Senses

Chapter 9 / Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology

2. Diffuse, burning or aching pain from prolonged action
TOPICS potentials propagated slowly
1 Sensation 🡪 deep or visceral pain not localized since tactile receptors and
2 Sensory Receptors not present and perceived as diffuse pain
3 General Senses
4 Special Senses 🡪 local anesthesia : suppresses action potentials from pain
5 Olfaction receptors in local areas of body
6 Taste - Chemical anesthetics injected near sensory receptor
7 Vision or nerve -> reduced pain
8 Hearing and Balance 🡪 general anesthesia : Loss of consciousness to suppress pain
9 Effects of Aging on Senses - Chemical anesthetics that affect reticular formation

Sensation 🡪 pain can be influenced by inherent control systems

🡪 sense : ability to perceive stimuli, how brain receives information
about environment and body
🡪 sensation : process initiated by stimulating sensory receptors
- Receptors respond by generating action potentials that
propagate to spinal cord and brain
🡪 perception : conscious awareness of stimuli
- Results when action potentials reach cerebral cortex
- Other brain parts also involved in perception
Ex: thalamus -> pain
🡪 2 groups of senses : (discussed below)
1. general : receptors distributes over large part of body
a. Somatic senses : provide sensory information
about body and environment
b. Visceral senses : information about internal organs
(pain and pleasure)
2. Special : specialized structures and located in specific parts
of body (smell, sight, hearing and balance)
Sensory Receptors
🡪 sensory nerve endings or specialized cells that respond to stimuli by
developing action potentials
mechanoreceptors 🡪 Respond to mechanical stimuli
Ex: bending or stretching of receptors
chemoreceptors 🡪 respond to chemicals
Ex: odor molecules
Photoreceptors 🡪 respond to light
thermoreceptors 🡪 respond to temperature changes
nociceptors 🡪 respond to stimuli that result in sensation of pain
General Senses
🡪 receptors distributed throughout body
- Associated with skin; others with deeper structures
(tendons, ligaments and muscles)
🡪 include touch, pressure, pain, temperature, vibration, itch and
proprioception : sense of movement and position of body and limbs
1. Free nerve endings : unspecialized, neuronal branches similar
to dendrites
- Distributed throughout body
Some respond to
- pain
❖ Touch receptors : temperature (cold and
warm receptors)
❖ Respond to decreasing temp but stop
responding to temps below 12 C
❖ Respond to increasing temp but stop
responding to temps above 47 C
➢ Hard to tell cold from hot
beyond temps mentioned above
as only pain receptors work
- itch and some to movement
2. Touch receptors : more complex than free nerve endings and
many are enclosed by capsules
a. Merkel disks : small, superficial that detect light
touch an superficial pressure
b. Hair Follicle : detect light touch -> sensitive but not
discriminative (point touched cannot be exactly
located)
c. Meissner corpuscles : discriminative and located
deep to epidermis
- Very specific in localizing tactile sensations
d. Ruffini corpuscles : deeper tactile receptors that
detect continuous pressure in skin
e. Pancinian corpuscles : deepest receptors
associated with tendons & joints and relay info
concerning deep pressure, vibration and position
Pain 🡪 characterized by unpleasant perceptual and emotional
experiences
1. Localized, sharp, pricking or cutting pain from rapidly
conducted action potentials
- Superficial pain in skin are localized because
of simultaneous stimulation of pain
respirators and tactile receptors
- Sensory axons from tactile receptors have collateral
branches that synapse with neurons in posterior horn
of spinal cord
❖ Neurons synapse with and inhibit neurons
that give rise to spinothalamic tract :
sensory pathway that relays pain sensation
to brain
❖ Ex: rubbing injured area -> stimulates
tactile receptors -> send action potentials
along sensory axons to spinal cord
- Gate control theory : action potentials inhibit action
potentials carried to brain by spinothalamic tract
❖ Explain physiological basis for several
techniques used to reduce intensity of pain
❖ Decrease in pain when attention is diverted
❖ Action potentials carried by spinothalamic
tract inhibited by action potentials carried
by descending neurons of dorsal column
system
➢ Synapse with and inhibit neurons
in posterior horn that gives rise
to spinothalamic tract
■ Vigorous mental/physical activity
increases rate of action potentials in
neurons of dorsal column = less pain
■ Acupuncture and acupressure
stimulate descending dorsal column ->
inhibit action potentials in
spinothalamic tract neurons
🡪 Referred pain : perceived to originate i region of body that is
not source of pain stimulus
- When internal organs are inflamed or damaged ->
sensory neurons from superficial area to which pain
is referred and neurons from deeper visceral area
where pain originates -> converge to same ascending
neurons in spinal cord
❖ Brain cannot distinguish between 2 sources
and the painful sensation is referred to
most superficial structures innervated (like
skin)
- Useful for diagnosing actual cause
Ex: heart attack : victims complain of pain in left
shoulder down the arm but it is actually pain from
heart
Special Senses
🡪 specialized and localized
1. smell, taste : structurally and functionally related and both
initiated by interaction of chemicals with sensory receptors
2. sight : interaction of light and sensory receptors
3. hearing and balance : function in response to interaction of
mechanical stimuli with sensory receptors
- Hearing -> response to sound waves
- Balance -> response to gravity of motion
Olfaction
🡪 occurs in response to airborne molecules odorants : enter nasal
cavity
- Dissolved in mucus on surface of epithelium and bind to
receptor molecules on membranes of specialized cilia
❖ Binding -> action potentials -> conducted to
olfactory cortex of cerebrum by sensory neurons
- Olfactory receptor : binds to odorants and each type of
odorant can bind to multiple receptors
❖ Many combinations that allow us to detect 10,000
smells
❖ Once odor is bound to its receptor, receptor is
desensitized and does not respond to another odor
molecule for some time (helps with adaptation to
that specific odor)
❖ Threshold for detection of odor is low so very few
ororants bound to olfactory neuron (discussed
below) can initiate action potential
 Senses
Chapter 9 / Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology
➢ Range and sensitivity is greater in some
animals as they have larger number and
more types of olfactory receptors
🡪 olfactory neurons : bipolar neurons within olfactory epithelium :
lines superior part of nasal cavity
- Dendrites of neurons extend to epithelial surface and ends
are modified with long, specialized cilla : lie in thin mucous
film on epithelial surface
🡪 neuronal pathways for olfaction
1. Axons from olfactory neurons form olfactory nerves : pass
through foramina of cribriform plate and enter olfactory
bulb
2. in olfactory bulb, Olfactory nerves synapse with
interneurons that relay action potentials to brain through
olfactory tracts : each terminates in an area of brain called
olfactory cortex : located in temporal and frontal lobes
3. Cortex is involved with both conscious perception of smell
and visceral and emotional reactions linked with odors
4. Within bulb and cortex are feedback loops that inhibit
transmission of action potentials resulting from prolonged
exposure to given odorant
❖ Feedback + temporary decreased sensitivity at
level of receptors = adaptation to odor
➢ Ex: if you enter movie room that smells
like popcorn, after some time, you do not
smell popcorn anymore but when you
leave and come back, the smell seems
more intense
**olfaction is the only major sensation relayed directly to cerebral
cortex without first passing through thalamus - reflection of older
origin of olfactory cortex
Taste
🡪 detected by taste buds : oval structures located in surface of
certain papillae : enlargements on surface of tongue
- Taste buds are distributed throughout other areas if mouth
and pharynx (like on palate, roof of tongue and epiglottis)
❖ Each taste bud is composed of 2 types of cells
a. Specialized epithelial cells: from exterior
supporting capsule of each taste bud
b. Interior: consists of about 40 taste cells
- Each taste cell has hairlike
processes taste hairs that
extend to tiny opening in
surrounding stratified
epithelium taste pore
- On taste hairs, dissolved
molecules or ions bind to
receptors and initiate action
potentials which sensory
neurons carry to insula of
cerebral cortex
🡪 taste sensations divided into 5 types : sour, ally, bitter, sweet and
umami
- All taste buds can detect all 5 but each is most sensitive to 1
class of taste stimuli
- Taste goes with olfactory senses (pinching nose vs not
pinching nose when eating -> sense of taste is reduced)
🡪 neuronal pathways to taste
1. Taste sensations carried by 3 cranial nerves
a. Facial nerve (VII) - transmits taste sensation from
anterior ⅔ of tongue
b. Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) - carries taste
sensation from posterior ⅓
c. Vagus nerve (X) - carries taste sensation from root
if tongue
2. Axons from 3 cranial nerves synapse in gustatory portion of
brainstem nuclei
3. Axons of neurons in these brainstem nuclei synapse in
thalamus and axons in thalamus project to taste area in
insula of cerebrum
Vision
🡪 includes eyes, accessory structures and sensory neurons
- Eyes are housed within orbits : bony cavities; and action
potentials convey visual information from eyes to brain
❖ Visual input included information about light and
dark, movement and color
Accessory Structures of Eye
🡪 protect, lubricate and move eye
eyebrows 🡪 prevent sweat from running in eyes -> irritation
🡪 shade eyes from direct sunlight
Eyelids 🡪 with associate lashes, protect eyes from foreign
objects
- Blinking (20x per minute) keeps eye lubricated
by spreading tears over surface
Conjunctiva 🡪 thin, transparent mucous membrane covering inner
surface of eyelids and anterior surface ofeye
🡪 secretions help lubricate surface of eye
🡪 conjunctivitis : inflammation of conjunctiva
Lacrimal 🡪 consists of lacrimal gland : at superior lateral corner
apparatus of orbit; and has nasolacrimal duct and associated
structures
1. Lacrimal gland : produces tears, which pass
anterior surface of eye
- Most fluid evaporate from surface
but texcess ears collected in medial
angle by lacrimal canaliculi : small
ducts that open to lacrimal sac :
enlargement of nasolacrimal duct
2. nasolacrimal duct : opens to nasal cavity
**tears lubricate and clean eyes but also have enzyme to
combat eye infections
Extrinsic 🡪 movement of eyeball accomplished by 6 skeletal
eye muscles called extrinsic eye muscles
muscles - Superior, inferior, medial and lateral rectus
muscles : run more or less straight from their
origins in posterior portion of orbit -> to their
insertion sites in eyes -> to attach 4 quadrants
of eyeball
- Superior and inferior oblique muscles : located
at angle to long axis of eyeball
Anatomy of Eye
🡪 eyeball = hollow, fluid-filled sphere
🡪 wall of eye has 3 layers or tunics : fibrous, vascular and nervous
Fibrous 🡪 consists of sclera and cornea
(outer) 1. Sclera : “whiteof the eye”, firm, white, outer
connective tissue layer of posterior ⅚ of
fibrous tunic
- Maintain shape of eye
- Protects internal structures
- Provides attachment sites for extrinsic
eye muscles
2. Cornea : transparent anterior ⅙ of eye that
permits light to enter
- Part of focusing system of fibrous tunic
- Bends, reflects entering light
Vascular 🡪 consists of choroid, ciliary body and iris
(middle) 1. Vascular tunic : contains most of BVs in eye
- Posterior portion associated with sclera =
choroid : thin and consists of vascular
network and melanin- containing pigment
cells : cause it to appear balck -> absorbs
all light so it is not reflected inside eye
❖ If reflected inside eye,
reflection would interfere
with vision
2. Ciliary body : anterior, continuous with anterior
margin of choroid
- Have smooth muscles ciliary muscles :
attach perimeter of lens by suspensory
ligaments
❖ Lens : flexible, biconvex,
transparent disc
3. Iris : colored part of eye attached to anterior
margin of ciliary body, anterior to lens
- Contractile structure with smooth
muscles surrounding pupil : where
light passes
- Controls amount of light entering eye
- Parasympathetic stimulation from
oculomotor nerve (III) : causes
circular smooth muscles of iris to
contract -> constricting pupil
- Sympathetic stimulation cause radial
smooth muscles of iris to contract
-> dilating pupil
** as light intensity increases = pupil constricts
**as light intensity decreases = pupil dilates
Nervous 🡪 consists of retina
(inner) - Covers posterior ⅚ of eye and composed of 2
layers
1. Pigmented (outer) : together with choroid,
keeps light from reflecting back into eye
2. Sensory (inner) : contains photoreceptor cells
rods and cones -> respond to light. Also has
many interneurons and outer segments are
modified by numerous foldings of cell
membrane to form discs. They synapse with
bipolar cells of sensory retina which together
with horizontal cells of retina -> modify output
of rod and cone cells
**modification helps perceive borders between objects
of contrasting brightness
 Senses
Chapter 9 / Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology
**bipolar and horizontal cells synapse with ganglion cells
: axons converge at posterior of eye from optic nerve
❖ Rods - sensitive and can function in
dim light but do not provide color
vision
- Have rhodopsin which is a
photosensitive pigment that
contains protein opsin loosely
bound to retinal or yellow
pigment
1. When exposed to light, retinal changes shape ->
change activity of entire rhodopsin molecule ->
stimulates response from rod cell -> vision
2. Retinal detached from opsin and energy (ATP) is
needed to reattach retinal to opsin and return
rhodopsin to original form before light
stimulated it
- Manufacture of retinal in
rod cells take time and
need vitamin A
- Night blindness : person with
vitamin A deficiency and has
difficulty seeing in dim light,
can also be from retinal
detachment : separation of
sensory retina from
pigmented retina and affects
periphery of retina where
cones are located
**in bright light, much of rhodopsin in rod cells is
dissociated (opsin and retinal are separated) -> if go to
dark building on bright day, it will take time for eyes to
adjust as opsin and retinal reassociate to form rhodopsin
in rod cells -> react to dim light
**sine rods are more sensitive than cones to light,
retinal detachment affects vision in low light to greater
extent than in bright light
❖ Cones - require more light and provide
color vision, has 3 types, each
sensitive to different color: blue,
green and red
- Photosensitive pigments
are sensitive to colors ->
each color results from
stimulation by certain
wavelength of light
1. Sensitive to green
2. Sensitive to red
3. Sensitive to blue
**colors we see are stimulation of combinations of 3 types of
cones
- Posterior portion of retina have 2 major
features:
a. Macula : small spot near center of
posterior retina
- Center of this has fovea
centralis : small pit where
light is most focused when
eye is looking directly at an
object, contains only cone
cells and cells are more
tightly-packed there
compare to other places in
retina -> greatest ability
to discriminate fine images
(why objects are best seen
straight ahead)
b. Optic disc : white spot medial to
macula where number of BVs enter
eye and spread over surface of
retina = spot where axons from rtina
meet, pass through 2 other tunics
and exit eye as the optic nerve
- Blind spot of the eye as it
contains no photoreceptor
cells and does not respond
to light (small image
projected onto blind spot
cannot be seen)
Chambers of eyes
🡪 located between cornea and lens and separated by iris and
continuous to each other by pupil :
- anterior & posterior
❖ filled with aqueous humor -> maintain pressure in eye,
refract light & provide nutrients to inner surface of eye
➢ Aqueous humor : Produced by ciliary body as a
blood filtrate and is returned to circulation
through venous ring that surrounds cornea
➢ Keeps eye inflated
➢ if blocked through venous ring, pressure in eye
increases = glaucoma -> blindness as fluid
compresses retina -> restricting blood flow
through it
🡪 posterior to lens :
- vitreous
❖ Filled with vitreous humor : transparent jelly
➢ Helps maintain pressure within eye
➢ Holds lens and retina in place
➢ Refracts light
➢ Does not circulate unlike aqueous humor
Functions of Eye
🡪 iris allows light into eye -> focused b cornea, lens and humors onto
retina -> light striking retina = action potentials relayed to brain
🡪 neuronal pathways for vision
1. Optic nerve leaves eye and exits orbit through optic foramen
to enter cranial cavity
2. Inside, the 2 optic nerves connect at optic chiasm
3. Axons from nasal (medial) part of each retina cross through
optic chiasm and project to opposite side of brain
4. Axons from temporal (lateral) part of each retina pass
through optic nerves and project to the brain on same side of
body without crossing
5. Beyond optic chiasm, route of galgonic axons is through 2
optic tracts
- Axons here terminate in thalamus but some do not
and separate from optic tracts to terminate in
superior colliculi : center for visual reflexes
❖ Ex: visual reflexes is turning head and
eyes toward stimulus (noise)
6. Neurons from thalamus form fibers of optic radiations :
project to visual cortex in occipital lobe of cerebrum
- Visual cortex : area in cerebrum where vision is
perceived
7. Image seen by each eye is visual field
- Depth perception : requires both eyes and happens
where 2 visual fields overlap
❖ Each eye sees slightly different view of
same object and brain processes 2
images in 3-D view of object
➢ If only 1 eye works, object is
flat (like picture)
Light 1. As light passes from air to denser transparent
refraction substance, light rays are refracted -> diverge
as they pass through lens; if surface is convex
= converge
2. As they converge (focusing), they cross which
is called focal point (FP) : occurs anterior to
retina and tiny image focus on retina is
inverted compared to actual image
Focusing 🡪 cornea is convex and as light rays pass from air
images on through cornea, they converge
retina - Additional convergence -> when light passes through
aqueous humor, lens and vitreous humor
- Greatest contrast in media density is between air
and cornea = point with greatest convergence
❖ Shape of cornea and distance from retina
are fixed so corea cannot adjust focus,
instead this is done when lens change
shape
🡪 when ciliary muscles relax, suspensory ligaments of
ciliary body maintain elastic pressure on perimeter of
lens -> keeps in flat and allowing distant vision
- Accommodation : When brought closer than 20 ft
from eye, ciliary muscles contract from
parasympathetic stimulation -> pulling ciliary body
toward lens
❖ Reduces tension on suspensory ligaments
of lens and allows it to be more spherical
-> more convex -> greater refraction of
light
❖ When people are tested for vision, letters
are placed 20 ft from eye and if able to
read = 20/20 but if can read at 20 ft what
normal people can read at 40 ft - 20/40
vision
Hearing and Balance
🡪 external and middle ears = hearing
🡪 inner ear = hearing and balance
🡪 hearing
- Vibrations = sound waves -> collected by auricle and
conducted through external auditory canal toward tympanic
membrane
1. Sound waves strike tympanic membrane -> vibration
2. Vibration -> vibration in 3 ossicles of middle ear and by
mechanical linkage, force of vibration is amplifies and
transferred to oval window
3. Vibrations of base of stapes (in oval window) -> waves in
perilymph of cochlea
 Senses
Chapter 9 / Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology
**2 scalae is continuous -> U-shaped tube with round window at other end of
scala tympani
4. Vibration of stapes in oval window = movement of
perilymph -> pushes against membrane covering round
window
5. Waves produced in perilymph pass vestibular membrane ->
vibration of endolymph
6. Waves in endolymph (in cochlear duct) = displacement of
basilar membrane = hair cells (on basilar membrane) move
with movement of membrane
7. Microvilli of hair cells embedded at tectorial membrane :
ridgid shelf that does not move
**since 1 end of microvilli moves with hair cells and other ends and the other
does not (embedded in tectorial membrane), the microvilli bends
8. Bending microvilli -> stimulates hair cells which induce
action potentials in cochlear nerves
- Basilar membrane not uniform in length (narrower and
denser) near oval window and wider and less dense on tip of
cochlea -> higher pitch = maximum distortion of basilar
membrane nearer to oval window and lower pitches =
maximum distortion nearer apex of cochlea
❖ In each case, different hair cells are stimulated and since
there is difference i which hair cells are maximally
stimulated, people hear variations in pitch
- Sound volume : sound wave amplitude, causes basilar
membrane to distort more intensely and hair cells stimulated
more strongly
- Hearing impairment :
1. Conduction deafness : from mechanical deficiencies
Ex: destruction of ligament that holds malleus and incus
together
2. Sensorineural hearing loss : from deficiencies on spiral
organ or nerves
Ex: loud sounds damage delicate microvilli of hair cells =
destruction of spiral organ
🡪 neuronal pathways for hearing
1. Transmitted by vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) and this
functions as 2 separate nerves carrying information from 2
separate but closely related structure
a. Cochlear nerve = hearing
b. Vestibular nerve = balance
2. Cochlear nerve sends axons to cochlear nucleus in brainstem
and to inferior colliculus in midbrain
❖ Neurons from inferior colliculus project to superior
colliculus where reflexes that turn head and eyes
in response to loud sound are initiates
❖ From inferior colliculus, fibers project to thalamus
and from there auditory cortex of cerebrum
🡪 balance
- Balance has 2 components
1. Static equilibrium : associated with vestibule and helps evaluate
position of head relative to gravity
2. Dynamic equilibrium : associated with semicircular canals and helps
evaluate changes in direction and rate of head movements
❖ 3 semicircular canals are involved and placed at nearly
right angles to one another -> allows people to detect
movements in any direction
➢ Base of each canal is expanded into an ampulla
■ In each epithelium is specialized to
form crista ampullaris
■ Each has ridge of
epithelium with curved,
gelatinous mass cupula
suspended over crest
**cupula in detail
- Structurally and functionally like meculae but has not otoliths
- Hairlike microvilli of crista embedded here
- Functions as a float that is displaced by endolymph movement within
semicircular canals (as head moves, endolymph remains stationary
while cupula moves with head -> displaces it to direction opposite to
movement of head)
❖ As movement continues, fluid “catches up” and when
movement stops, fluid still moves -> displacing cupula in
direction of movement -> hair cell microvilli to bend ->
initiates depolarization in hair cells -> initiates action
potentials in vestibular nerves which join cochlear nerves
-> vestibulocochlear nerves
**continuous stimulation of semicircular canals = motion sickness : nausea and
weakness, happens when brain compares sensory input and this is conflicting
from semicircular canals, eyes and position receptors in back and lower limbs
- Vestibule of inner ear can be divided into 2 chambers
1. Utricle
2. Saccule
❖ Each contains specialized patches of epithelium maculae :
surrounded by endolymph
➢ Have hair cells
➢ Tips of microvilli embedded in gelatinous mass
otolithic membrane weighted by otoliths :
composed of protein and calcium carbonate
■ Gelatinous mass moves relative to
gravity bending hair cell microvilli
and initiating action potentials in
associated neurons
● Action potentials from
these neurons are
carried by axons of
vestibular portion of
vestibulocochlear nerve
(VIII) -> brain - interpret
as changed position of
head
**when person bends over, maculae are displaced by gravity and resultant
action potential provide information to brain concerning position of head
🡪 neuronal pathways for balance
1. Axons forming vestibular portion of vestibulocochlear nerve
(VIII) project to vestibular nucleus in brainstem
2. Axons run from nucleus to other areas of CNS (like cerebrum
and cerebral cortex)
**balance involves sensory input to the vestibular nucleus not only
from inner ear but also from limbs and visual system
**in sobriety tests, people are asked to close their eyes while balance
is evaluated as alcohol affects proprioceptive and vestibular
components of balance to greater extent than visual component of it
Anatomy and function of ears
External 🡪 part extending from outside of head to tympanic
ear membrane : eardrum
- Separates external and middle ear
- Consists of thin layer of connective tissue
sandwiched between 2 epithelial layers
- Sound waves reaching this = vibrate
🡪Auricle : fleshy part that opens to external auditory
canal -> leads to eardrum
❖ Auricle - collects sound waves and directs them
to external auditory canal -> transmits to
tympanic membrane
❖ Auditory canal - lined with hairs and ceruminous
glands : produce cerumen or earwax
Middle 🡪 air-filled chamber medial to tympanic membrane
ear 🡪 2 covered openings on medial side which connect middle
ear with inner ear
1. Oval window
2. Round window
🡪 3 auditory ossicles that transmit vibrations from
tympanic membrane to oval window
1. Malleus : attached to medial surface of tympanic
membrane
2. Incus : connects malleus to stapes
3. Stapes : base is seated at oval window, surrounded by
flexible ligament
*8as vibrations are transmitted from malleus -> stapes, it
is intensified by 20-fold as area of tympanic membrane is
20x that of oval window
🡪 2 small muscles help dampen vibrations caused by loud
noises -> protect delicate ear structures
1. Attached to malleus
2. Attached to stapes
🡪 2 unblocked openings
1. Opens to mastoid air cells in mastoid process of
temporal bones
2. Auditory tube -> opens to pharynx and allow air
pressure to be equalized between outside air
and middle ear cavity
**unequal pressure = distort tympanic membrane, dampen
vibrations and make hearing difficult = stimulate pain
receptors in that structure
**can be relieved by opening auditory tube to
allow air to enter/exit middle ear (swallowing,
yawning, chewing or holding nose or mouth shut
and gently forcing air out of lungs)
Inner 🡪 fluid-filled chamber medial to middle ear
ear 🡪 has bony labyrinth : interconnecting tunnels and
chambers within temporal bone
- Inside, it has smaller tunnels and chambers
called membranous labyrinth : filled with
endolymph : clear fluid
- Space between membranous and bony labyrinths
filled with perilymph
- Divided into 3 regions:
1. Cochlea
❖ Snail-shaped with a screw shaped core called
spiral lamina
❖ Divided into 3 channels
➢ Scala vestibuli - extend from oval
window -> apex of cochlea
■ Lined with vestibular membrane
➢ Scala tympani - extends in parallel
with vestibuli from apex back -> round
window
■ Lined with basilar membrane
**these 2 are perilymph-filled spaces between walls of
bony and membranous labyrinths
➢ Cochlear duct - formed by
space between vestibular
 Senses
Chapter 9 / Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology
and basilar membrane and
filled with endolymph
■ Has spiral organ that
contains hair cells
that have hairlike
microvilli on surface
that is stiffened by
actin
** hair cells have no axons of their own but each is
associated with axon terminals of sensory neurons -> cell
bodies of which located within cochlear ganglion and axons
of this join to form cochlear nerve : joins vestibular nerve
to become vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) : carries action
potential to brain
■ Hair tips are
embedded with
acellular gelatinous
shelf tectorial
membrane ->
attached to spiral
lamina
2. Vestibule
3. Semicircular circular canals -> balance

Signs of Aging
🡪 general and special sensory function declines
1. General senses
- Free nerve endings and hair follicle receptors of
skin remain the same
- Number of meissner corpuscles and pacinian
corpuscles decrease and those that remain are
structurally distorted and less functional
❖ Elderly people are less aware if
something is touching or pressing the
skin -> increase risk of injury
❖ Decrease in Pancinian corpuscles =
decrease awareness of limb and joint
positions which affect balance and
coordination
- Sense of two-point dicrimination decreases =
difficulty identifying objects by touch
- Functions of receptors decline -> decrease in
information on position, tension and length of
tendons and muscles -> decrease in coordination
and control of movement
2. Special senses
- Experience slight loss of ability to detect odor but
ability to identify specific odors decrease esp in
men over 70
🡪 sense of taste decreases as number of sensory receptors decrease
and brain’s ability to interpret taste sensations decrease
🡪 lenses of eyes lose flexibility as connective tissue of lenses become
more rigid
- Presbyopia : Lenses’ ability to change shape declines and
stops
- Number of cones decrease, esp in fovea centralis -> gradual
decline in visual acuity and color perception
- Cataracts : common problem of eye
❖ Following cataracts in frequency are (in order)
1. Macular degeneration
2. Glaucoma
3. Diabetic retinopathy
🡪 number of hair cells in cochlea decreases
- Presbycusis : result of decrease in cochlea hair;
sensorineural hearing loss
❖ Does not occur equally among ears -> since
direction is determined by comparing sounds
coming into each ear, elderly people experience
decrease in ability to localize origin of certain
sounds -> disorientation
❖ CNS defects in auditory pathways lead to
difficulty understanding sounds when echoes t
background noises are present -> makes it
difficult to understand rapid or broken speech
- Number of hair cells in saccule, utricle and ampullae as well
as number of otoliths decreases -> decrease in sensitivity
to gravity, acceleration, and rotation -> disequilibrium and
vertigo
Sources:
Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology 9th edition