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Marine and Petroleum Geology 35 (2012) 28e40

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Application of biological markers in the recognition of the geochemical

characteristics of some crude oils from Abu Gharadig Basin, north Western
Desert e Egypt
W.Sh. El Diasty a, *, J.M. Moldowan b
a
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, El Mansoura 35516, Egypt
b
Geological and Environmental Sciences Department, Stanford University, CA 94305, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The objective of this study is to establish the relationship between the hydrocarbons recovered from the
Received 17 November 2011 Abu Gharadig Basin and Middle Jurassic Khatatba Formation, as well as the previously established Upper
Received in revised form Cretaceous Abu Roash-F Member. A suite of fourteen crude oil and condensate samples from the
21 February 2012
Mesozoic reservoirs (Jurassic-Cretaceous) of the Abu Gharadig Basin (Western Desert, Egypt) was
Accepted 9 March 2012
Available online 16 March 2012
analyzed and geochemically compared with extracts from source rocks of the Middle Jurassic (Khatatba
Formation) and the Upper Cretaceous (Abu Roash-F Member). Based on molecular indicators of organic
source input, depositional environment and age-diagnostic biomarkers, at least two petroleum systems
Keywords:
ETR
operate in the Abu Gharadig Basin; those derived from Late Cretaceous marine shales and Jurassic-Early
NDR Cretaceous non-marine organic-rich shales as source rocks and possibly a third system appears to be
Oleananes a mixture of them both. The correlation of some Abu Gharadig oils to a Late Cretaceous source establishes
Khatatba Formation e Abu Roash-F a petroleum system involving these marine Cretaceous source rocks.
Member Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Abu Gharadig Basin

1. Introduction Cenomanian Bahariya Formation. In 1971, the Gulf of Suez Petro-

The Western Desert, a gas-rich area of about 450,000 sq km, has
become the second biggest oil producing part of Egypt next to the
Gulf of Suez. The Western Desert’s crude oil and condensate output
in 2003 rose to about 281,500 barrels/day (b/d); compared with
210,000 b/d in early 2000 and 117,500 b/d in late 1995. Liquids
production had since fallen to 160,000 b/d. But this rose to
200,000 b/d in 2008 and then less below 180,000 b/d in 2009. The
Western Desert’s proven gas reserves account for 24% of Egypt’s
77.2 TCF total.
The study area lies within the major Abu Gharadig Field in the
north Western Desert, Egypt (Fig. 1). The Abu Gharadig oil- and
gasfield is located in the center of the Abu Gharadig Basin; south of
the eastern extension of the Qattara Depression, about 260 km west
of Cairo. The commercial discovery of the Abu Gharadig Basin was
achieved in 1969 by the Gulf of Suez Petroleum Company (GUPCO)
in the Pan American (AMOCO) concession area. The Abu Gharadig-1
well was drilled to a depth of 4908 m into gas bearing sand of Early
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ20 01062443492.
E-mail addresses: waleedshukry2006@yahoo.co.uk (W.Sh.
moldowan@stanford.edu (J.M. Moldowan).
leum Company (GUPCO) discovered oil in Turonian sand intervals
of the Abu Roash “C”, “D” and “E” members in the Abu Gharadig
Field. Since that time major oil companies were attracted to Abu
Gharadig Basin and intensive seismic acquisition and drilling
activities covered most of the basin area. This lead to several
commercial discoveries in the Abu Gharadig Basin, most of them
took place after 1980 (Abd El Semia, 2004).
The geochemistry and hydrocarbon potential of the Abu Ghar-
adig Basin have previously been studied by a number of researchers
(Hammad et al., 1992; Darwish et al., 1994; Bayoumi, 1996; Khaled,
1999; Bakr, 2003; El Diasty, 2004; Alsharhan and Abd El-Gawad,
2008; and Ahmed, 2010). The present paper reports on the
analytical characteristics of crude oil and condensate samples
recovered from the Abu Gharadig Field.
2. Geologic setting
The intra-cratonic Abu Gharadig Basin is an eastewest trending
half graben of Late Mesozoic age in which the depth-to-basement
exceeds 10,000 m. Its northern margin is known as the Qattara
Ridge (where the depth to basement is about 3300 m); while to the
El Diasty), south it is bounded by the Sitra Platform (Fig. 2). The basin is
divided into northern and southern sub-basins by an eastewest

0264-8172/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2012.03.001
 Author's personal copy
W.Sh. El Diasty, J.M. Moldowan / Marine and Petroleum Geology 35 (2012) 28e40
Figure 1. Map showing the location of the studied oil, condensate and rock samples. Oils, rocks ¼ solid triangles; oils ¼ solid dots; oils, condensates ¼ solid squares;
condensates ¼ open triangles (refer to Table 1).
trending horst (EGPC, 1992). The structure at the Abu Gharadig
Field is a faulted, asymmetric anticline (Fig. 2), which was formed
during the Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary (Ezzat and Dia El Din,
1974; Metwalli et al., 1979; Abdel Aal and Moustafa, 1988).
Egypt could be divided structurally into two main divisions: the
ARABO-NUBIAN MASSIF and the so called, SHELF AREAS (Said, 1962;
Mahmoud, 1984; Said, 1990). The Arabo-Nubian Massif is a stable
tectonic unit consisting of the exposed basement rocks in the
Eastern Desert, the southern part of the Sinai Peninsula and in
isolated outcrops in southern Egypt (Said, 1962; Mahmoud, 1984;
Schlumberger, 1984; Said, 1990). The Shelf area is subdivided into
four units: the Stable Shelf, the Unstable Shelf, the Hinge Zone and
Miogeosyncline. The Stable Shelf is a belt extending from southern
Egypt to a northern limit arriving as far as central Sinai. It is char-
acterized by low structural relief and with thin sedimentary cover
of fluvio-continental deposits mainly of Mesozoic age, deformed by
several sets of regional folds (Said, 1962; Schlumberger, 1984; Said,
1990). The Unstable Shelf occupies almost all of the northern parts
of Egypt, characterized by a northward thickening sedimentary
section underlain by high basement relief due to block faulting.
Moreover, it is characterized by surface tectonic features of lateral
stresses due to different compressional episodes such as Syrian Arc
folds in northern Sinai (Schlumberger, 1984). The Hinge Zone nearly
coincides with the present Mediterranean coastal area separating
the unstable shelf from the Miogeosynclinal basinal area. It causes
a rapid, basinwards thickening of Oligocene to Pliocene sediments.
Presently it is submerged and partially buried under thick Plio-
Pleistocene deposits in relation to the Nile Delta.
On the other hand, Egypt can be subdivided into five major
morpho-structural units; 1) the Mediterranean Fault Zone, 2) a belt
of linear uplifts and half-grabens, 3) the North Sinai Fold Belt
29
“Syrian Arc”, 4) the Suez and Red Sea Graben, and 5) the intra-
cratonic basins of southern Egypt (Sestini, 1995).
Pre-Cambrian basement rocks outcrop in South Sinai, the Red
Sea Mountains, at Aswan and near Sudan. The sedimentary section
overlying the basement, 1e3 km in the south (Kharga Oasis),
thickens northwards to 5e6.5 km near the Mediterranean, but with
notable irregularities in the basinal areas (e.g. 10e13 km in Abu
Gharadig Basin versus 3 km on the Ras Qattara Ridge at its north
margin). The distribution of sedimentary facies follows a simple
north-south trend: sands increase in percentage and grade from
shallow marine to predominantly continental (including coals)
towards the south, whereas carbonate rocks are more common in
the north, except in the stratigraphic intervals that correspond to
southwards transgressions (Sestini, 1995).
The sedimentary section of the Western Desert ranges from
Early Paleozoic to Recent (Fig. 3). Four major sedimentary cycles
occurred, with maximum, southward transgression in Carbonif-
erous, Upper Jurassic, Middle and Late Cretaceous, Middle Miocene
and Pliocene time (Schlumberger, 1984).
In the unstable shelf area, the lithostratigraphic column of the
overlying series maybe subdivided into three sequences. First the
lower clastic unit, from Cambrian to Cenomanian, second the
middle carbonates, from Turonian to Eocene and finally the upper
clastic unit, from Oligocene to Recent.
In the northwestern corner of the Western Desert along the
Libyan border a NeS trending synclinorium (Siwa Oasis e Faghur)
has been delineated with a Paleozoic section of some 3000 m
thickness; mostly continental to shallow marine sandstones, silt-
stones and shales, with thin intercalations of carbonates
(Schlumberger, 1984; Keeley, 1989; Klitzsch, 1990; Dahi and Shahin,
1992).
 Author's personal copy
30 W.Sh. El Diasty, J.M. Moldowan / Marine and Petroleum Geology 35 (2012) 28e40
Figure 2. 2-Dimensional index map showing the spatial distribution of the main eastewest sedimentary basins and major tectonics in the north Western Desert, Egypt (modified
after Bayoumi, 1996).
Throughout Mesozoic time, continental environments prevailed
over the Western Desert south of Latitude 28 N. The Lower Jurassic,
Wadi Natrun Formation consists of lagoonal deposits; alternating
with dense limestone, green shales and dolomite. Middle-Late
Jurassic rocks are represented by the Khatatba Formation, a thick
carbonaceous shale sequence, with interbedded porous sandstone,
coal seams and limestone streaks (Jenkins, 1990; Keeley and Wallis,
1991). Basinwards, the Khatatba Formation grades into the time
equivalent Masajid Formation, made up of platform carbonates,
including oolitic, reefal and dolomitic limestones with cherty
intervals (Schlumberger, 1984).
A widespread unconformity is recorded at the Jurassic-
Cretaceous boundary. The Lower Cretaceous clastic series corre-
spond to a transgressive cycle, with fluvio-continental sediments at
the beginning (Neocomian) and at the end (Late Albian e Early
Cenomanian) with a transitional near-shore to deltaic depositional
environment during Early Aptian and Albian. The upper clastic and
regressive series referred to as the Albian Kharita Formation and
Early Cenomanian Bahariya Formation (Schlumberger, 1984). They
were respectively deposited in shallow marine and fluvio-deltaic
environment. They consist of consolidated sandstone with occa-
sional coal seams and minor intercalations of shales. Oil and gas is
produced from sandstones of the Bahariya Formation in the Ala-
mein and Abu Gharadig fields.
In the Upper Cretaceous section, the thickness of which may
exceed 2300 m, two main rock units have been recognized, the Abu
Roash Group and the Khoman Formation. The Late Cenomanian-
Turonian Abu Roash Formation consists of an alternation of dolo-
mitized calcarenites, shale and sandstones; the carbonates become
more abundant and thicker northwards. The formation is sub-
divided into seven (AeG) members; several of these are important
reservoirs and source rocks, especially in the Abu Gharadig Basin.
There, the formation, usually 250e750 m thick, attains almost
1000 m (Schlumberger, 1984; Sestini, 1995).
The top of the Western Desert sequence is mostly formed by
terrigenous clastics, the Late Eocene-Oligocene Dabaa Formation
(200e400 m, max. 825 m) marine shales, and the Late Oligocene to
Early Miocene Moghra Formation, 200e970 m, mainly sandstones,
fluvio-marine, lagoonal to shallow marine upwards (Sestini, 1995).
3. Materials and methods
The present study undertakes a detailed geochemical evaluation
of ten crude oils, four condensates and two source rocks of Jurassic
and Cretaceous age, respectively. These samples were collected
from different wells from the Abu Gharadig oil-gasfield. The
geochemical data on the hydrocarbon fluids and the source rocks
were interpreted in order to classify the oils and condensates into
genetic oil families. Oil-source rock correlations are essential to
define the petroleum system or systems present in the Abu Ghar-
adig Basin. Sample preparation and analyses were performed at
Stanford University’s Molecular Organic Geochemistry Laboratory.
Details on analytical methods and compound identifications are
described in Peters and Moldowan (1993).
The hexane soluble material was separated by liquid chroma-
tography into saturate, aromatic, and nitrogen/sulfur/oxygen (NSO)
fractions on an alumina and silica column (29 cm long, 0.9 cm
inside diameter). Saturate fractions were then treated with
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W.Sh. El Diasty, J.M. Moldowan / Marine and Petroleum Geology 35 (2012) 28e40 31

Figure 3. Generalized lithostratigraphic column of the northern part of the Western Desert (Schlumberger, 1984).

molecular sieves (high Si/Al ZSM-5 zeolite), which were used to
remove n-alkanes (paraffins) from the saturate fractions to increase
the signals of more diagnostic biomarkers. The saturate fractions
were subjected to GC and GCMS analyses for biomarkers. The GC
was a Hewlett Packard 5890Ô gas chromatograph equipped with
a flame ionization detector and a 30 m  0.25 mm internal diam-
eter J&W DB-1 HTÔ column (0.25 mm film thickness). The GC was
temperature programmed from 60 to 320  C at 4  C/min, and
hydrogen carrier gas at 1.5 ml/min. The GCMS analysis of saturates
and aromatics was achieved using a Hewlett Packard 5890 Series
 Author's personal copy
32 W.Sh. El Diasty, J.M. Moldowan / Marine and Petroleum Geology 35 (2012) 28e40
IIÔ gas chromatograph connected to a Hewlett Packard 5972Ô
mass spectrometer.
Due to their sensitivity, reliability and their use in biomarker
applications, Metastable Reaction Monitoring (MRM)/GCMS repre-
sents a significant refinement over routine GCMS. GCMSeMRM
measurements were applied to the aliphatic fractions for evalua-
tion of saturated biomarker compounds (Moldowan et al., 1985).
The monitored transitions were at m/z 414 / 231; m/z 414, 400,
386, 372, 358; m/z 330 / 217; and m/z 412 / 191, 369. The
instrument was an HP 5890II gas chromatograph coupled to a VG
Micromass Autospec Q mass spectrometer system. The GC column
was a DB-1 (J & W Scientific) with a 0.25 mm internal diameter and
a 0.25 mm film thickness. The GC oven temperature started at 140  C,
stayed at this temperature for 1 min, then rose to 326  C at 6  C/min,
and stayed at 326  C for 15 min. Hydrogen was the carrier gas with
a head pressure of 20 psi. The mass spectrometer was set at EIþ
ionization mode with a cycle time of 810 msec. A standard oil
sample was analyzed to ensure quality control and as a reference
index for compound identification and for absolute quantification of
steranes (Seifert and Moldowan, 1979). All calculations are based on
peak areas.
After initial screening by Rock-Eval Pyrolysis and total organic
carbon determination, two core samples were selected for further
detailed studies. The sampling locations for these rocks are indi-
cated in Figure 1. The rock samples comprise two calcareous shales
from Jurassic (WD-13 well) and Cretaceous (WD-2 well). Rock
samples were milled to a fine powder and then extracted with
dichloromethane under ultrasonication. The total organic extracts
were fractionated using open-column liquid chromatography to
separate saturates, aromatics and polar compounds. Internal stan-
dards added to the separated saturate and aromatic fractions
facilitated quantification of the chromatographic peaks (Seifert and
Moldowan, 1979; Peters et al., 2005). Further GCeFID, GCeMSD and
MRMeGCMS analyses were undertaken as for the oil samples.
4. Results and discussion
Genetic classification of oil samples identifies the oil families
generated from different source rocks or different source rock
organic facies. Geochemical characteristics used for genetic classi-
fication are, therefore, related to source rock organic facies/depo-
sitional conditions and geologic age. Based on these geochemical
characteristics, three genetic oil families (A, B and C) have been
described from the Abu Gharadig Basin. In the following discussion,
a comparative analysis of these characteristics is provided, which
helps to separate the different genetic oil families from each other.
The source rock of these families ranges from marine to terrestrial
or mixed of both which probably contained type II/III or III/II
kerogens with varying amounts of algal, bacterial, and terrigenous/
higher plant organic matter deposited under varying depositional
conditions. The geochemical parameters or ratios used for genetic
oil grouping are pristane/phytane, pristane/n-C17, phytane/n-C18,
waxiness index, diahopanes, homohopane index, hopanes/ster-
anes, C29/C27 sterane, C19/C23 tricyclic terpanes, C25/C26 tricyclic
terpanes, C24 tetracyclic/C26 tricyclic terpane, C27, C28, C29 steranes,
C27, C28, C29 monoaromatic steranes, presence or absence of ole-
anane and nordiacholestane ratio (NDR). A number of cross plots or
triangular plots using these ratios have been constructed to define
the distinguishing characteristics of the different oil families.
4.1. Alkanes and biomarkers
The most abundant source of pristane (C19) and phytane (C20) is
the phytyl side chain of chlorophyll (a) in phototrophic organisms
and bacteriochlorophyll (a) and (b) in purple sulfur bacteria (e.g.
Brooks et al., 1969; Powell and McKirdy, 1973). For rock and oil
samples within the oil-generative window, pristane/phytane
correlates weakly with the depositional redox conditions. High Pr/
Ph (>3.0) indicates oxic conditions often associated with terrige-
nous organic matter input, while low values (<0.8) typify anoxic,
commonly hypersaline or carbonate environments (Peters et al.,
1995, 2005).
Pristane/n-C17 and phytane/n-C18 are sometimes used in
petroleum correlations studies. For example, Lijmbach (1975) noted
that oil generated from source rocks deposited under open-water
conditions showed Pr/n-C17 < 0.5, while those from inland peat
swamps had ratios greater than 1. Alexander et al. (1981) suggested
use of the ratio (Pr þ nC17)/(Ph þ nC18) because it is less affected by
variation in thermal maturity than Pr/n-C17 or Ph/n-C18. Biodegra-
dation increases these ratios because aerobic bacteria generally
attack n-alkanes before the isoprenoids.
Representative C15þ whole-oil gas chromatograms for each oil
family are shown in Figure 4. Pristane/phytane, pristane/n-Cl7 and
phytane/n-Cl8 ratios are given in Table 1 for each oil. The normal
alkane distribution, which varies widely from one family to
another, gives a clue of varying redox potential, organic source
input and maturity profile. Pristane/phytane ratios range from 0.88
to 1.61 for Family-A oils, 4.27 to 5.00 for Family-B oils and 2.31 for
Family-C (Table 1). It is clearly shown that Family-B has the highest
isoprenoid ratios (>3), suggesting a terrestrial origin mainly of
higher plants, deposited under oxidizing conditions.
The plot of isoprenoids versus n-alkanes easily discriminates the
oil families (Fig. 5). The marine organic matter contribution and
suboxic-anoxic (Type II/III kerogens) depositional conditions for
Family-A, are indicated by low pristane/phytane ratios and pris-
tane/n-C17 mostly more than or equal to phytane/n-C18. Moderately
high pristane/phytane ratios and the pristane/n-C17 versus
phytane/n-C18 relationship for Family-C suggest the contribution
from mixed organic facies and suboxic depositional conditions.
High pristane/phytane ratios and the pristane/n-C17 versus
phytane/n-C18 relationship for Family-B (Fig. 5) suggest a Type III/II
source rock with significant terrestrial organic facies and dysoxic-
oxic depositional conditions. Evidently, the higher thermal matu-
rities of Family-B oils greatly lower the isoprenoids/n-alkanes ratios
and accordingly they place at the lower left corner of Figure 5.
One method of categorizing the amount of land-derived organic
material in oil is to determine its degree of waxiness. This method
assumes that terrigenous material contributes a high molecular
weight normal paraffin component to the oil (Hedberg, 1968).
Recent studies about oil classification by source input have relied
heavily on waxiness as an environmental source input parameter
(Connan and Cassou, 1980). The degree of waxiness in this study is
expressed by the S (n-C21en-C31)/S (n-C15en-C20) ratios (Table 1).
Abu Gharadig oil (Family-B) contains higher waxy ratios than the
other oil families, reflecting relatively higher concentrations of
land-plant derived biomarkers in these samples than the remaining
Abu Gharadig oil samples (Fig. 6i, Table 1).
The predominantly marine algal organic matter source for
Family-A oils is indicated by saturate biomarker data (Table 2,
Fig. 7) including tricyclic terpane distributions with the predomi-
nance of C23 tricyclic terpane relative to C19 tricyclic terpane (C19/
C23 tricyclic terpane ratios 0.04e0.51), high C25/C26 tricyclic terpane
ratios (>1.0), very high C23 tricyclic/C24 tetracyclic terpane ratios
(3.88e11.8), very low C24 tetracyclic/C26 tricyclic terpane ratios
(Fig. 7), moderate hopanes/steranes ratios (0.94e3.45, Table 2),
very low C30-diahopane ratio (0.01e0.06), moderately high C35/C34
homohopanes [average 0.77, an indicator of highly reducing (low
Eh) marine conditions during deposition], and low to very low
gammacerane index relative to C30 hopane except two samples
from AG-3B and AG-3C. The high gammacerane index for those two
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W.Sh. El Diasty, J.M. Moldowan / Marine and Petroleum Geology 35 (2012) 28e40 33

250 17 Family-A oils Family-A oils

15 AG-2 well, Kharita Fm, GC AG-6 well, Bahariya Fm, GC
Pr/Ph = 1.04 Pr/Ph = 0.99
200 Pr/nC = 0.45
Pr/nC = 0.41
19 Ph/nC = 0.41 Ph/nC = 0.51
200 CPI = 1.01 CPI = 1.00
OEP = 0.98 OEP = 0.95

15
21 150
Abundance x 1000

150 17

19
Pr Ph 23
100
100 21
23

Pr Ph
25
25
50 27
50
27

0 0

Family-B oils Family-C condensate

600 AG-13 well, Khatatba Fm, GC AG-12A well, Abu Roash Fm, GC
Pr/Ph = 5.00 Pr/Ph = 2.31
Pr/nC = 0.10 1000 Pr/nC = 0.30
Ph/nC = 0.02 Ph/nC = 0.15
CPI = 1.08 CPI = 1.10
500 OEP = 1.05 OEP = 1.07

800
15
400 17
Abundance x 1000

19
600
21
300
23 15
25
400
200 27
17

200 19
100
21
Pr
Pr
23
Ph
Ph 0 25
0 27

10 20 30 40 50 60 10 20 30 40 50 60
Retention time Retention time

Figure 4. Representative whole-oil gas chromatograms for each oil family in the study area, Pr ¼ pristane; Ph ¼ phytane.

samples is not surprising as they also have higher norhopane/
hopane ratios consistent with an evaporitic carbonate environment
during deposition of the source rock (Peters and Moldowan, 1991;
Peters et al., 2005).
Three samples (two oils and one condensate) from the Abu
Gharadig Basin are grouped in oil Family-B. These samples were
apparently derived from a common terrestrial source rock based on
similarities in GC, saturate and aromatic biomarkers. Hopanes/ster-
anes ratios are very high between 6.25 and 9.09 (Fig. 6ii), these low
steranes and low steranes/hopanes are more indicative of terrigenous
and/or microbially reworked organic matter (e.g. Tissot and Welte,
1984). In general, high concentrations of steranes and high ster-
anes/hopanes (1) typify marine organic matter with major contri-
butions from planktonic and/or benthic algae (Moldowan et al.,1985).
The C19/C23 tricyclic terpane ratios are also quite high (4.11e6.31).
The C23 tricyclic/C24 tetracyclic terpane ratios are very low;
range from 0.49 to 0.71. The C24 tetracyclic/C26 tricyclic terpane
ratios are very high; varying between 3.67 and 4.13 (Fig. 6iii and iv).
The above molecular ratios suggest a mixed organic facies with
varying proportions of algal, bacterial and significant to abundant
higher plant material. The low homohopane index (C35/C34)
together with moderate to high diahopane ratio (0.20e0.79) indi-
cates source sediment deposition under dysoxic conditions.
The Family-C condensate (AG-12A) shows mixed GC, saturate
and aromatic biomarker characteristics similar to Family-A and
Family-B oils with close characteristics similar to Family-A oils. The
condensate was derived from a common source rock formation
with a Type II/III kerogen containing essentially marine (bacterial-
algal) organic matter deposited under moderate to highly anoxic
conditions. Minor variation in organic facies and source rock
lithology may exist.
The steranes compose a second group of important biomarkers.
A common way to distinguish different source rocks or different
organic facies of the same source rock is through the use of C27, C28
and C29 sterane ternary plots. In most of the studied oil and
condensate samples the C29aaa (20R) sterane is in greater
concentration than the C27aaa (20R) sterane (Table 3). High
concentrations of C29 steranes are often linked with terrestrial
contributions of organic matter to sediments and crude oils (Huang
and Meinschein, 1979; Moldowan et al., 1985). However, it was
subsequently noted that certain marine organisms contribute to
C29 regular steranes (Volkman, 1988). In addition, Nichols et al.
(1990) noted that large amounts of C29 sterols are produced by
marine diatoms during the spring bloom in cold Antarctic waters.
The oil samples of Family-B are enriched in C29 steranes
compared to most other samples in the study area (Fig. 8), sug-
gesting that their source rock received greater terrestrial plant
input. However, the composition of the higher plants that
contributed to the Family-B oils was distinct from that of the other
groups. Figure 8 is a ternary plot of C27, C28 and C29 steranes
calculated from m/z 217 mass chromatograms (Fig. 7) of the crude
oils and condensates (Moldowan et al., 1985). In this figure it is easy
to discriminate between Family-A and Family-B (Families-C and A
cluster together, while being separated from Family-B).
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34 W.Sh. El Diasty, J.M. Moldowan / Marine and Petroleum Geology 35 (2012) 28e40

Table 1
A summary of GCeFID for crude oil and condensate samples from Abu Gharadig Basin north Western Desert e Egypt.

Well name Sample type Reservoir Reservoir age Properties Family Wax. index Pr/Ph Pr/n-C17 Ph/n-C18 CPI OEP
AG-2 Crude oil Kharita E. Cretaceous Dark brown oil A 0.46 1.04 0.41 0.41 1.01 0.98
AG-3A Crude oil Abu Roash L. Cretaceous Brown oil A 0.70 1.24 0.50 0.48 1.02 0.98
AG-3B Crude oil Bahariya L. Cretaceous Brown oil A 0.60 1.29 0.49 0.46 1.07 0.99
AG-3C Condensate Kharita E. Cretaceous Brown condensate A 0.70 1.61 0.26 0.18 1.07 1.04
AG-4B Condensate Kharita E. Cretaceous Light brown condensate B 0.66 4.27 0.15 0.04 1.13 1.10
AG-5A Crude oil Abu Roash L. Cretaceous Dark brown oil A 0.76 1.06 0.52 0.57 0.97 0.81
AG-5B Crude oil Abu Roash L. Cretaceous Black heavy oil A 0.72 0.88 0.52 0.67 0.94 0.94
AG-6 Crude oil Bahariya L. Cretaceous Dark brown oil A 0.73 0.99 0.45 0.51 1.00 0.95
AG-7 Crude oil Abu Roash L. Cretaceous Dark brown oil A 0.78 1.24 0.52 0.46 1.02 1.00
AG-8 Crude oil Abu Roash L. Cretaceous Dark brown oil A 0.76 1.37 0.63 0.54 1.00 0.96
AG-9 Condensate Khatatba M. Jurassic Brown condensate A 0.69 1.10 0.30 0.33 1.06 1.02
AG-12A Condensate Abu Roash L. Cretaceous Clear condensate C 0.20 2.31 0.30 0.15 1.10 1.07
AG-12B Crude oil Bahariya L. Cretaceous Waxy brown oil B 1.03 4.48 0.12 0.03 1.07 1.07
AG-13 Crude oil Khatatba M. Jurassic Brown oil B 1.01 5.00 0.10 0.02 1.08 1.05
AG-2 Rock Abu Roash-F L. Cretaceous Calcareous shale A 0.56 1.22 0.66 0.74 1.05 1.02
AG-13 Rock Khatatba M. Jurassic Calcareous shale A 0.59 1.34 0.64 0.47 1.15 1.07

Waxiness index ¼ S (n-C21en-C31)/S (n-C15en-C20).

Pr: Pristane, Ph: Phytane.

C þ C27 þ C29 þ C31 þ C33 C25 þ C27 þ C29 þ C31 þ C33
CPI: Carbon preference index; CPI ¼ 1=2 25 þ Bray and Evans, 1961.
C24 þ C26 þ C28 þ C30 þ C32 C26 þ C28 þ C30 þ C32 þ C34

OEP: Odd-even predominance; OEP ¼ (C25 þ 6C27 þ C29)/(4C26 þ 4C28) Scalan and Smith, 1970.

Figure 9 illustrates the relationships between the ratios C29aaa
20R sterane/C27aaa 20R sterane (Table 3) and waxiness index
(Table 1) for the studied oil samples. This figure clearly verifies the
predominance of C29 steranes in Family-B over Family-A and
Family-C oils, with high values held to be diagnostic of a greater
contribution of higher plant matter deposited in oxidizing envi-
ronment. A distribution strongly favoring C29 over C27 steranes can
occur in some Early Paleozoic and Pre-cambrian marine oil samples
(Moldowan et al., 1985). In those early marine environments there
were green algal blooms, and some green algae contain dominantly
C29 sterols. In these more recent marine waters a more balanced
algal ecology appears to generally occur. Thus, in those younger
marine environments strong C29 predominance is generally due to
important terrestrial plant contributions.
Moldowan et al. (1985) proposed that the distribution of mon-
oaromatic steroids is another useful parameter for distinguishing
marine- versus nonmarine-source oils than the sterane distribution.
Typically, more terrigenous organic matter is deposited in non-
marine than in marine source rocks, and the non-marine rocks thus
contain more C29 sterols. Terrigenous input is poor in C27 and C28
monoaromatic steroids. Thus, non-marine shales have mono-
aromatic steroid C29/(C28 þ C29) ratios >0.5 (Family-B, Table 3).
The high diasterane ratio [diasterane/regular steranes > 0.20]
suggests that most of the oils and condensates originated from
a clay-rich clastic rock. It is noteworthy that Family-B oil samples
show the highest diasterane ratios, ranging from 0.47 to 0.80
(Table 3). The high diasterane ratios for this oil family indicate
a more clay-rich source rock. Clay-rich source rocks generate low-
sulfur oils that are enriched in diasteranes because clays are
required to catalyze the transformation of steroids to diasterenes,
and metals in the clays compete for sulfur that might otherwise be
incorporated into the organic matter and generated oil (Peters and
Moldowan, 1993; Peters et al., 1999). Conversely, clay-poor
carbonate source rocks commonly generate high-sulfur oils with
low diasteranes.
4.2. Thermal maturity
Estimates of the relative thermal maturity of the oils and source
rock extracts (Table 2) are based on thermal maturation-dependent
biomarker parameters. Commonly used parameters include iso-
prenoids/n-alkane ratios, carbon preference index & odd-even
predominance (Table 1), 22S/(22S þ 22R) homohopane isomeri-
zation, moretanes/hopanes, tricyclics/17a-hopanes (Table 2), and
C29 sterane isomerization ratios (Table 3). These estimates are
useful because oil maturity reflects the maturity of the parent
source rock (Seifert and Moldowan, 1978; Aquino Neto et al., 1983;
Grantham, 1986; Waples and Machihara, 1991; Moldowan et al.,
1991; Peters et al., 2005).
According to the above mentioned parameters, most of the oils
appear to have been either generated slightly at the end of the early
oil window [estimated maturities of these oils at vitrinite reflec-
tance equivalent (VRE) w0.80] or past peak rate of oil generation
for mixed types II/III and III/II kerogens (Fig. 10).

4.3. Biomarkers indicative of source rock age

Several biomarkers have been shown to be related to specific

Figure 5. Cross-plot of pristane/n-C17 versus phytane/n-C18 relationships for all the
genetic oil families based on available data. The diagram quite nicely separates the oil
families based on organic source differences and maturity.
modern taxa, and molecular paleontological studies have revealed
correlations which allow for the use of certain biomarkers as
indicators of geologic age (Moldowan et al., 1996; Holba et al.,
1998). Age diagnostic biomarkers employed in this study include
the presence or absence of oleanane, presence or absence of highly
branched isoprenoids (HBI), extended tricyclic terpane ratio (ETR),
24-norcholestanes (NCR) and 24-nordiacholestanes ratios (NDR).
 Author's personal copy

W.Sh. El Diasty, J.M. Moldowan / Marine and Petroleum Geology 35 (2012) 28e40 35

Figure 6. Cross-plots of (i) Waxiness index S (n-C21en-C31)/S (n-C15en-C20) versus pristane/phytane ratios, (ii) Hopane/sterane ratio versus pristane/phytane ratio, (iii) C26/C25
tricyclic terpanes versus C24 tetracyclic/C26 tricyclic terpanes ratios, and (iv) C24 tetracyclic/C26 tricyclic terpanes versus C23/C24 tricyclic terpanes ratios for the studied oil samples.

Table 2
A summary of biomarker characteristics (terpanes) for crude oils and condensates from Abu Gharadig Basin north Western Desert e Egypt.

Well name Sample type A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P

AG-2 Crude oil 0.00 0.06 0.56 0.01 0.06 0.67 0.60 0.86 0.39 1.40 4.95 0.10 1.39 0.36 0.50 1.39
AG-3A Crude oil 0.00 0.07 0.56 0.06 0.08 1.10 0.60 0.68 0.31 0.99 4.8 0.09 1.25 0.49 0.87 1.76
AG-3B Crude oil 0.00 0.21 0.73 0.02 0.10 4.57 0.68 0.84 0.16 0.93 8.56 0.07 1.16 1.06 2.33 2.19
AG-3C Condensate 0.00 0.16 0.84 0.05 0.24 2.79 0.75 0.41 0.14 0.98 10.63 0.51 1.11 0.77 2.87 3.75
AG-4B Condensate 0.02 0.05 0.56 0.41 0.09 0.49 0.59 0.51 3.67 2.07 0.71 4.91 0.74 0.11 0.67 6.33
AG-5A Crude oil 0.00 0.07 0.51 0.03 0.07 0.94 0.60 0.85 0.28 1.10 5.45 0.05 1.3 0.43 0.53 1.21
AG-5B Crude oil 0.00 0.07 0.53 0.01 0.06 0.70 0.60 0.88 0.37 1.24 4.63 0.04 1.3 0.31 0.33 1.06
AG-6 Crude oil 0.00 0.07 0.57 0.02 0.07 0.74 0.59 0.83 0.37 1.13 4.56 0.06 1.28 0.38 0.49 1.26
AG-7 Crude oil 0.00 0.07 0.58 0.03 0.08 0.79 0.59 0.73 0.37 1.12 4.34 0.07 1.26 0.36 0.46 1.29
AG-8 Crude oil 0.00 0.05 0.56 0.02 0.07 0.82 0.58 0.78 0.28 1.18 5.57 0.04 1.33 0.42 0.48 1.15
AG-9 Condensate 0.00 0.07 0.59 0.04 0.08 0.69 0.59 0.81 0.50 1.29 3.88 0.14 1.14 0.29 0.45 1.55
AG-12A Condensate 0.00 0.06 0.65 0.08 0.10 1.23 0.66 0.66 0.83 1.54 11.8 0.54 1.56 0.91 5.75 6.31
AG-12B Crude oil 0.01 0.02 0.64 0.20 0.16 0.52 0.56 0.53 4.13 1.98 0.55 4.11 0.82 0.11 0.19 1.76
AG-13 Crude oil 0.03 0.09 0.59 0.79 0.18 1.16 0.58 0.64 3.89 1.75 0.49 6.31 0.67 0.16 0.47 2.96
AG-2 Rock 0.00 0.05 0.53 0.02 0.06 0.77 0.59 0.86 0.36 1.29 2.92 2.78 1.15 0.29 0.39 1.34
AG-13 Rock 0.00 0.12 0.71 0.03 0.22 0.50 0.58 0.94 0.25 1.19 4.26 8.48 1.22 0.38 1.57 4.14

A: Oleanane/Hopane [ OL/H30; B: Gammacerane/Hopane [ GAM/H30; C: Norhopane/Hopane ¼ H29/H30; D: Diahopane/Hopane ¼ DH30/H30; E: Moretane/

Hopane [ M30/H30; F: Ts/Tm trisnorhopanes [ TS/TM; G: H32 S/(R D S) Homohopanes [ H32S/(H32R þ H32S); H: H35/H34 Homohopanes [ (H35R þ H35S)/
(H34R þ H34S); I: C24 Tetracyclic/C26 Tricyclics [ (TET24)/(TR26A þ TR26B); J: C23/C24 Tricyclic terpanes [ Tr23/Tr24; K: C23 Tricyclic terpanes/C24 Tetracyclic
terpanes [ Tr23/Tet24; L: C19/C23 Tricyclic terpanes [ Tr19/Tr23; M: C25/C26 Tricyclic terpanes [ (TR25A þ TR25B)/(TR26A þ TR26B); N: [Steranes]/
[Hopanes] [ (DIA27S þ DIA27R þ DIA28SA þ DIA28SB þ DIA28RA þ DIA28RB þ C27S þ C27bbR þ C27bbS þ C27R þ DIA29R þ C28S þ C28bbR þ C28bbS þ C28R þ C29S
þ C29bbR þ C29bbS þ C29R)/(TS þ TM þ H28 þ H29 þ C29TS þ DH30 þ H30 þ H31R þ H31S þ H32R þ H32S þ H33R þ H33S þ H34R þ H34S þ H35R þ H35S); O: [Tricyclic
terpanes]/[Hopanes] [ (TR19 þ TR20 þ TR21 þ TR22 þ TR23 þ TR24 þ TR25A þ TR25B þ TR26A þ TR26B þ TR28A þ TR28B þ TR29A þ TR29B þ TR30A þ TR30B)/
(TS þ TM þ H28 þ H29 þ C29TS þ DH30 þ H30 þ H31R þ H31S þ H32R þ H32S þ H33R þ H33S þ H34R þ H34S þ H35R þ H35S); P:[Tricyclic terpanes]/
[Steranes] [ (TR19 þ TR20 þ TR21 þ TR22 þ TR23 þ TR24 þ TR25A þ TR25B þ TR26A þ TR26B þ TR28A þ TR28B þ TR29A þ TR29B þ TR30A þ TR30B)/(DIA27S þ DIA27R
þ DIA28SA þ DIA28SB þ DIA28RA þ DIA28RB þ C27S þ C27bbR þ C27bbS þ C27R þ DIA29R þ C28S þ C28bbR þ C28bbS þ C28R þ C29S þ C29bbR þ C29bbS þ C29R).
 Author's personal copy

36 W.Sh. El Diasty, J.M. Moldowan / Marine and Petroleum Geology 35 (2012) 28e40

Family-A oils Family-A oils

AG-2 well
90 AG-2 well
Kharita Oil
14 Kharita Oil
GC-MS M/Z=191
GC-MS M/Z=217

80
12
70

10
60
Response x 1000

50 8

40
6

30
4
20

2
10

Family-B oils Family-B oils

AG-13 well AG-13 well
6000 Khatatba Oil Khatatba Oil
GC-MS M/Z=191 14 GC-MS M/Z=217

5000 12

10
4000
Response

8
3000

2000
4

1000
2

60
Family-C condensate Family-C condensate
AG-12A well AG-12A well
Abu Roash condensate Abu Roash condensate
GC-MS M/Z=191
14 GC-MS M/Z=217
50

12
Response x 100

40
10

30 8

6
20

10
2

40 50 60 70 80 90 50 60 70

Retention time Retention time

Figure 7. Representative 191 and 217 m/z ion mass fragmentograms for each oil family in the study area.
 Author's personal copy

W.Sh. El Diasty, J.M. Moldowan / Marine and Petroleum Geology 35 (2012) 28e40 37

Table 3
A summary of biomarker characteristics (steranes) for crude oils and condensates from Abu Gharadig Basin north Western Desert e Egypt.

Well Name Sample type a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p

AG-2 Crude oil 31.74 32.69 35.57 29.48 34.38 36.13 0.51 0.58 0.09 0.24 27.07 41.69 31.24 0.12 0.28 0.26
AG-3A Crude oil 28.65 34.13 37.22 26.81 33.90 39.29 0.55 0.59 0.07 0.25 23.66 26.56 49.77 0.42 0.17 0.11
AG-3B Crude oil 27.82 35.66 36.51 27.65 33.50 38.85 0.55 0.61 0.09 0.29 29.88 25.22 44.90 2.90 0.18 0.15
AG-3C Condensate 28.93 36.25 34.81 27.69 35.09 37.21 0.59 0.65 0.14 0.47 44.42 23.56 32.02 3.08 0.20 0.12
AG-4B Condensate 29.47 32.03 38.50 16.87 28.31 54.82 0.64 0.56 0.08 0.80 40.06 26.32 33.62 4.17 ND 0.25
AG-5A Crude oil 30.71 33.26 36.02 28.21 32.91 38.88 0.49 0.58 0.05 0.24 26.13 38.92 34.94 0.19 0.25 0.18
AG-5B Crude oil 32.70 32.12 35.18 28.55 33.33 38.12 0.49 0.55 0.04 0.18 26.11 39.56 34.33 0.13 0.23 0.16
AG-6 Crude oil 30.47 33.58 35.94 26.51 33.88 39.61 0.49 0.54 0.05 0.17 22.22 39.79 37.99 0.12 0.19 0.18
AG-7 Crude oil 30.23 33.15 36.62 28.61 32.48 38.91 0.50 0.54 0.05 0.22 22.63 36.04 41.33 0.13 0.18 0.17
AG-8 Crude oil 28.59 33.89 37.52 26.45 33.84 39.71 0.52 0.56 0.05 0.25 24.02 34.67 41.32 0.12 0.18 0.15
AG-9 Condensate 32.45 32.33 35.21 28.09 31.44 40.46 0.51 0.58 0.06 0.22 25.18 36.73 38.09 0.14 0.19 0.17
AG-12A Condensate 38.05 33.50 28.45 30.29 36.10 33.61 0.58 0.61 0.36 0.53 34.62 33.59 31.78 1.32 ND 0.23
AG-12B Crude oil 21.55 33.59 44.86 16.88 28.76 54.36 0.48 0.40 0.05 0.47 28.23 30.53 41.24 0.37 ND 0.13
AG-13 Crude oil 24.50 31.86 43.64 9.74 22.40 67.86 0.63 0.59 0.07 0.52 38.04 20.48 41.48 4.11 0.36 0.28
AG-2 Rock 32.58 33.35 34.07 32.55 32.27 35.18 0.49 0.56 0.02 0.24 24.39 37.48 37.63 0.19 0.20 0.15
AG-13 Rock 31.96 34.41 33.63 20.40 50.92 28.68 0.38 0.37 0.23 0.27 17.14 44.86 38.00 0.42 0.18 0.11

a: %C27abbS (218) [ 100*C27abbS/(C27abbS þ C28abbS þ C29abbS); b: %C28abbS (218) [ 100*C28abbS/(C27abbS þ C28abbS þ C29abbS); c: %C29abbS
(218) [ 100*C29abbS/(C27abbS þ C28abbS þ C29abbS); d: %C27aaaR (217) [ 100*C27R/(C27R þ C28R þ C29R); e: %C28aaaR (217) [ 100*C28R/(C27R þ C28R þ C29R); f: %
C29aaaR (217) [ 100*C29R/(C27R þ C28R þ C29R); g: S/(S D R) (C29aaa) (217) [ C29S/(C29S þ C29R); h: bbS/(aaR D bbS) (C29) (217) [ (C29bbS þ C29bbS)/
(C29R þ C29bbS þ C29bbS þ C29R); i: (C21DC22)/(C27 D C28 D C29) (217) [ (S21 þ S22)/(DIA27S þ DIA27R þ DIA28SA þ DIA28SB þ DIA28RA þ DIA28RB þ C27S þ C27bbR
þ C27bbS þ C27R þ DIA29R þ C28S þ C28bbR þ C28bbS þ C28R þ C29S þ C29bbR þ C29bbS þ C29R); j: Diaster/aaa Ster (C27) (217) [ (DIA27S þ DIA27R)/(C27S þ C27R); k: %
P
C27 Monoaromatic steroids (253); l: %C28 Monoaromatic steroids (253); m: %C29 Monoaromatic steroids (253); n [ C20 D C21/ TAS; o: C24 norcholestanes ratio (NCR,
358 / 217) ¼ C24/(C24 þ C27) norcholestanes; p: C24 nordiacholestanes ratio (NDR, 358 / 217) ¼ C24/(C24 þ C27) nordiacholestanes; ND: no data.

The presence or absence of oleanane also has age connotation.
Oleanane, derived from angiosperm flowering plants, is present in
Middle/Late Cretaceous to younger sediments and is absent in
Jurassic or older sediments (Peters and Moldowan, 1993;
Moldowan et al., 1994). Oleanane in trace proportion occurs widely
in Cretaceous marine sediments and abounds in Tertiary sediments.
The C26 steranes (24-norcholestanes) and related C26 diaster-
anes (24-nordiacholestane) are possibly derived from a diatoma-
ceous precursor (Holba et al., 1998). The range of their ratios to the
non-taxon-specific C26 steranes, 27-norcholestane and 27-
nordiacholestane (Holba et al., 1998; Rampen et al., 2007) tend
toward a high range of values for Cretaceous and further for
Tertiary oil.
On the one hand, oil samples classified in Families A/C
completely lack age-related biomarker indicators that would
suggest a Late Cretaceous or younger source rock age. Such missing
indicators include lack of oleanane (Moldowan et al., 1994),
relatively low 24-norcholestane ratios (Holba et al., 1998) and
essentially low highly branched isoprenoids (Sinninghe Damsté
et al., 2004). The lack of all such indicators for Late Cretaceous
age does not prove Families A/C are other than Late Cretaceous,
because such factors as depositional environment can intervene. In
this case we suspect a warm paleoclimate (Peters et al., 2005, in
reference to Scotese, PALEOMAP project) and regionally warm
waters in the Mesozoic depositional environments. Such an envi-
ronment does not favor diatom proliferation and diatoms are the
only known progenitors of the highly branched isoprenoids and 24-
norcholesterols (Rampen et al., 2007). Also the biomarker data
suggest a marine environment, which can dictate against the
occurrence of oleanane, even during the Late Cretaceous. The fact
that these oil samples show high extended tricyclic ratios (Holba
et al., 2001; Peters et al., 2005) dictates they are not Jurassic in
origin, and a Triassic source in this area would be too deep to
produce black oil. On the other hand, the analyzed Late Cretaceous
source rock sample from Abu Roash-F gives a reasonable, though
not perfect, correlation with the oil samples in Families A/C. Thus,
we would not like to say emphatically that the source is in the Late
Cretaceous, but this source rock correlation points in that direction,
notwithstanding the lack of total direct support from the age-

1.2

1.0

0.8
Waxiness

Terrestrial oil
0.6

t
pu
l in
0.4 ria
st
rre
Marine oil Te

0.2 Crude oil - condensate samples

Extract samples
0.0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
C29 /C27

Figure 8. Triangular plot showing the relative concentrations of C27, C28 and C29 Figure 9. Cross-plot of waxiness index S (n-C21en-C31)/S (n-C15en-C20) versus C29/C27
regular steranes for the studied oil samples (Moldowan et al., 1985). regular steranes for the studied oil samples.
 Author's personal copy

38 W.Sh. El Diasty, J.M. Moldowan / Marine and Petroleum Geology 35 (2012) 28e40

0.7 Roash-F Member. Pristane/phytane and Pr/n-C17 vs. Ph/n-C18

Crude oil - condensate samples

Extract samples
(Fig. 5) suggest a mixed organic facies with a predominantly algal
0.6
organic matter input and relatively mature source rock extract.
There is a slight odd carbon number preference between n-C25 and
20S

n-C35, and the Carbon Preference Index (CPI) value is 1.15, which
0.5 also indicates a mixed input of terrestrial and marine organic
%C29

matter and slightly mature sample (Bray and Evans, 1961). In the
0.4
terpane distribution (m/z 191) of the Khatatba Formation extract,
high tricyclics (tricyclics/17a-hopanes), high C23/C24 tricyclic ter-
panes, high C25/C26 tricyclic terpanes (Fig. 6; Table 2), high C29-
0.3
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
norhopane/C30-hopane, absence of oleanane, low C24 tetracyclic/
%C 29 20R C26 tricyclics, all indicate predominantly algal organic matter with
minor bacterial and terrestrial input (Peters and Moldowan, 1991).
Figure 10. Oil samples show a range of thermal maturity based on two maturity The high Tm/Ts and C30 moretane/C30 hopane ratios are also
related biomarker parameters [C29aaa sterane 20S/(20S þ 20R) and C29bb/(bb þ aa)],
consistent with low thermal maturity. The high C35/C34 homo-
for the studied oil samples.
hopane index (0.94) suggests suboxic-anoxic conditions prevailed
during the deposition.
related biomarkers. Thus, it appears safe to conclude that the oil
The steranes distribution (m/z 217, m/z 218) shows the subequal
samples of Families A/C are derived from a Cretaceous source rock.
C27eC28eC29 steranes (algal) (Fig. 8; Table 3), suggest a combina-
More analyses of Late Cretaceous source rock would be required to
tion of marine and terrestrial sources (Moldowan et al., 1985; Peters
certify this relationship and certainly an Early Cretaceous source
and Moldowan, 1993). On a plot of 20S/(20S þ 20R) versus the ratio
cannot be totally discounted.
bb/(bb þ aa) for C29 steranes, the Khatatba Formation lies within
The other main oil group, Family-B, fits well with Jurassic e
the zone of early oil window (>0.60 Ro) (Fig. 10). Based on the
Early Cretaceous age, especially Jurassic, based on age-related
absence of oleanane with the very low C26 24-norcholestanes is
biomarkers: the very low ETR, which has been described as
consistent with its Jurassic age.
a feature of most Jurassic oil, the slightly elevated 24-norcholestane
The Abu Roash-F extract shows general similarities in terms of
ratios, described as a feature of Jurassic oil continuing into the Early
n-alkane contents, isoprenoid distributions, triterpane and sterane
Cretaceous, low HBI content and very low oleanane (0.01e0.03).
distribution with that of Khatatba Formation. C25þ n-alkanes are
The low input of oleanane is a more powerful indicator of age for
present in insignificant proportions relative to C<25 n-alkanes.
Family-B than for Families A/C. Because the oils of Family-B show
strong indications of terrestrial plant input (bi-modal alkane Table 4
patterns with odd predominance in the C20þ range, predominance A summary of measured oil properties and inferred source rock characteristics for
of C29 steranes over C27 and C28, waxy character and high Pr/Ph and samples from Abu Gharadig Basin north Western Desert e Egypt.
hopane/sterane ratios) and yet a source age prior to the Late Properties e Family-A Family-B Family-C
Cretaceous is suspected. The analyzed Middle Jurassic Khatatba characteristics
Formation source rock, falls short of correlation with Family-B by Pr/Ph 0.88e1.61 4.27e5.00 2.31
depositional environment alone, with the oil samples showing the Pr/n-C17 0.26e0.63 0.10e0.15 0.30
much stronger terrestrial component. Thus, the tentative age Ph/n-C18 0.18e0.67 0.02e0.04 0.15
assignment for the oil samples of Family-B rests on age-related S (n-C21en-C31)/S 0.46e0.78 0.66e1.03 0.20
(n-C15en-C20)
biomarker inferences and geological constraints. C19/C23 Tricyclic 0.04e0.51 4.11e6.31 0.54
terpanes
C23 Tri./C24 Tetracyclic 3.88e10.63 0.55e0.71 11.8
4.4. Inferred oil-source correlation
terpanes
C24 Tet./C26 Tricyclic 0.14e0.50 3.67e4.13 0.83
The Late Cretaceous marine Abu Roash-F Member is a recog- terpanes
nized source rock in the Abu Gharadig Basin and has generated oil C25/C26 Tricyclic 1.11e1.39 0.67e0.82 1.56
that has been found in Late and Early Cretaceous, as well as Late and terpanes
C35/C34 Homohopane 0.41e0.88 0.51e0.64 0.66
Middle Jurassic reservoirs. The Khatatba Formation contribution to ratio
predominantly Abu Roash-F sourced hydrocarbons had previously Diahopane/hopane 0.01e0.06 0.20e0.79 0.08
been suspected in the Abu Gharadig Basin. Due to the old vintage Oleanane/hopane 0.00 0.01e0.03 0.00
and poor quality of the geochemical data, however, the relative C29/C27 Steranes 1.22e1.50 3.22e6.97 1.11
Diasteranes/regular 0.93e1.40 1.75e2.07 1.54
contribution remained inconclusive. The objective of this part of
steranes
this study is to realize and ascertain the relationship between the Hopanes/steranes 0.94e3.45 6.25e9.09 1.10
hydrocarbons recovered from the Abu Gharadig Basin and Middle C26 24-Nordiacholestane 0.11e0.20 0.13e28 0.23
Jurassic Khatatba Formation, as well as the previously established Extended tricyclic 3.13e5.84 0.32e0.67 5.37
Upper Cretaceous Abu Roash-F Member. In an attempt to develop terpane ratio (ETR)a
Highly branched 5.00e30.0 4.00e19.0 3.00
an oil-source rock correlation, we extracted soluble bitumens from isoprenoids (HBI)b
two of the Abu Roash-F Member (AG-2 well) and Khatatba Age Cretaceous Jurassic e E. Cretaceous
Formation (AG-13) core samples and analyzed their biomarkers. Cretaceous
Despite the great similarity between Abu Roash-F Member and Lithology Marine shales Nonmarine Marine shales
shales
Khatatba Formation (Figs. 5e10; Tables 1, 2, 3) based on GC and
Redox Suboxic-anoxic Dysoxic-oxic Suboxic-anoxic
biomarker characteristics, it seems that some essential differences Kerogen Type II/III Type III/II Type II/III
exist. Here is below some of these differences in order to establish a
Extended tricyclic terpane ratio (ETR) ¼ from m/z 191 chromatogram peak areas
oil-source correlation. of (TT28 þ TT29)/Ts.
Extract from the Khatatba Formation has nearly equal quantity b
Highly branched isoprenoids (HBI) ¼ from m/z 238 chromatogram peak areas of
of C25þ n-alkane waxy component to the extract from the Abu C25 HBI (ppm).
 Author's personal copy
W.Sh. El Diasty, J.M. Moldowan / Marine and Petroleum Geology 35 (2012) 28e40
Pristane/phytane ratio is low (1.22) indicating abundant suboxic
conditions. A plot of pristane/n-Cl7 versus phytane/n-Cl8 (Fig. 5)
suggests a mixed organic facies with a relatively higher algal and
lower terrestrial organic matter contribution, more anoxic condi-
tions and mature extract (Shanmugam, 1985; Peters et al., 1999).
This result is steady with the carbon preference index and odd-
even predominance ratios (1.05 and 1.02, respectively). Also the
terpane distributions confirm the mixed to abundant marine
conditions by the high C19 tricyclic/C23 tricyclic terpane ratio (2.78),
very low diahopane/hopane ratio (0.02), high C23 tricyclic/C24 tet-
racyclic terpane ratio (1.29), low C24 tetracyclic/C26 tricyclic ratio
(0.36), high C25 tricyclic/C26 tricyclic terpane ratio (1.32) and high
homohopane index (C35/C34 ¼ 0.86). In terms of sterane (m/z 217
and 218) distributions, the Abu Roash-F extract sample shows
a great identity with the Abu Gharadig oils (Huang and Meinschein,
1979; Moldowan et al., 1985; Peters and Moldowan, 1993). Besides,
the biomarker related maturity indicators [moretane/hopane, Ts/
Tm, 22S/22R C32 homohopanes, sterane isomerization C2920S/
(20S þ 20R) & C29bbS/(aaR þ bbS) ratios (Table 3, Fig. 10)] indicate
consistent thermal maturity with the various oil samples and
within the range of the main phase of oil generation. The most
striking properties are the absence of oleanane coupled with the
low NDR ratio. The little input of oleanane suggests that contribu-
tion from organic matter related to angiosperms was very low
(Moldowan et al., 1994).
In summary, based on the various biomarker parameters for the
oils and extracts, it seems that the Late Cretaceous Abu Roash-F
Member is considered to be the best candidate of effective
source, reasonable, though not perfect, correlation with the oil
samples (Families A&C) recovered from the Abu Gharadig Basin.
The analyzed Middle Jurassic Khatatba Formation can be dis-
counted as the primary contributor to the Abu Gharadig oils or
condensates as it falls short of correlation with Family-B by depo-
sitional environment alone, with the oil samples showing much
stronger terrestrial input. Most of the observed molecular
biomarker variations between the oils or even within the same oil
family can either be explained by facies changes within the source
rock, or by maturity differences.
5. Conclusions
The results of detailed geochemical analyses of fourteen crude
oil and condensate samples from the Abu Gharadig Field in the
north Western Desert of Egypt reveal three genetic oil families,
designated as A, B and C (Table 4). Oils from Family-A and C were
derived from Cretaceous marine source rocks (shales, calcareous
shale) with Type II/III kerogen. Oils from Family-B were probably
derived from Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous source rocks (non-marine
shales) with Type III/II kerogen. Maturity estimates based on
biomarker maturity parameters indicate that all oils had reached
and/or surpassed the peak of the oil window, with higher maturity
level biased towards the Abu Gharadig Family-B oils. Previous
studies suggested that the Late Cretaceous Abu Roash-F Member is
the major source for the oil in the Abu Gharadig Basin. Only two
organic-rich samples of the Abu Roash-F Member and the Khatatba
Formation were available in this study. The geochemical charac-
teristics obtained from the solvent extracts of these two samples
are generally similar, but the Abu Roash-F extract seems the best
candidate to those oils (Families A&C oils).
The similarity of the geochemical characteristics further
corroborates the possibility suggested that the Khatatba Formation
could be a possible source rock for the oil in the Abu Gharadig Basin
besides the previously established Abu Roash-F Member. However,
this is a preliminary glance only and a reliable assessment of the
actual source rock requires a systematic study. The Jurassic and
39
Cretaceous source rocks analyzed had been very limited in this
study and in previous studies. So, additional Cretaceous and
Jurassic source rock samples should be selected in order to have
better oil-source rock correlations, and to have better ideas on the
source rocks for A versus C oils and better characterize the Family-B
oils. This may lead to a better understanding of the distribution of
the kitchen areas and the relative contribution from the two pod
source rocks.
Acknowledgments
The funding for this study was provided by Molecular Organic
Geochemistry Industrial Affiliates (MOGIA) of Stanford University
and conducted in the Molecular Organic Geochemistry laboratory.
We are grateful to E. Idiz (SHELL International) who gave assistance
in providing some of the crude oil and condensate samples used in
this study. Gratitude is extended to the SHELL and BP oil companies,
for their approval and permission to use some of the materials used
in this study. We also thank F. Fago and D. Zinniker (Stanford
University) for providing significant help with instrumentation and
analytical work and to A. El Shahat (Mansoura University). We are
indebted to Dr. Nytoft, an anonymous reviewer, and the Associate
Editor Dr. Geoffrey Abbott for their careful and constructive
comments on the manuscript.
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