxDOT. Investigating the performance of
girders employing 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diameter strands under
applied loads is beyond the scope of the current paper. The
shear behavior of such girders may be negatively affected by
diminished anchorage capacity due to greater transfer and
development lengths as well as the need to transfer a greater
horizontal shear force between the web and the bottom
flange. The development of near-continuous cracks at the
interface between the web and the bottom flange of the spec-
imens comprising this test program could also be a source
of concern regarding the transfer of horizontal shear. These
effects are evaluated in detail by Katz et al.3
AUTHOR BIOS
Jessica L. Salazar is a Bridge Designer with FIGG, Dallas, TX. She
received her BSCE from New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, and
her MSE from the University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX. Her research
interests include end-region behavior of prestressed concrete elements
and the effects of using larger-diameter strands on the performance and
economy of pretensioned concrete girders.
ACI member Hossein Yousefpour is an Assistant Professor at Babol
Noshirvani University of Technology, Babol, Iran. He received his
BSc and MSc from the University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD
from the University of Texas at Austin. His research interests include
prestressed concrete, structural health monitoring, and shear strength and
time-dependent behavior of concrete structures.
ACI member Roya Alirezaei Abyaneh is a Structural Engineer with
Building Diagnostics, Inc., Houston, TX. She received her BAppS from
the University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada, and her MSE from the
University of Texas at Austin. Her research interests include prestressed
concrete and computational simulation of reinforced concrete structures.
Hyun su Kim is a PhD Student at the University of Texas at Austin. He
received his BSc and MSc from Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea, in
2008 and 2010, respectively. His research interests include shear strength
and end-region behavior of prestressed concrete girders.
Alex T. Katz is a Project Engineer with Walker Restoration Consultants,
Chicago, IL. He received his BS from the University of Virginia, Char-
lottesville, VA, and his MSE from the University of Texas at Austin. His
research interests include prestressed concrete and shear behavior of
concrete structures.
ACI member Trevor D. Hrynyk is an Assistant Professor in the Depart-
ment of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering at the Univer-
sity of Texas at Austin. He is a member of Joint ACI-ASCE Committees 421,
Design of Reinforced Concrete Slabs, and 447, Finite Element Analysis of
101
Reinforced Concrete Structures; and ACI Subcommittee 445-C, Punching
Shear. His research interests include performance assessment of rein-
forced concrete structures, analysis and design of slabs and shells, and
nonlinear modeling.
Oguzhan Bayrak, FACI, is a University Distinguished Teaching Professor
in the Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering
and holds the Charles Elmer Rowe Fellowship in Engineering at the
University of Texas at Austin. He is a member of ACI Committees 341,
Earthquake-Resistant Concrete Bridges, and E803, Faculty Network Coor-
dinating Committee; and Joint ACI-ASCE Committees 441, Reinforced
Concrete Columns, and 445, Shear and Torsion.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge TxDOT for financially supporting
this study, as well as Coreslab Structures in Cedar Park, TX, and Alamo
Cement for donating concrete and cement that were used for the fabrication
of the specimens. Thanks are also due to R. Boehm for her assistance with
the performance of the experimental program. The findings and opinions
presented in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect
the views of TxDOT.
REFERENCES
1. Tadros, M. K., and Morcous, G., “Impact of 0.7 Inch Diameter Strands
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Diameter Strands in Precast, Pretensioned Girders: A Parametric Investiga-
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5. ACI Committee 318, “Building Code Requirements for Structural
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12. Morcous, G.; Assad, S.; Hatami, A.; and Tadros, M. K., “Imple-
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13. Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT), “Concrete I-Girder
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ACI Structural Journal/January 2018
1 APPENDIX A- CONCRETE MIXTURE DETAILS

2 Table A-1–Concrete mixture properties

Tx46-I Tx46-II Tx70-I Tx70-II

Type III portland
725 725 600 801
cement, lb/yd3
3
Fly ash, lb/yd 0 0 200 196
Coarse aggregate,
1951 1956 1400 1345
lb/yd3
Coarse aggregate
Mixture components
Crushed limestone, Max. size: 3/8 in.
type
Fine aggregate,
1072 1082 1400 1117
lb/yd3
Water, lb/yd3 285 274 192 282
Super plasticizer,
29.0 14.5 45.0 81.0
oz/yd3
3
Retarder, oz/yd 29.0 29.0 30.0 40.0
Air entraining
0 0 4 0
agent, oz/yd3
Water-
0.39 0.38 0.24 0.28
cementitious ratio
Ambient temperature
29 23 24 24
at time of casting, °C
Max. hydration
68 59 54 66
temperature, °C
Note: 1 lb/yd3 = 0.6 kg/m3; 1 oz/yd3 = 38.7 mL/m3; 1 in. = 25.4 mm.

1
1 APPENDIX B- TRANSFER LENGTH DATA

3 Fig. B-1–Transfer lengths for Tx46-I at live end

2
1

2 Fig. B-2–Transfer lengths for Tx46-I at dead end

3
1

2 Fig. B-3–Transfer lengths for Tx46-II at live end

4
1

2 Fig. B-4–Transfer lengths for Tx46-II at dead end

5
1

2 Fig. B-5–Transfer lengths for Tx70-I at live end

6
1

2 Fig. B-6–Transfer lengths for Tx70-I at dead end

7
1

2 Fig. B-7–Transfer lengths for Tx70-II at live end

8
1

2 Fig. B-8–Transfer lengths for Tx70-II at dead end

9
1 APPENDIX C- CRACKING PATTERNS

0.10 mm
Crack width 0.15 mm
0.20 mm
Time crack was At release
measured Final measurement

East Live end West

1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft Tx46-I 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft

West Dead end East

1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft Tx46-I 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft
Note: 1 ft= 0.30 m; 1 in.=25.4 mm.
2

3 Fig. C-1–Crack patterns and widths for Tx46-I

10
 0.10 mm
Crack width 0.15 mm
0.20 mm
Time crack was At release
measured Final measurement

East Live end West

1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft Tx46-II 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft

West Dead end East

1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft Tx46-II 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft
Note: 1 ft= 0.30 m; 1 in.=25.4 mm.
1

2 Fig. C-2–Crack patterns and widths for Tx46-II

11
 0.10 mm
Crack width 0.15 mm
0.20 mm
Time crack was At release
measured Final measurement

East Live end West

1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft Tx70-I 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft

West Dead end East

1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft Tx70-I 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft
Note: 1 ft= 0.30 m; 1 in.=25.4 mm.
1

2 Fig. C-3–Crack patterns and widths for Tx70-I

12
 0.10- 0.15 mm Time crack was At release 13 days
Crack width
measured 7 days Final measurement
0.16- 0.18 mm

East Live end West

1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft Tx70-II 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft

West Dead end East

1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft Tx70-II 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft
Note: 1 ft= 0.30 m; 1 in.=25.4 mm.
1

2 Fig. C-4–Crack patterns and widths for Tx70-II

13
1 APPENDIX D- BURSTING AND SPALLING STRESSES

G3
62.0 in.

G3
38.5 in. G2
G2
27.5 in. 31.9 in.
G1 G1
16.5 in. 16.5 in.

Tx46-I and Tx46-II Tx70-I and Tx70-II

Distance Distance
from dead end, in. from live end, in.
30 30
25 Tx46-I Tx46-I 25
20 20
Stress, ksi

Stress, ksi
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
-15 -15
0 20 40 60 60 40 20 0

30 30
25 Tx46-II Tx46-II 25
20 20
Stress, ksi

Stress, ksi
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
-15 -15
0 20 40 60 60 40 20 0
30 30
25 Tx70-I Tx70-I 25
20 20
Stress, ksi

Stress, ksi
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
-15 -15
0 20 40 60 60 40 20 0

30 30
25 Tx70-II Tx70-II 25
20 20
Stress, ksi

Stress, ksi

15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
-15 -15
0 20 40 60 60 40 20 0
Note: Nominal locations are shown for strain gauges; 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ksi = 6.9 MPa.
2

3 Fig. D-1–Stresses in end-region reinforcement within specimens

14

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