PSAE Region IV - Agricultural ineering Board Review Materials

Farm Structures
Ronaldo B. Saludes
Assistant Professor I
Agrometeorology and Farm Structures Division
Institute of Agricultura I Engineering
College of Engineering arid Agro-Industrial Technology
University of the philippines at Los Bafros
College, Laguna

I. Introduction
a Farm buildings and structures are important parts of an integrated rural development.
a Knowledge on the design and construction of farm buildings are needed to have an
effective storage, especially for the new high yielding grain varieties which are more
susceptible to pests than the traditional types
Improved management and breeding programmes to increase animal production have
created a need for more appropriate animal housing.
To improve the standards of living for the rural population, it is necessary to provide
durable, comfortable and healthy homes, with clean water, sanitation facilities and
community infrastructure.

rI. Topics on Structures

ryPES OF FARM STRUCTURES

A. Farm Houses E, Food and Crop Processing Buildings

B, Livestock Buildings . Milk houses
.
Barns (beef cattle, dairy, horse, etc.) . Slaughter houses
.
Hog houses . Grain driers
. Poultff houses . Pasteurizing and boftling plants
c. Product Storage Buildings . Fruit and vegetable washing,
. Granaries dehydration, and packing
. Silos F. Equipment and Supplies Building
. Vegetable storages . Garages
. Fruit storages . Farm shops
. Bins . Utility
D. Crop Production buildings G. Miscellaneous Structures
. Greenhouses . Fences
. manure pits

BASIC STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

1. Tension memberc
' 'Beams
slender structural members subjected to tensile stress (e.g. tie rods, hangerg
2.
o structural member subjected to loads perpendicular to the long axis of the member
o normallY in horizontal position (e.g. ftoor joists, girderc) buf sometimes found in an inclined
and vertical position (e.9. rafterc in roof and studs)
3, Compression memberc
o vertical members that resist axial compressive loads (e.g. columns)
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PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Reviqry Materials VIII - 2

4, Combined members
. members subjected to combr= t'=-:= .' ::i:iSression/tension and bending
te.g. beam columns) p

I
tlGP
(a) tensio n mei-::€-

{"
T
I

Y
P.+T*P
L_.1
(c) column (d) beam column

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF STRESS ANALYS$

STRESS - internal resistance to an external force

Basic Stras Formula:

where
P o unit stress (Pa)
P externalforce (N)
A A cross sectional area (m2)

Assumptions
. Stress is uniformly distributed over the area
. Load is axial or perpendicular to the area

THREE BASIC KINDS OF STRESS

a. Compression- results from a force that tends to compress or crush a member

b. Tension - results from a force that tends to stretch or elongate a member
c. Sheai- results from the tendency of two equal and parallel forces, acting in opposite
directions, to cause adjoining surfaces of a member to slide one on the other.

Types of Shear

,f
Horizontal shear
(slides horizontally)

Vertical shear
(dropping down between supports)

Note: Horizontal shear failure on ivood beams is very common because the shearing resistance of
wood is much less paratlel to the grain than that of across the grain.

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 !! - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

A. WOOD
e o0€ of the most common construction materials

Qualities
. strong material . Iight in weight
. durable . with aftistic and natural beauty
. ease of fastening

Lumber Measurement

o wood is normally priced in board foot (fbm)

. one board foot of wood has a nominal size of one foot length by one foot width
by one inch thick

Board foot formula

where:
ftm LxWxt fbm = board foot
L2 L = Iength, feet
W = width, inches
t = thickness, inches

Note:
' thickness and width of commercially available lumber is in inches while length is
in feet of even length
' nominal sizes of 2'*2" and lower are priced based on linear foot and not by
board foot

RECOMMENDED END-USES OF PHILIPPINE TIMBER

STRENGTH GROUP END USES

Class I Heavy-duty construction where both strength and

(Higth Strength) durability are required such as bridge, girders, rafters,
chords, purlins, balustrades, stairs, high-grade beams

CLA55 II Medium-heayy construction such as heavy duty furniture,

(Mode ra te ly Hig h S tre n g th) cabinets, door panels and frames, tool handles, plywood,
beams, girders, rafters, chords, purlins

Medium construction such as general framing, paneling,

CLASS IIT ,
medium-grade furniture, cabinet, low-grJde beams,
girders, rafters, chords and purlins, drafting tabies, dry
{Medium Strength)
measures

Production of pulp paper, woodcarving and sculpture,

CLASS TV toys, crates, pallets, conventional furniture, form wood,
(Mode ra tely La w S tre ngth ) shingles and matchwoods

Light construction where strength, hardness and durability

CLASS V are not critical requirements such as mouldings, ceiling
and acoustic panels, pulp and paper making, wall boaids,
{Low Strength)
pencil slats, matchsticks, popsicle stick

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PSAE Region w - Agriottuml Engineering Board Review Materials VIII .4

PlyYrood

o rnito€ up cf 3,5,7 or more veneer slics laid one upon the other with grain of
e;c.: a: ,;:: a:.gtes to those of the sheets above and below it

. thicxneqs varies from 3.2 mm, 4.7 mm, 12 mm, 20 mm with a width of 1.20 m
and lengrth of 1.80 m to 2.40 m

Types of plywood
a.fuftwood - most common for structural use
' b.Hardwood - used for paneling and finishing where usually only one face is with
hardwood finish
c. Marine - for external use

B. CONCRETE

r o solid, hard material produced by comblning cement, fine aggregates, coarse

aggregates and water
r us€d commonly in farm buildings for footings, foundation walls, floors and pavements,
silos etc.

Qualities
a. durability c. strength in compression
b. hardness d. ease of forming into various shapes

Paste - mixture and cement and water

Moftar- mixture of cement, water and sand
Grout - specially formulated mortar

Functions of Moftar
a. used to bond units together
b. seal the spaces between the units
c. tie steel reinforcement and anchor bolts into the wall
d. provide design of lines of color and shadows
CONCRETE PROPORTIONING

FULLER1S FORMULA
Let
C = rro. of bags of cement per cubic meter of concrete work
S = volume of sand (m3) per cubic meter of concrete work
G = volume of gravel (m3) per cubic meter of concrete work
c ;s , g = cement-sand-gravel ratio (relative amounts of solids by volume in a
mixture)

C:55/(c+s+g)
S:0.028*C*s
G:0.028*C*g

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 IV - Aqricultural E ng Board Review Materials WII.5
class A (7:2:4) - used for beams, srab columns, and for all members which are
subjected to bending stress
class B (1:2.5:5) - used for all membeis not reinforced for bending stress
Class C (1:3:6) - used for footing not under water

Type of constructEon Proportion

Side Walk 4" thick 7:2:4
Floor Slab 4" thick !:2:4
Wall 1:2,5:5
Footing 1:2.5:5
Post 1:2.5:5
Machinery Foundation 1r3:6
Reinforced Concrete 1:2:4
Foundations 1:2.5:5

C, MASONRY

Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHE)

' most widely used masonry material for all typm of construction walls, partitions,
dividers, fences, etc.

Classification

a. Bearing - thickness ranges from 15 cm to 20 cm and are used to carry load aside
from its own weight

b. No.1r-bearing - thickness ranges from 7.5 cm to 10'cm and are intended for wails,
fences

Tro"*
Concrete hollow block

r Quantit/ of CHB (12.5 pcs/m2 of work)

r Quantit/ of cement and sand for block laying
r Quantitf of cement. sand and gravel for filling cells
o Quantit| of cernent and fine sand for plastering
r Quantitf of cement, sand, and gravel for CHB footings

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 IV - Agricultural ineering Board Review Materials

D, ROOFING MATERIAL

Galvanized Iron (G.I.) Sheet

o rflost common and widely used roofing material

Qualities
. Reasonable cost
. Availablitiy
. Durability
Ease of installation and repair

Standard commercial forms

1. Plain
. widely used for roofing, gutter, flashing, ridge etc.
. standard size of 90 cm wide by 2"4 m long
2. Corrugated
r widely used for roofing and siding material
' standard width of B0 cm with varying length of 1.5 m to 3.6 m at an interval
of 30 cm

Corrugated G.I Sheet

Thickness
o rTr€dsur€d in terms of gauge number ranging from no. L4 to no. 30
( higher gauge no., the thinner the GI sheet)

Lapping of roof sheet

a. Side lapping \

- 71/z corrugations - has an effective width covering of 70 cm

'. 2 1/z corrugations - has an effective width cover,ng of 60 cm
b. End lapping - ranges from 20 cm to 30 cm depending on the degree of slope
and number of sheet in the longitudinal row

F##JJTUThH
llfft{nlrqrlhn
J--l
1 ur
r
I

I r rn"ffi.rppins
End lapping

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!l4E Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials VIII - 7

Steps in estimating corrugated G.I sheets

1. verify specifications for side lapping and end lapping
2. minimize the end lapping joint of sheet and always choose longer length for
economical reasons
3, know the length of purlin
4. compute the no. of sheets per row by dividing the purlin length with the effective
width covering per sheet
tr
know the length of rafter/ top chord and choose the right combination of sheets to
satisfy the length
6. solve for the total no. of sheets needed for roofing

ESTIMATING STRUCTURAL LOADS

Classification of loads based on the area over which they are apptied

a. Concentrated load - load applied at a point or along a line

b. Distributed load - load spread over a large area
c. Uniformly distributed load - load is equal over all portion of the contact area

Two major types of loads in building design

A. Vertical loads

1. Dead loads
. include the weights of various structural members and materials permanently
attached to the structure (e.9, weight of roofing or floor covering, columns, beams,
girders, walls, windows, etc.)
c estimated dead load of wood beams {uniformly dlstributed)

1O ft span = 2 o/o of total load

20 ft span = 10 o/o of total load

. estimated dead load of roof trusses (wood)

W = Vz SL(1+0.1L) (Merriman's formula)

where
W weight of one truss, lbs
S bay (distance between adjacent trusses), ft
L span of truss, ft
2. Live loads

r gravit/ loads which are not permanenily applied to the structure

i. roof live loads - include loads imposed during building construction (e.g. roofing
process) and after construction (e.9. re-roofing operations, air conditioning and
mechanical equipment installation and servicing)

ii. floor live loads -based on the occupancy or use of the building (humah
occu pants, fu rnitu re, stored materials, etc. )

B, Lateral {oads

. include wind loads and seismic loads

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- ral Engingering Board Review Materials VIII - 8
WIND LOADS
' occurs when structures block the flow of wind convefting
potential energy of pressure.
wind's kinetic energy into

Design wind pressure for buildings

Basic formula
p--C.Cqtl"f
. where
p design wind pressure
Cu combined height, exposure, and gust factor coefficient
Cq pressure coefficient
g, wind stagnation pressure
I impoftance factor

Methods of determining wind loads for primary lateral-force- resisting

system (LFRS)
a. Normal Force Method

. gives more accurate description of wind forces

o US€d for buildings with gable rigid frames

b. Projected Area Method

. simple and produces satisfactory design for most structures
o llot applicable to gable rigid frames or to structures greater than 200
ft in height

wind
ward wind
ward
leeward
leeward

NORMAL FORCE PROJECTED AREA

METHOD METHOD

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PSAE Region IY - AgricultuFl Englneering Board Review Materials VIII - 9

Loads on Suspended Floors

kN/ m2
Cattle Tie stalls 3.4
Loose housinq 3.9
Young stock (180 kq) 2.s
Sheep 1q
Horses 4.9
Pigs (90 kg) Slatted floor 2.5
(180 kg) Slatted ftoor 3.2
Poultry Deep litter 1.9
Cages Variable
Repair shop (allowance) 3.5
Machinery storage B
(allowance)

Mass of Farm Pruducts

Product Mass kg/m3

Maize, shelled 72Q

Maize, ear 450
Wheat 770
Rice (paddy) 577
Soybeans 774
Dry beans 774
Potatoes 774
Silage 480-640
Groundnuts, unshelled 218
Hay, Ioose 65-80
balled 190-240

NAILED CONNECTIONS

Classification of nails with respect to seruice

a, Common nails
b. Flooring nails
c. Finishing nails
d. Roofing nails
e. Boat, etc.

Factors affecting strength of nailed connections

i. number, size and type of nail 6. condition of use (MC)

2. species of lumber 7. duration of load
3, nail penetration 8.type of sideplate
4. lype of connestion 9. spacing of nails
5. direction of nailing
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 PSAE Region IV - Agricuftural Engineeri
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Members in a Nailed Connection

side
member
holding
member

Nail
penetratr

Types of nailed connection

A. Laterally Leaded Connections

. Load is applied perpendicular to the length of nail
. Most common nailed connections

Two types of laterally loaded connections

a. Lateral resistance in side grain - nail is driven perpendicular to the grain of holding
member.

side member
holding
P- member
..-----""..--P

strongest type of nailed connection

b. Lateral resistance in end grain - nail is driven parallel to the grain of holding
member

side

.+-P

holding
member

The allowable design load for common nails and spikes driven into the side grain of
seasoned wood can be calculated using the formula:

P: KD1's

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 cultural Engineering Board Review Materials VIII,' 11

where P allowable lateral load in pounds per nail at rated penetration

K a constant related to the density of the wood
U diameter of the nail

Rated penetration of wood species grouped according to density and other mechanical
propefties:

Group I 10 nail diameters

Group II 11 nail diameters
Group III 13 nail diameters
Group IV 14 nail diameters

For actual nail penetrations less than the rated values, the reduced allowable lateral load
is in propottion of the actual penetration to the rated penetration. No increase is allowed for
penetrations above the rated values.

Allowable lateral loads for nails driven into the end grain of wood are 213 those of side grain.

B. Withdrawal-Type Connections
. Load is applied parallel to the length of nail
. Load attempts to pullthe nail out of the holding member
. Weaker and les desirable than connections subjected to lateral load

Two types of withdrawal-type connection

1' Withdrawal from side grain - nail driven perpendicular to grain of holding member

holding member

side member \ A------'

nail

2. Withdrawal from end grain -nail driven parallel to grain of holding member

nail
side member

holding member

I
P

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 rv - Ag.icurturarcngineeling Board Review Materiars
'on

' inherently weak connection and is not permitted

in the design (no allowable load)
Allowable withdrawal load for common wire
nails and spikes driven into the side grain
seasoned wood that will remain seasoned,
orunrurrinJ wooo that remained unseasoned of
service can be calculated from the formula: -___*__- in

P = l38o G2'sD

where G specific gravity of wood based on oven dry weight and

volume
D nail diameter in inces
P Allowable load in pounds per inch of penetration

The allowable withdrawal load for common wire nails driven

into end grain is only one
half that obtained in side grain,

DESIGN OF RECTANGULAR \A'OOD BEAMS

a. BENDIT{G STRESS

Design Formula

where
o'b actual bending stress
(,b allowable bending stress
M maximum bending moment of beam
S section modulus of beam

b. HORIZONTAL SHEAR STRESS

Design Formula

where
OV maximum horizontal shearing stress
o.V maximum horizontal shearing stress
maximum design shear in the beam
A cross sectional area of the beam

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 PSAE Region IV - cultural g Board Review Materials VIII - I.3
c. DEFLECTIOTII
. deformation that accompanies bending
. maximum deflection occurs at center span for simple beams

maximum deflection

Design formula

6*u* ( allowable 6

Deflection formulas for simple beams

a. Uniformly distributed load

6mu* = (5/394) x (wt4)/(EI)

b" Concentrated loads

. beam carrying single concentrated load at the center span

6-a*= 714Sx(Pl3)l(EI)

beam carrying two equal concentrated loads located at the third points of
span
length

6mu* = 23 I 64gx (Pl3)/(Er)

where
6ru, maximum deflection of beam, m
W uniformly distributed load, N/m
P concentrated load, N
I span length, m
E modulus of elasticity of wood, N/m2
I moment of ineftia of beam section, ma

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 )
Maximum Allowable Deflection for Structural Members

Type of Member Member loaded with live load Member loaded with live
only load and dead load

Roof Member Supporting L/360 L1240

Plaster or Floor Member

d. BEARINGSTRESS
o cotflPressive stress perpendicular to grain of wood occurring at beam supports or
other members framed into the beam

cI
-uc_L
support

Design Formula

where
ocr actual bearing stress (_t- to grain of wood)
o'._, allowable bearing stress (compressive stress perpendicular ic
grain)
P reaction force
A contact (bearing) area between beam and support

DESIGN OF SIMPLE SOLID WOOD COLUMN

Simple Solid Column - consists of a single piece of wood, square or rrcarg- e - -

cross section

Design Formula

Farm Structures
 PSAE ion IV - n_eErin "l{ateri li
where <rcll actual compressive stress parallel to grain of wood
ocir allowable compressive stress parallel to grain, adjusted based on
slen derness (l/d) ratio
P axial cdmpressive load
A cross-sectionalarea of column (either gross or net area)

Gener,a.l Slenderness Ratio (SR)

SR =Llr ,11
where SR slenderness ratio
l" effective unbraced length of column
/' r least radius of gyration of colurnn cross section

For rectangular columns

tl

SR =1"/d *
t

where least cross sectional dimension of the column

classification of solid colum:ns based on slenderness ratio

a. SHORTCOLUMN

sR< 11 f!
ij
t:,*;t :ttu t t^' tt. t.t,tgt t:+,t't tt-ttspi)

b. INTERMEDIATE COLUMN"
//
lt<SRs' k !i'
.**r^...*l

k = 0.671 (E / oiu)r/, i
z

where modulus of elasticity of wood -

o' cll tabulated allowable compressive stress parallel to grain

c, LONG COLUMN
PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials VIII - 16

Adjusted allowable compressive stress parallel to grain based on column

classification

shtoRT coLuMNs o'cll = o cll

, INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS
ocrr = o'clt I t-tl3(SR/ k)u]

LONG COLUMNS
o'ctt =O.3OE/(SR)2

where oc ll adjusted allowable compressive stress based on column

classification
o'cll tabulated allowable compressive stress parallel to grain

DESIGN OF AXIAL TENSION MEMBER

Design Formula
,:,
$1 = PlAn
rt

where <l1 actual tensile stress

allowable tensile stress
"i
P axial tensile load
An net cross-sectional area of member
(gross cross-sectional area of member minus projected
area of any bolt holes)

DESIGN OF COMBINED STRESS MEMBER

Combined Stress Member

. member subjected to bending and axial forces (tension or compression)
simultaneously

Combined Bending and AxialTension

Interaction Formula

(ot/oi) + (ou/o'o) < 1.0

where oi actual tensile stress

O'1 allowable tensile stress
ob actual bending stress
o'b allowable bending stress

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 ineering Board Review Materials

Combined Bending and Axial Cornpression

Interaction Formula

[<rcrr /octr]+[(ou /o'u)-Jocnl < 1"0

where o'c actual compressive stress parallel to grain

o cli adjusted allowable compressive stress parallel to grain
Ob actual bending stress
ob allowable bending stress
J modifier for the P-A effect
J=0 for short columns
3 = (5R- tt) I $- 1t) for intermediate columns
J = l,Ofor long columns

DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM

Working Stres Design

kd/3

4=pbd
T

the reinforced distribution of

section bending stress

Moment resistance of a rectangular concrete section

with tension reinforcing
Notations and Symbots

b width of the concrete compression zone

d effective depth of the section for stress analysis; from centroid of steel bars to
the edge of compression zone
A. cross-sectional area of the reinforcing steel bars
p percentage of reinforcing ( p = A,/bd)
n elastic ratio (Er6u1/ E.on.r"t.)
kd height of compression stress zone; percentage k of d
jd internal moment arm between net tension force T and net compression force c,
percentage j of d
f. maximum compressive stress in concrete
f tensile stress in reinforcing steel bars

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PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials VIII - 1g
The compression force C may be expressed as

.!/z
C= Vz(kd)(bxf") = kf"bd
Using the compression force C, the moment resistance of the section may be expressed as

M = Cjd = (1/z k f" bdxjd) - 1/z kj f" bd2

Thisfnay be used to derive an expression for the concrete stress:

f" =(2M)/(kjbdr)
The resisting moment may also be expressed in terms of the steel and the steel stress as

M =Tjd =A,f,id
This may be used for the determination of the steel stress or finding the required area of steel

f, - Ml (A"jd)
A" = M/(f"jd)
Balanced Design
A design for reinforced concrete beam that will cause the limiting stresses in the concrete
and steel bars to be reached simultaneously, causing them to fail at the same time.

balanced ft= 1/(1 +f"/nf")

j =1 -k/3
F =(f"k)l (2f")
Under Reinforced Design
A design in which the steel reinforcement is lesser than what is required for a balanced
design. It causes the steel bars to reach its limiting stress first while the concrete remains under
stressed. Once ultimate load is reached, large crack become visible in the tensile zone of
concrete and will give warning to the occupants to decrease the load.

Over Reinforced Design

A design in which steel reinforcement is more than what is required for a balanced
design. When the ultimate load is reached, the compression zone of the concrete is highly
stressed leaving the steel bars under stressed and failure occurs suddenly without warning to the
occupants of the structure.

The code limits the tensile steel percentage to 0.75 that of balanced design to
ensure under reinforced design of concrete beams. This condition will provide
ductile type of failure and will give warning to the user of the structure before failure
OCCUTS.

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PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials VIII - 19

STRI'CTURAL FRAMES

Types of Structural frames commonly found in farm buildings:

1. Bearn and post

Combinlng posts or columns and beams having no tension members as in bridge beam
and abutment. Here, the comBression rnember (abutment) is a special type of column that
also serves as the retaining wall.
This type of framing is suitable for multistory poultry houses and other types of
dwellings. The essential beams and post members may have to be supplemented with
diagonal bracing members. Where low construction cost is important, a variation known as
the pole frame is used. In it the concrete pedestal is omitted and the post or "pole" is
extended directly into the ground.

2, Truss
A truss is a jointed frame that is used to support loads over a relatively long span. In
general, the loads are applied to the truss in a direction transverse to its length and the loads
are applied only at the joints.

Purlin

Roofing
Top chord
Rise
.
-*- =: ve overhang
Web members
Bottom chord
Span

Parts of the truss:

a. chords are the outer truss members
b. web members (diagonals and verticals) are the interior members
c. joints or panel points are the joinE where members of the truss meet
d. bays are the spaces between trusses
e. purlins are beams spanning from truss to truss that transmits to the trusses the roof loads
f. panels are portion of the truss that occurs between two adjacent joints of the top chord

Pitch = rise/span Slope= rise/(span)/2 = 2pitch

Types of trusses
a, Howe c. Pratt e. Warren
b. Fink d. Shawver f. braced-rafter

3. Arch
This type is used where high rise and floor spaces free of obstruction are desired. Its
more frequent use on frames is to provide large hay-storage space over dairy stables and
storage space in machinery sheds and similar structures.
In two-story construction, the arch may be supported on the wall plate at the second
floor level, or it may be continuous from crown to foundation wall with the arch ribs serving
as studding in the sidewalls,

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PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials VIII - 20
4. Rigid Frame
This is widely used in bridge construction and industrial buildings. The distinguishing
characteristics of the rigid frame are:
a. The joints are fixed, or rigid, rather than hinged
b. The basic geometric figure is not necessarily a triangle but can be almost any shape
c. Some or all of the members carry both bending and axial loads

5. QVlindricaltanks
This is especially adaptable to structures in which the walls are subjected to outward
lateral pressure due to contained liquid or semi-liquid material. The silo, water tanks and the
circular grain bin are the common examples.

6. Light timber framing

This framing is the type widely used in the construction of dwellings and other small
buildings having a short roof span.
The types of light timber frames:
d. balloon frame
b. platform frame

BASIC UT.IITS OF A FARM BUILDING

A. FOUNDATION
Foundation is defined as a base upon which a building rests and through which the
loads on the building are transmitied to the ground. It is a common practice to place
footings under foundation of buildings in order to enlarge the bearing area between the
foundation and the ground, thus distributing the load over a larger area and reducing the
unit pressure. The combination of foundation and footing keeps the building level and
plumb and reduces settling to a minimum.

Types of Foundation
1. Continuous wall foundation - may be used either as basement walls or as cuftain
walls
2. Pier foundation - often used to support the timber frames of light buildings with no
suspended floors
3. Pad and pole foundation - consists of small concrete pads poured in the bottom of
holes which support pressure treated poles
4. Floating slab or raft foundation - consists of a poured concrete floor in which the
outer edges are thickened to 20 to 30cm and reinforced
5. Pier and ground level beam foundation - commonly used where extensive filling
has been necessary and the foundation would have to be very deep in order to
reach undisturbed soil
6. Piles - are long columns that are driven into soft ground where they support their
load by friction with the soil rather than by a firm layer at their lower end

Foundation footing design

Design Formula

Footing area = Total Load / Soil bearing capacity

Note: total load = building load + weight of footing

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I IV - Aqricultural neering Board Review Materials VIII. 21

Soil Bearing CaPacities

SoilType kN/m2
192
Massive crystalline bedrock
95
Sedimentary and foliated rock
96
Sandy gravel and/or gravel
gravel 72
Sandy, silty sand, clayey sand, siltv gravel, and clayey
4B
Clay, sandy clay, silty clay, and clayey sik

Footing ProPoftion

A
I :_v=
,t ^

Columns

B, WALLS

Walls may be divided into two types:

a. Loa d -bea rin s wa tts - su pporr,"Sti

weight and which resist side Pr I:'#*Tf; ; :X J:?j [iT::::j,,:1fl:?#:,
material or objects within the building
b. ioi.toa,d-Oiaring watls - carry no floor or roof loads. Each type may be fufther
divided into externil or enclosing walls, and internal dividing walls.

Good quality walls provide strength and stability, weather resistance, fire
resistance,
thermal insulation and sound insulation'

Types of Building Walls

a. Masonry walt - wall is built of individual block of materials such as bric( clay or
concrete blocks, or stone, usually in horizontal courses bonded together with some
form of moftar

- Monotithic watl - wall is builtwall

b. of a material placed in forms during the construction'
and the modern concrete wall. The earth walls are
i*a*pLei are traditional earth
inexpensive and durable if placed on a good foundation and protected from
rain by a
rendering or wide roof overhangs.

Farm Structures
PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials
- VIII - 22
c. Frame wall - wall is constructed as a frame of relatively small members, usually of
timber, at close intervals which together with facing or sheeting on one or both sides
'?:- z ca:-karin-c system.

:. frlsnbnne wall -;vall is constructed as a sandwich of two thin skins or sheets of

-- -:^-'-' - :-.. ::etal, asbestos-cement or other suitable material bonded to a
c:-e cf icamed plastic to produce a thin wall element of high strength and low
rrL.!, -.

Factors 'r;hich will determine the type of wall to be used

e . Tne materials available at a reasonable cost

b. Availability of craftsmen capable of using the materials in the best way
c. Climate
o. The use of the building - functional requirements

In dwelling houses with ceilings, wall height ol2.4rnlg5U{aq!e. Low roofs or ceilings in a
house create a depressing atmosphere and tend to make the rooms warmer in hot
weather.

C, FLOORS

For farm buildings, including homes, simple floors offering hard, durable sufaces at
ground level grade are probably adequate for the vast majority of situations. Floors may be
built at ground level, i.e. on the soil within the building, in which case they are called solid
or grade floors, or they may be supported on joists and beams in which case they are
called suspended or above-grade floors. The finished level of a solid floor should be at
least 150mm above outside ground level as a protection against flooding. The topsoil
should be removed and replaced with coarse material before the actual floor slab is
constructed.

D. ROOFS
A roof is an essential pat of any building in that it provides the necessary protection
from rain, sun, wind, heat and cold. The integrity of the roof is important for the structure
of the building itself as well as the occupants and the goods stored within the building.
The roof structure must be designed to withstand the dead load imposed by the
roofing and framing as well as the forces of wind and in some areas, snow or drifting dust.
The roofing must be leak proof, durable and perhaps satisfy other requirements such as
being fire resistant, a good thermal insulator or high in thermal capacity.

General Roof Shapes commonly used on farm buildings

T-T
ll
T=-.-.-..-

L__l ({} -I-

Shed Monitor Semi-mooilor

#El Hip
,/\
II
6ombrcl

Farm Structures
PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials VIII . 23
Flat Roof - used only to a limited exlent on farm buildings. Maintenance is high since the
roof has little slope for water to run off

Shed Root the simplest and easiest to construct and maintain. It is common sight on
-
single story poultry houses, open sheds for cattle or swine, and similar buildings

Gable Roof - one of the most universally used roof shapes on farm buildings, This type of
roof is commonly seen on bwo-story poultry houses, dairy barns, and single-story buildings
that are too wide for shed type of roof.

Hip Roof - more desirable from an architectural standpoint than from utilitarian value. It
requires more complicated framing than the gable roof and is consequently more expensive
to build. One of the most common uses of hip roof is on garages.

Monitor and Semi-Monitor Roof - special types of roof with additional height to give
more room for storage. The extension above the main roof was often used for ventilation,
and windows in the vertical walls give additional light.

Gambrel Roof - used to gain more space for the overhead storage of hay and feed. This
roof is common sight on two-story dairy barns and other livestock shelters where overhead
storage of hay is desired.

Arch Roof - also known as gqthlc-.:osl-Prefabrication of laminated arched rafters has

made the construction of arched roofs simple and easy. Its uses are the same as for the
gambrel roof.

E, DOORS AND WINDOWS

Doors are essential in buildings to provide security and protection from the elements
while allowing easy and convenient entry and exit, Farm buildings may be served
adequately with unframed board doors, while homes will need more attractive, well-framed
designs that close tightly enough to keep out dust and rain and allow only minimal air
leakage. Large openings can be better served by rolling doors rather than.the side-hingeci
type.

Windows provide light and ventilation in a building an allow those within to view the
surrounding landscape and observe the activitie in the farmyard, In sitting rooms and
workrooms where good light and ventilation are important, the window area should be 5 to
7Ao/o of the floor area of the room. Windows sometimes need to be shaded to reduce heat
radiation or closed to keep out driven rain or dust. In addition screening may be needed
for protection from insects, Shutters, either top-or side hinged, are commonly used to
provide the needed protection. Side-hung glazed windows, fly screens and glass or timber
louvers are also used.

LIVESTOCK HOUSING

General Considerations in Planning Livestock Housing

. Site and location

. Space, feed and water requirement
. Suitable environment to maintain highly productive condition
. Maximum efficiency of labor condition
. Sanitary condition

Farm Structures
PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering- Board Review Materials VIII - 24
A. POULTRY HOUSING
The objective in poultry housing is to keep the fowls comfortable, so as to promote
health, get maximum production and conserve feed and the energy generated by the birds. A
properly designed poultry housing must also aim at removing the excess moisture the birds
breathe out from the lungs. If the air in the house is loaded with moisture, serious trouble
from disease may develop. Proper ventilation is the remedy for this but poultry houses
should be not exposed to strong winds. Draft in poultry houses inteferes with the bird's
comfot and seriously affects their health. To avoid draft a site is selected where the house
will be protected from the prevailing winds thus, ideal windbreak is necessary. Drainage is
another impoftant consideration in selecting a site because it causes undesirable dampness.
Location near a jungle should be avoided. Light in a poultry house is essential for the well
being of the birds. Plenty of sunlighL well distributed through out the house is a good source
of their cheerfulness.

Floor space required to house hens

Bird Size No. of hens in house Floor space per hen,

sq m.
Small breeds 25 0.37
100 0.32
200 0.28
400 0,25
Large breeds 25 4.42
100 0.37
200 0.33
400 0.30

B. SWINE HOUSING
The primary considerations in planning housing for hogs are minimum essential shelter
for the animals, arrangement of building and equipment for labor efficiency and sanitation.
Hogs can adapt themselves to a wide range of temperatures, although they area not so
hardy as other farm animals. For farrowing sows, minimum temperatures of 50o to 600 F are
desirable; for your pigs in a cold climate, heated hovers are used. Lower temperature are
satisfactory for fattening hogs High temperatures are definitely harmful' above B5o F hogs
are susceptible to heat prostration, and in warm climates shade should be provided. Drafts
and dampness are considered undesirable.

Water consumption and space requirements

AnimalType Water Requirements Space Requirements

'Sow
5 to B gal per day 48 to 80 sq. ft
Figs 0.5 to 1,5 gal per day 3to6sq.ft
Fattening hogs 1.5 to 3 gal per day 6to10sq.ft
Boars 2to 4 gal per day 20 to 65 sq. ft
C. BEEF CATTLE HOUSING

Types of floor area for animals with access to outside yards

Animal Condition Floor Area

(sq. ft)
Breeding cow with or without calf 50
Calf Feeders, stockers, and replacement heifers 30
Yearling Feeders, stockers, and replacement heifers 40
Fattening stock Av. 750 lb. for fattening period 45

Farm Structures
 PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering. Board Review Materials VIII - 25

Animal Condition Floor Area

(sq.ft)
Fattening stock Av.950 lb. for fatlening period 50
Bull in pen 120
Cow In maternity pen 100 to 120
Cow In standing stall 4 ft wide, 22
5-6 ft long platform only
Calf Several in pen, each 20

-
Space Requirement Per Animal fcr an Anima! Shelter

Type of Animal shelter Floor area (sq.m.)

Cow stall plus alleys 6.00
Cow pen 11.10
Calf pen 2.20
Bull pen t6.70
Buffalo pen 13.90
Buffalo stall pus alley 7,40

FART'ISTEAD PLANNING

The farmstead forms the nucleus of the farm operation where a wide range of farming
activities takes place, It normally includes the dwelling, animal shelters, storage structures,
equipment shed, workshop and other structures. A carefully organized farmstead plan should
provide an arrangement of buildings and facilities that allows adequate space for convenient
and efficient operation of all activities, while at the same time protecting the environment
from such undesirable effects of odor, dust, noise, flies and heavy traffic.

Types of Farmstead

1. Concentrated In this type, all structures are in close proximity, in many instances, will
all or most of the buildings joined together or connected by sheds or covered wal6,

Z. Plantation or Ranch It often consists of two or more separated groups of buildings;

one group includes the residence, garage and attendant service buildings; the other
group includes barns, storage houses, and principal service buildings and workers'
houses.

3' Suburban type it consists primarily of residence and small service buildings, where the
: essential farm operations area carried on with hired seryices.

4. Distributed type This is the most common type of farmstead where buildings are
located sufficiently far apar[ to allow adequate room for road drives and yards,
reasonable fire safety, and sanitation, yet sufficiently close together to be eftective
for farm operation.

Zone Planning
Zone planning can be a useful tool, but it is most effective when planning a new
farmstead. The farmstead is divided into different zones of 10 to 30 meters wide by
concentric circles as shown below.

Farm Structures
 E94E Region IV - Agricuttural ineering Board Review Materials VIII . 26

1 - Family living area including the

dwelling
2 - implement and machinery storage,
farm workshop
3 - grain and feed storage
4 - livestock building
5 - farm access road and courtyard

Zo[c--I*ltlhecenter_sflhe-_farms,fead/ is for family living, and should be protected

from odor, dust flies, etc. In Zone II, clggry__diy"and_qqlet aitivities, such as implement
sheds and small storage structur6sianTe pla;ed. In7bie II!,
large-i gr-ain storage, feed
storage and small animals are placed, whereas large-scale anim'al pioauttion is in Zone IV
and beyond

The advantage of zone planning is that it provides space for present farm operations,
future expansion and a good living environment.

Factors to be considered in Farmstead planning

' Good drainage, both surface and sub-surface, provides a dry farm courtyard and a stable
foundation for buildings, A gentle slope across the site facilitates drainage, but a
pronounced slope may make it difficult to site larger structures without
undertaking
extensive eafth-moving work
' Adequate space should be provided to allow for maneuvering vehicles around the
buildings and for future expansion of the farm operation
' Air movement is essential for cross ventilation, but excessive wind can damage buildings.
Since wind will carry odors and noise, livestock buildings should be placei downwind
from the family living area and neighboring homes. Undesirable winds can be diverted
and reduced by hedges and trees or fences with open construction
' Solar radiation may adversely affect the environment within buildings. An orientation
close to an east-west axis is generally recommended in the tropics
' An adequate supply of clean water is essential on any farm. When planning buildings for
an expanded livmtock production, the volume of the water suppiy musilbe assessed.
Where applicable, the supply pipe in a good building layout will be'ai shoft
as possible
' Similarly, the length of electric, gas and telephone lines should be kept to a minimum
' The safety of people and animals from fire and accident hazards should be part of
the
planning considerations. Children especially, must be protected from
the many dangerc
at a farmstead
- It is often desirable to arrange for some prlvacy in the family living area by screening off
the garden, outdoor meeting-resting praces, verandah and play arda
' Measures should be taken for security from theft and vandalism. This includes
an
arrangement of buildings so that the farm court and the access driveway can be
observed at all times, especially from the house
' A neat and attractive farmstead is desirable and much can be achieved toward this
end,
at low cost, rf the appearance is considered in the planning, and effective landscaping is
utilized.

Farm Structurs
 PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials VTll - 27
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Adrnixture - a material other than poftland cement aggregate, or water added to concrete to
modify its propefties.
Age Hardening (precipitation hardening),-occurs in some metals, notably ceftain stainless
steel, aluminum, and copper alloys, at ambient temperature after solution heat treatment,
the process being one of a constituent precipitating from solid solution.
Aggregate - inet material, which is mixed with poftland cement and water to produce concrete.
Allowable Stress - it is the maximum unit stress considered desirable for design calculations,
considering the characteristics of the material, the type of structure, the degree of exposure
to deterioration, etc.
Alloy - is a substance with metallic properties composed of two or more elements of which at
least one is a metal.
Anisotropy - is the characteristics of exhibiting different properties when tested in different
directions (as tensile strength "with the grain" or "across the grain)
Annealing - is a heating and slow cooling of a solid metal, usuaily done to soften it.
Baluster- a small post supporting the handrail or a coping
Balustrade- a series or row of balusters joined by a handrail or a coping as the parapet of a
balcony
Barn - an enclosed covered building for the keeping and care of livestock and/or storage of
roughage.
Beam - a structural member that is reasonably long compared with its lateral dimensions when
siritably supported, and subjected to transverse forces so applied as to induce bending of the
member in an axial plane.
Bearing Stress - is a contact pressure between separate bodies.
Bending Moment - is the tendency or a measure of tendency, to produce motion, especially
around a point or an axis. It is a measure of the stresses acting on the beam,
Bridging - process of connecting one joint to another.
Brittleness - is the tendency to fracture without apprmiable deformation.
Building - shelter; a place of equipment that is an aid to the conservation and better use of the
farm resources.
Centroid - is a point that corresponds to the center of gravity of a very thin homogenous plate
of the same area and shape"
Charpy Test - is one which a specimen, supported at both ends as a simple beam, is broken by
the impact of a falling pendulum. The energy absorbed in breaking the specimen is a
measure of the impact strength of the metal.
Circular stair- staircase with steps winding in a circle or cylinder
{ocktail stair- a winding stair case
Cold Shortness - is brittleness of metal at ordinary or low temperature,
Cold Working - is the process of deforming a metal plastically at a temperature below the
recrystallization temperature and at a rate to produce strain hardening.
Column - an element used primarily to suppoft axial compressive loads and with a height at
least three times its least lateral dimension.
Compressive Stress - tend to press or squeeze an object.
Concrete - a mixture of portland cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water.
Damping Capacity - is the ability of a material to absorb or damp vibrations, which is a process
of absorbing kinetic energy of vibration owing to hysterisis.
Dead Load - is the weight of the structure itself.
Decarburization - is a loss of carbon from the suface of steel occurring during hot rolling,
forging, and heat treating, when the surrounding medium reacts with the carbon.
Deformation - the amount of change in the materials shape.
Ductility - is that property that permib permanent deformation before fracture in tension
Durability - materials are considered durable if they retain their strength and other properties
over a considerable period of time.
Elastic Limit - is the limit of stress within which deformation disappears after the stress is
removed Modules - means small measure.

Farm Structures
 PSAE IV Agricqttural Engineering Board Review Materials
- VIII. 28
Elasticity-theabilityoramaterEttoE[urntoitsoriginal'nu
Embrittlement - involves the loss of ductility becaus"e o] i
material.
Jtvsicar or chemical change of the
Factor of safety - denotes the ratio between the maximum
load that a member can carry and
the design load; is the ratio of the ultimate strength i;ih.
working stress - common factor of
safety for wood is 4 and for steel is 2.
Farmstead - is a limited area within the farm, oc-cupied
by building corrals, fences, and gates,
and used generally as center of operattons for farm worli
and activities.
Flight of stairs - series of steps teaoing from one tanoinj to another
Floor joist - structural member of a building that carriesihe
wooo flooring
Form- temporary boarding, sheating or pin used to produce
the desired shape and size of
concrete
Free Carbon - is that part of the carbon content of steel or iron
that is in the form of graphite or
temper carbon.
Girder- structural member of a building that carries the floor joist and
the flooring
z'l'landrail- a rail running parallelwith the inclination of the stairs that holds the balusters
Hard Drawn - is a temper produced in a wire, rod, or tube by cord drawing
Hardening - is the heating of certain steel above tn" trunrrormation range
and then quenching,
for the purpose of increasing the hardness.
Hardness - resistance to indention, usually measured by some form
of indention test, is the
characteristics of a material most frequenfly associated'with hardness.
Heat rreatment - is an operation or combination of operations involving
the heating and
cooling of metal or an alloy in the solid state for the puipose of
altering tne properties of the
material.
Homogenous Materials - have the same structure at all points. (Steel
consists of randomly
oriented iron crystals of difterent sizes, with other matter in between
and is thus not
homogenous).
Impulsive Load - a suddenty applied load.
rsotropic - materials have the same properties in all directions. (wood has grain;
a rolled steel
is not isotropic).
rzod rest - is a test which a specimen, support at one end as
a cantilever beam, is broken by
the impact of falling pendulum. The energy absorbed in breaking
the specimen is a measure
of the impact strength.
Joints - is the entire assemblage at the intersections of the members.
Landing - horizontal floor as resting place in a flight
Lateral ties - lateral reinforcementi of vertical birs in a tied
column
Live Load - is the weight carried by the structure, on the weight
that is super imposed on it.
Loose Housing - a management system for dairy cattte
w-nerein the aoutt animils are given
access to a feeding area, a resting area, and an
adjoining open rot.
Malleability - is the material's susceptibiiity to extreme olrormation
in rolling or hammering.
The more malleable the metal, the thinner the sheet
into which ft can be formed.
Mechanical Anchorage - any mechanical device .up.nr.
or developing the strength of the
reinforcement without damage to the concrete. It is
the means nv wniJn ttre pie-stress force
is permanenUy transferred to the concrete.
Modulus of Elasticity - is the ratio of the increment of unit stress to increment
deformation. it is a measure of stiffness of materials of unit
Modulus of Rupture - is the measure of the resistance
of materials to bending stresses.
Moment of Inertia - it sum of the products obtained by multiplying all the
areas by the square of^t!P infinitely small
their distances to the neutral axis
Neutral surface - is,a horizontal plane separating the compressive
and tensile stresses.
Panel - the portion of a truss that occurs between two
adjacent joints of the upper chord.
Pedestal - an upright compression member having iui,
or unsupported height to average
least lateral dimension of 3 or less. "
Pitch - the height or rise of a truss divided by the span.
Plastic Bending - bending of a material beyond the elastic
range of strain.

Farm Structures
 PSAE ReEion IV - Agllgllgel-[ng,neering Board Review Materiats VIII . 29
Plasticity - is the abitity of a metat to U. Oi
Foisson's Ratio - is the ratio of the lateral strain (contracting)
(extension) when,the erement is loaded with a longitudinal
to the longitudinal strain
iensite force.
Polar Moment of rneftia - the moment of inertia for an area relative
perpendicular
to a line or axis
to the plane of the area
Pre-Cast Concrete - a plain or reinforced concrete element
cast in other than its final position
in the structure.
Frecipitation Heat Treatment - brings about the precipitation of a
constituent from a
supersaturated solid soiution by holding body at an elevated temperature,
itso catteO adiiicial
Bgj]lg_
Froof Stress - is that stress which causes a specified permanent deformaiion
of a rnaterial,
usually 0.01% or less.
Purlin - is a beam spanning from truss to truss that brings to the trusses the leads
due to wind,
and weight of the roof connections,
Radius of Gyration - it is an index of the stiffness of a structurai section when used as a
column or other compression member.
$ed Shoftness - is britUeness in steel when it is red hot.
./Reinforced Concrete - concrete containing reinforcement, including pre-stressing steel, and
designed on the assumption that the two materials not together in lesisting
ioi."r.
Relaxation - associated with creep, is the decreasing stress at a constant
sirain; important for
metals in high temperature service.
Residual Stress - are those not flue to applied loads or temperature gradients,
they exists for
various reasons, as unequal cooling rates, cold working, etc.
Resilience - the quality of absorbing impact loads withoul'passing the
elastic limit.
Resistance to Corrosion - the degree to which a mateiial resists chemical
combination with
other materials with which it comes in contact, is a measure of its resistance
to corrosion.
Rise- The height of flight of stairs from landing to landing or the height
between successive
treads or stairs
Riser - the vertical face of a stair step
Run - the horizontal distance from the first to the last riser of a stair
flight
Scaffolding- temporary structure of wooden poles and plinks providing platform
for working
men to stand on while erecting or repairing a building '
section Modulus - it is the measure of the sirength ot-a beam according
to the arrangement of
the material.
lShape Factor - is the ration of plastic section modulus to the elastic section
modulus,
Shear Diagram - is a graphical representation of the values of
the verticat sn#i[roughout the
length of a beam.
shearing stress - are those tending to ca.use two contiguous parts of
a body to slide, relative to
each other in a direction parallel to their plane of cori.ct.-
slenderness Ratio - the unbraced length in inches olriaeJ bv the
dimension of the least side.
spiral - continuously around reinforcemLnt in the form of cylindrical helix.
Staging - a more substantial framework progressively buid up as
tall building rises up
staircase - whole set of stairs, the structure containing a night
of a stair
stall Barn - a structure, sometimes referred to as a itanc-hion'b-ar.n fior-sherle,ring*dairy
and/or young stack where the adult animals ure .*fin.-d catfle
to one omoie iJ* of stall by
means of stanchions, straps for part of the year.
Step- a stair which consists of one tread and one riser
Steps - assembly consisting of a tread and a riser
dtiffnss - is the ability to resist deformation. It is measured by the modulus of elasticity
elastic range, the higher the modules the stiffer in the
Stirrup- is the strucLural reinforcing member that holds or binds together
reinforcement of a beam or girder to a designed position the main
ltraln - is a change in form proluced Oyi stress.
Strain Hardening - is increasing the hardness and strength by plastic
deformation.
Stress - the resistance offered by a rigid body to an exteiraliorce tenoing
to change its form.

Farm Structures
 !!4E Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials
- VIII - 30
Stress Relieving - is the heating of a metal body to a suitable temperature and holding it at
that remperature for a suitable time for the purpose of reducing interval residual stress.
Stringer - inclined plane that supports or holds the tread and the riser of a stair
Temper - is a condition produced in a non-ferrous metal by mechanical or thermal treatment:
for example, annealed temper (soft), hard temper, spring temper.
Tensile stresses - are those tending to pull an object in two, or to stretch it.
Toughness - the term toughness applies to the capacity of a material to resist fracture under
impact loading.
Tread - horizontai part of a step including the nosing
Truss - is a jointed frame, used to support loads over a relatively long span. Bays - these are the
spaces between trusses.
Ultimate Strength - it is the unit stress occurring when a material is carrying its maximum
load; the amount of stress which produces failure by increasing the unit stress until breakage
or rupture occurs.
Uniformly Distributed Load - is a load of uniform magnitude, for each unit of length, that
extends, over a poftion or the entire length of a member.
.Onit Stress - is the internal resistance per unit area that results from an e{ernal force
Ve*ical Shear - the tendency for one paft of a beam to move vertically with respect to an
adjacent paft is called.
Wall - a veftical element used primarily to enclose or separate spaces.
Wind Break- several rows of trees of various sizes to reduce air velocities and dust.
Workability - this characteristic of a material measures the ease with which it can be worked or
shaped.
Working Stress/Allowable Unit Stress - the highest unit stress to which a material should be
subject for a specific purpose.
Wrought Alloy Steel - is steel that contains significant quantities of recognized alloying metals,
the most common being aluminum, chromium, etc.

Conversion Factors

Area Moment of Ineftia

1 in2 = 645.2 mm2 1 ina = 0.4762 x 106 mma
1 ftz = 92.90 x 10-3 m2 1 fta = 8.631 x 10-3 ma

Bending Moment Stress Modulus or Volume

1 in-lb = 0.1130 N-m 1 in3 = 16.39 x 103 mm3
1ft-lb = 1.356 N-m 1ff = 28.32x103m3
1 ft-kips = 1.356 kN-m
Stress and Modulus of Elasticity
Loads 1 psi = 5.895 kPa
L lb = 4.448 N 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa
1 kips or 1 k = 4.448 kN 1 psf = 47.88 Pa
1 lblft = 14,59 Nlm 1 kips/ft = 14.59 kNlm

Density
1 lbift3 = 0.157 kN/m3

Farm Structures
 PSIE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials VIII - 31
IIL Sample Questians
1. A type of dairy barn in which the cows are housed in a covered or partially covered yard,
but they are milked in batches in the milking parlor,
a. stanchiorn barn (.- d. 'stall barn
b. open air barn e. distributed barn
c, loose house barn

2. The ability of the material to return to its original shapE after the removal of stress.
a. brittleness d. elaSticty
b. ductility e. plasticity
c. malleability
3. Concrete proportion used for fooJing.
a. 7:2:4 'd..1,:2.5:5
'8.
b, 1:3:6 t:g.S:Z
c. 7:2:3
4. The average volume of loam or sand excavated by a man per hour.
a. 4.0 m3 d. 7.56 m3
b. 10.3 m3 e.2.22 m3
c. 0.76 m3

5' The ability of a material to retaih its strength and other properties over a considerable
perigd. of time.
a.) durability d. stiffness
Y elasticity e. Resilience
c. toughness
6. Farmstead zone where large-s-cqle anim-a_!.production is placed.
a. Zone I 0. /one lll
b. Zone Ii e,
NOTA
'
g. Zone III ./' ' "

7 . One of the most cornmonJy used building material in many parts of the world because of
its reasonable cost, ease of working, attractive appearance and adequate life if protected
from moisture and insects.
a. _ -concrete
, "b:
d.steel
wooO e, glass
c. plastic

8' Foundation used often to support the timber frames of light buildings with no suspended
floors..
6. ) pier foundation d.
pad and pote
\5i
7
continuous wall foundation e,
raft
c. pile

9. The most common type of farmstead where buildings are located sufficienily far apaft to
allow adequate room for roads, drives, and yards, reasonable fire safety an'cl sanitatiori,
yet sufficiently close together to be effective for farrn operation,
a. plantation d. 'distributed
b. concentrated €; ranCh
c. suburban
10. The number of concrete hollow blocks needed per square meter of work.
a.
25 pcs 15.5 pcs d.
Farm Structures
PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials VIII - 32
b. 12.5 pcs e. 50 pcs
c. 32.5 pcs
11. The distance of pit latrines from the nearest house or kitchen should be at least
a. 20m d. 10m
b. 40m e. 200 m
c. 100 m

12. What force is required to punch a 20-mm diameter hole through a 10-mm thick plate if
the ulimate strength of the plate material is 450 MPa?
a. 241 kN d. 386 kN
b. 283 kN e. 252 kN
c. 253 kN
13. A force of 10 N is applied to one end of a 10 inches diameter circular rod. Calculate the
stress.
a. 0.20 kPa d. 0.10 kPa
b. 0.05 kPa e. 0.15 kPa
c. 0.30 kPa

14. The condition in which the concrete reaches its full compressive strength when the steel
reaches its yield strength is called
a. over reinforced d.
pre-stressed
b. under reinforced e.
NOTA
c. balanced

15, As per ACI code, tlre steel percentage in a reinforced concrete to give occupants warning
before failure occurs should be limited to:
a. 0.75 that of balanced design
b. 0.55 that of balanced design
c. 1.50 that of over reinforced design
d. 0.75 that of over reinforced design
e. NOTA

16. Group of Philippine timber used primarily for medium construction such as general
framing, paneling, and medium-grade furniture.
a. Class I d. Class IV
b. Class II e. Class V
c. Class III
17. The height of the truss from the bottom chord to the top of the ridge is ciirffr
a. flse d. span
b. run e. slope
c. pitch
18. A mixture of methane, carbon dioxide and other gases producec c, a:a=:::::--:-,:-:
of manure is called:
a. slurry d.
solution
b. sewage e.
effluent
c. biogas

19. The amount of oxygen used to break down organic ano :ci;a: : -a:::- ::-= -=
water.
a. biochemical oxygen demand d. oxygen concei^:-a: :-
b. oxygen demand e. oxygen depte: o:
c. chemical oxygen demand
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-Y PSAE Region IV: ngtggllgpLEngineerinE Board Review Materiats VIII - 33
24. The recommended minimum thlckness of concrete footing if its projection from the
foundation is 20 cm.
id..
'b.
40 cm d. 80 cm
60 cm e, NOTA
c. 10 cm

21. The estimated number of concrete hollow blocks (CHB) required

in constructing a wall 7 m
high and 10 m long.
a. 857 pcs d. 578 pcs
b. 125 pcs e. NOTA
c. 875 pcs
22. which of the following is not true about reinforced concrete beam,
a. the tensile load is entirely carried by the steel bars
b'the compressive stress in concrete varies linearly from the neutral axis
f. the steel bars are assumed to be uniformly stressed
d. steel bars are placed in one layer on the tensile side of the beam located below the
neutral axis
ie, NOTA

Problems 23-25. A simply supported yakal with a clear span of 4 m

carries a load of 5 kN/m
extending over the entire length. The beam is 5 cm wide and 20 cm high.

23. The maximum bending moment that may occur under the given loading is:
a. 20 kN-m d, 30 kN-rn
b. 10 kN-m e. NOTA
c. 15 kN-m

24, The maximum horizontal shear stress caused by the vertical load is:
a. 2.5 MPa d. 1,5 MPa
b. 1.75 Mpa e. NOTA
c. 1.0 MPa
25. The actual deflection of the beam is:
a. 0.00325 m d. 0.325 m
b. 3.25 cm e. NOTA
c. 3.75 cm
Problems 26-28, A 12_cm 15 cm dangula column with an unbraced
L length of 5 m is used to
carry an axial load P' allowable compressive stress parallet to grain anJ modulur or1[rtlit17
_The,
are 11.70 MPa and 13.8 Gpa, respectively
26. The column above is classified as :
a. short d. specal
b. intermediate e. NOTA
c. long

27. The modified allowable compressive ptress is equal to:

a. 2.55 Mpa b. Z.zS ytpa
b, 1.55 MPa e. NOTA
c. 2.38 Mpa
28. The maximum load p the column can support is :
d. 42.91 kN d. 49.21 KN
b. 49"21 kN e. NOTA
c. 41.92 kN

Farm Structures
 neering Board Review Materials

29. Which of the following is not considered as a roof shape normally used in farm buildings
a, Flat d. Hip
b. Gable e. Howe
c. Monitor
30. The standard commercial size of a corrugated G.i. sheet is:
a. B0 cm wide with varying length of 1.5 m to 3.6 m at an interval of 30 cm
b. 0.9 m wide by 2.40 m tong
. c. 90 cm wide with varying length of 1.s to 3.2 m at an interval of 30 cm

d. effective width of 50 cm and 3 m long

e. NOTA

31. Which of the following is a basic part of a farm building.

a. foundation d. floors
b. walls and pillars e. AOTA
c. roofs

32. The proportion by volume of cement, sand, and gravel in a Class A concrete.
a. t:2:3 d. 1:3:6
b. 1:4:5 e. 1:3.5:7
c. t:2:4

33. Which of the following is not a factor in selecting farmstead site

a. orientation d. soil conditions
b. prevailing wind e. NOTA
c. elevation and drainage
34' The most common type of farmstead where buildings are located sufiicienuy far apart to
allow adequate room for roads, drives and yards, reasonable fire safety and sanitation, yet
sufficiently close together to be effective for farm operation
a, Plantation d. suburban
b. Concentrated e. NOTA
c. distributed
35. Loads that develop through the use of the structure which include the weight of the stored
productts, animals, machinery and equipment, vehicles and other similar items.
a" windloads c..,live loads
b. dead loads d. NOTA
36. Structural elements which support loads parallel to its longitudinal axis are called:
a. beams c. combined members
b. columns d. NOTA

37. Which of the following statements is/are true?

"a' wood is more resistant to compression perpendicular to the grain than parallel to the
grarn.
b. shearing stress may occur either parallel or perpendicular to the grain.
c. the resistance of wood to shearing stress parallel to the grain is high compared to
shearing stress perpendicular to the grain.
d. AOTA

38. The formula used to measure the safe lateral load for wire nails driven perpendicular to the
grain of seasoned wood with the nail at-least 213 ot its length into the member receiving the
point in softwoods dfid 1/z its length in hardwoods.
a. P = KD3/2 c. P=KD2

Farm Structures
-I \
PSAE Region IV - Agricultural ineering Board Review Materials VIII . 35
b. P=1 NOTA

39, The basic formula for determining the safe lateral resistance of wood screws driven
perpendicular to the grain seasoned wood.
a. P = KD3/2 c. P=KD2
b. P = 13B0G5/2D d. NOTA

40.lmaller members which directly support the floor or ceiling.

d joists c. girders
b. rafters d. purlins

41. Larger members which support the ends of the joists.

a, joists G) girders
b. rafters X purlins
42. Stress perpendicular to the grain of wood beam occurring at beam supports or where loads
fr-om other mernbers frame into the beam.
ia. bearing stress c.
shearing stress
ts. bendlng stress d.
bonding stress

43. The assembly consisting of a tread and a riser.

a. rise c]*s-pandril
b. strins @) steps

44. A small post supporting the handrail or a coping.

a. balustrade c, flser
6) nuturtu,. d. run

45-49. An 8" x12" rectangular wood column has an unbraced length of 16 ft. The modulus of
elasticity and allowable compression stress parallel to the grain are assumed to have a value
of 11GPa and 8 MPa , respectively.

45. The wood colurnn can be classified as :

a. short long c.
b, intermediate d. NOTA
216. Determine the maximum axial load that the columh can support.
a. 350kN c. 532kN
b. 2s3kN d. 3s2kN
47. Compute the section modulus of the beam.
a. 5x10-7mm3 c. 4.28x 10-2 mm3
b. 4.28 x 10-3 m3 d. 4.28x 10-3 mm2
48. The maximum resisting moment of the beam.
a. 42.8 kN.m c. 48.2 kN.m
b, 4.28 kN.m d. 4.28 kN.m
49, The maximum concentrated load that the beam can support if it will be designed for
bending.
a. 13,54 kN c. 15.3 kN
b, 53.1 kN d. 35.1kN

Farm Structures
 PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engi Board Review Materials VIII.36
IV. References
ASEP.1992. National structural code of the philippines, Volume I. 4th Ed.
Bengtsson, L.P and J.H. Whitaker.lgBB. Farm Structures in Tropical Climates.FAO.Rome
Breyer, D.E. 1988. Design of wood Structures. 2nd Ed. Mc Graw Hill, Inc. usA.
Fajardo,Jr. , M.1.1993' Simplified Methods on Building Construction. 2"d Ed. 5138 Merchandising.
Philippines.
Gillesania, D.I.T' 2001. Structural Engineering and Construction for Civil Engineer Licensure
Exams. Revised Edition. GPP Gillesania Printing Press. Ormoc City, Leyh, f-nitipplnes.
Gray, H.E, 1955. Farm Service Buildings. McGraww-*ill Book company, Inc. usA.
Parker, Harry. 1979. Simplified Design of Structural Wood. 3'd rd'.'John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Canada.
Parker, Harry, 1984. Simplified Design of Reinforced Concrete. 5tr' Ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Canada.
Tamolang, F'8., E.B. Espiloy, and A.R. Floresca. 1995. Strength Grouping of philippine Timbers
for Various Uses. FPRDi rrade Bulletin Series No. 4. FpRDi, college.-Laguna
Tolarba, R.N. 1998. Construction Estimate Made Easy. S.A. Mendoza publishing, Inc.euezon City,
Phipippines.

Farm Structures