Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

State of the art of the effective flange width for composite T-beams
Reza Masoudnia
GIPENZ, Structural Engineer, Research Fellow, Centre for Infrastructure Engineering, Western Sydney University, Sydney, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Composite T-beams represent an efficient and economical structural beam element for a wide range of
Received 24 November 2018 structural applications. A T-beam subjected to a positive bending moment results in part of the slab act-
Received in revised form 10 January 2020 ing as the flange of the girder and resisting compression. When the spacing between the girders becomes
Accepted 28 January 2020
large, shear-lag phenomena lead to compressive stresses in the flange that vary with the distance from
Available online 13 February 2020
the girder web and the flange area over the web becomes more highly stressed than the extremities.
These phenomena lead to inaccurate structural analyses. Therefore, the effective flange width concept
Keywords:
has been introduced for design purposes.
Composite T-beam
Simple beam theory
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Shear lag
Effective flange width
CLT

Contents

1. Introduction: Shear-lag phenomenon, standard specifications and research background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1. Expanded summary of related Research: Steel-Concrete composite T-Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2. Expanded summary on related research: timber composite T-Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2. Conclusions, future challenges and outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3. Future research work summary and expected results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1. Introduction: Shear-lag phenomenon, standard specifications
and research background
Applied bending creates a non-uniform stress distribution and
thus variable longitudinal displacements in the flange of a compos-
ite T-beam. This non-uniform distribution of stresses is known as
shear lag. Bending theory assumes that plane sections remain pla-
nar, which leads to inaccurate estimations of displacements and
stresses at the extreme fibers of composite T-sections [1–3]. There-
fore, the effective flange width method was introduced for building
standards to design composite T-beams (Fig. 1). Correspondingly, a
practical series of technical recommendations and simplified
formulae based on experimental and analytical investigations were
presented for national and international design specifications, and
their provisions have remained largely unchanged for a long period
E-mail address: reza.masoudniaa@gmail.com
of time [4,5]. Table 1 summarizes the requirements for determin-
ing the effective flange width of composite T-beams according to
several widely known building standards.
The computation of shears, moments, torques, and deflections
for a composite T-beam is directly affected by the estimation of
the effective flange width. The determination of the effective flange
width also affects the properties of the T-beam and the required
shear connectors [7].
As a consequence, a multitude of experiments have been
conducted to consider the effective flange width concept in
steel-concrete or concrete T-beams, and these experiments have
produced several provisions for the effective flange width [6]. For
instance, according to the American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), the effective flange width
should be represented by the lowest of the following: 12 times
the average depth of the concrete slab plus the greater of the
web thickness or one-half the top flange width; one-quarter of

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118303
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303

Fig. 1. Determination of the effective flange width for a positive moment section at the serviceability limit state. Cslab : total slab compressive force. rmax : maximum
compressive stress in the concrete slab. rmin : minimum compressive stress in the concrete slab. beff : effective flange width. b: width of the concrete slab tslab : thickness of the
concrete slab.

Table 1
Effective flange width be formulae in various design codes [4,6,28–32,38].

Source Formulas
ACI be is the lowest of the following:
(1) One-fourth span
(2) bw + 16hf
(3) Center-to-center spacing of beams
AISC-LRFD:13.1 be is the lowest of the following:
(1) Beam span/4
(2) bs
(3) Twice the distance to the edge of the slab
CANADIAN CSA: S17.4 & Euro Code (2000) be is the lowest of the following:
(1) Beam span/4
(2) bs
New Zealand Code be is the least of:
(1) bw + 16Df
(2) bw+l40
(3) bw + 2D1
(4) bw + b0(D1/(D1 + D2)
Steel Structure Chinese Code (GB50017) be is the lowest of the following:
(1) bw + Beam span/3
(2) bw + 12 Df
(3) bw+ð2b  b2w Þleftside +ð2b  b2w Þrigthside
Indian Code be is the lowest of the following:
(1) be=l60 þ bw þ 6Df
(2) be=bw +12 (sum of the clear distance to the adjacent beams on either side)
(3) For isolated beams, the flange shall be obtained below
but never greater than the actual width.
be=l0l0 þ bw
b
þ4

be: effective width of concrete flange of composite beam.

bs: width of concrete flange of composite beam.
hw: width of web.
hf: thickness of flange.
bw: breadth of web.
Df: thickness of flange.
b: actual width of flange.
l0: distance between points of zero moments in the beam.
D1: total depth of beam being considered.
D2: total adjacent beam.
b0: half the sum of the clear distances to the adjacent beams on either side.

the effective span length; or the average spacing of the adjacent
beams. Heins and Fan used orthotropic plate governing equations
in their research and concluded that the effective flange width in
the AASHTO provisions was overestimated for interior girders
and underestimated for exterior girders [6,7]. Similarly, the Euro
Code and Canadian Code dictates that the effective flange width
may be considered the lowest of either one-eighth of the span
length or the width of the concrete flange of the composite beam.
Alternatively, the effective flange width of concrete T-beams is
regarded as the minimum of twelve times the thickness of the con-
 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303
crete slab or one fourth of the span length of the beam by the Con-
crete and Reinforced Concrete Special Committee of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, with whom this provision has remained
unchanged for 90 years [6]. Other countries use similar specifica-
tions with minor modifications of the parameters [4,6,8]. The main
purpose of the design codes is to offer a simplified design proce-
dure for the structural market. For example, a single simple for-
mula is used to calculate the effective flange width for concrete
slabs and box steel girders in the Canadian building standard,
which confirms its simplicity compared to other design specifica-
tions [8].
Steel-concrete L-shaped and T-shaped composite beams under
similar applied loads have dissimilar normal stress patterns in a
concrete slab. Therefore, a numerical comparison of the effective
flange widths of interior and exterior beams was performed by
Brosnan and Uang in 1995, who concluded that the effective
widths of a slab in these systems are different from those proposed
in the codes for internal composite beams (T-beams) [24–26].
The first serious experimental and theoretical research on the
effective flange width of T-beams was conducted in the early
1920 s. This research was extended in 1929 to study the effective
flange width of a single T-section beam width subjected to a con-
centrated load at the mid-span. Miller and Metzer proposed Eq.
(1), in which d, h and F are the thickness of the plate, distance from
the mean plane of the plate to the center of gravity of the steel
plate, and the cross-sectional area of the steel plate, respectively
[4,9].
F
beff ¼ 2
2d½ðh=iÞ  1
Further analytical studies performed by Adekola and Mackey
showed that the effective width 2k approximately equals the
flange width bs of the beam when the width-to-span ratio, bs/L,
is small. Their research focused on only the elastic behavior of
the composite beams such that fully composite action was pro-
vided between the flange and web. Similarly, the effect of the var-
ious parameters related to the geometry and properties of the
material have been considered extensively [10,11]. A series of
equations were derived to analyze beam and slab combinations
in composite T-beams with full composite action between its
structural components. Yam and Chapman investigated the effects
of the ratio of beam spacing to span size and the form of loading on
the effective flange widths of composite T-beams. Research based
on elastic theory has shown that the ratio beff/bs depends on the
ratio bs/L and the boundary conditions at the supports. Moreover,
Fahmy used a combination of finite difference and layered finite-
element methods to analyze composite T-beams and found that
the effective flange width increases with an increasing number of
flexible shear connectors. In addition, the form of loading affects
the effective flange width of a composite T-beam [4,12].
In 1970, Timoshenko and Goodier developed an equation for the
effective flange width based on elementary bending theory,
wherein an effective flange width of k exists such that the stress
calculations applied to the converted beam cross-section would
yield the correct value of the maximum bending stresses (Fig. 1).
The following equation is obtained by presuming a simple cosine
function for the bending moment, M = M1cos (p x/l) [4,13]:
2L
beff ¼ 2k ¼
p½3 þ 2m  m2 
where m and L represent Poisson’s ratio of the flange in the T-beam
and the length of the T-beam span, respectively.
Recently, based on experimentation and finite-element mod-
elling, a new equation has been introduced to determine the
parameters that influence the effective flange width of composite
3
T-beams in bridges. That research included an analysis of compos-
ite steel-box girders and field testing of continuous composite
steel-concrete bridges. However, it focused solely on the effective
flange width in bridges and did not cover the appropriate criteria
for buildings [4,6,14].
Chiewanichakorn developed another effective flange width def-
inition based on an equilibrium approach for composite T-beams
by accounting for the variation in through thickness (Eq. (3)). This
definition is simple and robust and can be applied to both service-
ability and strength limit states in positive moment regions [7,15]:
Cslab Cslab
beff ¼ ¼ ð3Þ
F 0:5tslab ðrmax þ rmin Þ
where Cslab and F represent the total slab compressive force and
force per unit slab width, respectively (Fig. 1).
As highlighted by the above discussion, the problem of deter-
mining the effective flange width of T-beams has been the subject
of investigation by numerous researchers, and there are numerous
corresponding publications on the topic. Therefore, the first part of
the following section has been dedicated to summarizing the avail-
able experimental, analytical and numerical research studies that
investigated steel-concrete composite T-beams to consider the
shear-lag effects to develop more realistic and precise definitions
of the effective flange width for steel-concrete composite T-
section beams. The second part of the following section is focused
on research regarding timber composite beams, which are cur-
rently being developed.
ð1Þ 1.1. Expanded summary of related Research: Steel-Concrete composite
T-Section
A.O. Adekola investigated the effective flange widths for simply
supported steel-concrete composite T-section beams considering
variations in geometric parameters (Fig. 3). Analytical and numer-
ical solutions were employed to determine the effective flange
widths for various side ratios of a concrete slab in addition to var-
ious concrete slab thickness-to-depth ratios of three different steel
beam sections [11]. A three-dimensional schematic of a tested
steel-concrete composite T-beam is shown in Fig. 3, and a sum-
mary of the results is presented in Fig. 3. The curves in Fig. 4 illus-
trate that the effective width is minimum at the maximum
moment for the loading case considered and that the effective
bs (Width of concrete slab)
(Effective flange width)
Maximum stress
Normal stress
ð2Þ
Fig. 2. Stress distribution across the width of a concrete slab [4].
4 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303

P P P P P P
L

b b b b b
Fig. 3. Co-ordinate axes, supports and loading system of a slab. b: width of the slab available to a T-beam. L: span of the composite T-beam. P: uniform distributed load.

Fig. 4. Variation in the effective flange width along the span with different side ratios. b: half thickness of the slab. b: width of the slab available to a beam. L: span of the
composite beam.

be/b One-side effective flange width 100

1
b=1.0 m 80

60
0.8 b=1.5 m
Ϭ (MPa)

40

0.6 b=2.0 m 20

0
0.4
-20
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
y/2b
0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 Fig. 7. Distribution of the stress averaged for the top and bottom reinforcing bars
L/b along the slab at a fixed end (non-linear analysis with shrinkage and cracking).

Fig. 5. Effective flange width of simply supported spans.

flange widths vary appreciably along the span for all side ratios
below 5. The parametric study in that research focused on various
side ratios at various slab depth-to-beam depth ratios for three dif-
3.5
ferent steel beam sections and showed that the difference in the
3 values of the effective flange width factors between the three cases
2.5
was extremely small (remaining below 8% in the worst cases).
II-Sang Ahn et al. presented a brief summary of a qualitative and
2 quantitative comparison of the effective flange width provisions in
Ϭ (MPa)

1.5 the European, Britain, Japan, Canada, and US building standards

resulting from dissimilar philosophies underlying the various
1 effective width code formulations. In the quantitative component,
0.5 the numerical results for simply supported spans and negative-
moment regions of continuous spans were compared. The code-
0
comparison component of the research showed that AASHTO and
-0.5 Euro code 4 provisions employ a list of descriptions, whereas Cana-
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 dian and Japanese provisions use equations and BS 5400 uses a
y/2b
table format. An excerpt of these results is provided in Fig. 5, which
Fig. 6. Stress distribution in the middle fiber of a concrete slab at the mid-span demonstrates a series of numerical analyses that the various
(non-linear analysis with shrinkage and cracking). researchers had conducted on simply supported span composite
 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303
1 to time. Hence, the effective flange width of the slab, which is a
CSnC, mid-span (concrete)
CSC, mid-span (rebar)
0.9
0.8
CSnC, fixed end (concrete)
0.7
CnSnC, fixed end (concrete)
μ
CSC, fixed end (rebar)
0.6
0.5 CnSnC, mid-span (concrete)
0.4
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Days
Fig. 8. Trend in the dimensionless effective flange width over time after the
application of a load at a fixed end and at the mid-span for different types of
analyses (CSC: creep with shrinkage and cracking; CSnC: linear creep with
shrinkage; and CnSnC: linear creep without shrinkage).
beams. BS 5400 (interior) develops the largest effective flange
width for 2  span length (L) over the one-side flange width
b  7. For 7  bL  15, Eurocode 4 yields the largest effective flange
width. The full width is considered effective after bL reaches 8 for
Euro code 4, 15 for the Canadian code, and 20 for the Japanese
specifications. Because of the thickness limitation, the effective
flange widths from AASHTO vary considerably compared to the
values obtained from the other specifications. Without the thick-
ness limitation, AASHTO provisions are similar to the values from
Euro code 4. Finally, the paper highlighted that the inter-relation
between effective flange widths, loading effects on bridges, and
concrete deck designs (particularly for crack control) should be
consistent [15].
Chiewanichakorn et al. conducted non-linear numerical analy-
ses to investigate and develop a more versatile effective flange
width definition for interior and exterior simple-span girders for
positive moment sections at a serviceability limit state. Two inde-
pendent experimental studies were used to verify the numerical
modeling. The numerical results showed good accuracy for effec-
tive flange widths, particularly for bridge structures. Chiewanicha-
korn developed an effective slab width definition accounting for
through-thickness variations for positive moment regions based
on an equilibrium approach (Fig. 1 and Eq. (3)). This definition is
simple and robust and can be applied to both serviceability and
strength limit states in positive moment regions [7,15].
L. Macorini et al. performed a series of numerical models in late
2004 to analyze steel-concrete composite T-beams for an effective
flange width evaluation. The proposed model allows for an accu-
rate evaluation of the stress state in the concrete slab with respect
Fig. 9. Variation in effective flange width along a span (L1 < L2 < L3).
5
fundamental quantity for the evaluation of the structural response
employing a uniaxial model, can be realistically evaluated. The
proposed numerical model was employed to investigate the
response of a girder bridge subject to long-term loading. Linear
and non-linear analyses were conducted with the assumption of
concrete shrinkage and cracking, and some of the results are pre-
sented in Figs. 6–8. The obtained results indicated that the stresses
due to concrete shrinkage prevented by the connection between
the slab and girder are clearly larger than the stresses due to exter-
nal load and creep, which lead to cracking of the concrete slab. The
effective flange width remains constant over time and is equal to
the value assumed immediately after the application of an external
load within a linear viscoelastic analysis without shrinkage. How-
ever, shrinkage causes a significant variation in the effective flange
width, which leads to an increase over time in both linear and non-
linear analyses; however, this trend is in contrast to the provisions
provided by current codes, which suggest that the effective flange
width remains constant over time [37].
In another parallel research investigation conducted in 2006,
Castro et al. studied the behavior of multi- and single-span com-
posite beams with a particular focus on the effective flange width
in concrete slabs, which is required for simplified structural analy-
sis and design (Figs. 2 and 9). Current design codes propose values
for the effective flange width that are primarily a function of the
beam span and ignore the influence of other important parameters.
Several 3D numerical simulations were conducted to illustrate the
effect of these parameters on the effective flange widths of steel-
concrete composite beams. The simulations indicated that the
effective flange width is chiefly related to the full slab width but
also depends on a number of other parameters, such as the slab
thickness, beam span and boundary conditions (Figs. 10–13).
In mid-2007, Chen et al. proposed a simplified design equation
to compute the effective flange widths of a composite bridge girder
in both positive and negative-moment regions based on a finite-
element parametric study. Two types of bridges were investigated:
simple-span and multi-span, with 3 continuous spans. Three main
parameters were considered for simple-span bridges: the girder
spacing S, span length L, and skew angle b (the angle b exists in
bridges in that their geometry cannot accommodate straight lines).
The study proposed a new parameter that accounted for multiple
span continuous bridges, namely, the span ratio L2/L1, where L2
and L1 are the interior and exterior span lengths, respectively [6].
Although the new factor (L2/L1) in the effective flange width for-
mula led to more accurate results, the comparison study showed
that the differences between the two design equations with and
without L2/L1 were insignificant. Finally, the study concluded that
although the results for proposed design criteria for a composite T-
beam under a negative moment produced a slightly more accurate
expression, although the difference is negligible.
6 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303
Fig. 10. Longitudinal stress distribution across the slab width at different surfaces.
Fig. 11. Influence of the slab thickness on the stress distribution at the mid-surface.
Fig. 12. Influence of slab thickness on the stress distribution at the mid-surface.
In late 2007, Jian-Guo Nie et al. presented a new definition for
the effective flange width for the ultimate analysis of composite
beams subjected to sagging moments based on an experimental
study and verified by numerical modeling (Figs. 14 and 15). The
verification and a series of results are presented in Figs. 16 and
17. The longitudinal stress and strain distribution across the con-
crete slab under various loading conditions and geometrical char-
acteristics were examined, and the results indicated that the
effective width at the ultimate strength is wider than that at the
serviceability stage. Simplified design formulae were suggested
for the ultimate strength design [16].
In early 2010, Salama et al. experimentally and analytically
examined the validity of the effective flange width provisions from
various building standards and compared the results obtained. The
numerical model, which validated the experimental results, was
employed to analyze composite steel-concrete T-beams. The anal-
ysis indicated that the beam depth is not an effective parameter in
calculating the effective flange width. In addition, the results
showed that the number of shear connectors significantly affects
the effective flange width. A reduction in the number of shear con-
nectors by 25% and 50% caused a decrease of 19% and 28% in the
effective flange width, respectively. Finally, the comparison pre-
sented in terms of the applied load versus deflection and of the
strain in the concrete slab indicated that the AISC-LRFD code is
conservative and underestimates the active width [4]. A schematic
cross-section of a steel-concrete composite beam under a uniform
load and a series of comparison studies data are shown in Fig. 18.
Qin et al. proposed a complex analytical method in early 2010
to determine the effective flange width of simply supported com-
posite box girders. A series of numerical examples were used to
examine the accuracy of the proposed method. The stress and
effective flange width calculated using their proposed technique
showed good agreement with the numerical results [17]. Satasi-
vam et al. also investigated the effective flange width of steel-
concrete composite T-beams in early 2010 and examined concrete
slabs reinforced by glass fibers. Using glass fiber reinforcement in
concrete slabs leads to a reduction in weight and an increase in
both the tensile and compressive strengths of concrete and better
corrosion resistance. The research numerically examined the effect
of new material properties on the effective flange width. The
numerical model was validated through previous experimental
results. A parametric study was conducted to clarify the effects
of the degree of composite action, mechanical properties and geo-
metric parameters, the results for which are presented in
Figs. 19–22. The results indicated that the span length-to-width
ratio has a major impact on the effective flange width if the full
composite action is provided. Furthermore, the effective flange
width decreases with increases in the ratio of width over span
length, and the loading level and shear stiffness of the adhesive
connection are not significant factors in the variability of the effec-
tive flange width compared with the width-over-span length ratio.
Finally, the experimental results showed that the common steel-
concrete sections and steel-GFRP sections in T-beams have similar
normal strain distributions [18].
In late 2011, Zihibin Lin et al. reconsidered the non-uniform
normal stress distribution along the flange of symmetrical thin-
walled box girder members to study shear-lag effects (Fig. 23).
Effective flange widths are widely used to consider shear-lag
effects in bridge design. The existing provisions for effective flange
width in the AASHTO-LRFD specifications may be unconservative
compared to other design regulations both worldwide and in the
study by Lin et al. (2011). Based on extensive parametric studies,
a series of equations were proposed to calculate the effective flange
width for box girders. The important factors for shear-lag behavior,
such as the material properties, girder geometry, loading pattern
and longitudinal stiffener presence, were considered in the new
equations. Moreover, the new provisions ignore the shear-lag
effects for girders with b = L values below 0.1. In addition, the study
showed that the currently available provisions are more accurate
for girders that are subjected to distributed loads. As a result, the
effective flange width could be overestimated by up to 50% for
girders under point loads [19].
In late 2011, Aref et al. employed a three-dimensional numeri-
cal model to experimentally validate a formulation for the effective
flange width of steel-concrete T-beams under negative bending
moments. The only difference in the computation of the effective
slab width between the positive and negative-moment regions is
the value of the effective span length (Le) in multi-span beams.
Many structural factors are important in Le measurements,
 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303 7

/
/

Fig. 13. Longitudinal stress distribution across the slab width at different surfaces.

cally. The experimentally verified numerical results showed that

the width of the rectangular opening is the factor with the greatest
influence on the normal stress distribution along the width of the
concrete slab and consequently the effective flange width (Fig. 25).
Finally, a simplified set of formulae was recommended to calculate
the effective flange width of composite T-beams with openings in
the concrete slab (Eqs. (4)–(6)). The formulae were verified by
experimental tests results and numerical analysis results [42].
X
beff 0 ¼ b0 þ bei ðHoleatthemid  spanÞ ð4Þ

X
beff 0 ¼ b0 þ bbei ðHoleattheside  spanÞ ð5Þ

!
2
3bh b
Fig. 14. Test model and loading frame. beff ¼ beff 0 1 þ h ð6Þ
2beff0 2b2eff0

In mid-2015, Zhu et al. conducted static tests on composite box

including boundary conditions in single- and multi-span beams
girder deck beams and steel composite T-beams that consisted of
and loading conditions. The new formulation provides more prob-
concrete slabs supported by double I-section steel beams. The
able effective flange width values by accounting for numerous
study was commissioned to investigate the shear lag along
parameters, including strain variations through the slab thickness,
single- and multi-span beams. These two specimens were tested
load redistribution mechanisms, and interactions between the con-
under vertically flexural and axially compressive loads. Different
crete slab and reinforcement after cracking, which had not been
shear-lag behaviors were observed in static tests for two composite
considered in the classical effective width definition. Numerical
beams under two types of loading (Figs. 26 and 27), and a numer-
results and comparisons also indicated that the effective slab width
ical model was used to analyze the shear-lag effect on the compos-
criteria in the current AASHTO-LRFD specifications are typically
ite sections to determine the longitudinal distribution
conservative for larger girder spacings [1].
characteristics of the effective flange width. The research resulted
Research conducted by Yu-Hang et al. in late 2014 focused on
in the determination of the effective flange width at the mid-
the behavior of steel-concrete composite T-beams characterized
span and end supports under both concentrated and uniformly dis-
by openings within the concrete slab (Fig. 24). The shear-lag per-
tributed loads for T-beams with different widths of each side of the
formance and effective flange width for the composite T-beams
slab. In addition, the shear-lag phenomenon and effective flange
with and without openings in the slab were considered numeri-
width of the T-beams were studied numerically, and the obtained

Fig. 15. Model for the parametric study. (a) Schematic of a simply supported specimen under a uniform load. (b) Cross-section of a composite girder under a uniform load.
8 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303

Fig. 16. Strain distribution on the top of concrete across the slab width (y-axis) for different parameters.

Fig. 17. Strain distribution on the top of concrete across the slab width (y-axis) for different parameters.

1
100% Ultimate
load capacity

0.8

Cracking
of concrete
0.6
Recommended
30% Ultimate
be/bs

equation in paper
at ultimate load load capacity

0.4 Recommended
equation in paper at
serviceability load

0.2 AISC-LRFD
& CSA &ENV

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
bs/L

Fig. 18. Comparison of the methods for determining the effective width using be/bs versus bs/L.

results were compared with a single steel-concrete composite T-
beam. Li Zhu et al. concluded that the shear-lag behaviors of
composite box girders and double I-section steel beams differ con-
siderably under similar loading conditions. Furthermore, the
results for composite I-girder decks under three types of loading
conditions were compared with the EC4 method, and the results
showed a substantial match with the calculated effective flange
widths. The research claimed that the presented method for calcu-
lating the effective flange width is a straightforward calculation
method that is particularly effective for bridge designers [20].
 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303
Fig. 19. Load-displacement curve of the Dura Span deck and ASSET deck (shown
with the FEA model).
Fig. 20. Strain distributions of the upper facesheets of the ASSET Dura Span deck
along width at the mid-span (shown with the FEA model).
In early 2016, Huang et al. considered the variation of the effec-
tive flange width along steel-concrete composite T-beams with
respect to the deflection calculations of T-beams at serviceability
limit states and presented the development of two theoretical
models for composite T-beams: a shear-lag slip beam model
(SSM), which accounts for both the slip effects and shear-lag
effects; and a slip beam model (SLM), which considers only the
Fig. 21. Axial strain distribution at the mid-span of the top facesheet of (a) ASSET deck (L = 7.5 m) at 90 and 373 kN and (b) DuraSpan deck (L = 7.5 m) at 80 and 405 kN. (b:
width of flange, L: beam span, and P: applied load).
9
Fig. 22. Strain distribution of the top facesheet of ASSET deck at the mid-span with
adhesive of varying shear modulus values.
interface slip between the steel beam and concrete slab. These
two methods were employed to study the size of an effective flange
width along a span of simply supported beams (Fig. 28). A detailed
numerical parametric study was verified by theoretical models and
carried out to determine the parameters with the greatest influ-
ence on the effective flange width of steel-concrete composite T-
beams. Finally, the research proposed a simplified set of design for-
mulae to calculate the effective width of a steel-concrete compos-
ite T-beam composed of precast concrete panels or cast in situ
concrete slabs and mild- to high-strength steel web beams. The
results calculated using the proposed formulae for effective flange
widths correspond well with the results obtained from experimen-
tal tests (Eq. (7)). Also, the compression study shows that the
important factors affecting the effective flange width are the width
of the concrete slab, the span of the composite beam and the thick-
ness of the concrete floor slab [21]. (a) Side view (Elevation), (b)
top view, (c) cross-section-based definition of effective width.
An element-based effective width b0e (Eq. (7)) is defined as
follows:
L hc
be 0 ¼ gb x1 ¼ x2 ¼ ð7Þ
b b
x1 ¼ bL x1 = reflects the influence of the beam span.
x2 ¼ hbc x2 = accounts for the effects of slab thickness.
10 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303

Fig. 23. Definition of effective flange widths in a box girder.

(a) With opening at the mid-span (b) With opening at the side-span
Fig. 24. Key section of composite beams with openings in the concrete slab.

(a) Concrete slab without openings (b) Concrete slab with openings
Fig. 25. Normal stress distribution in the concrete slab.

(
1  e065x1 The research considered the behavior of multi-girder steel-
g ¼ min 2:83104 þx22 concrete composite T-beams with a particular focus on the
0:001þx22
effects of web openings on the effective flange width, which is
g is recommended based on a large number of theoretical not established in building standards. In addition, the effects of
data from the parametric analysis. Mohammad et al. conducted various types of loading on the effective flange width were con-
a series of numerical studies on composite T-beams in 2014. sidered. Therefore, three steel-concrete composite T-beams char-
 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303 11

Double-line studs Single-line studs

Fig. 26. Notation of cross-sections for single- and double-line studs in single steel–concrete composite beams.

(a) I-girder (b) Twin I-girder

(c) Box girder

Fig. 27. Notation of cross-section dimensions of three types of composite decks.

acterized by three different sizes of steel webbing and concrete Mohammad’s research concluded that the effective flange
flanges were numerically investigated for three various sizes of width is largely insensitive to the type of web openings for com-
web openings (Fig. 29) [33]. posite multi-girders under uniformly distributed loads. However,
12 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303

νSLM(ƞb) νSSM(b)

b be ′ (a) b be ′

(b)
(c)

Fig. 28. Element-based definition of effective flange width. (a) Side view (Elevation), (b) top view, (c) cross-section–based definition of effective width.

(b) Elevations (b) Cross-sections

Fig. 29. Profiles of four composite T-beams with different percentages of rectangular web openings that were numerically modeled.

Diagonal transverse
reinforcement
Fig. 30. Steel-concrete composite beam with diagonal reinforcements.

Concrete slab

Fig. 32. Timber-steel composite bridge deck.

Shear key

Straight transverse
The above summary of previous research studies conducted by
reinforcement
different scholars and the comparison of the effective flange width
Steel girder criteria in various standards provide compelling evidence of an
existing and significant body of research on steel-concrete com-
Longitudinal reinforcement posite sections. Numerous studies have focused on steel and con-
crete composite structures to investigate the effects of beam
Fig. 31. Various types of metal deck with perpendicular straight reinforcements.
span, depth, flange width, flange opening and web on effective
flange width. In contrast, relatively little research has focused on
sensitivity will increase when the loading type changes, particu- the size, configuration and arrangement of transverse reinforce-
larly to a single point load. The scholars reached similar conclu- ment in a concrete slab to achieve the same effects on the effective
sions regarding the effect of web openings on the effective flange flange width in steel-concrete T-beams (Figs. 30 and 31).
for single- and multi-girder composite beams in another 2016 In addition, the linear and nonlinear numerical parametric
study [34]. study by Amadio and Fragiacomo in 2002 on steel-concrete
 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303
Fig. 33. T-beam design unit.
Fig. 34. Real (left) and idealized (right) stress distributions in timber composite beams.
composite beams under two different boundary conditions shows
that the key deformability notably affects the assessment of the
effective flange width [27]. Therefore, more experimental and
numerical investigations on the arrangement, number and distri-
bution pattern of shear keys in steel-concrete T-beams is
recommended.
1.2. Expanded summary on related research: timber composite T-
Section
The design procedure of stress-laminated timber bridge sys-
tems, which is one of the newest techniques used in modern tim-
ber bridge construction, was first investigated by David et al. in
1996. They developed a new design procedure because the equa-
tions used to predict the effective flange width and distribution
factor for other types of timber deck systems were generally inad-
equate for a timber-steel deck system (Figs. 32 and 33) [35].
David et al. studied the effective flange width concept in stress-
laminated timber T-beams that consisted of two stress-laminated
timber decks attached to the sides of an inverted steel T-beam by
post-tension bars. A series of stress-laminated timber T-beams
were investigated numerically to determine the effective flange
width. The T-section beams were modeled for three thicknesses
of the timber flange and three different web spacings. The results
indicated that the effective flange width varies between 0.79 and
0.86 of the stress-laminated timber T-beam spacing. The results
of this study led to the development of a design procedure for a
timber-steel composite deck design that offers an economic option
for longer-span bridges.
In the third step, existing large horizontal shear forces between
the steel beam and stress-laminated timber deck were considered.
A steel dowel system was selected to carry the excess shear force,
13
which is not matched by friction because the frictional resistance
resulting from the pre-stressing force is not sufficiently large to
resist the shear force. In the fourth step, the steel T-section in
stress-laminated timber T-beams was studied to develop a stan-
dard economical section for different cases. The research recom-
mended removing the top flange of a steel I-section and welding
it to the bottom flange to create a strong T-section with a large bot-
tom flange. In step five, the paper recommended a design to
address sideways buckling, which is possible for T-beams to
increase the lateral distribution. In steps six through eight, aspects
of transverse deflection, transverse bending stresses and punching
shear were studied, and three formulae were suggested to calcu-
late each aspect based on previous research and the existing
AASHTO standard. The research recommended that transverse
deflection should be limited to approximately 0.1–0.2 in. The paper
also noted that the required bearing stiffeners must be checked for
welded and rolled girders to prevent failure in the webbing due to
local web yielding and web crippling, which is a form of web buck-
ling. The research concluded that lightweight and efficient steel
sections may be incorporated within the stress-laminated timber
deck to allow for longer spans and a cost-effective alternative for
other existing systems [35].
A limited and basic analytical study on the effective flange
width of timber composite beams, which consist of cross-
laminated timber (CLT) slabs, was conducted by Alexandra Thiel
and Reinhard Brandner in late 2016 (Fig. 34). The research
showed that the non-uniform distribution of normal stresses
along the width of the flange in a timber composite T-beam is
the result of shear deformation in the CLT panel. To model the
timber composite beam and determine the effective flange width,
the CLT panel was modeled as a plate while the rib was modeled
as a beam [36].
14 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303

Fig. 35. Glued thin-flanged beam.

Fig. 36. Experimental setup of the bending test involving a timber composite beam under a single point load.

The research claimed that the effective flange width depends on
the ratio of the span dimensions, loading type (i.e., a uniformly dis-
tributed or concentrated load), shear key stiffness and beam sys-
tem type (i.e., single- or multi-span).
Finally, two separate research studies considering the effective
flange width in individual glued thin-flanged beams and timber
box beams were conducted [22,23]. Both investigations focused
on double-skin panel floors constructed of oriented strand board
(OSB) or plywood that was attached to the timber web sections.
The research showed that when the beam is subjected to bending,
stresses are transferred between the timber web and timber flange
by shear stresses. The stresses in each flange will decrease as the
distance from the web increases because of shear deformation.
The research used the effective flange width concept in a simplified
manner to determine the width compression and tension in the top
and bottom flanges.
The research considered the effects of span, flange thickness,
and web width in positive and negative bending moments and
generated two simplified formulae for calculating the effective
flange width in compression and tension for internal I-shaped sec-
tions and U-beams. The detailed formulae and the required input
data are presented in Fig. 35 and in Eqs. (8) and (9).
For an internal I-shaped section:
bef ¼ bc;ef þ bw orbef ¼ bt;ef þ bw ð8Þ
For U-beams (i.e., the end beams in Fig. 39):
bef ¼ bðc;efÞ þ bw or bef ¼ bðt;efÞ þ bw ð9Þ
The above summary of previous research shows that there is a
relatively limited quantity of research concerning timber struc-
tures composed of newly engineered wood products, such as CLT
panels. Therefore, the effective flange width of a timber composite
beam, which consists of a CLT panel attached to a laminated veneer
lumber (LVL) girder, was measured experimentally (Fig. 36). The
novelty of this research is the study of the structural details that
affect the effective flange width of the timber composite beams
using a CLT slab. The results obtained from the parametric study
show that the CLT layer configuration and material properties have
significant effects on the effective flange width of the timber com-
posite beams [38,39,40,41].
In addition to the above summarized research, Table 2 briefly
presents the key points found in previous research on composite
T-sections performed in the last two decades by different scholars.
 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303 15

Table 2
Summary of research on composite T-sections.

Author(s) country/ Ref. No. Various analyses Variables studied Conclusions

year material
A. O. Adekola [11] Con- Parametric Study: Effect of geometry (thickness and width of the slab When the span over the width of the slab is greater
USA/1968 crete-Steel Analytical & and depth of the girder) and related material than 5, the effective flange width is constant along
Composite Numerical & properties of the T-beams were the objectives of this the length of simply supported composite T-beams.
T-beam Experimental study. Finally, a table of effective flange widths is
recommended for various geometric combinations of
T-beams.
DA Apple [35] Analytical & Investigation of the stress-lam/steel T-beam bridge The design addresses the effective width, transverse
C Woodward Stress- Experimental system and development of a design procedure load distribution, horizontal shear, diaphragms, and
USA/1996 Lam-Steel study based on initial parameters, such as spans, vehicle local effects in accordance with AASHTO procedures
Composite weight, wearing surface and number of the lanes for Lightweight and efficient steel sections may be
T-beam bridge engineers were the objectives of this paper. incorporated with the stress-laminated timber deck
to allow for longer spans, and a cost-effective
alternative to current design is proposed.
I Ahn [15] & [7] Parametric Study: Investigation of the effective flange width of T-beams Differences between standards are symmetrized, and
M Chiewani & [6] Analytical & under negative moments was the main objective of the results show that the Canadian standards have
SS Chen Concrete- Numerical & this paper. Also, the effective flange width provisions most straight forward method to calculate the
AJ Aref Steel Experimental in various standards were compared. effective flange width. The research showed that the
USA/2004 Composite span width and slab depth are important factors that
T-beam significantly affect the effective width under applied
negative moment.
L. Macorini [37] Numerical This paper considered the creep, shrinkage and The results indicate that the effective flange remains
M. Fragiacomo Concrete- Parametric cracking behavior of concrete slab and shear constant with time and equal to the value that is
C. Amadio Steel Study connectors of composite T-beams under long-term assumed to be straight after the application of an
B.A. Izzuddin Composite loading. external load without shrinkage. On the other hand,
Italy/UK/2006 T-beam shrinkage causes a significant variation of the
effective width with time.
AJ Aref [1] Parametric Study: Investigation of the effective flange width of T-beams The research shows that the obtained effective width
M Chiewani Concrete- Analytical & under positive and negative moments was the main results for the T-beams under positive moment is
SS Chen Steel Numerical & objective of this paper. more conservative compared to the results under
I Ahn Composite Experimental negative moment. Also the parametric study shows
USA/2007 T-beam that the depth, width and material properties of the
concrete slab affect the effective width significantly.
J Castro [5] Parametric Study: This paper addressed the behavior of composite T- The obtained results indicates that the effective
A Elghazouli Concrete- Analytical & beams limited to full-interaction cases with a width is mostly related to the full slab width but it
B Izzuddin Steel Numerical & particular focus on the effective slab width. also depends on number of the parameters, such as
USA/2007 Composite Experimental the concrete slab thickness, beam span and on the
T-beam boundary conditions.
J Nie [16] Experimental & The objective of this paper was to present a new The effective width for the ultimate strength state is
C Tian Concrete- Numerical definition of the effective width of ultimate strength found to be nearly the same as the physical width for
C Cai Steel Parametric study calculation. the cases examined in this research. Also, the
China/2008 Composite obtained results reveal that the effective width varies
T-beam along the span.
X Qin [17] Analytical & Assessment of a new method to determine the The effective flange width expression and effective
H Lin Concrete- Numerical study effective width under a uniform load on simply flange width ratio of a simply supported box girder
China/2010 Steel supported box girder bridges was the objective of under a uniform load with a closed polynomial form
Composite this research paper. has good agreement with the finite element results.
T-beam
Zhibin Lin [19] Parametric Study: Effective flange width was used to consider shear lag The research reveals that AASHTO LRFD
Jian Zhao Concrete- Analytical & effects in bridge design. A parametric study was specifications are unconservative, specifically for
USA/2011 Steel Experimental performed to consider the geometry, material uniformly distributed T-beams
Composite properties, loading patterners. However, the standards lead to overestimates for
T-beam single point loads. The thickness of the flange and
reinforcement significantly change the effective
flange width.
T. Salama [4] Parametric Study: The paper considered the effect of concrete slab Based on a parametric study, an equation for the
H. H. Nassif Concrete- Analytical & width variations, shear connectors and the calculation of the effective width is recommended. It
USA/2011 Steel Numerical & composite action between the slab and girder to is concluded that parameters such as the span, width
Composite Experimental determine the effective width. and shear connectors affect the effective width
T-beam significantly.
S Satasivam [18] Parametric Study: This paper investigated the effective width of glass The results show that the span length and width of
Y Bai GFRP-Steel Numerical & fiber reinforced polymer deck systems adhesively the composite T-beam and major mechanical
X Zhao Composite Experimental bonded to steel girders. properties and degree of composite action have
Australia/2012 T-beam study significant influences on the effective flange width.
MAA Alsarraf [33] & [34] Numerical & The objective of this paper was to assess the effective It is concluded that the slab width, slab thickness,
HS EI Din Concrete- Experimental width assessment of multi girder steel–concrete span, and type of loading affect the effective width of
China Steel study composite beams with openings in concrete slab. multi-girder composite T-beams. Also, the numerical
2014 & 2016 Composite results show that openings in the slab have a
T-beam significant effect on shear lag behavior.
Yu-Hang Wang [42] Numerical & In this paper, the effective flange width of the steel– The experimental and numerical results show that
Jaing-Guo Nie Concrete- Experimental concrete composite T-beam with openings in openings in the slab have important effects on the
China/2014 Steel study concrete slab were examined. effective flange width and normal stresses in the slab
Composite cross section. A simplified formula is developed to
T-beam calculate the effective width, which is verified

(continued on next page)

16 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303

Table 2 (continued)

Author(s) country/ Ref. No. Various analyses Variables studied Conclusions

year material
experimentally.
A Thiel [36] Analytical Study This research considered the CLT for various one- or A ULS design procedure for single CLT and CLT ribbed
R Brander CLT com- two-way load-carrying floor applications and CLT floors is developed
Austria/2015 posite T- ribbed floors. The research mentions that further investigations are
beam required for CLT floors with openings.
Li Zhu [20] Analytical & The effect of single and continuous steel web beams The research shows that effective flange widths are
Jian-Guo Nie Concrete- Numerical & in single and double concrete-steel composite T- different under various loading conditions. The effect
Fa-Xiong Li Steel Experimental beams under axial and flexural loads were studied. of point load location on effective flange width has
Wen-Yu Ji Composite Study been studied. Finally, a simplified analytical method
China/2015 T-beam is proposed.
H Yuan [21] Analytical & Development of two theoretical models to consider The analytical method is verified by the finite
H Deng Concrete- Numerical & different geometrical variations was the main element results. The results from a parametric study
Y Yang Steel Experimental objective of this research. show that the width of the concrete slab, span beam
Y Weijian Composite Study and thickness of the slab floor significantly affect the
Z Zhenggeng T-beam effective width. Finally, the obtained results are used
China/2016 to developed a simplified method to calculate the
effective width.
R Masoudnia [38] & Parametric Study: The objective of this research was developing an The results from a large experimental test show that
P Quenneville [3940] & Analytical & accurate numerical model verified experimentally to the numerical model performs well and can predict
New Zealand [41] Numerical & study the geometrical factors that may affect the the behavior of CLT composite T-beams accurately. A
2013 & 2014 CLT Com- Experimental effective flange width of CLT composite beams. comprehensive numerical parametric study shows
2016 & 2018 posite that the thickness and material properties of
T-beam transverse layers of the CLT slab affect the effective
width of CLT composite T-beam significantly.

Added shear keys Added shear keys

(a) (b)
Fig. 37. (a: left) Extra shear keys added in each row; (b: right) extra shear keys added along the beam.

(a) (b)
Fig. 38. (a: left) Transverse bar spacing; (b: right) transverse bar arrangements.

2. Conclusions, future challenges and outlook
This paper summarizes previous research on the shear-lag phe-
nomena and the effective flange width in composite T-beams con-
structed of steel, concrete or timber. The literature review shows
that although the effects of various structural aspects of single-
and multi-span steel-concrete T-beams (e.g., beam span, depth,
flange width, opening in flange and web) on the effective flange
widths under negative and positive bending have been investi-
gated, important structural details still need to be considered. For
 R. Masoudnia / Construction and Building Materials 244 (2020) 118303
Fig. 39. Various transverse bar sizes in concrete slab of composite T-beam.
instance, research has not been conducted to consider the effect of
transverse reinforcement in a concrete slab. Therefore, further
investigation into the effects of size (diameter), type (deformed
or planed), material properties, arrangement and configuration
(depth in concrete slab, angle and number) of transverse reinforce-
ment bars is recommended. Finally, the summary showed that
despite the many studies focused on steel and concrete composite
structures, comparable comprehensive research has not been per-
formed regarding timber structures, particularly with respect to
new engineered wood products, such as CLT. Therefore, this study
recommends conducting additional experimental analyses to
understand the structural characteristics that affect the effective
flange width of timber composite beams, specifically the T-beams
that compose CLT panels acting as flange members. Furthermore,
the knowledge acquired from steel-concrete composite T-beams
shows the important effect of the shear key between the concrete
slab and steel girder. Therefore, the composite action between the
CLT flange and girder is another important factor, the effect of
which necessitates consideration regarding the effective flange
width and behavior of timber composite beams. Evaluating all of
these results can improve the timber building performance and
thus enable the development of a simplified engineering formula
to determine the effectiveness of timber composite beams using
CLT slabs.
3. Future research work summary and expected results
For further investigation of the effective flange width of com-
posite T-beams, in this section, a series of experimental tests are
recommended based on the summarized information (refer to
the expanded summaries in Section 1.1). The detail of each test
under positive and negative sagging is presented briefly in
Figs. 39–39. To study the effect of providing full- to semi-
composite action between the concrete slab and steel girder, it is
important to evaluate different numbers and arrangements of
shear keys (Fig. 37a and b). Also, to study the effect of transverse
reinforcement bars, the effect of the number of transverse bars
(bars spacing) and their arrangements must be verified as shown
in Fig. 38a and b. In addition, the effect of the transverse bar size
on the effective width flange must be verified (Fig. 39). Finally,
the material properties of steel bars can affect the size of the effec-
tive width. Based on the knowledge gained from previous research,
before performing experimental tests or numerical modelling, a
greater number of shear keys in two or three rows, less spacing
of transverse steel bars with a zigzag arrangement and a higher
elastic modulus are estimated to improve the effective flange
width of composite T-beams (this is only a prediction). To ensure
this effect, real scale experimental tests with a compressive
numerical parametric study are recommended.
17
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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