The

The Orange Book

Publisher
Tetra Pak Processing Systems AB
SE-221 86 Lund, Sweden.
www.tetrapak.com

ISBN 91-3428-4

Further copies of The Orange Book can be obtained

from your local Tetra Pak company.

Editor
Ulla Ringblom

Production
Pyramid Communication AB
Printer: Ruter Press
Printed in 2004
©
Copyright
No part of The Orange Book may be duplicated in any
form without the source being indicated (Tetra Pak).

To the best of our knowledge the information

presented in this book is correct. Nevertheless,
Tetra Pak disclaims all responsibility for any
detrimental effects resulting from the way in
which the information is used.

I
II
Sharing an experience
Because of its refreshing taste and whole-
some nature, orange juice dominates the fruit
juice market. It is unique among juices in that
the consumer can easily compare its sensory
properties with those of the fresh fruit or juice
squeezed directly from fresh oranges.
This puts high demands on orange juice
producers to deliver the same level of quality,
or as near as possible, as that consumers expect
from fresh fruit. The challenge is particularly
tough because orange juice is a complex bever-
age sensitive to the way it is treated.
Over the years, Tetra Pak has been closely
involved with orange juice products. We be-
lieve that some of this experience could also
be of interest to our customers. As a supplier
of both processing equipment and packaging
systems, Tetra Pak has hands-on competence
with all steps in the production chain, from the
fruit tree to the distribution of packaged orange
juice. This is what we would like to share with
you in the form of this book.
A journey with juice
The Orange Book follows the complete jour-
ney of orange juice. It begins with the various
types of orange fruit, proceeds through all the
processing and packaging steps, and ends with
the distribution of the end product to consumers.
Along the way there is a chance to look
at market information, juice quality and cate-
gories, the trading and shipping of products,
and industry standards and regulations. Con-
sideration is given throughout to the factors that
influence end-product quality, including the
role of flavour and product blending.
III
A mine of information
From bulk concentrate and onwards, much of
what is described in The Orange Book is also
valid for orange nectars and other types of fruit
juices. However, the production requirements
for pure orange juice are usually more stringent
in order to satisfy consumer expectations for
this product.
This book focuses solely on orange juice,
but Tetra Pak also has extensive know-how in
the processing and packaging of many other
types of fruit juices.
A number of tools help you extract infor-
mation readily from this book. A glossary
explains familiar expressions used in the citrus
industry, and a list of literature is given for fur-
ther reading. Metric units are used throughout
this book except when other specific units are
commonly used. A list of conversion factors al-
lows you to convert between different units.
We hope you will find The Orange Book
useful in providing consumers with the most
enjoyable fruit juice provided by nature.
Second edition
The first edition of The Orange Book was well
received in 1997, and as it went out of print it is
followed by this revised edition.
Valuable comments have been received on
the book from many sources in the citrus indus-
try. Tetra Pak would particularly like to thank
the following persons for their review of rel-
evant sections in the book and suggestions on
how to improve it: Professor Robert Braddock
of the University of Florida, Antonio Carlos
Gonçalves of Louis Dreyfus Citrus, Dr. Bar-
rie Preston of Döhler-Eurocitrus, and Martin
Greeve, Chairman of the AIJN Code of Prac-
tice Expert Group.
Contents

1. THE ORANGE FRUIT AND 3.5 Global orange juice consumption 42

ITS PRODUCTS 1 3.5.1 Per capita orange juice consumption 43
1.1 The fruit’s origin and
important varieties 2 4. PRINCIPLES OF PROCESSING
1.2 A global overview 3 ORANGE JUICE 45
1.2.1 Large-scale development 4 4.1 Impact of processing on
1.2.2 Orange crop diseases 4 juice quality 46
4.1.1 Raw materials 47
1.3 Bridging the seasons 5
4.1.2 Processing 47
1.4 Fruit selection 6 4.1.3 Impact of long-term bulk storage 49
1.5 Inside an orange 6 4.2 Air/oxygen in the product 50
1.6 Squeezing out every drop 7 4.2.1 Sources of air/oxygen 51
1.7 Primary and secondary products 8 4.2.2 Problems caused by air/oxygen
in the product 52
1.8 Major orange-producing regions 10 4.2.3 Principles of deaeration 53
1.8.1 Brazil 10
1.8.2 Florida 12 4.3 Microbiology of orange juice 54
4.3.1 Relevant microorganisms
1.9 Other regions 13 in orange juice 54
4.3.2 Microflora of different
2. ORANGE JUICE QUALITY types of orange juice 57
AND CATEGORIES 17 4.3.3 Influence of raw materials 58
2.1 Juice quality 18 4.3.4 Sanitation 58
2.1.1 Defining quality 18 4.4 Pasteurisation 59
2.1.2 Quality specifications 19 4.4.1 Purpose of pasteurisation 59
2.2 Important properties 4.4.2 Inactivation of enzymes 59
of orange juice 20 4.4.3 Inactivation of microorganisms 61
2.2.1 Sugars and acids 20 4.4.4 Time-temperature conditions
2.2.2 Cloud and pulp 22 for pasteurisation 61
2.2.3 Flavour 23
2.2.4 Colour 25 5. FRUIT PROCESSING 63
2.2.5 Promoting health 26
5.1 Processing plant overview 64
2.3 Orange juice categories 28 5.2 Orange juice production steps 66
2.3.1 Ready-to-drink orange juice 28
2.3.2 Concentrated orange juice 29 5.3 Fruit reception 67
2.4 Regulations governing juice origin 30 5.4 Juice extraction 68
5.4.1 Extractor types 68
5.4.2 The squeezer-type extractor 69
3. THE SUPPLY CHAIN AND 5.4.3 The reamer-type extractor 71
GLOBAL CONSUMPTION
OF ORANGE JUICE 31 5.4.4 Down stream of the juice
extractors 72
3.1 The chain of supply 32
3.1.1 Growers 33 5.5 Clarification 72
3.1.2 Types of fruit processor 34 5.6 NFC production 74
3.1.3 Blending houses 35 5.6.1 Oil reduction 75
3.1.4 Juice packers 36 5.6.2 Primary pasteurisation 76
3.1.5 Soft drink producers 37 5.6.3 Deaeration 76
5.6.4 Long-term frozen storage 76
3.2 World market pricing
for bulk juice products 37 5.6.5 Aseptic storage in tanks 77
5.6.6 Aseptic storage in bag-in-box
3.3 FCOJ commodity trading containers 78
and the futures market 38
5.6.7 Reprocessing of NFC 78
3.4 Import duties and juice imports 39
3.4.1 Import duties with some
typical examples 41

IV
 Contents

5.7 Concentrate production 79 7. PROCESSING AT

5.7.1 Tubular evaporator systems 79 THE JUICE PACKER 103
5.7.2 Plate evaporator systems 80 7.1 An overview of juice
5.7.3 Homogenisation 81 packer operations 105
5.7.4 The centrifugal evaporator 82 7.1.1 General requirements for
5.7.5 Essence recovery 82 juice packer lines 105
5.7.6 Concentrate storage 83 7.1.2 Process lines 105
5.7.7 Alternative concentration methods 83 7.2 Raw material reception
5.8 Peel oil (cold-pressed oil) recovery 84 and handling 110
5.8.1 Straining and concentration step 84 7.2.1 Tanks for concentrate storage 110
5.8.2 Polishing 85 7.2.2 Drums with frozen concentrate 111
5.8.3 The winterisation process 85 7.2.3 Drums containing solid
5.8.4 d-Limonene recovery systems 85 frozen products 111
7.2.4 Aseptic bag-in-box containers 112
5.9 Feed mill operations 86 7.2.5 Tanks for NFC 112
5.10 Pulp production 87 7.2.6 Reclaim product 112
5.10.1 Production factors which affect
commercial pulp quality 88 7.3 Water treatment 113
7.3.1 Water quality 113
5.10.2 Process steps in pulp production 88
7.3.2 Water treatment methods 114
5.11 Pulp wash production 92 7.3.3 In-plant distribution
5.12 Essence recovery 92 of product water 115
7.3.4 Deaeration of water 116
6. TRANSPORT AND HANDLING 7.4 Blending 116
OF BULK PRODUCTS 93 7.4.1 Blending of nectars and fruit drinks 116
6.1 Packing and shipping preferences 95 7.4.2 Defining the blending formula 117
7.4.3 Savings made by accurate blending 118
6.2 Bulk shipping of FCOJ 95 7.4.4 Comparison of blending methods 118
6.2.1 From Brazil to Europe 96
7.4.5 Batch blending systems 119
6.3 Bulk shipping of NFC 97 7.4.6 In-line blending systems 120
6.3.1 Frozen NFC shipments 97 7.4.7 How a refractometer works 121
6.3.2 Bulk units for aseptic NFC 7.4.8 How a density meter works 122
shipments 97
6.3.3 Bulk shipping of aseptic NFC 7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration 122
7.5.1 Selecting the heat exchanger 123
by sea 99
7.5.2 The pasteurisation process 124
6.3.4 Transport of bulk product
versus retail packaged product 99 7.5.3 Deaeration 125
7.5.4 System design 126
6.4 Shipping costs 100 7.5.5 Process control 126
6.5 Terminals for receiving 7.5.6 Control of pasteurisation units 127
orange juice 100
6.5.1 Terminals for bulk FCOJ 100 7.6 Aseptic buffer 128
7.6.1 Operational steps 129
6.5.2 Terminals for bulk aseptic NFC 101
7.7 Hot filling 129
6.6 Blending house operations 102 7.7.1 Process description 130
7.8 Aseptic transfer of NFC 130
7.9 Cleaning-in-place 131
7.9.1 CIP procedures 132
7.9.2 Pigging 133
7.10 Quality control of final product 134
7.10.1 Microbiological control 134

V
 Contents

8. ADD-BACK COMPONENTS 10. FROM JUICE PACKER

– VOLATILE FLAVOURS AND TO CONSUMER 167
FLOATING PULP 135
10.1 Distribution of product to retailer 169
8.1 Volatile flavours 136 10.1.1 Delivery directly to the retail store 169
8.1.1 Origin of natural volatile 10.1.2 Delivery through wholesalers 169
orange flavours 137 10.1.3 Delivery to a retailer’s
8.1.2 Major constituents central depot 170
of flavour fractions 139
8.1.3 Flavour standardisation 10.2 Orange juice at the retailer 171
and folding of oils 140 10.2.1 Distribution units 171
8.1.4 Methods of separating and 10.2.2 Handling at the retailer 172
concentrating flavours 141 10.3 The orange juice consumer 174
8.1.5 Creation of flavour systems 142 10.3.1 Regional preferences for juice
8.2 Floating pulp 142 categories 174
8.2.1 Useful terms 142 10.3.2 Who buys juice in the USA 176
8.2.2 Floating pulp properties 144 10.3.3 When orange juice is consumed 176
8.2.3 Floating pulp concentration 145 10.3.4 Where orange juice is consumed 177
10.3.5 Why people buy orange juice 178
8.3 Components added back to juice 146
10.4 Orange nectars and orange drinks 179
10.4.1 Fruit nectars 179
9. PACKAGING AND STORAGE 10.4.2 Still fruit drinks 179
OF ORANGE JUICE 149
9.1 The role of packaging 151 11. STANDARDS AND
9.1.1 Product quality parameters REGULATIONS 181
to be protected during storage 151
9.1.2 Factors affecting quality 11.1 Standards governing juice
parameters during storage 151 composition and labelling 182
11.1.1 The USA and Canada 183
9.2 Barrier properties against oxygen 152 11.1.2 The European Union 184
9.2.1 Vitamin C degradation 152
11.1.3 Other major regions and countries 186
9.2.2 Colour changes 154 11.1.4 Fruit juice standards of
9.2.3 The impact of oxygen on Codex Alimentarius 187
storage-dependent flavour changes 154
11.2 The problem of adulteration 188
9.3 Barrier properties against light 156 11.2.1 Protecting the consumer 188
9.4 Barrier properties against aromas 156 11.2.2 Telling wrong from right 189
9.4.1 Composition of orange juice aroma 156
9.4.2 Properties of different polymers 157 12. GLOSSARY 191
9.4.3 Properties of different packages 158
9.4.4 Consequences of flavour scalping 159
13. ABBREVIATIONS, WEIGHTS
9.5 Aseptic versus nonaseptic AND MEASURES 197
packaging 160
13.1 Abbreviations 197
9.6 Different packages and
packaging systems 160 13.2 Unit conversions 198
9.6.1 Carton-based packages 161 13.3 Density tables for sugar solutions 199
9.6.2 Bottles 163
9.6.3 Hot filling 165 14. FURTHER READING AND
9.6.4 Selecting the most appropriate REFERENCES 201
package for a particular juice 166
14.1 Books on orange juice 201
14.2 References 202
14.3 Useful websites 204

INDEX 205

VI
1 The orange fruit
and its products
In section 1 you will read about:
• The origin and spread of the orange plant
from Southeast Asia to the rest of the world.
• Global orange production and the
development of large-scale production.
• Common orange crop diseases and their
control by using resistant rootstocks.
• The whys and wherefores of single-strength
and concentrated juice.
1
• How the seasons are bridged to provide
consumers with year-round supplies.
• What’s inside an orange.
• Nature’s gift. Every part of the orange can be
used for producing commercial products.
• Valuable by-products such as pulp, peel oil,
essences and animal feed.
• The most important orange-growing regions.
1. The orange fruit
and its products
Summary
The orange plant originated in Southeast
Asia and spread gradually to other parts
of the world. Today, orange juice products
derive from four main groups of orange.
About 65 million tonnes of oranges per
annum are produced globally. Of this,
around 40 % is processed into juice and
the rest consumed as whole fruit.
Single-strength or
concentrated
As juice is produced on a seasonal basis, it
must be stored between seasons to ensure
a year-round supply to consumer markets.
Most juice is produced as frozen concen-
trated orange juice, FCOJ, because it can
be stored for long periods of time and
shipped at lower cost as it contains less
water. “Not-from-concentrate” juice, NFC,
which is at single strength, requires much
larger volumes during storage and shipping.
Most NFC produced is intended for nearby
markets but its export is increasing.
1.1 The fruit’s origin and
important varieties
The orange is the world’s most popular fruit. Like
all citrus plants, the orange tree originated in the
tropical regions of Asia. Oranges are mentioned
in an old Chinese manuscript dating back to 2200
BC. The development of the Arab trade routes,
the spread of Islam and the expansion of the
Roman empire led to the fruit being cultivated
in other regions.
From its original habitat, the orange spread to
India, the east coast of Africa, and from there to the
eastern Mediterranean region. By the time Colum-
bus and his followers took plants to the Americas,
orange trees were common in the western Mediter-
ranean region and the Canary Islands.
2
A look inside
Basically, an orange consists of juice ves-
icles surrounded by a waxy skin, the peel.
The peel comprises a thin, coloured outer
layer called the flavedo and a thicker, fi-
brous inner layer called the albedo. The
endocarp, the edible portion of the fruit, in-
cludes a central fibrous core and individual
segments containing the juice sacs. In large
processing plants the complete fruit is uti-
lised. By-products are produced to help
maximise profits and minimise waste.
Major players
The two most important orange-proces-
sing regions are Brazil and the state of
Florida in the US. Together these regions
account for nearly 90 % of global orange
juice production.
Tangerines 17 %
Lemons /
Limes 11 %
Grapefruits Oranges 66 %
6%
Fig. 1.1 World citrus fruit production by types 2001/02.
Source: FAO
Oranges account for more than two thirds of the
world production of all citrus fruits, of which
other important species are the lemon, grapefruit
and mandarin (see Figure 1.1).

Italy
Spain
California
Florida
Caribbean
Mexico Morocco
Brazil
Central America
Argentina
South Africa
Four groups of fruit are of commercial significance
in the production of orange juice products:
• The sweet orange, also known as the China
orange, Citrus sinensis
• The sour or bitter orange, also known as the
Seville orange, Citrus aurantium
• The mandarin orange and tangerine varieties,
Citrus reticulata
• Hybrid oranges (tangors) which result from
various crosses between tangerines and sweet
oranges.
Of these, the sweet orange is by far the most
important. In several markets, including Europe,
only juice made from sweet orange varieties,
Citrus sinensis, may be labelled as orange juice.
To be cor rect from a horticultural viewpoint, the
common name for the species Citrus reticulata
is mandarin, some varieties of which are called
tangerines. However, the word tangerine is often
used as the common species name.
Most citrus plants are propagated vegetatively
by bud wood cuttings (scions – the top part that
controls the type of fruit) grafted on to a differ-
ent rootstock. This means that trees of the same
cultivar are genetically identical and respond
similarly to their environment, for example fruit
3
1.2 A global overview
Greece
Turkey
Israel Japan
China
Egypt
Australia
Fig. 1.2 The major orange-growing regions.
ripens at a similar time, which allows efficient
harvesting and operation of processing plants.
However, it also means that trees of the same
variety in a grove are susceptible to the same dis-
eases and physiological disorders. As required
in different regions, bud wood may be grafted
on to rootstocks known to be resistant to certain
diseases or drought.
During their first few years of growth orange
trees do not bear fruit, but when they do, the yield
per tree increases gradually until the trees reach
maturity at about 10 years old.
1.2 A global overview
Oranges are cultivated in tropical and subtropical
regions around the world. The trees can grow in
a wide range of soil conditions, from extremely
sandy soils to rather heavy clay loams, although
they grow best in intermediate types of soil.
Local growing conditions, such as climate,
type of soil and grove practices, have a large
influence on the quality of fruit produced and on
the extracted juice. An orange variety, for example
Valencia, may have quite different properties when
grown in different parts of the world. The major
orange-growing regions are shown in Figure 1.2.
 1.2 A global overview
Approximately 65 million tonnes of oranges are
produced per year worldwide. About 40 % of the
total tonnage is processed, the rest being con-
sumed as fresh fruit. Whenever possible, growers
Million tonnes
prefer to sell oranges to the fresh fruit market as
their price is normally higher than for fruit sold
for processing into juice. In some countries this
can lead to a significant variation in the amount
of fruit processed from one year to another.
Florida and Brazil are the world’s largest fruit
producing countries. Here the majority of fruit
harvested is processed because the orange varie-
ties in these regions are grown for processing
rather than for direct consumption.
Due to the planting of new trees, world orange
production continued to increase into the early
2000’s – mainly in Florida, Brazil and China.
World orange production is also expected to
increase further in other regions as a result of
improved planting programmes, cultivating
techniques, and support given to orange grow-
ers. Nevertheless, unwanted climatic effects like
frost and storms, along with uncontrolled diseases
of fruit trees, could reduce crops and juice yields
significantly. Recent years have seen notable fluc-
tuations in world orange production.
1.2.1 LARGE-SCALE DEVELOPMENT
Commercial cultivation of oranges intended for
large-scale processing into fruit sections and
juice began in Florida in the 1920’s. In the late
1940’s, frozen concentrated orange juice for home
dilution was developed in the USA. This led to a
rapid growth in orange juice consumption. As a
result, the cultivation and processing capacity of
oranges in Florida grew rapidly.
However, severe frosts in Florida drastically
reduced fruit yields and killed many trees during
the 1960’s, 70’s and 80’s. To secure the supply of
orange juice for the US market, trees were planted
and large processing plants were built for orange
concentrate in Brazil. The first concentrate plant
was built in Brazil in the early 1960’s and the large
expansion in production capacity took place dur-
ing the 70’s and 80’s. Orange processing in Brazil
was established by US companies.
4
120
Others
100 USA
Brazil
80
60
40
20
0
Citrus fruit Oranges Oranges for
processing
Fig. 1.3 World citrus fruit production
and processing, 2001/02.
Source: FAO
In 1983 Brazil surpassed Florida as the world’s
number one orange producer. However, new
trees that were planted further south in Florida
in areas less affected by frost are now bearing
fruit. This has boosted Florida’s orange produc-
tion significantly and in years with good yields
the state meets most of the US demand for juice.
Figure 1.3 shows the estimated world citrus fruit
production and processing for the 2001-02 season
(mid-01 to mid-02).
China has the fastest growth in citrus fruit
production as a result of the intensive planting
of new trees. So far, most oranges in China are
consumed fresh, with only a small amount of
fruit being processed. The Mediterranean is an
important region for growing high-quality fruit.
As more and more Mediterranean oranges are
being eaten fresh, juice production is gradually
declining in this region.
1.2.2 ORANGE CROP DISEASES
Like any other fruit, orange trees are susceptible
to diseases. These may affect the leaves or fruit
and even kill the trees. Because diseases have a
large economical impact on the citrus industry,
many orange-growing regions allocate large funds
for research on citrus diseases, and develop more
resistant fruit cultivars and cultivation methods
to limit their effects.
 1.3 Bridging the seasons

The characteristics of a disease will determine

the appropriate response to control it. Control
methods include the eradication of infected trees,
chemical suppression of disease-transmitting in-
sects and using resistant rootstock for grafting.
New trees should come from controlled nurseries
where seedlings are protected from airborne or
soil contamination.
The inspection of groves and follow-up of
measures taken are important for successful con-
trol of a disease. Large eradication programmes
may require special funding. In the 1940’s almost
all orange trees in Brazil were destroyed following
an outbreak of CTV (Citrus Tristeza Virus). New Fig. 1.4 Harvesting seasons in Brazil and Florida.
plantings were made using a different rootstock
(Rangpur Lime) resistant to this virus.
Among the serious citrus diseases found today
is Citrus Canker, caused by Xanthomonas bacte- 1.3 Bridging the seasons
ria, that results in premature leaf and fruit drop. Oranges can only ripen on the tree and the qual-
There is no treatment but the disease is limited ity of the fruit begins to deteriorate immediately
by removing all trees within a 60 m radius of in- after picking. Therefore, the time between pick-
fected trees. CVC (Citrus Cholorosis Variegated), ing fruit and processing it into juice and other
caused by a bacterial pathogen transmitted by the products should ideally be as short as possible
sharpshooter insect, leads to spotted leaves and – less than 24 hours – although longer periods
small fruit. The fungal disease Citrus Black Spot are not uncommon.
causes lesions on the fruit skin, which make fruit Because the orange is a seasonal fruit, each re-
unsuitable for consumption although it can still gion strives to grow orange varieties with different
be processed. ripening periods (see Figure 1.4). This prolongs
In 1999, a new disease was discovered in Bra- the total harvesting period in a region and allows
zil called Citrus Sudden Death (CSD) because it greater utilisation of processing equipment.
caused the rapid decline and death of trees with To provide a year-round supply to consumers,
fruit and leaves still on them. It is caused by an juice must be stored to bridge the gap between
insect-transmitted virus (similar to Tristeza) and seasons. Most of the juice is stored frozen as con-
in just a few years it has spread to important citrus centrate. This is called Frozen Concentrated Orange
areas of São Paulo State. Juice, or just FCOJ as it is referred to within the
Certain rootstocks are resistant to the Sudden industry. For the same amount of ready-to-drink
Death virus. Now there is intensive replanting (RTD) juice, concentrate requires 5–6 times
using resistant trees as well as in-arching, where less volume for storage and shipping than single-
resistant seedlings are planted next to an existing strength juice. Thus shipping costs over long dis-
exposed tree and a by-pass is grafted onto it above tances are significantly higher for single-strength
the bud union. However, since these alternative products like not-from-concentrate juice (NFC).
rootstocks are less resistant to drought, they may
require more irrigation or be used to plant groves
in areas having a wetter climate.

5
 1.4 Fruit selection
Juices from early and late fruit varieties differ
in quality as regards colour, sugar content, etc.
To deliver products of specified and consistent
quality throughout the year, concentrate suppli-
ers blend concentrates produced from different
orange varieties. Most NFC products also consist
of a blend of juices extracted at different times
of the season. Blending of NFC may take place
within the producing country or in the import-
ing market. The difference in quality and yield
between different orange varieties is reflected in
the range of market prices.
1.4 Fruit selection
In Brazil, the typical processing season is from
June to February. In Florida, oranges are usually
processed from late October to early June. Good
quality fruit is harvested for the greater part of the
season. In the Mediterranean, the period yielding
fruit of quality suitable for processing is shorter
than in Florida and Brazil.
NFC is essentially juice as it is extracted direct-
ly from the fruit. Regulations and the production
process allow for very limited, if any, adjustments
to product characteristics other than blending NFC
from different varieties. Therefore careful selec-
tion of the fruit is necessary for NFC production.
In concentrate production it is possible to ad-
just certain quality parameters. Careful control
of the evaporation step, essence recovery and the
possibility of blending concentrates that differ in
character enable the processor to meet many dif-
ferent product specifications. Hence, variations
in fruit properties are less critical for concentrate
production.
6
In plants where NFC is produced, concentrate
should also be produced to make use of the “non-
optimal” fruit. In most regions, fruit best suited to
NFC production is available for only part of the
season. The proportion of NFC and concentrate
produced in a certain region will depend on the
availability of suitable fruit.
At present, NFC production makes up a low
percentage (<10 %) of the total juice produc-
tion in most orange-growing regions except for
Florida, where the share of NFC production can
reach 45 %.
With oranges grown to be eaten fresh, a cer-
tain amount of fruit is rejected because of poor
appearance (up to 20 %). The rejected fruit is
used for processing into juice. This is why juice
processing facilities are also found in regions
which specialise in producing oranges intended
for the fresh fruit market.
1.5 Inside an orange
Essentially, an orange is a ball of juice sacs
protected by a waxy skin, the peel. The peel
consists of a thin outer layer called the flavedo
and a thicker, fibrous inner layer called the albedo.
Orange-coloured substances called carotenoids in
the flavedo give the fruit its characteristic colour.
Vesicles (a small sac or cavity) containing peel oil
also present in the flavedo contribute to the fruit’s
fresh aroma. The white spongy albedo contains
several substances which influence juice quality,
often negatively, if they find their way into ex-
tracted juice. These substances include flavonoids,
d-limonene, limonin and pectin.
ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS
FCOJ = Frozen concentrated orange juice
NFC = Not-from-concentrate juice
Single strength = The natural strength of juice
and that at which it is consumed.
Single-strength equivalent (SSE) = Concen-
trate and other products stated as their corre-
sponding amount of single-strength juice.

Central core
Flavedo Juice vesicles
Albedo
Oil sacs
Seed
Segment
Segment wall
Fig. 1.5 The structure of an orange.
The edible portion of the fruit is known as the
endocarp. It consists of a central fibrous core, in-
dividual segments, segments walls and an outer
membrane. The segments contain juice vesicles,
or juice sacs, that are held together by a waxy
substance. Seeds may also be present within the
segments. (See Figure 1.5.)
Apart from the juice itself, droplets of juice
oil and lipid are also present in the juice vesicles.
The juice contains sugars, acids, vitamins, miner-
als, pectins and coloured components along with
many other components. These are discussed in
more detail in subsection 2.2.
After juice is extracted, pieces of ruptured
juice sacs and segment walls are recovered as
pulp. When these particles are large, they are
referred to as floating pulp because they rise to
the surface of the juice. Very fine particles and
suspended solids that gradually accumulate at the
bottom of the juice are called sinking pulp.
7
1.6 Squeezing out every drop
1.6 Squeezing out every drop
In theory, the aim of the juice extraction process
is to remove the maximum amount of juice from
the fruit without including any peel. In practice,
a compromise is made between the possible juice
yield and the desired product quality. The maxi-
mum juice yield from an orange is 40–60 % by
weight depending on the fruit variety and local
climate. Valuable oil from the peel is recovered
during juice extraction. Volatile flavours from the
juice are also recovered during juice processing.
The remaining material is mainly pulp, peel,
rag and seeds. Some pulp is recovered for sale as a
commercial product. Soluble solids are reclaimed
from the remaining pulp stream by washing with
water. d-Limonene is extracted from oil in waste
peel for use in the chemical and electronics
industry. Other by-products such as pectin and
clouding agents are sometimes recovered. Peel
and other residual waste can be dewatered and
dried as pellets for animal feed. Because orange
waste is very biodegradable, small plants may
dispose of it as landfill.
Increased cost-efficiency is important for
the orange juice industry. The development of
equipment within the citrus processing industry is
aimed at increasing juice yields while maintaining
juice quality. It is also very important to reduce
energy costs and to further refine by-products and
find new uses for them.
 1.7 Primary and secondary products
1.7 Primary and secondary
products
The orange is one of nature’s gifts. The two
primary products – whole fruit and juice – are
enjoyed worldwide. Various secondary products,
the by-products, help to maximise profits and
minimise waste. No part of the fruit is unused
after the juice is extracted if fruit throughput
justifies investment in equipment needed to turn
pulp and peel into commercial products.
A range of products that can be obtained from
oranges is summarised below, many of which
are discussed in greater detail in other sections
of this book. Yields of the various products de-
rived from Florida Valencia oranges are shown
in Figure 1.6.
Fresh fruit
After picking, fruit intended for the fresh fruit mar-
ket is sent to packing stations where it is normally
graded by visual inspection, washed, coated with
wax and packed. The detergent used in washing
may include fungicides. As traces of fungicide
could find its way into juice, fruit from packing
houses may not be processed into juice for sale to,
for example, the European Union countries.
1000 kg
Juice
Pulp: 30 kg
Peel oil: 3 kg
Peel, rag and seeds: 413 kg
8
Juice
This product is produced either:
• as a single-strength (natural strength) bulk
product in frozen or aseptic form (NFC);
• as bulk concentrate normally frozen (FCOJ).
Comminuted citrus base
A by-product made either by milling the whole
fresh fruit or by mixing juice concentrate with
milled peel. This product is used as an ingredient
for fruit drinks. Because comminuted citrus base
has a stronger flavour and provides more cloud
than pure orange juice, it imparts a good orange
flavour to fruit drinks of low fruit content. It was
originally developed in the UK.
Pulp
This is ruptured juice sacs and segment walls
recovered after the extraction process. It can be
added back to juice and juice drinks to provide
mouthfeel and give a natural appearance to the
product. Pulp, also traded as “cells”, is usually
distributed frozen but also in aseptic bag-in-box
containers.
553 kg
Essence oil: 0.1 kg
Essence aroma: 1.1 kg
65 °Brix concentrate: 100 kg
Evaporated water: 452 kg
Fig. 1.6 Products derived from whole
Florida Valencia oranges.
Source: SunBase, Florida
 1.7 Primary and secondary products

Pulp wash d-Limonene

A product reclaimed from washing the pulp The major component of peel oil. Industrial
stream. Pulp wash contains soluble fruit solids d-limonene is recovered as a by-product from
and is often used in fruit drink formulations waste peel in the feed mill. It is sold for use in
as a source of sugars and fruit solids. It is also the plastics industry as a raw material for the
used as a clouding agent to provide body and manufacture of synthetic resins and adhesives.
mouthfeel because of its pectin content. If the It has also found use as a solvent, e.g. in the
law permits, pulp wash is sometimes added to electronics industry.
juice in-line before concentration. Pulp wash is
Animal feed
also referred to as water-extracted soluble orange
Dry pellets made from the material left over from
solids, WESOS.
juice processing. The waste stream consists of
Peel oil (cold-pressed oil) peel, rag, unrecovered pulp and seeds. This resi-
The oil extracted from orange peel. Some peel oil due is dewatered and dried to form concentrated
is added to concentrate after evaporation prior to fodder for cattle and sheep.
long-term storage. It masks or slows down the de-
Citrus molasses
velopment of a cardboard off-taste during storage.
The syrup produced from the concentration of
Peel oil is sometimes used by blending houses and
liquor pressed from the wet waste stream. It is
juice packers for extra additions to concentrate. It
used in producing animal feed pellets or as raw
is sold to flavour manufacturers for the production
material for the production of citrus alcohol by
of various flavour compounds used in the bever-
fermentation.
age, cosmetics and chemical industries. In trading,
it is often referred to as CPO, cold-pressed oil, or Pectin
CPPO, cold-pressed peel oil. A less common by-product of fruit peel. Pectin
can be extracted from the peel for use in jam,
Essence
marmalade, jelly and preserve production.
Essence comprises the volatile components re-
covered from the evaporation process. These are
separated in an aqueous phase and an oil phase.
The water-soluble compounds (essence aroma)
are sometimes added back to the concentrate
or juice product. The oil phase (essence oil) is
different from peel oil and contains more of the
fruit flavour. Essence oil is also used as add-back
to concentrate. Both aroma and essence oil are
raw materials used by flavour companies for the
manufacture of flavour mixtures for the beverage
and other food industries.

9
 1.8 Major orange-producing regions

Mexico 1.7 %
Cuba 1.3 %
Greece 1.2 %
South Africa 0.9 %
1.8 Major orange-producing Australia 1.1 %
Egypt 0.4 %
regions Others 1.7 %
Together, Brazil and the USA grow 50 % of the
world’s oranges and produce more than 85 % of the Spain 2 %
global orange juice supply (12 billion litres/year). Italy 3 %
Regions contributing to the majority of world or-
ange juice production are shown in Figure 1.7.
The export of orange juice onto the world
market is dominated by Brazil. US exports are
quite small as a consequence of the large domestic
Brazil 51 %
market for orange juice. (See Figure 1.8).
USA 36 %
The USA has been a significant net importer
of juice. However, as juice production in Florida
increased as a result of new tree planting, US net
juice imports have gradually declined to a low
level, the quantities depending on the size of the
Florida harvest. Thus more juice available on the
world market must find new or existing markets.
Figure 1.9 shows the orange juice production in Fig. 1.7 World orange juice production, 2001/02.
Source: FAO
Brazil and Florida between 1996-2003.
1.8.1 BRAZIL
During the 2002/03 season, the orange crop in
Brazil was about 15 million tonnes (370 million
boxes of 40.8 kg/90 lb). Almost all commercial The majority of Brazilian oranges goes into
groves and processing plants are located in the processing. Nevertheless, the domestic fresh
state of São Paulo, where 280 million boxes were fruit market, selling for home-squeezed orange
produced. The 2002/03 harvest saw a 25 % lower juice, makes up a significant share of the total
fruit yield than the previous and following har- production resulting from the increase in per
vests, following cyclic fluctuations in yield. capita income.

1800

1600

1400
Thousand tonnes

1200

1000

800
Others
600 Belize
Costa Rica
400 Brazil Spain
USA
200

0
86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00
Year
Fig. 1.8 World export of frozen concentrated orange juice
(FCOJ), NFC volumes calculated as concentrate.
Source: FAO

10
 1.8 Major orange-producing regions

10,000

8,000
Brazil
Million litres

6,000

4,000
Florida

2,000

0
96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02 02/03

Fig. 1.9 Orange juice production in Brazil and Florida as SSE, single-strength equivalents.
Source: Florida Department of Citrus

Sweet oranges comprise the bulk of the Brazilian Groves are not normally irrigated and climatic
crop. The most important varieties are: variations, including drought, can have a strong
influence on fruit yield and juice quality. Some
Pera Rio (June to mid-July; mid-August citrus varieties (Hamlin and Valencia) have a bi-
to mid-December) ennial cycle which leads to cyclic fluctuations
Pera Natal (September to mid-January) in orange output. The variation in yield per tree
Valencia (mid-July to September;mid- obtained during recent harvest seasons is shown
October to January) in Figure 1.10.
In Brazil, the “bloom” – the time when the
Brazilian fruit tends to be smaller, less round and tree flowers and becomes pollinated before
to have a thicker peel than oranges grown for the new crop of fruit starts to grow – does not
processing in, for example, Florida. The normal occur at the same time for all the trees in a
processing season for Brazilian juice plants is grove or plantation. As a consequence, trees
from late June through to early February. in a grove bear fruit of differing ripeness at
any given time. Since fruit in a specific grove
is gathered at one picking, the harvested crop
will therefore vary in maturity. This variation
2.50
in fruit ripeness forces the processor to make
compromises in the juice extraction process
Boxes/tree

2.25
that affect both the quality and yield of juice
produced. Nevertheless, the processor can
2.00
modify process conditions and use essence
1.75
recovery and juice blending to compensate for
variations in fruit to produce juice concentrate
1.50 of consistent uniformity.
96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02 02/03 Most juice in Brazil is processed into concen-
Crop year trate that is exported in large volumes. There is
Fig. 1.10 Average orange yield per tree in São Paulo a small but growing production of NFC. This is
expressed as boxes of 40.8 kg (90 lb)/tree. intended for the South American market, as well as
Source: USDA Gain report Brazil
overseas export to North America and Europe.

11
 1.8 Major orange-producing regions
1.8.2 FLORIDA
During the 2002/03 season, the orange crop in
Florida was about 8 million tonnes (200 million
boxes). This was a smaller yield, 15 % lower, than
average for the early 2000’s. More than 95 % of
the orange crop harvested in Florida is processed
into juice or juice products.
A combination of climatic conditions, tree
variety and soil conditions results in fruit that
has a low appeal to the fresh fruit market, but
produces a very high quality of juice.
The skin is not uniform in colour and it is often
quite green or yellow. The peel is fairly difficult
to remove, which contributes to consumer rejec-
tion. However, the round shape and thin peel of
Florida oranges make them ideal for mechanical
extraction systems.
The main varieties of sweet oranges are:
Early season
Hamlin (October to January)
Parson Brown (October to January)
Mid-season
“The round shape and thin
peel of Florida oranges make
Pineapple (December to March)
Late season
Valencia (February to June)
During the early part of the season the orange
juice is light in colour and has a low oil content,
whereas during late season the juice has a stronger
colour and higher oil content. Some mandarin
and hybrid fruit is also processed into juice
from December to April for blending in small
amounts with orange juice to obtain the desired
colour and/or flavour.
12
Florida also produces about 40 % of the world’s
grapefruit, of which 40 % is sold as fresh fruit and
60 % is processed into juices and fruit products.
The Florida orange juice processing season
extends from late October to late May/early June.
Seasonal variations occur from year to year de-
pending on the weather.
Climatic conditions in Florida are such that
the bloom occurs uniformly and during a very
short period of time, usually two or three weeks.
The high level of grove management includes ir-
rigation and intensive pest and weed control. This
combination of favourable climate and proficient
grove management enables the fruit to ripen uni-
formly for efficient harvesting. Moreover, the uni-
form fruit quality enables the processor to select
the optimum processing conditions for the fruit
harvested each day.
them ideal for mechanical
dejuicing systems
”
There has been a shift in processing oranges away
from FCOJ to NFC to meet the demand of the
North American market. At present, 35–45 % of
the total orange crop goes to NFC production.
In years with lower orange yields, processing
to NFC is favoured while FCOJ production is
reduced. Most NFC juice is consumed in the US.
There are relatively short distances between juice
production and consumption.

1.9 Other regions
California
California is the second largest orange-produc-
ing area in the US as regards quantity of fruit,
but is the leading supplier of oranges to the fresh
fruit market. The dry climate results in oranges
with thick skin and good appearance that appeal
to consumers. The state produced about 2 million
tonnes of oranges during the 2001/02 season.
The dominant sweet orange variety in Cali-
fornia is Navel, a seedless variety, followed by
Valencia. Both are grown primarily for the fresh
fruit market. About 20 % of the crop, which for
some reason is considered unattractive to con-
sumers, is used for fruit processing.
Navel orange juice has the peculiarity of de-
veloping a bitter taste after processing. In small
amounts, Navel juice can be used for blending
with other juices or, alternatively, the bitterness
can be removed in a debittering process.
Other orange-growing states in the USA are
Arizona and Texas.
Mexico
During the 2000/01 season, 3.8 million tonnes
of oranges were produced in Mexico. Oranges
make up two thirds of citrus production, limes
come second with nearly 30 % of total produc-
tion and their plantation area is increasing. The
sweet orange crop is dominated by the Valencia
variety, and most of the fruit (about 85 %) goes
to the fresh fruit market. The majority of groves
are small, a result of Mexican land reform and
regulation that limit the size of farms. In the
orange-growing areas there is often a shortage
of investment money and difficulty in achiev-
ing effective grove management. This leads to
variations in crop size and fruit quality from
year to year.
The production quantity of FCOJ depends on
world market prices for FCOJ and raw material
costs. In years with short orange supply, prices
are high in the domestic fresh fruit market and
so less fruit goes to processing.
13
1.9 Other regions
Caribbean and Central America
This region includes several areas of small but
increasing orange cultivation and orange juice
production. Valencia is the most common vari-
ety of sweet orange. Grove management is not
intensive and irrigation is rare. Climatic varia-
tions lead to differences in crop yield and juice
quality between seasons. The main product in
this region is frozen concentrate, although NFC
is also produced for export markets.
The orange processing capacity has been
consolidated in Belize and Costa Rica, whereas
capacity has expanded in Cuba, the largest pro-
ducer in the region. Cuba’s citrus production
increased steadily in the 1990’s. However, in
2001 a hurricane damaged a large part of the
citrus-growing area. Cuba’s orange production
in the 2001/02 season was 0.4 million tonnes, of
which more than half went to processing. Cuba
is among the world’s most important grapefruit
producers, but output was dramatically reduced
by the hurricane.
Valencia oranges are harvested from Decem-
ber to June. Fruit harvested from March onwards
tends to be high in sugar and low in acidity, which
leads to very high Brix:acid ratios (>25). This
juice therefore requires blending.
Argentina
Citrus production in Argentina was about 2.3
million tonnes in 2003. Oranges made up about
30 % of the total crop, the main outlet being the
fresh fruit market. However, lemon is the most
important citrus crop, with Argentina being the
world’s largest producer of lemons, yielding about
1 million tonnes annually.
Most lemons are grown in the northeast prov-
ince of Tucuman. One third is exported as fresh
fruit, whereas about two thirds are processed
into lemon juice. Local consumption of lemons
is small, and the main markets for lemon ex-
port lie in the Northern Hemisphere. Fresh fruit
export to some regions has been constrained
by the required protocols and phytosanitary
standards, but these demands are now being
increasingly met.
 1.9 Other regions

China Japan
China has the highest growth in citrus fruit produc- Citrus fruit grown in Japan consists primarily of
tion, with the provinces Sichuan, Guangdong and mandarin varieties, some of which are processed
Zheijang accounting for the largest yields. In 2001, into juice. However, since the strict restrictions
the seasonal production was about 12 million tonnes, governing fruit juice imports into Japan were
up 50 % in 5 years, and extensive citrus tree planting lifted at the end of the 1980’s, production of man-
is expected to further increase harvests. Neverthe- darin juice has decreased to a low level. Imported
less, compared with other large citrus-producing orange juice concentrate now meets the needs of
regions, fruit yields are relatively low because of the rapidly expanding domestic juice market.
poor cultivar availability and grove practices. Japan is also a large importer of fresh grape-
Mandarins account for more than half of fruit and orange fruit, mainly from the US. Peri-
citrus harvests in China, although the trend is ods of economic downturn also show in declining
to reduce mandarin planting in favour of sweet imports.
orange cultivars. These include Hamlin, Valencia
Australia
and Chinese varieties, which make up about 30 %
Sweet orange varieties in Australia are Navel and
of the total citrus production. Most oranges are
Valencia. Because of the high popularity of Navel
consumed fresh with very little being processed
– it is easy to peel and enjoyable to eat – and new
into juice; the predominant processed product is
plantings replacing old Valencia trees, it now
canned mandarin.
accounts for about half of the crop and supplies
At present, the majority of oranges are har-
the fresh fruit market. The orange production in
vested during a short period. Since fruit quality
Australia was about 0.6 million tonnes for the
deteriorates rapidly after harvesting, there is only
2001/02 season, a high-yield year in the biennial
a short fresh fruit consumption period of 3–4
yield cycle.
months. In comparison, Brazil and Florida have
Fruit for processing, mainly Valencia, typi-
typical harvesting cycles with balanced yields
cally accounts for 40 % of the total harvest. The
over 7 months. Therefore there is a strong desire
Australian market for NFC has increased rapidly
in China to change to fruit varieties that result in
over the last few years and domestic producers are
longer consumption and processing periods.
shifting from FCOJ to NFC production, which of-
The per capita growth in income has led to
fers higher profitability. It is difficult for Austral-
the rapidly increased demand for orange juice,
ian producers to compete at world market prices
especially in large cities. But until greater orange
for concentrate in the domestic market. Frozen
production can support efficient processing, this
concentrate now accounts for half of the juice
demand will continue to be satisfied by juice im-
market, mainly imported from Brazil.
ports over the next few years. Likewise, it will
There is also a drive to increase the export of
be difficult to meet the demand for fresh fruit
fresh fruit, primarily Navel, to Far East markets
by domestic production in the foreseeable future,
and increasingly to the US. As Australia has an
especially as the per capita fresh citrus consump-
alternate season to the US, it can supply the US
tion is expected to increase by 50 % over the next
market with high-quality fruit during the Califor-
10 years. Fresh fruit will continue to be the main
nia Navel off-season.
market for domestic oranges.
When China joined the WTO in 2001 it agreed
to reduce tariff rates, a measure that promotes
higher imports of fresh fruit and orange juice.

14
 1.9 Other regions

Million tonnes/year Oranges in the Mediterranean region are primarily

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 grown for the fresh fruit market, both domestic
and for export to European countries. About 15 %
China
of regional crops goes into processing. The Medi-
Spain terranean is also important for other citrus fruits.
Mandarin production is about 4.5 million tonnes,
Mexico or 30 % of world production. Lemons, about 3 mil-
India
lion tonnes, account for 30 % of world supply.
Spain is the largest Mediterranean producer of
Italy oranges and mandarins, the most important sweet or-
ange varieties being Navel and Valencia. Exports to
Iran
fresh fruit markets dominate. Production of orange
Argentina concentrate has been reduced drastically in Spain
because production costs are not competitive with
Egypt world-market concentrate prices. This is despite the
fact that processors in European Union countries
Pakistan
are entitled to a significant subsidy for purchasing
Turkey fruit for juice production. NFC is produced for the
European market from high-quality Valencia fruit
Japan but volumes are limited by fruit availability.
South Africa

Morocco “Mediterranean
Spain is the largest
producer of
Greece
oranges and mandarins
Cuba

Australia
Production
Processing
Israel
Fig. 1.11 World citrus fruit production and processing
except Brazil and Florida, 2001/02.
Source: FAO
Mediterranean countries
In order of crop size, the most important orange-
growing countries in the Mediterranean are Spain,
Italy, Egypt, Turkey, Greece, Morocco, Syria, Alge-
ria and Israel. About 11 million tonnes of oranges
are grown in this region (2001). This represents
about 20 % of world orange production, and
slightly more than the current yield in Florida.
”
The cultivation of seedless clementines in Spain
has met with success and is much appreciated by
consumers. Most fruit is exported and accounts
for 50 % of world mandarin exports.
In Italy, orange concentrate production has
also dropped drastically because of strong inter-
national competition as regards price. However,
several types of blood orange unique to Sicily are
grown on the island. Juice from these oranges has
created a niche market for export of both NFC and
concentrate. In other cultivation areas, replace-
ment of blonde oranges with more profitable pink
grapefruit is taking place.

15

Citrus production in Israel has been declining
for many years. Orange production was less than
0.2 million tonnes in 2002, similar to grapefruit
production. The drop in concentrate production
has caused the closure of processing plants.
Uprooting of orchards is carried out because of
low profitability, urbanisation and an increasing
water shortage.
The main varieties of sweet oranges grown in
Israel are Shamouti (early) and Valencia. (Jaffa is
not a fruit variety but a trade name used for fruit
and juice exported from Haifa harbour.)
The CMBI (Citrus Marketing Board of Israel),
which encouraged the production and marketing
of citrus for more than 65 years and actively built
up the European juice market, closed in 2003.
16
1.9 Other regions
South Africa
South Africa has an expanding citrus industry, the
main orange varieties being Valencia and Navel.
Most of the orange production, some 1.3 million
tonnes, is exported as fresh fruit. About 20 % goes
to the domestic fresh fruit market and the same
amount is processed into concentrate.
Traditionally, the main export market for or-
ange fruit was Europe, but deregulation in 1997
opened up new opportunities that led to Japan and
the Middle East becoming important markets.
South Africa has good potential for exporting
fresh fruit to the northern hemisphere because
of its alternate season. However, increased trade
depends on South Africa meeting the phytosani-
tary requirements and production protocols of the
importing regions. Changes in the organisation of
the South Africa citrus industry have taken place
aimed at enabling producers to meet importers’
demands more efficiently.
2 Orange juice quality
and categories

In section 2 you will read about:

• How quality is assessed in objective and
subjective ways.
• Substances and factors that are important to
juice quality, such as sugars and acids, cloud,
pulp, flavour and colour components, and
vitamin C.
• How the different quality parameters are
measured.
• Orange juice categories and the terms used to
describe the various types of orange juice.
• An introduction to regulations governing
juice quality.

17
2. Orange juice quality
and categories
Summary
The most important compounds that influ-
ence the quality of orange juice are sugars
and acids, flavour and colour components,
and vitamin C. These compounds, plus cloud,
are analysed to define and grade juice. The
°Brix scale is used to measure sugar con-
centration, and juice acidity is measured
by titration. There are several methods for
measuring cloud and colour. Flavour is
evaluated using subjective methods and is
thus difficult to define and measure.
The deterioration of juice quality is
mainly related to flavour degradation,
nonenzymatic browning and nutrient loss.
Enzyme activity affects the mouthfeel of
juice, and the formation of limonin makes
juice taste bitter.
2.1 Juice quality
2.1.1 DEFINING QUALITY
For food products, quality is subjective and what
is good quality must ultimately be determined by
the consumer. This is also true for orange juice.
The quality of orange juice as perceived by the
consumer is made up of:
• taste
• mouthfeel
• colour
However, because orange juice is traded and con-
sumed worldwide, its quality cannot be determined
solely by subjective assessments. To make assess-
ments more objective, several quality parameters
have been defined. Some of these parameters are
used to classify (grade) orange juice, while others are
used to specify the product for trading. Table 2.1 lists
the important quality parameters for orange juice.
18
Juice categories and
relevant terms
Many special terms are used for the two
main categories of orange juice products,
ready-to-drink orange juice and juice con-
centrate. Some of these terms are referred to
in the regulations of certain countries, other
terms are merely used in juice marketing
and trading.
Standards and regulations governing
product origin, juice processing, juice
quality and product labelling are imple-
mented by a number of regulatory bodies
in different trading blocs. There is a general
desire worldwide to harmonise the stand-
ards in force.
TABLE 2.1 IMPORTANT QUALITY
PARAMETERS FOR ORANGE JUICE
Sugar content (°Brix) Flavour
Acid content Oil content
Ratio of °Brix to acid Colour
Cloud Vitamin C
Pulp Defects
All the parameters listed in Table 2.1, except fla-
vour, can be determined by standard methods of
analysis to give meaningful and reliable results.
Orange juice flavour can only be evaluated by
sensory means, usually by groups of panellists.
These analysis methods have been collected and
published in books by, for example, Redd et al.
and Kimball.
 2.1 Juice quality

All processing and storage of juice on its way to

TABLE 2.2 AIJN QUALITY REQUIREMENTS the consumer should aim at maintaining the initial
FOR ORANGE JUICE quality as much as possible. Equally important is
Properties Direct Reconstituted
the quality of water used to reconstitute orange
juice juice juice, as juice made from concentrate comprises
Relative density 20/20 min. 1.040 min. 1.045 85 % added water.
Corresponding °Brix min.10 min. 11.2 The effects of processing on quality are mainly
related to flavour degradation, while nonoptimal
Direct juice storage conditions can result in juice browning,
Properties / Reconstituted juice
L-ascorbic acid (vit. C)
loss of vitamin C and flavour changes.
at end of shelf life, mg/l min. 200
2.1.2 QUALITY SPECIFICATIONS
Volatile oils, ml/l max. 0.3
Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), mg/l max. 10 Guidelines for quality standards for fruit juices for
the European Union are specified in the Code of
Volatile acid as acetic acid, g/l* max. 0.4 Practice for the evaluation of fruit and vegetable
Ethanol, g/l max. 3.0
D/L Lactic acid, g/l max. 0.2 juices, published by the AIJN (see Section 11).
Arsenic and heavy metals, mg/l max 0.01–5.0 The absolute quality requirements defined in the
(various values) reference guideline for orange juice are given in
* Indication of hygiene, not juice acidity.
Source: AIJN Code of Practice, Reference guideline for orange juice, 2003
Table 2.2.
In the USA, the US Department of Agriculture,
USDA, is responsible for specifying quality
The basic quality of orange juice is determined standards for orange juice. To be labelled USDA
at the fruit processor, i.e. by the quality of fruit Grade A, orange juice produced in Flor ida must
accepted at the reception area, fruit storage meet the quality requirements shown in Table
times and the way juice is extracted. Subsequent 2.3. The quality factors are measured on a 100-
processing steps cannot improve the main quality point scale. If the total score is above the limit
parameters of a given production batch. This can but just one of the quality factors does not meet
only be achieved by blending a particular juice the Grade A requirements, the juice still may not
with superior quality orange juice or concentrate. be labelled Grade A.
This is commonly done. The most important properties of orange juice
that are directly related to these quality parameters
are discussed in the following subsections.

TABLE 2.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR USDA GRADE A ORANGE JUICE

Orange juice NFC From concentrate

Analytical factors
°Brix min. 11.0 min. 11.8
Ratio (Brix:acid) 12.5 – 20.5 12.5 – 20.5
Recoverable oil % v/v. max. 0.035 max. 0.035

Quality factors
Appearance fresh orange juice fresh orange juice
Reconstitution —— reconstitutes properly
Colour very good, min. 36 points very good, min. 36 points
Flavour very good, min. 36 points very good, min. 36 points
Defects practically free, min. 18 points practically free, min. 18 points
Total score min. 90 points min. 90 points
Source: USDA

19
 2.2 Important properties of orange juice
2.2 Important properties
of orange juice
2.2.1 SUGARS AND ACIDS
The most important properties of orange juice
are its sugar content and ratio of sugar to acid
content. This ratio indicates the balance between
sweetness and acidity in the juice. When the fruit
matures, this ratio increases as sugars are formed
and the acid content decreases. The sugars are
mainly sucrose, glucose and fructose in a ratio
approximating to 2:1:1. The sugar content of juice
is normally expressed as °Brix. In extracted juice,
the concentration of sugar typically varies from
9 °Brix for early season varieties to 12 °Brix for
fruit harvested late in the season (e.g. Florida).
The °Brix (degree Brix) scale, which was
developed by the sugar industry, relates the
sucrose concentration of a pure sucrose solu-
tion to its density at 20 °C. °Brix for orange
juice not only includes the concentration of dis-
solved sugars but all soluble solids. Dissolved
substances other than sugars will influence the
result of °Brix measurements. Thus, the level of
acid, the second most abundant dissolved mate-
rial, is often measured and a correction of the
Brix value is made.
For single-strength orange juice, acid cor-
rection is small and the term °Brix is commonly
used without correction to mean only the sugar
content. However, in measuring °Brix of orange
juice concentrate, the acid correction is important
due to the much higher acid content of concen-
trate. Here, the term “°Brix, cor rected” is used.
°Brix = % soluble solids (w/w)
°Brix, corrected = % sugar (w/w)
In the laboratory, the °Brix of orange juice is
analysed by measuring the juice density with a
hydrometer or by measuring the refractive index
of juice using a laboratory or hand refractometer.
Two basic instruments used for Brix analysis are
shown in Figure 2.1. Read more about in-line
measurements in subsection 7.4.
20
HOW BRIX IS MEASURED
Brix can be measured by either density measure-
ments or by measuring the refractive index of
orange juice. Both are then related to a 100 %
sucrose solution. The °Brix scale is based on
standard measurements at 20 °C. If the juice/
concentrate is analysed at any other tempera-
ture, a correction factor is used to equate the
°Brix measurement to one made at 20 °C.
To obtain the corrected °Brix value, the acid
content must be determined by titration in order
to read the right correction value from a table.
Density measurements: The buoyancy of a
hydrometer in a liquid is directly proportional to
the density of the solution. Therefore a scale on
the neck of the hydrometer can be calibrated to
a °Brix scale. The °Brix is read on the scale at
the point where the liquid meniscus intersects
the hydrometer neck. Before measuring it is
important to deaerate the juice since air in the
sample can affect the result.
Hydrometers are mostly used for single-
strength juice. Although a hydrometer is an
inexpensive instrument, it is not very fast and
requires up to 200 ml of sample.
For in-line Brix measurements, one com-
mon method of measuring density is to feed
the sample through an oscillating tube. When
the liquid enters the tube, the frequency of the
oscillations decrease. From this deviation the
density can be calculated. Read more about in-
line density measurements in subsection 7.4.8.
Measurement of light refraction: Light travels
at different speeds in different media such as
air, water or sugar solutions. When light passes
from one medium to another it is refracted, that
is, it changes direction slightly. This property of
a medium can be quantified as its refractive in-
dex. The refractive index of a solution depends
on its total soluble solids. Therefore °Brix can be
determined by measuring the refraction of light.
Either analogue or digital refractometers can be
used to measure °Brix. Although refractometers
are more expensive than hydrometers, they are
more frequently used because they can measure
over a large scale, 1–70 °Brix, and they constitute
a fast method which requires very little sample,
2–3 ml. Modern refractometers can compensate
for temperature, but independent correction for
acids is necessary, especially for concentrates.
Read more about in-line refractometer meas-
urements in subsection 7.4.7.
Source: Dan A. Kimball, Citrus processing: Quality control
and technology, 1991.
 Density: 2.2 Important properties of orange juice
– hydrometer
Light refraction:
– hand refractometer
Fig. 2.1 Examples of instruments used
for °Brix measurements.
After sugars, acids are the most abundant class of
soluble solids in orange juice. The acids comprise
mainly citric acid and to a lesser degree malic acid.
Some of the acids are in the form of salts, which
give orange juice a buffering capacity. Thus even
though the acid content may vary a lot, the pH of
juice extracted from mature oranges is generally
between 3.2 and 3.8.
Total acid content (acidity) is measured by
titration and is often expressed as grams citric
acid per litre juice.
Ratio
The Brix:acid ratio is very important for taste as
it is a measure of the balance between the sweet
and sour sensation. As oranges ripen, the acidity
decreases while the sugars increase. Therefore
the Brix:acid ratio will also increase.
The ratio decides the maturity of the fruit be-
fore harvesting. Maturity standards for oranges
in Florida require a minimum °Brix of 9.0 and a
minimum Brix:acid ratio of 10. Consumers prefer
a ratio around 15 and therefore it is often necessary
to increase the ratio. In the USA, the only permit-
ted way of doing this is by blending low-ratio juice
with juice of higher ratio extracted at other times
of the season. In the EU, sugar may be added up to
15 g/l orange juice for balancing acidity without
having to label it “sweetened”. Many other coun-
tries also allow for small amounts of sugar addition
but the permitted level may vary. Therefore local
legislation should be consulted for details of this.
Adding sugar to juice for sweetening purposes (in
higher concentrations than above) is not permitted
without highly visible information on the package
indicating this. Removal of acid from the juice, dea-
cidification, would also increase the ratio but is not
permitted for orange juice in most countries.
Orange juice concentrate can be bought with
different ratios; typical values lie between 14
and 17.
21
HOW ACIDITY (TOTAL ACIDS)
IS MEASURED
Juice acidity is measured using a chemical titra-
tion method. Orange juice contains acids which
release hydrogen ions (H+) in solution. When a
-
base which releases hydroxyl ions (OH ) is added
to an acid media, a chemical reaction takes place
which gradually turns the solution neutral.
H+ + OH- ➞ H2O
To analyse the acid content in a juice sample, a
base (e.g. sodium hydroxide, NaOH) of known
concentration is slowly added under agitation
until a specific pH value is reached. Most
official methods state that the end pH value
should be 8.1 (AOAC*) – 8.2 (USDA). However,
some producers titrate to pH 7.0 (neutral) and
it is therefore important to mention the end pH
together with the acid content. The change in
pH can be detected by a pH electrode or by us-
ing a sensitive pH colour indicator that changes
colour abruptly at pH 8.2.
When the size of the juice sample, the con-
centration of the base and the amount of base
added are known, the total concentration of ac-
ids in the juice can be calculated. In Europe, the
acidity of orange juice is expressed as grams
citric acid per litre juice, whereas in the USA it
is expressed as grams citric acid per 100 grams
juice, or % w/w.
EXAMPLE
Procedure
Pipette 10 ml of single-strength juice or weigh
5–10 g concentrate into a beaker.
Pour sodium hydroxide (NaOH) of concentra-
tion 0.1562 N into a burette.
The pH can be indicated by adding 5 drops of
phenolphthalein or by using a pH meter.
Titrate until a slight darkening in the juice per-
sist or until pH 8,20. Read off the amount NaOH
used from the burette.
Calculation
Single-strength juice: % acid = ml titration
solution/10.4
Concentrate: % acid = ml titration solution/g
concentrate
* AOAC The association of official analytical chemists.
°Brix
Ratio =
% (w/w) citric acid
 2.2 Important properties of orange juice
2.2.2 CLOUD AND PULP
Cloud in orange juice is considered a desirable
characteristic; it gives an opaque appearance
to the juice and is important for the mouthfeel.
Orange juice cloud is formed by soluble and in-
soluble (suspended) compounds released during
juice extraction.
Pectin is an important soluble cloud con-
stituent because it increases the viscosity of the
juice liquid, thereby allowing solid particles to
remain suspended.
So-called “cloud loss” is caused by a loss in
viscosity due to reactions between pectin mole-
cules and calcium. In the reaction, long pectin
molecule chains are formed which settle to the
bottom. Cloud loss leads to total separation of
suspended particles, leaving an upper clear phase
and a lower cloudy phase consisting of solid matter
settling towards the bottom. If the same reaction
between pectin and calcium takes place in orange
juice concentrate, it will instead lead to gelation
of the concentrate. You can read more about this
in subsection 4.4.
Another important contributor to the opaque
appearance of juice is the suspended solids also
known as pulp. The very small pulp particles
called “sinking pulp” are closely related to cloud.
Some sedimentation of these particles will occur
during storage. This sedimentation is not related
to cloud loss.
Pulp is made up mainly of ruptured fruit cell
walls, segment walls and core fibre. Two kinds of
pulp are found in juice:
Sinking pulp, comprising particulate fibres that
gradually settle out with time. This type of pulp
is found in all orange juices and is an important
part of orange juice cloud. Typical values in
single-strength juice range from 5 % to 12 %,
although the results depend very much on the
analysis method used.
22
HOW CLOUD AND PULP
ARE MEASURED
Sinking pulp
Different procedures for measuring the pulp and
concentration of suspended solids of orange
juice are used by the industry, therefore it is
often impossible to compare values from differ-
ent sources.
The juice sample is centrifuged in graduated
tubes for a known time and speed. Solid mate-
rial above a certain particle size will settle in
the tubes according to the time and centrifugal
force of the lab centrifuge. The recommended
procedure in the juice industry is to spin the
juice sample at 370 g for 10 minutes at 26 °C
(USDA method), whereas the Tetra Pak method
uses 3000 g for 3 minutes. The higher g-force
used in the Tetra Pak method gives a more
compact pulp sediment and therefore a signifi-
cantly lower reading than the recommended
method for juice of the same pulp content.
The sedimented quantity is expressed as vol-
ume %. Not only may the time-speed combina-
tion vary greatly from method to method, but the
results may be referred to suspended solids, sus-
pended pulp, centrifugable pulp or sinking pulp.
Floating pulp
Floating pulp is often measured by a sieving
method. Sieves with different hole sizes are
used to determine the amount and size of pulp
in juice. (See subsection 8.2)
Cloud stability
Cloud stability is detected by measuring the
transmittance of orange juice in a spectropho-
tometer. This analysis method is based on the
fact that both soluble and insoluble solids absorb
light, with the result that only a certain amount of
total light entering a sample will pass through it.
The orange juice sample is centrifuged to take
away larger suspended particles (sinking pulp).
The light transmittance of the sample serum is
measured at 650 nm wavelength. The denser
the cloud in orange juice, the lower the transmit-
tance, %T. Orange juice cloud is not considered
stable if the %T at 650 nm is greater than 36.
 2.2 Important properties of orange juice
Floating pulp, or cells, consisting of larger solid
matter. Most of this rises to the surface of juice
after it has been stirred. Floating pulp is added
to concentrate or reconstituted juice. Its typical
concentration in single-strength juice, if added,
is 5–30 g/l (sieving method).
More information on pulp and pulp production
can be found in Sections 5 and 8.
Essence oil
Essence
Peel oil aroma
Figure 2.2 The product streams that contain volatile
flavours in a juice processing plant.
2.2.3 FLAVOUR
Flavour is the complex experience of the smell,
taste and mouthfeel of a product. The flavour of
orange juice is built up from a number of compo-
nents, the most important of which are:
• acids and sugars for taste
• cloud for mouthfeel
• volatile components for smell and taste
23
The first two components have already been dis-
cussed. The following text deals with the volatile
components of orange juice.
‘Volatile’ means that the compounds will va-
porise from the juice at elevated temperatures.
The lower the temperature at which the fla-
vour component evaporates, the more volatile
is the component. As the orange ripens the volatile
components are created and increase. The vola-
tiles are of two types – water-insoluble oils and
watersoluble aromas. In everyday speech, volatile
components are referred to as flavours.
During the production of orange juice concen-
trate, most of the volatile flavours are removed
in the evaporation step by being boiled off to-
gether with water. This results in juice concen-
trate having a flat cooked taste. However, the
volatiles boiled off from juice are collected in
an essence-recovery system. The orange flavour
in the juice can later be restored by adding back
the recovered fractions.
Processing and storage of juice along the
whole supply chain from tree to consumer are
responsible for the changes in orange flavour
caused by the juice losing or gaining components.
Gained compounds are called off-flavours (not
always volatile). They are of two kinds;
• natural constituents of the fruit itself
(from peel and rag)
• compounds formed during processing
and/or storage
It is important to extract the juice so that unwanted
compounds from peel and rag do not enter the
juice. This is mainly achieved by avoiding too
high a pressure in the juice extractors and juice
finishers (see Section 5). Heat and oxygen are in-
volved in the formation of off-flavour compounds
during processing and storage. However, it is still
not totally clear how the compounds that affect
juice flavour are formed.
 2.2 Important properties of orange juice
Volatile flavours
The volatile flavour components are found in
three product fractions – peel oil, essence oil
and essence aroma. To obtain good orange juice
flavour, components from all three fractions must
be present. However, the exact blend needed for an
optimal orange juice flavour is still unknown.
Peel oil. The recommended level of peel oil in
reconstituted FCOJ is about 0.02 % v/v. When
added to juice, peel oil gives body and freshness,
although when used alone it can give an artificial
taste. Oil levels much above 0.02 % v/v give rise
to juice harshness and a burning taste.
Essence oil. A typical concentration of single-
strength essence oil added to orange juice from
concentrate is about 0.01 % v/v. When added to
juice, essence oil gives top-notes and makes the
juice fruity, green and sweet.
Essence aroma. The essence aroma gives top-
notes to the juice and makes it fresh and sweet.
A typical concentration of single-strength aroma
added to orange juice is about 0.2 % v/v. Ad-
dition of this fraction is more commonly found
with premium quality juice products than with
standard products.
“Acompounds
balance of flavour
from peel oil,
essence oil and aroma is
essential for optimal
orange flavour
” determined by titration.
The add-back of flavours to concentrate or recon-
stituted juice is carried out to different degrees.
Most processors add essence oil, essence aroma
and additional peel oil to develop a special taste.
And today, dedicated flavour companies usually
offer specially developed flavour packages to en-
hance a certain desirable flavour profile. Further
details on volatile flavour fractions can be found
in Section 8.
24
There is no reliable instrumental method of de-
termining orange juice flavour objectively, so it is
carried out by sensory evaluation. As this is based
on subjective judgement, the setup of sensory
analyses for flavour and the evaluation of results
are complicated. Nevertheless, flavour analyses
must be carried out because of the importance of
flavour as a quality parameter.
Oil content
The oil content is often equated to d-limonene
concentration since d-limonene is the dominant
compound present in both peel oil and essence oil.
d-Limonene acts as a carrier of flavours but con-
tributes little to the flavour itself. However, excess
of d-limonene can give a burning taste to juice.
Juice processed under USDA directives may
have a maximum oil content of 0.035 % v/v. How-
ever, consumer preferences range between 0.015
and 0.020 % v/v. High levels of oil in juice result
from squeezing the fruit too hard when extracting
the juice (for increased yield).
HOW OIL CONTENT IS MEASURED
The analysis of volatile flavours is often compli-
cated and involves expensive instruments like a
gas chromatograph. The d-limonene level can,
however, be measured by a simpler titration
method, the Scott method.
Since it is not possible to titrate the juice
directly, the oil must first be removed from the
juice. This is done by heating up a mixture of
juice and alcohol; the alcohol and oil evapo-
rate readily from the mixture since they are the
most volatile components. The alcohol and oil
vapours are cooled down and collected. The
d-limonene content in this mixture can then be
The titration in the Scott method is based on
a chemical reaction between d-limonene and
bromide. A red colour indicator is first added to
the sample and then a bromide solution is added
slowly. Bromide reacts with d-limonene, and as
long as there is d-limonene present in the sam-
ple the solution remains red. When the sample
no longer contains any d-limonene the bromide
reacts with the colour indicator instead and the
red colour disappears. As the concentration of
the bromide solution and the amount added to
reach the colour change are known, it is possible
to calculate the d-limonene content. The oil level
is expressed as % v/v in 11.8 °Brix juice.
 2.2 Important properties of orange juice
In juice used for concentrate production, high
oil levels are not regarded as a serious problem
since most of the oil is boiled off in the evapo-
rator. However, high oil levels in juice from the
extractors may indicate that other unwanted com-
pounds have entered the juice. These nonvolatile
flavour compounds do not leave the juice during
concentration.
For NFC production, low-pressure extraction
and/or downstream deoiling of extracted juice
is often used to reduce the oil content to near
0.020 % v/v.
Bitterness
Orange juice should have no noticeable trace of
bitterness. Although even very small amounts of
bitter substances are detectable by the consumer,
bitterness is not a common problem for orange
varieties normally used for processing.
Some orange varieties mainly intended for the
fresh fruit market such as Navel and Shamouti
contain a precursor (a chemical substance that
gives rise to another more important substance)
of a very bitter compound called limonin. The
precursor itself is not bitter, which explains
why fresh fruit and freshly extracted juice of
these varieties do not taste bitter. But when the
juice sacs are ruptured during extraction, the
limonin precursor enters juice where it is rap-
idly converted to limonin. A debittering process
involving ultrafiltration and adsorbing separated
bitter components on to resin can be used to re-
move the bitter taste. For more information see
Braddock, 1999.
25
2.2.4 COLOUR
The intense colour of orange juice is mainly due
to compounds called carotenoids. Colour, which
should be bright yellow to orange-red and not too
pale, is an important quality parameter. The fact
that the USDA regards colour scores and flavour
scores as equally important for orange juice shows
the significance of colour.
HOW COLOUR IS MEASURED
Colour is an important quality parameter but it is
difficult to define and measure. The main meth-
ods used to evaluate colour are presented below.
Known colour standards
An example of this subjective method is the set
of USDA colour tubes. One merely matches the
colour of the orange juice sample with one of
six colour standards in glass tubes. The com-
parison should be done under a defined light
intensity around 150 candela.
Colorimetry
A colorimeter emits a flash of light from a pulsed
xenon arc lamp to illuminate a juice sample and
then measures the reflected light. The measured
colour is then expressed according to the L, a
and b scale. The L axis indicates lightness of
colour, the a axis indicates the colour range
from red to green, and the b axis indicates the
colour range from yellow to blue.
Although colorimetric measurements are not
subjective, meaningful interpretation of results
can only be made after fairly long experience.
The colorimeter can also be calibrated to known
standard colour tubes to make the colour meas-
urements easier.
Spectrophotometry
The colour change that may occur in orange
juice during storage is often called browning
and is measured with a spectrophotometer. All
cloud material is removed from the juice sample
and the light absorbed by clear juice is meas-
ured at 420 nm wavelength. A wavelength of
420 nm is selected because the more red-brown
the sample is, the more light will be absorbed at
this wavelength. The higher the absorption, the
more accurate the results.
 2.2 Important properties of orange juice

In dry and cooler climates such as in the Medi-

terranean, the colour of juice is well developed, TABLE 2.4 AVERAGE VITAMIN C
while in hotter and more humid climates like that CONTENT IN SOME FRUITS
of Florida the pigments are diluted and thus juice Fruit Average vitamin C,
has less colour. The only legal way to enhance col- mg per 1000 g
our is to blend the juice in question with another edible fruit
orange juice with a higher colour score (e.g. from Peach 80
Apple 80
Valencia oranges). In the USA it is also allowed Blackberry 210
to add up to 10 % tangerine juice to early sea- Kumquat 380
son orange juice. Tangerine juice contains more Grapefruit 390
Orange 530
carotenoids and therefore has stronger colour than Papaya 620
most other citrus varieties. Kiwi fruit 630
Colour can be measured by comparing the Strawberry 660
Guava 1840
juice with known colour standards in glass tubes,
Blackcurrant 2100
or by using a colorimeter.
Off-colours result primarily from formation
Source: Svenska statens livsmedelsverk, Livsmedelstabell
of brown compounds that dull the natural colour
of juice, not by changes in the pigments them-
selves. The colour pigments of orange juice are
quite heat-stable compared with colour pigments Typical values for vitamin C in freshly extracted
in other foods. The formation of brown-coloured juice range from 450 to 600 mg/litre. Provided
compounds occurs after excessive heat treatment that the production procedures are correct, only
or long storage at room temperature. a small loss of vitamin C occurs during the in-
itial processing into concentrate. More significant
2.2.5 PROMOTING HEALTH
losses may occur during processing at the juice
A number of compounds present in juice con-
packer and during ambient storage. Typical values
tribute to its health-promoting image. Some of
for orange juice when consumed range from 200
these are discussed below.
to 400 mg/litre.
Ascorbic acid Vitamin C is essential for the synthesis of
Ascorbic acid – vitamin C – is the most important collagen, the most abundant protein in mam-
nutrient in orange juice. One of the reasons for mals. Collagen is the major fibrous element of
this is that consumers regard oranges as a good skin, bone, blood vessels and teeth. A lack of
source of vitamin C. Some other fruits contain vitamin C leads to scurvy, which causes loss of
more vitamin C than oranges but few are as popu- teeth, bleeding skin and ulcers.
lar, see Table 2.4. The level of vitamin C in freshly Vitamin C is sometimes suggested to have an
extracted orange juice may vary a lot depending anticancer effect by its reaction with and inac-
on orange variety and growing conditions. tivation of free radicals in the body. A wide range
of other beneficial effects of vitamin C are also
suggested. However, contrary to popular belief,
it has never been shown clinically that vitamin C
has a preventive effect on the common cold.

26
 2.2 Important properties of orange juice

TABLE 2.5 THE NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF

FRESHLY EXTRACTED ORANGE JUICE

Content per 100 g

Constituent Range Average
Protein (total Nx6.25), g 0.58–1.29 0.91
Amino nitrogen, g 0.029–0.07 0.047
Fat (ether extract), g 0.0–0.66 0.2
Soluble solids, total, g 8.1–17.7 12.3
Sugar, total as invert, g 6.23–14.3 9.15
Reducing sugar, g 2.25–8.83 4.60
Sucrose, g 2.98–6.24 4.37
Acid, total, g 0.58–1.73 1.09
Malic acid, g 0.10–0.17 0.15
Mineral nutrients as ash, g 0.27–0.70 0.41
Calcium, mg 6.3–29.4 15
Chlorine, mg 3.6–13.2 6
Fluorine, mg 0.11–0.19 0.14
Iron, mg 0.1–0.8 0.3
Magnesium, mg 9.8–17.1 12
Phosphorus, mg 8.0–30.0 20
Potassium, mg 116–265 196
Sodium, mg 0.2–2.4 0.5
Sulphur, mg 3.5–11.3 8
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C), mg 26–84 56.6
Betain, mg 41–47 44
Biotin, mg 0.0001–0.00037 0.00024
ß-Carotene, mg 0.23–0.28 0.12
Choline, mg 7–15 11
Flavonoids, mg 80–118 99
Folic acid, mg 0.003–0.007 0.004
Inositol, mg 170–210 194
Niacin, mg 0.13–0.46 0.26
Pantothenic acid, mg 0.06–0.3 0.13
Pyridoxine (B6), mg 0.023–0.094 0.038
Riboflavin (B4), mg 0.013–0.059 0.021
Thiamine, B1, mg 0.057–0.106 0.077
Vitamin B12, µg 0.0011–0.0012 0.0011

Source: adapted from Redd and Praschan.

Other nutrients Flavonoids and pectin are believed to be linked

Folic acid is also found in significant amounts in
orange juice. This B vitamin is required for DNA
synthesis and its deficiency is first expressed in
tissues with high rates of cell turnover. Pregnant
women are prone to folic acid deficiency which, in
rare cases, may affect the foetus. Folic acid is quite
heat-sensitive, but the vitamin C in citrus juice pro-
tects it from degradation during heat treatment.
to the reduction of blood serum cholesterol in
humans. The flavonoid hesperidin can, however,
cause problems during orange juice production as it
precipitates out as white flakes in the evaporator.
A number of other nutrients like thiamine
and potassium are also found in orange juice
but not in larger amounts than found in other
fruits and vegetables. A comprehensive list of
nutrients in freshly extracted orange juice is
given in Table 2.5.

27
 2.3 Orange juice categories
Ready to drink
NFC or direct juice
RTD juice made
from concentrate
For dilution
FCOJ 41–52 °Brix
2.3 Orange juice categories
Quality parameters as defined in product specific-
ations and grade standards provide orange juice
buyers and sellers with appropriate information
about the product they are handling. This applies to
any link in the production chain. To the consumer,
however, orange juice covers a wide range of prod-
ucts, many of which are not well-defined.
Many different terms are used within orange
juice marketing to describe the various products.
Several of these terms are not consistent and have
different meanings in different countries. Never-
theless, along with the increase in global trade
and marketing of orange juice, there is growing
pressure to harmonise the terms used.
Orange juice products can be divided into two
main categories – ready-to-drink juices and con-
centrates. The latter require dilution with water
before consumption. Ready-to-drink juices are
either NFC or reconstituted from concentrate.
28
Fig. 2.3 Main orange juice categories.
2.3.1 READY-TO-DRINK ORANGE JUICE
Ready-to-drink (RTD) orange juice is at the
strength at which it will be consumed. It does not
require dilution before drinking. Some categories
of RTD orange juice are given below.
Freshly squeezed orange juice
Juice packaged directly after extraction but with-
out pasteurisation or any other physical or chemi-
cal treatment. Its shelf life is very short.
Fresh orange juice
A misleading term that should be avoided. Some-
times it is used to mean freshly squeezed orange
juice, in other markets it is used for juice distrib-
uted chilled (NFC or made from concentrate).
Not-from-concentrate juice (NFC)
Juice which has neither undergone a concentration
step nor dilution during production. This term
originated in the USA.
Premium juice
A term which has been used in the USA and
Canada for NFC for marketing purposes.
Direct juice
A term sometimes used in Europe for NFC. The
expression “not from concentrate” is felt to imply
to consumers that juice derived from concentrate
is inferior to NFC. In European legislation NFC
is defined simply by the term fruit juice.

Pure juice or 100 % juice
Often used on a label to define pure juice, being
a direct juice or one made from concentrate to
distinguish it from nectar.
Orange juice from concentrate
This product is also known as orange juice made
with concentrate. The juice is produced by di-
luting orange concentrate with potable water.
FORTIFIED ORANGE JUICES
Juice with added floating pulp
This is juice with added floating cells (also known
as pulp or fruit meat). The product is sometimes
called Home style, Natural, etc.
The added cells provide mouthfeel and increase
the natural fibre content of juice. Juice without
floating cells is referred to as “smooth”.
Vitamin enriched
Both naturally occurring vitamins and man-made
vitamins can be added by packers to increase the
nutritional value of orange juice.
Calcium enriched
Calcium compounds, which are soluble in juice,
are added to juice by the packer to increase its
nutritional value.
Fibre enriched
Addition of nutritional fibre (normally not from
oranges) to increase the health value of juice.
RTD ORANGE PRODUCTS WHICH MAY
NOT BE CALLED ORANGE JUICE
Orange nectar
Orange juice with added sugar, acids and/or water.
The minimum fruit content varies according to leg-
islation. For orange nectar, EU regulations stipulate
min. 50 % fruit juice content at RTD strength.
29
2.3 Orange juice categories
Orange juice drinks
Drinks with a lower juice content than nectars.
They are not subject to juice legislation but to
general food legislation. In some cases they may
contain only peel oil and flavouring agents.
Orange flavour drinks
Products tasting of orange but containing no
genuine juice product.
2.3.2 CONCENTRATED ORANGE JUICE
Concentrated orange juice is diluted to single
strength before consumption. The most com-
mon orange concentrate products for the trade
and retail sectors are given below.
Frozen concentrated orange juice
(FCOJ), 65–66 °Brix
The standard product for traded orange juice
concentrate. It is concentrated approx. 5.5 times.
It is a bulk product only, stored and shipped at
–6 to –25 °C.
The term may be misleading as FCOJ at such
high concentration does not freeze solid but is
still pumpable.
FCOJ at approx. 55 °Brix
This product is often referred to as Dairy Pack. It
is a bulk product only. It is 66 °Brix concentrate
cut back (rediluted), e.g. with single-strength
juice and pulp, to the required concentration. No
further additions are needed at the juice packer
apart from water dilution. This product is com-
monly used by dairies.
FCOJ at min. 41.8 °Brix
A retail product, mainly in US, for dilution with
water (3 times) to single strength at home, in
restaurants, etc.
Concentrate at approx. 52 °Brix
A retail product aseptically packaged, mainly in
Scandinavia. For dilution with water (4 times) to
single strength at home, in restaurants, etc. It is
distributed chilled or at ambient temperature.
 2.4 Regulations governing juice origin
2.4 Regulations governing
juice origin
In the European Union and several other countries,
the term ‘orange juice’ may only be used for juice
extracted from sweet oranges, Citrus sinensis. In the
USA, regulations allow for up to 10 % of tangerine
or hybrid orange/tangerine juice to be included in
orange juice. Also Codex Alimentarius allows for
10 % mandarine juice. These added juices can im-
prove the colour and flavour of the blended juice.
In principle, regulations governing direct juice,
or NFC, require that flavour and pulp removed
during processing should be added back to the
same juice. For reconstituted orange juice, water
should be added back to the minimum concentra-
tion defined in the quality standard applied in a
country. Essences should be added back to restore
flavours, and pulp may be added to achieve the
desired properties of the final juice product.
Orange juice should come from the endocarp
of the fruit and be extracted by mechanical means.
The EU directives for fruit juices of 2001 allow
pulp wash in orange juice from concentrate, but
not in direct (NFC) juice. In-line addition of pulp
wash is also allowed in the US (up to 5 %) and
many other countries.
Although attempts are being made continually
to reach consensus between legislation in different
global trading blocs, regulations governing fruit
juices and other beverages still vary worldwide.
In general, legislation covers:
• product origin
• how juice processing may be carried out
• the composition and quality of fruit juices
• product labelling
30
In the USA, standards governing the composition
and labelling of food and the use of additives are
under the administration of the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) and the United States De-
partment of Agriculture (USDA). The standards
for orange juice identity (or juice origin) are
enforced by the FDA, whereas the standards for
orange juice grades (more or less the quality) are
enforced by the USDA.
In the European Community, legislation
covering fruit juices and fruit nectars is based
on a Council Directive concerning fruit juices
and similar products. The current directive
2001/112/EC came into force in 2001 and EU
countries were given until 2003 to comply with
it. The demands for labelling are outlined in the
Council Directive on labelling, although specific
labelling requirements are given in the fruit juice
Council Directive.
Countries in other regions have similar leg-
islation to that of the US and EU. Countries not
having their own legislation refer to the Codex
Alimentarius published by the FAO.
There is a general desire worldwide to har-
monise orange juice standards to promote free and
open global trading. This is an objective of the
Juice Products Association (JPA), whose mem-
bers are drawn from the United States, Canada,
Mexico, Central and South America, and Europe.
The JPA’s position is that the USDA standards
covering the grade and quality of orange juice
should be applicable throughout the major citrus
juice producing countries. It even suggests that
USDA standards should be adopted as a world-
wide harmonised standard. There are ongoing
discussions with European and other authorities
on this topic.
An overview of the most important aspects of
legislation in the US, EU and other countries are
found in Section 11, Standards and Regulations.
3 The supply chain and
global consumption
of orange juice

In section 3 you will read about:

• The structure of the orange juice industry.
• The evolving relationship between orange
growers and fruit processors.
• How marketing processors and bulk
processors operate.
• The activities of blending houses, juice
packers and soft drink producers.
• The fluctuations in the worldwide pricing
of bulk juice products.
• How FCOJ is traded as a commodity
product and the significance of the futures
market to bulk trading.
• Import duties with examples in certain
trading blocs and countries.
• The amount of orange juice products
consumed in major markets.

31
3. The supply chain
and global consumption
of orange juice
Summary
Orange juice products usually change
hands many times along the supply chain.
It is thus important for all involved in the
intermediate steps to be familiar with the
total sequence of juice production.
In Florida, orange growers are becoming
diversified agribusiness companies. In Bra-
zil, the large orange processors still get part
of their fruit from their own groves.
So-called marketing processors produce
and sell their own juice brands. Bulk proc-
essors mainly sell their products in bulk
form. Blending houses provide concentrate
and bases of consistent quality according to
defined customer specifications. Juice pack-
ers treat bulk product as required and then
pack it in consumer packages. Soft drink
producers may use orange concentrate and
prepared bases from blending houses as
raw materials.
3.1 The chain of supply
There are many links in the chain of supply for
orange juice – from ripe oranges ready for pick-
ing to the consumer opening a carton of juice at
a distant location (see Figure 3.1). The product
usually changes hands several times along the
way. It is thus important to be familiar with the
complete sequence of juice production in order
to understand the commercial conditions for each
type of company forming the intermediate links
in the supply chain.
This section refers generally to orange juice
production in Florida and Brazil, which dominate
the world juice market.
32
Pricing and trading
Special terminals for handling frozen con-
centrate in bulk are located in major ports.
The world market price of FCOJ fluctuates
according to its supply and demand. Free-
carrier Rotterdam warehouse is a common
standard for FCOJ (66 °Brix) traded prices,
which include freight charges to the port of
Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
The futures market enables the citrus
industry to manage commercial risks. It
also sets a value for FCOJ. The speculative
activity of the futures market provides the
finance needed to transact commercial
hedges and set price levels. In addition
to long-term contracts there is also a spot
market for FCOJ.
Quite large differences in import duties
for orange juice exist between importing
countries. As regards the consumption of
orange juice, the USA and Europe are the
largest markets.
Industry structure
Full vertical integration – i.e. having all the steps
from fruit harvesting to distribution of packaged
consumer product under one roof – is rare in the
orange juice industry. This has resulted not only
from geographical factors but also from the way
the industry has matured.
There is a trend for each link in the production
chain – growers, fruit processors, juice packers
and retailers – to become independent businesses.
This may be a natural consequence of the market-
place demanding increased and specialised com-
petence at each step of the production sequence.
It may also be partly due to commercial factors,
such as long-term supply contracts and the futures
market, that allow individual sectors of the citrus
industry to reduce their own commercial risk from
market price fluctuations.

Oranges
Packaged juice
– reconstituted and NFC
Bulk concentrate
Fruit processors and NFC
By-products
Bulk concentrate
and NFC
Fig. 3.1 The supply chain from
fruit harvest to consumers.
Soft drink bases
Blending houses
3.1.1 GROWERS
Orange growers manage the groves, harvest and
sell the orange fruit. They are organised in many
ways – from small independent growers selling
their fruit to a fruit handler or through a coop-
erative, to growers who are part of a large fruit
processing company.
For the fruit processor it is essential to secure
a continuous supply of oranges in sufficient quan-
tities and at the right price. Traditionally, many
orange processors have owned the groves needed
to supply them with all or the majority of fruit
required throughout a season. This is particularly
important during periods of uncertain fruit sup-
ply and unstable prices, e.g. as was experienced
during the Florida freezes in the 1980’s. Today,
however, the supply of fruit is abundant in most
regions, although the drop in concentrate prices
has made alternative outlets for fruit more inter-
esting than concentrate production.
33
3.1 The chain of supply
Packaged juice
and juice drinks
Still and
carbonated
soft drinks
Juice packers
Soft drink producers
The orange-growing and processing industry
undergoes constant change in line with evolving
commercial and political conditions. On the grow-
ers’ side, in Florida there has been a shift from
independent farmers to diversified agribusiness
companies that are active in marketing and inter-
ested in long-term business relationships.
Moreover, in Florida during the 90’s, grow-
ers divested themselves of juice production, and
processors who had until then owned their own
groves instead formed partnerships with growers.
Long-term agreements between processors and
growers ensure the stable supply of raw materials.
There are several organisations promoting the in-
terests of Florida citrus growers to give them a
stronger marketing and negotiating position than
their counterparts in other countries.
In Brazil, the large orange processors still
get part of their fruit (20 %) from their own
groves. The remaining fruit is mostly obtained
by long-term contracts with medium- and large-
size growers.
 3.1 The chain of supply
Growers
Fruit handlers
Fruit processors
Fig. 3.2 The supply of oranges to fruit processors.
How growers are paid
Fruit quantities are often quoted in “field box”
units. Based on Florida practice, one box is de-
fined as 90 lb (40.8 kg) of oranges.
In Florida, payment to growers is not based on
the weight of delivered fruit but on the amount
of soluble solids (juice sugars) obtained from the
fruit. The quantity of soluble solids is calculated
from the volume of juice extracted from the fruit
multiplied by the °Brix level of the juice. The
amount of extracted juice is determined by squeez-
ing a sample of oranges on a “State test extractor”.
Oranges rejected during screening at the process-
ing plant fruit reception area are not paid for.
In Brazil, payment to the growers was made
traditionally according to the gross weight of
delivered fruit, including rejects. Payment to-
day is still based on fruit quantity although the
contract format has changed. Standard contracts
with payment to growers based on FCOJ world
market prices were abandoned in the mid 90’s
and replaced by free negotiations.
3.1.2 TYPES OF FRUIT PROCESSOR
In short, orange processors take in fruit and proc-
ess it to produce concentrate and NFC. They can
be divided into two groups:
• marketing processors
• bulk processors
Marketing processors sell packaged juice under
their own brand name, which requires retail and
consumer marketing skills.
Bulk processors mainly sell their products in
bulk form, which requires skills in the efficient
distribution and marketing of a commodity.
34
The largest marketing processors are based in
Florida, such as Tropicana, the leading NFC
producer, and Citrus World. They process fruit
into juice and fill it into retail packages at their
own facilities. They also purchase additional juice
in bulk form from other bulk processors.
For marketing processors, the control of prod-
uct availability is regarded as more important
than ownership of manufacturing assets. As an
example, Coca-Cola now focuses on marketing
and distributing Minute-Maid brands, while the
production facilities are owned and operated by
a Brazilian bulk processor, Cutrale.
The majority of orange juice worldwide is
produced by bulk processors. Bulk delivery is
most important to the large Brazilian processors.
They do not possess their own consumer brands,
one reason being to avoid competing with their
bulk juice customers.
Several joint ventures have been created for
the rapidly growing NFC market in South Amer-
ica. Brazilian bulk processors pack retail products
at their facilities as co-packers for companies that
have their own branded products and distribution
and marketing chains.
The bulk products are transported in ship tank-
ers, tank cars or in individual containers, such as
200 litre (55 gallon) steel drums and one tonne bag-
in-box containers. Efficient transport is crucial for
these commodity products. (See also Section 6.)
Several terminal installations around the
world are dedicated to receiving and shipping
frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ) using
tankers. The larger Brazilian processors own
terminals in Brazil for exporting bulk products
from Brazil, and in Europe, the USA and Japan
for importing FCOJ into these markets. These
companies also own several large tanker ships
designed and dedicated to transporting FCOJ.
Recently, bulk ships and terminals dedicated to
handling chilled aseptic NFC from Brazil have
also come into operation.
Bulk processors make their money from the
difference in bulk concentrate prices and fruit
prices – the bulk processing margin. Florida
bulk processors are very vulnerable to the wide
fluctuations in FCOJ prices.

Bulk processors
Trading companies
Long-term contracts
Blending houses
Long-term contracts
Spot market
Fig. 3.3 The orange juice supply chain from bulk processors.
Therefore they need to take advantage of the
commodity trading market (and to benefit from
its commercial protection) in a similar way to
their Brazilian counterparts.
The links between Florida and Brazil strength-
ened during the 1990’s. The major Brazilian bulk
processors acquired several juice facilities in
Florida and operate 8 plants (2002) contribut-
ing to about half of Florida’s juice production.
Operating in both markets offers benefits such
as higher trading efficiency and balancing con-
centrate quality.
NFC, which has had a high growth rate in
Florida and now accounts for more than a 40 %
share there, offers better margins than FCOJ for
Florida juice producers. Bulk processors supply
NFC to juice packers and marketing processors
but some also co-pack in their own facilities.
The links between Florida and Brazil strength-
ened during the 1990’s. The major Brazilian bulk
processors acquired several juice facilities in
Florida and operate 8 plants (2002) contributing
to about half of Florida’s juice production. Op-
erating in both markets offers benefits in trading
efficiency and balancing concentrate quality.
The different routes that orange juice products
take from bulk suppliers are shown in Figure 3.3.
3.1.3 BLENDING HOUSES
Consistent quality between batches of FCOJ can-
not be maintained during processing. Variations
in flavour profile, Brix:acid ratio, pulp levels, etc.,
are unavoidable because fruit varies during the
35
3.1 The chain of supply
Long-term contracts
Juice packers
Spot purchases
season and operating conditions change in the
plant. Juice packers, however, need to buy raw
juice of defined quality as they, in turn, need to
supply the market with uniform products over
the long term.
The need for consistent juice quality has
created the industry segment “blending houses”.
Although they normally work with many different
fruit juices, orange juice is a primary product
for blending houses. Their purpose is to provide
juice packers with a concentrate (and sometimes
also NFC) that consistently meets defined qual-
ity specifications. They achieve this by blending
concentrates of different origin and adding flavour
fractions, often according to customer-specific
recipes. In addition to supplying the defined juice
product, blending houses normally have specialist
product know-how which is made available to
their customers. (Blending house operations are
also discussed in Section 6.)
Blending houses are often located in or near
the main ports receiving juice concentrates. The
larger Brazilian processors who have their own
terminal facilities also offer blending house
operations. The preparation of soft drink bases
is another important business activity of those
blending houses which have developed from
flavour-manufacturing operations.
Purchasing concentrate from a blending house
is generally more expensive than buying it on the
spot market. However, the buyer can be assured
of product quality meeting his demands.
 3.1 The 3.1
chain
The
ofchain
supply
of supply

2500

2000
USD/tonne

1500

1000

500
88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03
Year

Fig. 3.4 World market for FCOJ (Brazilian export prices Rotterdam)
Source: Foodnews

3.1.4 JUICE PACKERS
Juice packers take in bulk product, treat it as
required and then pack the product in consumer
packages. The juice packer may also control
the distribution of the packaged product. Juice
packer operations are described in more detail
in Section 7.
As with fruit processors, there are two main
categories of juice packer – those who market
their own brands and those who focus on co-
packing, e.g. for private label brands. There are
dedicated juice packers and dairies with juice
packing operations. The product range of juice
packers may include nectars and fruit-based still
drinks in addition to 100 % pure juices.
“Juice packers treat bulk
product as required and
Fluctuations in world market prices for FCOJ, not
always reflected in retail prices, put pressure on
juice packers. For a successful operation, the juice
packer requires important skills in several areas:
Sourcing: raw material costs constitute a major
share of the total costs. The right juice quality
and favourable contracts are vital to overall
profitability.
Processing/Packaging: where the focus is on
maintaining product quality and keeping running
costs, including product losses, low.
Distribution: distribution of packaged product
also accounts for a significant share of the total
costs, and efficient distribution therefore plays an
important part in overall profitability.

Marketing: marketing skills are important to both

then pack the product in packers who market their own brands and those
consumer packages who focus on co-packing.
”

36
 3.2 World market pricing for bulk juice products
3.1.5 SOFT DRINK PRODUCERS
Although the term soft drinks strictly means all
non-alcoholic drinks, the name soft drink pro-
ducers is commonly applied to manufacturers of
retail packaged carbonated beverages and fruit-
flavoured still drinks.
The soft drink producer may use orange con-
centrate as a raw material, but often he purchases
a prepared base from a blending house. For drinks
of low fruit content, the flavour of FCOJ is not
strong enough and so it has to be enhanced with
additional flavours. Other ingredients in the soft
drink base may be emulsifiers and preservatives.
At the soft drink producer, only sugar, acid and
water (plus carbonation as required) need to be
added to a ready-prepared base.
A few large multinational companies and
many local companies can be found among
the soft drink producers. As with juice pack-
ers, blending house specialists may provide
a valuable source of experience and product
knowledge for small to medium-sized soft
drink producers. Blending houses may also
help in developing new soft drink products and
in responding to new consumer trends.
3.2 World market pricing
for bulk juice products
World market prices for FCOJ have shown wide
fluctuations over the years. Prices increased dur-
ing the 1980’s as freezes in Florida reduced orange
supplies. Prices dropped between 1992 and 1994
as large harvests were again recorded in Florida.
In the autumn of 1994 a severe drought in Brazil
once more led to sharply rising prices for frozen
concentrate. (See Figure 3.4.)
In general there is a correlation between FCOJ
price levels and expected supply, but in the past
over reaction by the market has resulted in very
wide price fluctuations. This usually constitutes
an undesirable situation for both suppliers and
juice purchasers.
37
In the mid 1990’s world market prices for FCOJ
(66 °Brix) were quite stable around 1,500–1,600
USD/tonne CIF Rotterdam because of efforts made
by the Brazilian export association, ABE. However,
new producers entering the market and large FCOJ
stocks remaining after a cold European summer
led again to a slump in prices, as low as 700 USD/
tonne. In the early 2000’s price levels remained
around 1,000–1,200 USD/tonne. Although these
levels are claimed to be near or below break-even
for most juice processors, the purchasing market
did not allow increases in price levels.
Brazil is the dominant world exporter of
frozen concentrate and Europe the largest mar-
ket, with import harbours in Belgium and the
Netherlands. Rotterdam is a commonly used
reference for FCOJ world market prices. Free-
carrier warehouse means that the price includes
freight charges to the port of Rotterdam in the
Netherlands, and loading product, e.g. on road
tankers. But import duty and transport costs from
the tank farm to the user need to be added.
Price levels for Florida FCOJ are given in a
different unit, US dollar per pounds solid, which is
quoted free on-board carrier in Florida. Hence the
bulk price does not include overseas transport, but
this is not normally required as the main market
is North America.
FCOJ world market prices are set in US
dollars. Variations in the Brazilian currency
against the US currency influence the Brazilian
processors’ margins. For European markets, the
exchange rate of the Euro against the US dollar
will influence retail juice prices.
As regards the market for juice supply, the
extensive planting of new trees seems to assure
an adequate supply of fruit and orange juice
concentrate in the foreseeable future. Never-
theless, a reduction in Brazilian output due to
adverse climate effects or diseases can alter
this outlook.
 3.3 FCOJ commodity trading and the futures market
3.3 FCOJ commodity trading
and the futures market
The buying and selling of FCOJ have evolved into
commodity trading. Two of the largest Brazilian
bulk juice producers, Louis Dreyfus and Cargill
(both also producing in the USA), are major com-
modity trading companies active in several other
fields besides citrus. They have influenced the trad-
ing of citrus on the commodity trade market.
Commodity products, which are usually sup-
plied in well-defined units, can be traded on the
“futures” market. “Futures” are contracts agreed
for the future delivery of a physical commodity,
such as FCOJ. Cash price is the price at which
the actual commodity is selling for.
Risk management and price setting
The futures market provides a means of man-
aging risk for the citrus industry, a way for all
involved to hedge (protect against financial loss)
their risk exposure caused by fluctuations in cash
prices for products. Futures markets require the
participation of both hedgers (risk shifters) and
speculators (risk assumers). Hedgers are those in
the citrus industry, such as fruit processors and
sellers, who transfer unwanted risks associated
with their normal commercial activities. Specu-
lators (nonproducers/processors) seek financial
gain by cor rectly predicting changes in future
price moves. The speculative activity provides the
finance required to carry out commercial hedges.
In addition to risk shifting, the futures markets
also sets the value for one pound of FCOJ solids,
known as price discovery.
38
UNITS USED FOR BULK
JUICE TRADING
On the world market, frozen concentrates of
Brazilian and other origin are usually traded
per metric tonne product, with prices given as
USD/tonne concentrate. In the USA, however,
the basic unit for pricing orange fruit, single-
strength juice and FCOJ is the content of
soluble solids (in principle the sugars), not the
weight or volume of product. The unit used is lb.
soluble solids. The US futures market also use
lb. soluble solids to define product quantity.
The following approximate factors can be used
when converting prices:
For FCOJ of 66 °Bx
1000 USD/t conc. 0.70 USD/lb solids
1430 USD/t conc. 1.0 USD/lb solids
For NFC juice of 11.8 °Bx
1000 USD/t juice 3.82 USD/lb solids
260 USD/t juice 1.0 USD/lb solids
Trading of FCOJ futures takes place through
the Citrus Associates of the New York Cotton
Exchange, NYCE. This nonprofit organisation
provides the physical location where FCOJ fu-
tures and options are traded (by voice and hand
signals), and oversees the regulations governing
all transactions. It forms part of New York Board
of Trade, NYBOT. The regulations define quanti-
ties of FCOJ to be contracted and the time periods
allowed for trade and delivery of contracts (every
other month). Grade standards for product quality,
as well as product identification and inspection,
are also specified in the regulations.
 3.4 Import duties and juice imports
In 2004, a new form of futures contract was
introduced that recognised the Florida/Brazil
origin of FCOJ in order to more correctly follow
cash market transactions, which tend to value
FCOJ from Florida and Brazil differently to that
of other origins.
The futures market is important to the citrus
industry, not only as a tool for risk management
but also as a price basis for purchasing fruit and
for sales contracts for bulk concentrate. The
NYCE provides hedging opportunites for citrus
industry players active in Florida, but there is no
similar futures exchange providing risk manage-
ment in São Paulo.
The profit of bulk juice processors comes
from the price difference between the fruit and
concentrate. Therefore they must posses good
skills in marketing a commodity product and
risk management.
In addition to long-term sales contracts there is
also a spot market for FCOJ, delivered from tank
storage and in drums. Trade on the spot market
is high when price levels are unstable.
Products on the spot market may be of less
well-defined quality or product specifications
and thus command lower prices. During periods
of depressed retail prices for orange juice, juice
packers may be forced to acquire large volumes
of such juice on the spot market.
39
3.4 Import duties and
juice imports
There have been long-lasting negotiations be-
tween trading blocs aimed at reducing trade
barriers and promoting freer trade, including
that of citrus products. Examples are the GATT
(General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs) where
major agricultural agreements were established
in the Uruguay round of talks held in 1994. The
North American Free-Trade agreement, NAFTA,
intended to reduce trade barriers between USA,
Canada and Mexico was reached in 1994.
Work on a similar agreement to also include all
countries in South and Latin America, Free-Trade
Area of the Americas or FTAA, was initiated in
1998. Although scheduled to come into force in
2005, the participants are still discussing many
issues involved with the agreement. Since both
Brazil and Florida, the major orange juice regions,
are part of the FTAA, the agreement would have
a significant impact on orange juice trade. The
Florida citrus industry are carefully evaluating
the likely impact on Florida orange growers and
the juice market.
SOME TERMS USED WITH
TRADE TARIFFS
Ad Valorem tariffs: duty calculated as a per-
centage of the value of the imported product.
Freight costs are included in the product value.
Specific tariffs: a duty of a fixed amount of
money per unit of juice independent of the value
of the product.
Quota: defined maximum quantity of product
which is allowed, e.g. at a lower import duty.
SSE or single-strength equivalent: FCOJ
calculated as the volume of juice it would yield
when reconstituted to single-strength juice.
GATT: General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs.
NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement.
 3.4 Import duties and juice imports

3500

3000

2500
Thousand tonnes

2000

1500
Others
1000 Japan
USA/Canada
500 EU

0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Years
Fig. 3.5 The major juice import markets.
Source: FAO

For orange juice, there are quite large differences
in import duties between the various importing
countries. Duties often depend on the exporting
country, for example, several exporting countries
have agreements with respective importing markets
which enable duty-free or reduced import tariff. In
general, however, such agreements do not apply to
the major exporters, Brazil and the USA.
The US “duty drawback” procedure favours
the export of juice from the US. In the duty
drawback system juice exporters/importers can
recover the import duty paid for a certain volume
of juice if they export the same volume and kind
of product. US import duties distinguish between
FCOJ and NFC. Tariffs are higher for FCOJ than
NFC (calculated as single-strength juice.)
In general, citrus growers and fruit processors
receive little or no subsidies. Within the EU, how-
ever, significant subsidies are paid to orange proc-
essors who purchase fruit from EU fruit growers
at the minimum recommended fruit prices.
The European Union is the largest juice import
market, followed by the USA. The relative sizes
of the major juice import markets are shown in
Figure 3.5. The consumption of packaged orange
juice per region is shown in Figure 3.6.

5000

4000
Million litres

4341

3000

2000
2451

1000
1206 240
0
USA/Canada W Europe Asia/Pacific S&C America

Fig. 3.6 Consumption of packaged orange juice in certain regions, 2003.

Source: Euromonitor

40
 3.4 Import duties and juice imports
3.4.1 IMPORT DUTIES WITH SOME
TYPICAL EXAMPLES
European Union
Tariffs for orange juice imported into the Eu-
ropean Union vary greatly depending on the
exporting country. The dominant share of juice
imported into Europe comes from Brazil and is
subject to import duty for Most Favoured Nation
(MFN). This duty, which was 20 %, has gradually
been lowered under GATT, and is differentiated
according to the degree of concentration and
temperature.
EU import duties are ad valorem (a fixed per-
centage of the product value including freight).
Some import tariffs in effect in 2002 are presented
in the list below:
• From EU countries and some non-EU Medi-
terranean countries, 0 %
• Mediterranean Basin Preference
(mainly Israel and Morocco)
– within quota, 2.3 %
– exceeding quota, 5.7 %
• Lomé convention countries, 0 %
(African, Caribbean incl. Belize and Costa
Rica, Pacific)
• Most Favourable Nation (MFN) tariff
(applies to countries such as Brazil and USA)
– FCOJ at -18 °C, 15.2 %
– FCOJ at -10 °C, 12.2 %
• Mexico
– within quota for FCOJ, 3.8 %
– exceeding quota imported at MFN tariff
USA
Import duties are specific in the USA. The rates,
differentiated for FCOJ and NFC, are given as a
fixed fee per pound of soluble solids. Some of the
current duties, converted to US dollars per 100
litres single-strength juice, are given in the list
below. Most US juice imports are as FCOJ and
the largest exporter is Brazil, which is subject to
full MFN duty.
• Caribbean Basin Initiative beneficiary coun-
tries (e.g. Belize, Honduras, Costa Rica), 0 %
• Israel (as of 1995), 0 %
41
• Mexico
Phasing down to duty-free unlimited import
by 2008 (NAFTA agreement)
For 2003:
– within quota for FCOJ, 4.6 USD/100 l SSE
– within quota for NFC, 1.8 USD/100 l SSE
• Most Favoured Nation (e.g. Brazil)
FCOJ 7.9 USD/100 l SSE
NFC 4.5 USD/100 l SSE
The USA implements a “duty drawback” pro-
cedure. This allows US importers of FCOJ who
also export FCOJ or reconstituted orange juice
to be reimbursed 99 % of the import duty paid
on the same quantity of imported concentrate
as was exported within a 3-year period. NFC
exports are not eligible for drawback against
imported FCOJ.
Canada
Canada allows orange juice concentrate to
enter duty-free but levies import duty on single-
strength juice. All juice imports from NAFTA
countries (USA and Mexico) are tariff-free.
Japan
Until 1979 there was little fruit juice import
into Japan due to very low import quotas. The
quotas were gradually increased until they were
removed altogether in 1992. Import duties are
ad valorem.
• Most Favoured Nation tariff FCOJ, 25.5 %
Republic of Korea
Until 1989 juice imports were restricted by very
low quota. Following GATT agreement, quotas for
orange juice imports were removed in 1997.
• Most Favoured Nation tariff for FCOJ and
juice ad valorem, 55 %
China
Following China’s WTO entry, tariffs for imported
orange juice have decreased significantly. Tariffs
are ad valorem:
• Frozen juice Most Favoured Nation tariff,
7.5 %
• Nonfrozen single-strength juice MFN, 32 %
 3.5 Global orange juice consumption

Million litres

0 200 400 600 800

Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
UK
Canada
Brazil
China
South Korea

Fig. 3.7 Consumption of packaged orange juice in European

and other countries, 2003.
Source: Euromonitor

3.5 Global orange juice
consumption
North American and European markets are the
largest consumers of orange juice. The USA and
Canada account for some 50 % of total global
consumption of packaged orange juice, whereas
Western Europe consumes about 30 % of the total
volume. (See Figure 3.6.)
In the USA, consumption of orange juice,
about 5 billion litres/year in 2001, has remained
fairly constant over the past decade. Nevertheless,
there has been a constant shift in market share
for the three main types of orange juice in the
US market: frozen concentrate for home dilution,
ready-to-drink (RTD) juice made from concen-
trate, and NFC.
Frozen concentrate has steadily decreased
from a dominant position to less than 15 % of total
orange juice retail sales. NFC, which emerged
on the US orange juice market in the mid-80’s,
has gradually increased to take more than 40 %
market share. RTD juice made from concentrate
accounts for about 40 %. Virtually all RTD orange
juice in the US is distributed refrigerated (4 °C).
See also section 10.3.
In Europe, nearly all retail orange juice is RTD,
there is very little concentrate. The total orange
juice volume for Western Europe in 2000 was
about 3 billion litres.
European consumption has had a high growth
rate – almost doubling between 1983 and 1993
– but since then growth has slowed down to about
3 % annually.
Most orange juice in Europe is made from con-
centrate. The consumption of NFC has increased
over the last decade and now accounts for more
than 10 % of total orange juice sales. The growth
in per capita income and the perception of NFC
quality as being similar to that of fresh fruit have
driven the increase in NFC sales despite its high
price premium.

42

20
Litres / capita/year
15
16.6
10
13.8
5 8.3
0
USA
Fig. 3.8 Per capita consumption of orange juice in some countries, 2002.
Source: Canadean
NFC is retailed at up to double the price of or-
ange juice made from concetrate. Compared with
FCOJ, the 5–6 times larger storage and shipping
volumes for NFC combined with the stricter
quality demand on raw fruit for NFC result in a
significantly higher cost for bulk NFC imported
into Europe. During the introduction of NFC in
Europe the market was dominated by Florida
juice, but today NFC is often a blend of origins.
In other markets, a rapid growth in the con-
sumption of packaged orange juice is noteworthy
in South America, particularly Brazil. Some Far
East markets such as Japan and the Republic of
Korea have also shown large growth rates, al-
though these may fluctuate from year to year due
to economic factors. Large cities in the coastal
region of China constitute an area with high eco-
nomic growth and a rapidly growing demand for
orange juice. Eastern European counties are also
rapidly expanding markets
The consumption of packaged orange juice
in European and other countries is shown in
Figure 3.7.
3.5 Global orange juice consumption
2.7
UK Germany Japan
3.5.1 PER CAPITA ORANGE JUICE
CONSUMPTION
The USA is not only the largest total consumer of
orange juice worldwide, but it also has the highest
consumption per capita, some 16 l (4.2 US gal.)
per person per year. Per capita consumption in the
UK comes second, where orange juice accounts
for the highest share of all fruit juice with more
than 70 % of the market. Although Germany has
the highest total fruit juice consumption in Eu-
rope, because apple and blends dominate, the per
capita orange juice consumption is much lower
than in the UK. The per capita estimates in Figure
3.8 are based on data collected by market organi-
sations and refer to 100 % orange juice.
The Florida Department of Citrus (FDOC)
also estimates the overall orange juice utilisation
in major markets. This is the “presumed consump-
tion”, which is based on so-called “disappearance
data”, or net utilisation of bulk orange concentrate
and NFC. This means that orange concentrate
used to produce nectars and fruit drinks is also
counted as orange juice consumption. The val-
ues presented by the FDOC are therefore higher
than the actual consumption of 100 % juice only.
However, they provide a valuable understanding
of the total usage of processed orange juice in
different markets.
43
3.5 Global orange juice consumption

44
4 Principles of
processing
orange juice

In section 4 you will read about:

• How the different steps of juice processing and
bulk storage affect the quality of orange juice.
• How oxygen gets into juice and its role in
degrading juice quality and causing problems
during operation. The removal of oxygen
from juice is also discussed.
• Which microorganisms cause juice spoilage
and the influence of raw materials and clean-
ing procedure on product contamination.
• Why and when pasteurisation is carried out
and the conditions needed for effective heat
treatment.

45
4. Principles of processing
orange juice
Summary
A good understanding of the properties of
orange juice is required to design and op-
erate processing plants that maintain high
juice quality. The properties of fresh fruit
and the initial processing conditions (dur-
ing juice extraction) influence the quality
of the end product.
Heat treatment of juice is essential for
obtaining the desired product shelf life, but
the process should be designed to minimise
unwanted quality degradation. Bulk storage
conditions that minimise changes in quality
are essential because juice may be stored
for a year or more.
Minimising loss of quality
Air in juice leads to reduced product quality,
foam during deaeration and filling, and un-
even distribution of floating pulp (if any) in
Raw materials Processing
Quality Heat treatment
Treatment Oxygen
Fig. 4.1 Factors which influence juice quality.
4.1 Impact of processing
on juice quality
Orange juice is a complex product. Therefore
a good understanding of the basic nature and
properties of orange juice is needed for process-
ing and packaging orange juice. In fact, to
ensure that high product quality is maintained
during juice processing, such understanding is
indispensable.
Section 4 as a whole looks at the principles
of processing orange juice that have to be taken
packages. It is therefore essential to prevent
air from entering product streams, and to
remove it before filling and packaging.
Orange juice is a high-acid product
which limits microbial growth to acid-
tolerant bacteria, yeasts and moulds. Yeast
fermentation is the prime cause of micro-
bial spoilage in aseptically packaged juice.
Effective cleaning procedures are essential
in controlling microbial contamination.
Pasteurisation of orange juice is nec-
essary for inactivating enzymes and for
destroying microorganisms capable of
growing during storage. Enzyme activity
leads to cloud loss in single-strength juice
and gelation in orange juice concentrate.
The relevant enzymes in orange juice
require a higher heat load to be inactivated
than that for microorganisms.
Bulk storage Packaging Shelf storage
Temperature Barriers Temperature
Time Hygiene Time
into consideration in designing and operating a
process plant. It should be stressed that, despite
the long experience of the industry in processing
orange fruit and the large amount of research that
has been done on the subject, all the secrets of
orange juice have not yet been revealed.
This subsection takes a look at the impact of
raw materials, processing and bulk storage on the
quality of orange juice according to Figure 4.1.
Considerations involved in minimising quality
degradation during processing are listed in Table
4.1. The effect of packaging and shelf storage on
juice quality is discussed in Section 9.
46
 4.1 Impact of processing on juice quality

4.1.1 RAW MATERIALS Highly alkaline water may affect the acidity of the
final product, and excessive solids and minerals
Orange fruit
will cause a brackish or metallic taste. Chlorine
The quality of orange fruit is important for the
imparts water with a “pharmaceutical” taste and
characteristics of the final orange juice product.
has a negative influence on juice colour and taste.
Since oranges are natural products, they vary
Both iron and copper catalyse oxidation reactions
significantly in flavour, vitamin C content and
which result in chemical changes.
colour according to the variety of orange, the
Microorganisms and organic debris con-
time of season when harvested and the region of
taminate juice, affect its taste and reduce
the world where they are grown.
product shelf life. However, the main spoilage
A prerequisite for initial high juice quality is
organisms of juice products are not commonly
the use of whole, undamaged oranges with low
found in water.
microbial populations.
Despite all the possible effects on juice qual-
Juice concentrate ity, there are no regulatory standards specifying
Juice concentrate is the raw material for the water quality for beverage production other than
juice packer. As the quality of reconstituted that it should fulfil the drinking water standards
juice depends very much on the quality of in the respective country. Read more about water
concentrate used, it is essential that high qual- treatment in subsection 7.3.
ity concentrate with the desired Brix:acid ratio,
4.1.2 PROCESSING
colour and sinking pulp content is used. °Brix
Processing steps to stabilise extracted orange
determines the volume of single-strength juice
juice with respect to enzyme and microbial
that can be reconstituted from a given volume
activity are indispensable before concentration,
of concentrate.
bulk storage, packaging and distribution. One
The microbial condition of concentrate is
exception is perhaps for the small amount of
another important factor because high microbial
freshly squeezed, unpasteurised single-strength
loads demand more intensive pasteurisation to
orange juice which is distributed chilled and has
achieve the required product stability. The max-
a shelf life of up to 3 weeks, often shorter. Heat
imum microbial load in concentrate should be
treatment with respect to time/temperature set-
specified by the concentrate producer.
tings should be designed to minimise unwanted
Water chemical and flavour changes in the product.
Water must often be treated before it can be used Never theless it should still give an adequate
for juice reconstitution. The degree of treatment safety margin concerning the inactivation of
depends on the water source. As regards reconsti- enzymes and spoilage microorganisms.
tuted orange juice, the quality of water is critical
with respect to the content of chlorine, metals,
nitrates, salts, air, etc.

47
 4.1 Impact of processing on juice quality
TABLE 4.1 PROCESSING CONSIDERA-
TIONS AT THE FRUIT PROCESSOR
- Choice of orange fruit.
- Short residence time in the fruit bins before
extraction to prevent deterioration of fruit.
- Fruit washing and grading.
- Fruit sizing.
- Optimal extractor pressure and correct fin-
isher settings to avoid unwanted (of ten bitter)
compounds in fruit from entering the juice.
- Evaporation using low temperature and
short residence time to obtain high-quality
concentrate.
AT THE JUICE PACKER
- Preventing air contact during concentrate
handling and reconstitution.
- Water quality.
- Short residence time after juice reconstitu-
tion and prior to pasteurisation to minimise
microbial growth and vitamin C degradation.
- The use of correct temperatures during pas-
teurisation and filling.
- Package integrity.
- Storage conditions.
To a great extent the loss of quality during process-
ing is similar to that encountered during packaging
and shelf storage. Refer to Section 9, packaging
and storage of orange juice, which complements
the information presented in this section.
Oxygen impact on vitamin C degradation
At the fruit processor, the loss of vitamin C (ascor-
bic acid) from orange fruit to frozen orange juice
concentrate is generally negligible when the right
processing conditions and short residence times
before concentration and freezing are used.
During reconstitution of the orange juice and
further processing steps, the amount of oxygen
present has an important impact on juice quality.
Oxygen is a very reactive element which can
induce several changes in the chemical compo-
sition of orange juice, the most dominant of
which is the loss of vitamin C and consequent
48
loss of nutritional value. It is generally agreed
that the degradation of vitamin C in citrus juices
can occur through both aerobic (depending on
oxygen) and anaerobic (not depending on oxy-
gen) reactions of nonenzymatic nature. Which
one predominates depends on the temperature
and availability of oxygen. During processing,
the aerobic degradation of vitamin C predomi-
nates, whereas during orange juice storage both
pathways must be taken into account.
In the aerobic degradation of vitamin C, the
presence of 1 mg oxygen corresponds theoreti-
cally to a loss of 11 mg vitamin C. This calcu-
lation is based on the reaction where vitamin C
is oxidised to dehydroascorbic acid.
AA + 1/2 O2 DHA + H2O
AA = ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
DHA = dehydroascorbic acid
Oxygen is soluble in single-strength juice up to a
level of approximately 8 mg/l, which corresponds
to a potential loss of 88 mg vitamin C. Assuming
an initial vitamin C content of about 450 mg/l,
this corresponds to a 20 % loss in the nutritional
quality attributed to vitamin C. Subsection 9.2.1
gives more information on how different storage
conditions affect vitamin C degradation.
Flavour changes
The desirable taste of freshly squeezed orange
juice is easily affected by heat treatment and
subsequent bulk storage.
The juice may undergo several chemical
reactions that can degrade the original volatile
flavours of the juice. In addition, off-flavours can
be formed mainly from compounds in the aqueous
juice matrix. The Maillard reaction, a well-known
reaction between sugars (or vitamin C) and amino
acids, is an example of this.
 4.1 Impact of processing on juice quality
Several potential off-flavour molecules have been
identified in orange juice. Most of these com-
pounds are formed during juice storage, although
it takes a long time (several months) or storage
at high temperature before any off-taste is noted,
i.e. the compounds responsible for an off-taste
are present in high enough concentration. PVG,
4-vinyl guaiacol, is an exception. This com-
pound has been found in concentrations above
its perception threshold in newly extracted and
processed juice. It imparts an old fruit or rotten
fruit aroma to the juice.
PVG is formed from an odourless compound
– ferrulic acid – normally present in juice. The
concentration of free ferulic acid in juice has been
shown to double after the first pasteurisation step,
thereby greatly increasing the possibility of PVG
“Ifinactivated,
forming. More about off-flavours is presented in
subsection 9.2.3.
When orange juice is concentrated in an evap-
orator, the volatile water-soluble and oil-soluble
components that provide most of the characteristic
orange flavour are removed. The process flavour
(also known as “pumpout” flavour) obtained is
a combination of the loss of volatile flavour and
the cooked taste resulting from heat treatment.
The impact of these unwanted changes can be
compensated for by addition of flavour fractions
at a later processing stage.
4.1.3 IMPACT OF LONG-TERM
BULK STORAGE
During bulk storage the product is kept under
conditions that minimise changes in quality. This
is of great importance since storage may be for a
year or longer. Demands on the storage conditions
depend on the orange juice product, FCOJ and
NFC, and the intended storage time.
Frozen concentrated orange juice, FCOJ
Orange juice concentrate is bulk-stored frozen
at temperatures from –6 to –25 °C to avoid deg-
radation of product quality. A temperature of
–8 °C is often used during bulk transport.
49
For long-term storage, the lower temperatures
are used. Industry experience has shown that this
temperature range is needed to avoid changes in
colour and taste. At temperatures below –20 °C,
concentrate can be stored for several years and
still be of acceptable quality.
If the pasteurisation of juice prior to concen-
tration has not been carried out correctly, the re-
sidual enzyme activity can lead to gelation of the
concentrate. Pectic substances in the juice form
a gel which prevents the concentrate from being
reconstituted to a juice of acceptable quality. See
subsection 4.4.2.
enzymes are not completely
gelation of
concentrate may occur
”
Not-from-concentrate juice, NFC
Two kinds of bulk storage are practised for NFC:
• frozen (in 200 l drums at –18 °C or lower)
• chilled (in large aseptic tanks or aseptic bag-
in-box containers at –1 to 1 °C)
Both forms of storage give a shelf life of at least
one year. This long shelf life is necessary since
juice from fruit harvested at different times of the
season is blended to obtain consistent quality year-
round. Low-temperature storage is important; a
temperature around 0 °C is low enough to avoid
deterioration of the juice while still keeping the
juice as a liquid.
An advantage of aseptic NFC storage over
frozen NFC is that the juice does not have to
be thawed before final packaging. This avoids
the use of crushing equipment and high energy
input for quick thawing. At ambient temperature
thawing takes several days and therefore product
quality may deteriorate during this period due to
microbial growth and flavour degradation.
 4.2 Air/oxygen in the product
4.2 Air/oxygen in the product
Air consists mainly of the gases nitrogen and
oxygen. These gases are soluble in orange juice
to a certain degree, but if the juice contains more
air than it can dissolve, free or dispersed air bub-
bles are formed.
Air in the product can cause a number of
problems for the juice packer, such as:
• decreased product quality due to oxidation
• foam formation in the deaerator
• foam formation during filling, which leads to
underfilling of retail packages
• uneven distribution of floating cells in retail
packages
COMPOSITION OF AIR:
Nitrogen N2 78 % v/v
Oxygen O2 21 % v/v
Other gases minor
It is therefore important to prevent air from en-
tering juice during reconstitution and blending
of concentrate. If the juice does contain air after
reconstitution, it can be removed later in the proc-
ess. Dispersed air can be decreased by letting the
juice rest for half an hour in an open tank before
pasteurisation. A deaerator can be used to further
decrease the air content. A deaerator uses vacuum
at ambient or elevated temperatures to remove
dispersed and soluble gases from the juice.
Nitrogen can be considered as an inert gas
with regard to juice quality, whereas oxygen is
very reactive and is involved in many reactions
that impair quality. It is therefore essential to
remove oxygen from juice. The deaeration ef-
ficiency is determined by measuring oxygen
concentration in the product before and after
deaeration.
50
Temperature
Pressure Solubility of
oxygen
Sugar
concentration
Fig. 4.2 The effect of temperature, pressure and
sugar concentration on oxygen solubility.
Oxygen solubility
The solubility of oxygen is important since dis-
solved oxygen is more difficult to remove than
dispersed oxygen. The solubility of oxygen and
other gases in a liquid, i.e. the concentration of dis-
solved gas, depends on pressure, temperature and
the concentration of soluble solids in the liquid (see
Figures 4.2 and 4.3). Solubility decreases with:
• increasing temperature
• decreasing oxygen partial pressure
• increasing concentration of soluble solids
(sugars)
The measured amount of oxygen in orange juice
can sometimes be higher than its theoretical
solubility values. This can be explained by the
phenomena whereby free oxygen adsorbs as
gas bubbles to pulp particles in the juice. When
solubility decreases due to increased temperature
and/or reduced pressure, the gas released does
not leave the product but stays as gas bubbles on
the surface of fruit cell particles. This adsorption
phenomena appears mainly on large particles in
the form of added floating cells, but not on the
smaller sinking pulp particles.
 4.2 Air/oxygen in the product

14.00
4.2.1 SOURCES OF AIR/OXYGEN
12.00 100 kPa, atmospheric pressure At the fruit processor, juice is in contact with air
during extraction and finishing. Deaeration is es-
Oxygen (mg/litre)

10.00
sential in the production of NFC for bulk storage,
8.00 since a high oxygen level will decrease its vitamin
6.00
C level significantly. Oxygen is less of a problem
in the production of concentrate because gases are
4.00 20 kPa removed in the evaporator. However, if concen-
2.00 trate is mishandled, a large amount of dispersed
air may enter the concentrate.
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 The various steps of reconstituting orange
Temperature (°C) juice from concentrate present a number of en-
Fig. 4.3 Solubility of oxygen in water as a function try points for oxygen and air. Nevertheless, op-
of temperature at two different pressures. timising the first process step to avoid air entry
minimises problems later in the process. Steps
where particular care is needed are: handling of
Oxidation juice concentrate, handling of water, addition of
The main reason for deaerating juice is to re- floating cells, flow in pumps and pipes, blending
duce its oxygen concentration. Oxygen is very and reconstitution (Figure 4.4).
reactive and promotes many of the reactions that
Concentrate
take place in juice during processing and stor-
Concentrate can be a source of gases. Although the
age which lead to quality degradation. The most
solubility of oxygen in orange juice concentrate
important reaction is the oxidation of vitamin C,
is low due to the high concentration of soluble
which leads to loss of nutritional quality (see
solids, the high viscosity of concentrate makes it
subsections 4.1 and 9.2).
difficult for free gas bubbles to rise to the surface.
Considering that many countries have regu-
Therefore careful procedures are important dur-
lations that define the minimum level of vitamin
ing all handling steps involved with concentrate,
C in products at the end of their shelf life, and as
including its transport, transfer and blending.
long shelf life (3 to 9 months) is a desired ben-
efit, the importance of maintaining the vitamin
C content of juice is readily understood. Other
significant parameters like colour are also affected
by oxidation (see subsection 9.2).

Concentrate

Water Pumps & pipes Blending/

Agitation

Floating cells

Fig. 4.4 Sources of oxygen/air entry during orange juice reconstitution.

51
 4.2 Air/oxygen in the product
Blending tanks Deaeration Pasteurisation
Fig. 4.5 Process steps where high oxygen/air concentrations can cause problems.
Water
Water for reconstitution is often a source of high
levels of dissolved oxygen. The solubility of oxy-
gen in cold water is about 9 mg per litre (at 20 °C).
Deaeration of water before reconstitution of juice
minimises dissolved oxygen. It can also eliminate
the need to deaerate reconstituted juice.
During certain water treatments, the carbon di-
oxide concentration builds up to levels that cause
problems with foaming during the deaeration of
juice containing floating cells.
Floating pulp
Addition of floating pulp to juice often increases
its gas content. Frozen pulp contains a lot of air,
both as air bubbles adsorbed to the surface of
pulp particles and as free bubbles which are not
released due to the high viscosity of concentrated
pulp. Moreover, the agitation required to blend
pulp with juice and keep the mixture homogenous
in the tank increases the risks of additional gas
entry. Due to gas bubbles adsorbed to cell par-
ticles, the measured oxygen content can exceed
9 ppm/litre at 20 °C.
Pumps and pipes
Bad piping design and pumps that are not airtight
can be responsible for air entry.
Blending/agitation
It is important to use the right blending and re-
constitution techniques. Blending in tanks should
be done with low-speed agitators, and the juice
should cover the agitator. In some cases, blend-
ing is carried out under a blanket of nitrogen to
prevent oxygen entering the product. Using an
in-line blending technique minimises oxygen
ingress during reconstitution.
52
Filling Storage
Tanks
Tank inlets should be designed to prevent air
entry and foaming when the tank is filled. Juice
should not be left in blending tanks for long
periods before deaeration and pasteurisation,
since this may lead to impaired quality due to
microbial growth and vitamin C loss. Sometimes
tanks are blanketed with nitrogen to prevent ox-
ygen entry, especially in buffer tanks containing
deaerated juice.
4.2.2 PROBLEMS CAUSED BY AIR/OXYGEN IN
THE PRODUCT
If air gains entry during the initial reconstitution
steps, it can cause problems later in the process.
See Figure 4.5.
Blending tank
Gas bubbles adsorbed to floating pulp reduce their
density and make them float to the top of juice. This
makes it difficult to maintain even distribution of
floating pulp in the blending and balance tanks.
Deaerator
Dissolved and dispersed gases are removed in the
deaerator. Problems with foaming can occur if the
incoming product contains high concentrations of
undissolved gas. When juice goes from a higher
pressure (in the pipes) to a lower pressure (in the
deaerator), gas solubility decreases and bubbles of
free gas form in the juice and build up foam.
The foam formed in the deaerator and filling
machine consists mainly of gas which is separated
by very thin layers of liquid film. Some foam in
the deaerator does not affect its performance, but
if the deaerator is filled with foam deaeration be-
comes insufficient. This problem is mainly found
with juices containing floating pulp or a lot of
dispersed gas.
 4.2 Air/oxygen in the product

Pasteurisation Henry’s law states that the equilibrium concen-

Ineffective pasteurisation can occur if juice con- tration XA of gas A in solution is proportional to
tains very high concentrations of dispersed gas the partial pressure of gas A in the vapour phase.
(which may lead to reduced residence time or In order to remove dissolved oxygen (decrease XA
inconsistent heating). in Henry’s law) a driving force must be applied.
This can be done either by:
Filling
• reducing the oxygen partial pressure (PA)
Problems with foam in filling machines may occur
above the liquid surface;
for the same reasons as with deaerators, i.e. foam
• increasing the temperature (T). This will
is formed when the pressure is suddenly released
increase Henry’s constant [H(T)].
in the filling nozzle. Foaming causes decreased
filling efficiency that can lead to:
A combination of these two alternatives is often
• product losses
used during deaeration. The partial pressure (PA)
• incorrect amounts of juice in packages
is reduced by either using a vacuum (the total
pressure becomes very low) or by replacing ox-
If the juice contains floating pulp, gas in the juice
ygen in the gas phase with another gas.
can cause poor distribution of particles in the
Dispersed oxygen bubbles in juice (without
packages (see blending tank).
added floating cells) can be removed by leaving
Storage the juice in an open tank. The gas bubbles, which
Oxygen takes part in many reactions that impair have a lower density than the juice, will rise to the
the quality of juice during storage. These reac- top and gradually leave the juice with time. This
tions include changes in colour and taste, and process can be accelerated by creating a vacuum
degradation of vitamin C. It is therefore crucial above the juice. However, it is still a relatively
to protect the juice against oxygen during storage. slow process. Dissolved oxygen and oxygen bub-
The need for protection depends on the period the bles adsorbed to floating pulp are much more
juice will be stored for and at what temperature. difficult to remove by such a tank process.
(See Section 9.) To increase the efficiency of deaeration, it
must be made difficult for the oxygen to remain
4.2.3 PRINCIPLES OF DEAERATION
in the juice, e.g. by decreasing its solubility. This
The concentration of dissolved gases in a liquid
can be done by:
follows physical laws. One of the more important
• increasing the temperature
relationships is the one defined by the scientist
• decreasing the pressure
Sir William Henry (1775–1836). A gas which is
dissolved in a liquid is in equilibrium with the
It is important for the juice to have sufficient
gas above the liquid surface. This equilibrium is
residence time in the deaerator to allow the gas
given by Henry’s law.
to leave the juice. By turning the juice into thin
layers of liquid, the distance the gas has to diffuse
from the liquid phase to the gas phase is mini-
PA mised, thereby producing a high rate at which the
XA= gas leaves the juice.
H(T)
XA = concentration of gas A in the liquid
phase (mole fraction).
PA = partial pressure of gas A in the vapour
phase (Pa).
H(T) = Henry’s constant. It is a function of
temperature and depends on the liquid
(Pa/mole fraction).

53
 4.3 Microbiology of orange juice
Deaerators
Methods of removing oxygen include vacuum
deaeration and counter-current flushing with
an inert gas. Existing methods of deaeration do
not remove all oxygen from juice. Nevertheless,
vacuum flash deaeration reduces residual oxygen
to levels that no longer have a significant impact
on juice quality.
Vacuum deaerator
In a continuous vacuum deaerator, the gases are
removed from a thin film of juice over a large area
at a raised temperature and/or at a underpressure.
A thin layer of juice can be achieved by:
• spraying the juice through a nozzle
• spreading the juice by centrifugation
• distributing the juice over surface packing
When juice is sprayed through a nozzle or run
over packing and/or trays, a large surface area is
created for release of oxygen from the liquid to
the vapour phase. Dissolved oxygen has then only
a short distance to diffuse to the liquid surface.
The finer the nozzle or the more packing/trays, the
quicker (and therefore often better) deaeration at
a given temperature. However, there are practical
and cost limitations.
During vacuum flash deaeration, usually about
1 % of the liquid is vaporised. As the vapour con-
tains some volatile flavour components, it has to
be condensed back into the juice. This can be done
either by an internal or an external condenser that
chills the vapour back to a liquid state. In both
cases, the temperature of the cooling water in the
condenser and the vacuum applied will determine
the amount of flavour components condensed.
Gas stripping
In the gas-stripping type of deaerator, the partial
pressure of oxygen in the vapour phase is reduced
to almost zero by displacing the oxygen with anoth-
er gas, e.g. nitrogen (N2) or carbon dioxide (CO2).
By removing the oxygen in the vapour phase above
the liquid, the oxygen in the juice is forced out
from the juice into the vapour phase. This process
does not reduce the total gas content of the juice
but replaces oxygen with another gas.
54
There are several types of stripping system. In one
type, the liquid and the gas meet in countercurrent
flow as they pass through a packed column. In a
another, the liquid is sprayed into a room filled
with gas, or the gas is sprayed into the liquid
stream before the deaerator vessel.
4.3 Microbiology of
orange juice
4.3.1 RELEVANT MICROORGANISMS
IN ORANGE JUICE
Although several microorganisms have been iso-
lated from orange juice, few of them cause spoil-
age. The high acidity (low pH) of juice limits the
types of microorganism that can grow in the juice.
Juice spoilage is caused by microorganisms that
are able to multiply in juice during its processing
and storage (see Table 4.2.)
The growth of microorganisms in orange
juice is characterised by fermentation and/or the
production of off-flavours that spoil the product.
Fermentation may lead to gas formation, which,
in turn, results in blown packages.
TABLE 4.2 THE PREDOMINANT
MICROORGANISMS IN ORANGE JUICE
Acid-tolerant bacteria
Yeasts
Moulds
Acid-tolerant bacteria
Lactic acid bacteria belonging to the genera
Lactobacillus and Leuconostoc are the most
common acid-tolerant bacteria that cause spoil-
age of orange juice (see Figure 4.6). Spoilage is
characterised by a “buttery” or “buttermilk-like”
flavour resulting from the formation of diacetyl
during bacterial growth. Leuconostoc and many
species of Lactobacillus also produce large
amounts of CO2.
 4.3 Microbiology of orange juice

The optimal growth temperature for most yeasts

is 20–30 °C. They are more tolerant of cold
temperatures, high osmotic pressure and lack
of nutrients than bacteria or moulds. Species of
yeasts can easily survive in citrus concentrates of
58 to 65 °Brix and in frozen juices.

“Yeasts are the most common

type of spoilage organism
”
Fig. 4.6 Different shapes of lactic acid bacteria. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Rhodotorula spp and
Zygosaccharomyces spp are the most common
yeasts present in juice. Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Most lactic acid bacteria grow best in orange is most commonly associated with the spoilage
juice at temperatures between 20 and 37 °C. of pasteurised citrus juices. The presence of
Their rate of growth is greatly reduced above or Rhodotorula may be indicative of poor postpas-
below these temperatures. Growth is very slow teurisation hygiene.
at 4 °C in single-strength juice. These bacteria Zygosaccharomyces is an osmophilic yeast,
are sensitive to heat and high osmotic pressure which means that it can survive the high osmotic
(high juice concentration); no growth is observed pressures and low water activity of concentrated
in juice above 45 °Brix. orange juice. It is frequently associated with
Lactic acid bacteria pose the biggest problem spoilage of concentrates.
during the processing steps prior to concentration.
After extraction, the juice has to be refrigerated
or heat-treated as soon as possible to prevent the
build-up of large populations of these bacteria. It
is also important for fruit processors to maintain
an effective programme of sanitation.
The main species of lactic acid bacteria caus-
ing spoilage are Lactobacillus plantarum, Lacto-
bacillus brevis, Leuconostoc mesenteroides and
Leuconostoc dextranicum.
Yeasts Fig. 4.7 Yeasts showing budding reproduction.
Yeasts (see Figure 4.7) are the most common type
of spoilage organism in both single-strength and
concentrated orange juice. Spoilage of orange
juice by yeasts typically results from an alcoholic
fermentation which leads to off-flavours and CO2
production. Yeasts not capable of alcoholic fer-
mentation may cause turbidity, flocculation and
clumping in juice.

55
 4.3 Microbiology of orange juice
Fig. 4.8 Example of
mould structure.
Moulds
Moulds form colonies of aerial mycelia on the sur-
face of juice, and flocculation or floating mycelia
within juice (see Figure 4.8). They can grow under
a wide variety of conditions. In general, moulds
grow well in acid media and require abundant
oxygen. Moulds that grow in orange juice are
generally sensitive to heat treatment and are thus
easily destroyed by pasteurisation.
Compared with yeasts and bacteria, moulds
have only infrequently been associated with
spoilage of orange juice. This is because of their
aerobic (oxygen-dependent) nature and slow
growth rates. However, with the advent of long-
term chilled storage of single-strength juice and
extended shelf life of juice in nonaseptic cartons
with oxygen barriers, mould growth in citrus juice
has become a more important issue.
Moulds may give rise to concern during juice
extraction when fruit-handling and juice room
equipment is not kept in hygienic condition. When
the correct approach to sanitation is neglected,
moulds colonise the surfaces of conveyor belts,
fruit bins, extractors and other equipment. These
conditions promote the contamination of juice or
the surfaces of containers.
56
Some moulds that have been isolated from orange
juice are: Aureobasidium pullulans, Aspergillus
niger, Botrytis spp, Fusarium spp, Geotrichum
spp, Mucor spp, Aspergillus fumigatus, Cladospo-
rium spp and Penicillium spp.
Pathogenic microorganisms
The presence of pathogenic microorganisms in
orange juice is rare. The low pH of juice inhib-
its growth of pathogens, but long-term survival
of some pathogens in refrigerated orange juice
is possible. Outbreaks of disease, particularly
salmonellosis, traced back to orange juice have
occurred as a result of consuming unpasteurised
orange juice, or due to reconstituted juice be-
coming contaminated before serving.
Diseases attributed to orange juice are mainly
caused by incorrect product handling and can be
prevented by carrying out approved sanitary pro-
cedures, pasteurising the juice, and by preventing
product contamination after pasteurisation.
Spore-forming microorganisms
Most bacterial spores cannot grow in fruit
juices with a pH below 4.5. Though very rare,
thermoresistant acidophilic bacteria have been
isolated from shelf-stable juices. In 1992 these
strains were classified in a new genus called
Alicyclobacillus. Microorganisms belonging to
this genus have a preference for thermophilic tem-
peratures with an optimum temperature around
45 °C, and they will most likely not grow below
20 °C. The most likely source of contamination
of fruit juices is fruit contaminated with soil dur-
ing harvesting. Such contamination is introduced
into the manufacturing process through unwashed
or poorly washed fruit. A spoilage characteristic
of this type of bacteria has been described as an
off-flavour like “disinfectant” or guaiacol. No gas
production has been observed.
 4.3 Microbiology of orange juice
4.3.2 MICROFLORA OF DIFFERENT
TYPES OF ORANGE JUICE
The microflora of different orange juice products
can vary widely according to the state of raw fruit,
and juice processing and storage conditions.
Frozen concentrated orange juice
FCOJ is not aseptic or commercially sterile. It
can contain abundant microflora of wide diversity
including yeasts, moulds and bacteria. However,
frozen orange juice concentrate does not have
any significant microbial problems because it is
stored frozen.
Concentrated orange juice quite often has a
total microbial population around 100 to 1,000
organisms/ml. In general, an acceptable microbial
quality of concentrate is a total viable count lower
than 1,000/ml; for yeasts in the range of 100/ml,
and for moulds lower than 10/ml.
When concentrate is exposed to tempera-
tures above freezing point, osmophilic yeasts
like Zygosaccharomyces spp are the primary
spoilage organisms.
Reconstituted orange juice from concentrate
As yeasts represent the dominant microflora of any
consequence in concentrate, it is most likely that
they will remain so in juice reconstituted from
concentrate. Nevertheless, if reconstitution is not
carried out under appropriate sanitary conditions,
the type and number of microorganisms in the
end product will increase.
Microorganisms normally present in the
sur rounding air and water, and on equipment,
can contaminate juice. Juice should not be
held in tanks for long periods of time before
pasteurisation.
Whenever concentrate is reconstituted to
single-strength juice, microorganisms that were
dormant in the concentrate are suddenly provided
with the conditions that allow them to grow rap-
idly. After dilution of concentrate but prior to pas-
teurisation, juice is held in tanks. These require
proper cleaning procedures to prevent them from
becoming a source of contamination.
57
Not-from-concentrate juice, NFC
After pasteurisation, NFC is either filled directly
into consumer packages or, more often, stored in
bulk for a period of time under chilled aseptic or
frozen conditions. Generally, microbial spoilage
of pasteurised single-strength juice sold chilled
under nonaseptic conditions is due to fermenta-
tive yeasts. The most common spoilage organ-
ism in this product is Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
although other yeasts have occasionally been
isolated as well.
The microflora of NFC strongly depends on
juice storage temperature. At temperatures ≤7 °C
yeasts are the predominant flora responsible for
spoilage, whereas at ≥10 °C lactic acid bacteria
outgrow the yeasts and become the main spoil-
age organisms.
The main species present are lactic acid bac-
teria, such as Lactobacillus spp, Leuconostoc spp,
and yeasts like Zygosaccharomyces spp and Sac-
charomyces cerevisiae.
Freshly squeezed orange juice – unpasteurised
The total number of microorganisms in this prod-
uct varies throughout the season and is strongly
dependent on the condition of the fruit and sani-
tation of the processing equipment. In general,
higher counts are observed with mature oranges
that have a higher ratio (Brix:acid). Much higher
counts are observed with unsound fruit.
The hygienic condition of the processing plant
will also influence the number of microorganisms
present in juice. In general, freshly squeezed or-
ange juice has a total microbial count ranging
from 1,000 to 10,000 organisms/ml. However, this
number may be as high as 32,000,000 organisms/
ml in juice extracted from poor-quality oranges
in processing plants with bad sanitation.
 4.3 Microbiology of orange juice
Juice not from
concentrate Pasteurisation
frozen storage
Juice
extraction
Pasteurisation/
Juice from concentration
concentrate Frozen storage
Fig. 4.9 Orange juice pasteurisation steps.
4.3.3 INFLUENCE OF RAW MATERIALS
Fresh fruit
Microorganisms found in nature will enter the
processing plant via fruit, soil, animals and
people. Their number will vary depending on
harvesting method as well as handling on the
way from the groves to the processing plant. Out
of the large variety of microorganisms, only those
species capable of growing during the production
of orange juice are of prime concern. These are
lactic acid bacteria, yeasts and moulds.
Fruit grading and washing
There is a correlation between the percentage of
defective fruit entering a processing plant and the
contamination of extracted juice. To minimise mi-
crobial contamination within a plant, fruit must be
carefully graded and washed effectively. In some
cases fruit is treated with detergent to minimise
surface microorganisms. All unsound fruit should
be removed.
Washing is usually done with (chlorinated)
water sprays located at strategic points on con-
veyor belts and elevators. The sprays must cover
the entire width of the belt completely, otherwise
microorganisms will accumulate at the edges of the
belt. Washing efficiency has a direct bearing on the
microbial population of extracted juice.
4.3.4 SANITATION
Effective cleaning procedures are essential in con-
trolling microbial contamination in production
of orange juice concentrate, as well as during
reconstitution of concentrate to produce single-
strength orange juice.
Chilled/ Cold Chilled
filling distribution
Pasteurisation
Reconstitution Aseptic Ambient
filling distribution
The low pH of juice and a rapid juice reconstitution
process usually suffice to prevent the build-up of
large microbial populations in juice. Furthermore,
as reconstituted juice is pasteurised before packag-
ing, microorganisms of concern will be destroyed.
However, if a plant has poor cleaning routines
and reconstituted juice is held in tanks for a long
time prior to pasteurisation, high populations of
microorganisms can become established. This
will demand higher pasteurisation temperatures
to completely destroy the microorganisms.
In fruit processing plants, microbial contami-
nation is controlled by three different levels of
cleaning:
• Frequent cleaning during everyday pro-
duction which is necessary to maintain the
hygienic appearance of equipment.
• Intermittent-type cleaning while plant is
in operation, or cleaning parts of the plant
temporarily taken out of production in order
to clean them properly.
• General cleanup of the plant which occurs
when the plant is completely shut down.
Flushing with chlorinated water is gener-
ally performed periodically to control microbial
contamination while the plant is in operation.
Floors should not be cleaned during operation
of the production line because this can spread
microorganisms.
Cleaning-in-place (CIP) systems that greatly
improve the efficiency of cleaning are now gen-
erally used by processing and packaging plants.
See also subsection 7.9.
58

4.4 Pasteurisation
4.4.1 PURPOSE OF PASTEURISATION
The purpose of pasteurisation is to make the juice
product stable during subsequent processing and
storage. Pasteurisation of orange juice is neces-
sary for destroying the microorganisms capable
of growing during storage, and for inactivating
enzymes to prevent cloud loss. Enzymes are pro-
teins that catalyse biological reactions. They are
necessary for the growth of all living matter.
Orange juice is pasteurised at least twice
before it reaches the consumer (except for a
small amount of NFC that is filled directly into
consumer packages). The first pasteurisation oc-
curs immediately after extraction prior to bulk
storage, and the second pasteurisation occurs
before packaging (see Figure 4.9).
The first pasteurisation is necessary to com-
pletely inactivate the enzyme pectin methyl
esterase (PME), also known as pectin esterase
(PE), which will otherwise cause cloud loss of
single-strength juice and gelation of concentrate
during storage. Microorganisms of commercial
interest are also killed by this process. The sec-
ond pasteurisation destroys any microorganisms
that may have contaminated juice after the first
pasteurisation step and survived bulk storage, as
well as those which may have contaminated juice
during its reconstitution from concentrate.
A given enzyme will only split The enzyme fits into a particular
cer tain molecules, and only at spot in the molecule chain, where it
certain bonds. weakens the bond.
Fig. 4.10 The basic function of an enzyme.
59
4.4 Pasteurisation
4.4.2 INACTIVATION OF ENZYMES
Cloud loss of single-strength juice and gelation in
concentrate are mainly caused by pectin methyl
esterase, which is present naturally in fruit.
PME is mainly active in the temperature range
from 5 to 65 °C and shows maximum activity at
60 °C. Above 60 °C its activity gradually decreases.
The activity of the enzyme at temperatures below
5 °C is low, but it is still enough to cause cloud
loss in single-strength orange juice. Even at a
temperature as low as –18 °C the reaction rate
is high enough to cause gelation of concentrates
during storage.
FACTS ABOUT ENZYMES
Enzymes are proteins produced by living
organisms specialised in catalysing biological
reactions. They are therefore sometimes called
biocatalysts. Enzyme action is specific; each
type of enzyme catalyses only one type of
reaction. The action of an enzyme is also
strongly influenced by temperature and pH.
The basic function of an enzyme that breaks
down a larger molecule into smaller ones is
illustrated in Figure 4.10.
The enzymes in orange juice come from the
fruit itself. They are firmly associated with the cell
wall fractions and therefore are mainly derived
from parts of orange like peel, rag and juice sac
tissue (pulp). Enzymes are released from the fruit
solid phase (membranes) into the liquid phase
(juice) during the extraction process.
The molecule splits. The enzyme is
now free to attack and split another
molecule in the same way.
 4.4 Pasteurisation

1000 • Among orange varieties from Brazil (Pera

Rio, Pera Coroa, Natal and Valencia), PME
in Valencia and Pera Rio juice had the highest
heat resistance, requiring 2 min at 90 °C for
100
complete inactivation, whereas PME in Pera
Coroa and Natal varieties was inactivated
D value (sec)

after 1.5 min at 90 °C.

10
1 changes, followed by Valencia.
60 70 80 90 100 110
Temperature (°C)
Fig. 4.11 Decimal reduction time (D value) for PME
in Valencia orange juice at pH = 4.1 and with 12 %
pulp content.
In order to prevent cloud loss or gelation dur-
ing processing and storage of orange juice, it is
necessary to inactivate PME. Although several
methods have been tested, pasteurisation is the
only process used industrially to inactivate the
enzyme.
The time-temperature conditions to inactivate
PME are dependent on :
• juice pH
• juice pulp content
• fruit variety/maturity
From the literature it is known that:
• Among the varieties of oranges from Florida
(Valencia, Pineapple and Hamlin), the heat
stability of PME was highest in juice from
Valencia oranges, and similar in juice from
Pineapple and Hamlin oranges. Figure 4.11
shows the decimal reduction time for PME
in Valencia oranges grown in Florida. The
D value correspond to 90 % enzyme inac-
tivation. A heat load corresponding to 2–3 D
values is generally sufficient for inactivation
of the enzyme.
• Juice with higher pH requires a more inten-
sive heat treatment to inactivate PME than
juice with lower pH. The influence of pH on
thermal inactivation of PME is dependent on
fruit variety. Orange juice from the Pineapple
variety showed the highest sensitivity to pH
• As PME is associated with cell wall mate-
rials, a higher heat load is required in juices
with higher pulp content. An increase of pulp
content from 5 to 10 % increases by about
2.5 times the time required at a given tem-
perature to inactivate PME.
Cloud loss
The most common reason for cloud loss or
gelation in orange juice is the enzymatic break-
down of pectin molecules in the juice. Pectin is
a complex organic substance (consisting mainly
of partially methylated sugar units) that exhibit
important properties, such as the ability to form
emulsions and to increase liquid viscosity. In
single-strength orange juice, pectin is one im-
portant constituent of the cloud. The cloud of
orange juice contributes to its visual appearance
(opacity) and viscosity. Viscosity is essential for
good juice “mouthfeel”.
The enzyme breaks down pectin by removing
methyl groups from the sugar units. The resulting
molecule reacts with calcium (naturally present in
the juice) to create bridges between the sugar units,
see Figure 4.12. The insoluble molecule formed
is called calcium pectate. In single-strength juice,
calcium pectate settles to the bottom of the pack-
age. This causes separation of the juice into a
clear upper phase and a lower sediment phase.
This separation is referred to as cloud loss.
In orange juice concentrate, calcium pectate
forms gel-like lumps due to the high sugar and
acid content. This gelation makes it impossible to
reconstitute to orange juice of good quality.

60

O O-CH3
C
Pectin methyl
esterase
Cacium (Ca2+)
Pectin bridges
methylesterase
-
O O CH3OH
C
Fig. 4.12 The action of the enzyme pectin methyl
esterase (PME).
4.4.3 INACTIVATION OF MICROORGANISMS
The heat-resistance of microorganisms is affected
by factors like pH, water activity and oxygen. The
reduction of microorganisms is more efficient un-
der conditions not favourable for their growth.
In general, moulds are less resistant to heat
than yeasts and yeasts less resistant to heat than
bacteria. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is
the most common spoilage organism in citrus
juices. It can form ascospores that are much more
heat-resistant than its vegetative cells.
4.4.4 TIME-TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS
FOR PASTEURISATION
In orange juice, PME is more heat-resistant than
the microorganisms commonly present in orange
juice. This means that a more intensive time-tem-
perature treatment is necessary to inactivate the
enzyme than to destroy microorganisms.
Primary pasteurisation
Orange juice should be pasteurised to inactivate
PME as soon as possible after extraction. It is
pasteurised above 95–98 °C for 10–30 sec. This
can be done as a separate step or as a first step
in the evaporator.
61
4.4 Pasteurisation
Secondary pasteurisation
The second pasteurisation, carried out prior to
juice packaging, involves NFC after bulk stor-
age or juice reconstituted from concentrate. It is
for microbial destruction rather than inactivation
of enzymes. Since microorganisms are less heat
resistant than enzymes, the second pasteurisation
may be carried out at a lower temperature than
the first pasteurisation.
The required time-temperature combination
for the second pasteurisation will depend on the
total number of microorganisms in the juice to the
pasteuriser. This population of microorganisms
depends on the initial number in the concentrate,
residence time in tanks before pasteurisation and
the standard of plant sanitation.
FACTS ABOUT THERMAL PROCESSING
The use of heat for a given period of time is a
method of food preservation used to destroy mi-
croorganisms, enzymes and heat-labile toxins.
Pasteurisation and sterilisation are two types
of thermal processing. Sterilisation destroys
all living microorganisms including microbial
spores, whereas pasteurisation kills the
majority of vegetative microorganisms, par-
ticularly pathogenic bacteria, but has little or
no effect on bacterial spores. Pasteurisation
is generally adequate heat treatment for high-
acid juice foods.
Thermal resistance of microorganisms is tradi -
tionally expressed in terms of D values and
z values. These are defined as follows:
D value: D value, or decimal reduction time, is
the time required at a given temperature to de-
crease the population of a specified microor-
ganism by 90 % or one log cycle. For example,
D80 = 1 min means that it takes 1 minute at
80 °C to destroy 90 % (or one logarithmic re-
duction) of the specified microorganism.
z value: This is the change in temperature
needed to alter the D value by one log cycle.
For example, if an organism has a z = 5 °C and
a D80 °C = 1 min, the D85 °C = 0.1 min and the
D75 °C = 10 min.
 4.4 Pasteurisation

1000
Figure 4.13 shows the theoretical thermal
Sac. cerevisiae Pectin methyl destruction curves of pectin methyl esterase,
esterase and of ascospores and vegetative cells of Sac.
Ascospores cerevisae in orange juice. All temperature/time
100 combinations to the right of the ascospore curve
are sufficient for 10 decimal reductions or more.
Time (sec)

The blue square shows the time/temperature com-

binations used mainly by the industry today.
Vegetative
10 cells
Since microorganisms grow much slower at
chilled than at ambient temperatures, chilled
juice can be sold as a nonaseptic product, i.e.
nonaseptic filling and packaging can be used.
1
However, the pasteurisation step must ensure
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 that microorganisms in the juice will not spoil it
Temperature (°C) during its intended shelf life.

Fig. 4.13 Theoretical thermal destruction curves of

pectin methyl esterase, ascospores and vegetative
cells of Saccharomyces cerevisae in orange juice. “More intensive time-temperature
treatment is necessary to inactivate
Temperatures from 80 °C up to 95 °C for 15–30 the enzyme PME than to destroy
sec. are commonly used by the industry for the
microorganisms
second pasteurisation of orange juice reconstituted
from concentrate and intended for storage at am-
bient temperature. However, the industry is now
”
showing an increasing interest in lowering the
pasteurisation temperature and/or holding time.
As already mentioned, Saccharomyces cerevi-
siae is the most common spoilage agent in orange
juice. This species of yeast produces ascospores,
a more resistant form of yeast cell. Based on the
heat-resistance of this microorganism, (D60 =
3–19 min), a heat treatment of 75–80 °C for 15–20
seconds will be adequate to sufficiently reduce
the microbial population (second pasteurisation)
provided that the raw material is of good quality.
When aseptically packed, this product can be
stored under ambient conditions.

62
5
Fruit
processing
In section 5 you will read about:
• The production steps in a processing plant.
• Fruit delivery and what is done at the fruit
reception area to prepare oranges for juice
extraction.
• How the maximum amount of juice is
squeezed from fruit and the two principal
extractor types.
• Removing pulp by clarification so that
juice can be evaporated to concentrate or
processed to single-strength juice.
63
• NFC production including heat treatment
and bulk storage.
• Concentrate production and the need for
efficient evaporators.
• The recovery of peel oil. How winterisation
makes wax drop out.
• The production of animal feed from waste
streams.
• Pulp production and the many uses of pulp.
• Washing of pulp to recover valuable solids.
5. Fruit processing

Fruit unloading Grading Storage bins Washer

Pulpy juice

Juice extractor Sizer Grading

Concentrate

Concentrate cooler Frozen storage tanks

Finisher Centrifuges Pasteuriser
Evaporator

NFC
Pulpy juice

Pasteuriser Refrigerated aseptic storage

Pulp

Frozen drum storage

Oil emulsion

Defect removal Finisher Pasteuriser Finisher

Peel oil
Wet peel, rag, seeds

Concentrator Polisher Winterisation storage Frozen drum storage

Animal feed

Fig 5.1 Flow chart showing typical processing

Presses Drier Silo steps found in an orange processing plant.

A box of oranges is defined as containing

5.1 Processing plant overview
40.8 kg (90 lb) of fruit. In Florida, the small/
Orange processing plants are located in the vicinity
medium-size plants typically process 5–10 mil-
of the fruit growing area. Fruit should be processed
lion boxes (200–400,000 tonnes) per season,
as soon as possible after harvesting because fruit
the large plants up to 25 million boxes. Most
deteriorates quickly at the high temperatures found
Brazilian citrus plants have much higher capacity.
in citrus-growing areas. Orange products, on the
The world’s largest orange juice plant, Citrosuco
other hand, are produced in a form that allows
at Matao, Brazil, can take in 60 million boxes
them to be stored for extended periods and shipped
(2.4 million tonnes) of fruit during a season.
over long distances.
In most other orange-growing regions, citrus
In the orange industry, the basic unit of re-
processing plants are considerably smaller than
porting crop and plant intake is commonly the
those in Florida and Brazil.
fruit box.
Typical orange processing steps are shown
in Figure 5.1.

64
 5.1 Processing plant overview
Fruit reception
Fruit is delivered in trucks which discharge their
loads at the fruit reception area. The fruit may be
prewashed to get rid of immediate surface dirt
and pesticide residue before any leaves and stems
still attached to the fruit are removed. Then fol-
lows pregrading by manual inspection to remove
any unsuitable fruit. Sound fruit is conveyed to
storage bins. Damaged fruit goes directly to the
feed mill.
Extraction
Extraction involves squeezing or reaming juice
out of either whole or halved oranges by means
of mechanical pressure. After final washing and
inspection, the fruit is separated according to size
into different streams or lanes. Individual oranges
are directed to the most suitable extractor in order
to achieve optimum juice yield. As the extraction
operation determines juice yield and quality, the
correct setting of extractor operating conditions
is very important.
Clarification
After extraction, the pulpy juice (about 50 % of
the fruit) is clarified by primary finishers which
separate juice from pulp. The finishing process is
a mechanical separation method based on sieving.
The juice stream is further clarified by centrifu-
gation. The pulp stream, containing pieces of
ruptured juice sacs and segment walls, may then
go to pulp recovery or to pulp washing.
Frozen concentrated orange juice
(FCOJ) production
From the buffer/blending tanks and after clari-
fication, juice goes to the evaporator. Within the
evaporator circuit, the juice is first pre-heated and
held at pasteurisation temperature. It then passes
through the evaporation stages of the process where
it is concentrated up to 66 °Brix. During the evapo-
ration process, volatile flavour components flash off
and can be recovered in an essence recovery unit.
Juice concentrate is cooled and blended with
other production batches as required to level out
fluctuations in quality. It then goes to frozen stor-
age in tanks or drums as FCOJ, sometimes for
several years.
65
Not-from-concentrate juice (NFC) production
Instead of concentrate production, juice may be
processed at single strength as an NFC product.
Clarified juice is pasteurised before storage. De-
oiling may be required to reduce oil levels in the
juice, and deaeration to remove oxygen is part
of good practice.
Since the product is consumed year-round but
production is seasonal, NFC may be stored for
up to one year. It is stored in bulk either frozen
or under aseptic conditions.
Pulp production
For pulp recovery, pulpy juice from the extractor
is passed through a system that removes defects
where undesirable pulp components, such as seed
and rag, are removed. The clean pulp stream is
then concentrated in a primary finisher.
After heat treatment, the pulp slurry is typ-
ically concentrated further before being sent to
frozen storage.
Pulp wash
If the pulp fraction is not recovered for com-
mercial sale, pulp from the final juice finishers
and clarifiers can be washed with water to recover
juice solubles. This stream is called pulp wash
and may, legislation permitting, be blended with
juice before concentration.
Peel oil recovery
Recovered peel oil represents some 0.3 % of
the fruit intake. The emulsion of oil and water
coming from the extractor section is clarified
by centrifugation in two steps. The purified oil
contains dissolved waxes which are removed
by winterisation (refrigeration) of the oil for a
certain time.
Feed mill
It is economically feasible to include a feed mill
operation in larger processing plants. Rejected
fruit from grading, peel and rag from extraction,
and washed pulp and other solid waste are sent
to the feed mill where it is dried and pelletised
for animal feed. Smaller plants usually truck their
solid waste to a plant with a feed mill or dispose
of it in other ways, such as landfill.
 5.2 Orange juice production steps

5.2 Orange juice Picking of fruit

production steps
All production steps for orange juice, from orange
fruit to packaged product, are shown in the block Transport
diagram Figure 5.2. The steps carried out in the
fruit processing plant as highlighted in the figure
are discussed in more detail.
Fruit reception

Main products By-products

Oil emulsion
Juice extraction Peel oil recovery

Peel, rag, seed

Feed mill

Pulpy juice
Pulpy juice Pulp production

Pulp
Clarification Pulp wash
production

Essence recovery

Not from concentrate Concentrate Essence

juice production pr
production

Fig. 5.2 Production steps for orange juice.

Bulk transport

Reprocessing

Packaging

Distribution

66

Truck unloading Prewash Destemming
Final grading Final fruit wash
Fig. 5.3 Processing flow for fruit reception.
5.3 Fruit reception
After harvesting, fruit picked in the groves is load-
ed onto trucks (typically 20 tonnes in Florida) and
taken to the processing plant. Figure 5.3 shows the
subsequent processing flow at the fruit reception.
Truck unloading
The trucks are unloaded onto a specially designed
tipping ramp. The ramp lifts the front of the truck
to allow the fruit to roll off the rear of the trailer
directly onto a conveyor. The fruit is then con-
veyed to the prewash station. Alternatively, the
truck may be reversed down a ramp so that the
fruit is unloaded directly onto a conveyor.
Prewashing, destemming and pregrading
The fruit may undergo initial washing to remove
dust, dirt and pesticide residues. Some processors
have discontinued washing the fruit before bin
storage because wet fruit in the bins can make
downstream sanitation more difficult. The fruit
then moves on to destemming and pregrading.
The roller conveyor of the destemming and
pregrading tables allows any leaves or twigs to fall
through the conveyor bed. Pregrading by manual
inspection removes rotten and visibly damaged
fruit. Rejected fruit, known as culls, may be sent
to the feed mill. Water used for prewashing is often
condensate recovered from the evaporation proc-
ess. There is a strong desire to reduce total water
consumption in orange processing plants.
Sampling
A sample of fruit is taken for analysis from each
truck. The main parameters analysed are juice
yield, °Brix, acidity and colour. This gives the
processor an indication of fruit ripeness. As the
fruit goes into bin storage, each load can be tagged
and identified. It is then possible to select suit-
able fruit from various sources for blending during
the extraction process to achieve the desired final
product quality. The measured juice yield may also
form the basis for payment to the fruit supplier.
67
5.3 Fruit reception
Pregrade Sampling
Surge bin Fruit storage
Fruit storage
The pregraded fruit is stored in bins specially
designed with inclined multilevel internal baf-
fles. These distribute the fruit evenly in the bin
to prevent too much weight pressing on fruit. The
procedure of holding the fruit in storage bins in
order to reduce juice acidity and increase the final
juice ratio needs to be applied with care, because
passing fruit through bins usually reduces the final
juice yield compared with direct processing.
Besides the main function of storing fruit
with different characteristics to provide process-
ing options and the desired juice quality, correct
management of stored fruit also make it possible
to avoid very wide fluctuations in the Brix: acid
ratio of raw juice. Such fluctuations are usu-
ally the main cause of hesperidin-related defects
formed during evaporator operation and found in
the final juice concentrate. A good procedure is
to minimise the time fruit stays in storage bins,
preferably less than 24 hours. Storage for longer
times, however, does occur.
Surge bin
Fruit is drawn from the storage bins into the surge
bin where fruit from one or more storage bins
may be combined.
Final fruit washing
Thorough washing of the fruit is carried out
immediately before the extraction process. The
wash water may include a mild disinfectant to
help reduce the microbial population on the fruit
surface. Fresh water or condensate recovered from
the evaporators is used for final washing.
Final grading
The fruit passes over a series of grading tables for
final visual inspection where damaged or unsuit-
able fruit is removed.
 5.4 Juice extraction
Peel oil extraction
Alt.1
Fruit sizer Oil emulsion
Alt.2
Extractor, squeezer-type
Fig. 5.4 The juice
extraction process.
Peel oil recovery
5.4 Juice extraction
The aim of the juice extraction process (see Figure
5.4) is to obtain as much juice out of the fruit as
possible while preventing rag, oil and other com-
ponents of the fruit from entering the juice. These
may lead to bitterness in taste or other defects
later during juice storage.
The extraction operation determines product
quality and yield, and therefore has a major ef-
fect on the total economics of the fruit processing
operation. Once the fruit has been washed and
graded (inspected), it is ready for the extraction
process. To optimise extractor performance, the
raw fruit must be sorted according to size because
individual extractors are set to handle fruit of only
a certain size range.
THREE STREAMS RESULT
FROM THE EX TRACTION SECTION
Oil emulsion, containing oil from the peel and
water, goes to peel oil recovery.
Wet peel together with pulp, rag and seeds,
flows directly to the feed mill.
Pulpy juice, goes to clarification and then pro-
duction of concentrate or NFC. Pulp intended for
sale as pulp goes to pulp production. Residual
pulp goes to pulp washing or the feed mill.
68
Extractor, reamer-type
Pulpy juice
Wet peel, rag, seeds Clarification
Pulpy juice
Wet peel,
Oil emulsion
rag, seeds
Feed mill
Fruit sizing
After grading, the fruit passes over the sizing ta-
ble which divides the fruit into different streams
according to fruit diameter. A sizing table is
generally made up of a series of rotating rollers
over which the fruit passes. The distance between
the rollers is preset, and increases as the fruit
travels over the table. Over the first set of rollers,
the smallest fruit drop between the gap onto a
conveyor which carries them to an extractor set
for their particular size range.
As the gap increases, larger fruit will pass
through the rollers onto extractors set for their
defined size range. In this way, all the fruit is
selected to suit the individual settings of the
extractors. There are normally 2–3 different size
settings in an extractor line.
A well-functioning fruit sizer is essential to
producing juice of high quality and/or yield. If
the fruit is too big or small, then (depending on
the extractor type) it will be oversqueezed and
excessive rag and peel will get into the juice with
resulting bitterness. If the fruit is undersqueezed,
insufficient yield will result.
5.4.1 EXTRACTOR TYPES
Two types of extractor dominate in orange
processing plants, the squeezer type and the
reamer type. For these two types there are two
major brands, FMC (squeezer type) and Brown
(reamer type). Both extraction systems are dedi-
cated to citrus fruit.
The reamer-type extraction system provides
excellent separation of the orange components
juice, oil and peel.

It works best – as
regards both product
quality and yield
– with fruit round in
shape and of uniform
ripeness such as found
with Florida fruit.
Fig. 5.5 A squeezer-type Squeezer-type extrac-
orange juice extractor. tors are less sensitive
to the size and shape
of the fruit but can lead to higher oil content in
the juice and more damaged pulp compared with
reamer-type extractors. Adjustments to the stand-
ard squeezer-type extractor may be needed to keep
oil levels low and/or improve pulp quality.
Globally, squeezer-type extractors are the
most common. However, in Florida, the total
installed extraction capacity is about equal for
both types of extractor. The major share of the
NFC produced in Florida is extracted using
reamer-type extractors.
Another type of extraction equipment is the ro-
tary press extractor. These are more multipurpose
machines and therefore may also be used to proc-
ess other types of fruit.
With rotary press extractors, the fruit is cut
in half and the halves pass between rotating cyl-
inders which press out the juice. Oil is extracted
from the peel in a separate step prior to extraction.
Although the extraction process is simple, both
juice yield and quality are less optimal compared
with squeezer-type and reamer-type extractors.
Rotary press extractors, which have a high
capacity per unit and require lower investment,
are popular in the Mediterranean area. However,
globally they are of minor importance compared
with squeezer- and reamer-type extractors.
Once installed in a plant, extraction systems
are not easily interchangeable due to the different
demands on the surrounding equipment.
“There are two major types
of extractor system, squeezer
type and reamer type
” through with the juice. The upper cup continues
69
5.4 Juice extraction
5.4.2 THE SQUEEZER-TYPE EXTRACTOR
A squeezer-type extractor is shown in Figure 5.5.
These are placed in lines in the extractor room
with up to 15 extractors per line. Each extractor
may be fitted with 5 heads, which are available
in different sizes so that they can handle the
type and quality of fruit available. Typical sizes
are 23⁄8, 3, 4 and even 5 inches (used mainly for
grapefruit). The head size for each extractor in a
line is chosen to optimise the handling of sized
fruit. The extractor separates the fruit into four
parts – pulpy juice, peel, core (rag, seeds and
pulp) and oil emulsion.
Fig. 5.6 Operation
of the squeezer-type
orange juice extractor.
Water
Whole fruit Peel
Juice manifold
Oil emulsion
Pulpy juice
Core
The head of an extractor comprises an upper and
a lower cup (see Figure 5.6). The cups have metal
fingers that mesh together as the upper cup is
lowered onto the lower cup. A cutter comes up
through the centre of the lower cup to cut a hole
through the skin in order to allow the inner parts
of the orange to flow out. The cutter is part of the
perforated strainer tube, sometimes referred to as
the prefinisher.
Once the strainer tube has cut into the fruit,
the upper cup squeezes down on the lower cup.
This pressure initially forces the juice to burst out
of the juice vesicles and pass through the perfo-
rations of the strainer tube. Some of the pieces
of the ruptured juice sacs (i.e. pulp) will pass
to squeeze down on the lower cup to extract as
much juice as possible.
 5.4 Juice extraction
Eventually, the downward pressure causes the
peel to break up, disintegrate and pass up through
the fingers of each cup. Juice flows through the
strainer tube into the juice manifold. The core
material is discharged from the bottom of the
strainer tube through the orifice tube.
As the peel is forced through the fingers of the
cups during the last step of the extraction cycle,
oil is released from the peel. The bits of peel are
washed with recycled water to extract the oil
from the oil sacs. The oil is discharged from the
extractors as an emulsion with water.
With squeezer-type extractors, one item of
equipment – the extractor – separates the fruit
into four principal product streams in one basic
step. It is claimed that contact is avoided between
the juice and oil, and the juice and peel.
For successful operation of this equipment, the
correct selection of cup size and adjustment of
cup and cutter operation are important. Too much
pressure applied to fruit resulting from the use of
undersize cups may result in blowing out the fruit
and/or peel entering the juice stream. If too little
pressure is applied the yield will drop.
The throughput of a five-head extractor will
vary according to the quality and size of fruit.
The standard operating speed is 100 rpm, or 500
oranges per minute. Fruit will not always flow
to each cup; 90 % utilisation is a high figure.
A typical capacity for medium-sized fruit is
5 tonnes/hr of fruit per extractor, corresponding
to about 2500 l/h of juice.
Because extractors operate at a fixed number
of oranges processed per minute, the citrus
processing plant throughput is very sensitive and
dependent on fruit size. Processing small fruit (350
oranges/box) will result in 1500 l/h juice flow rate
instead of 3000 l/h when processing large fruit
(180 oranges/box), an increase of 100 % related
to the quantity of juice and by-products handled
by downstream equipment. These figures show the
importance of correct storage bin management and
fruit size in smooth factory operations.
70
Modifications for premium pulp
As the pulpy juice passes through the holes in the
strainer tube in the standard extractor, the pulp
tends to be broken up into small pieces, typically
2–3 mm in length or less. This is acceptable if the
pulp is intended for pulp wash and as commercial
pulp for certain markets.
Market demands in the juice market are
changing, and the need for more “natural” pulp
that has been subjected to less shear is increasing.
In a squeezer-type extractor of modified design,
larger pulp pieces, up to 15–20 mm long, flow
along with the juice stream. The main difference
in design is the use of a modified strainer tube
with larger openings that allow more pulp to re-
main in the juice stream. The pulp is subsequently
separated from the juice and treated in a modified
pulp recovery system.
Modifications to the squeezer-type extractor to
suit premium pulp were introduced in the 1990's
and today there are several installations in Florida
and Brazil.
Premium juice “low-oil” extractor
Certain fruit varieties (e.g. the Florida Valencia)
will express more oil into the juice stream than
other varieties. This can lead to oil content in
the juice exceeding acceptable levels (such as
0.035 %, the maximum level permitted in Florida
for grade “A” juice).
This is a problem with NFC but less so with
juice intended for concentrate because most of
the oil will flash off in the evaporator. In the low-
oil version of the squeezer-type extractor, the
design of the strainer tube and orifice tube area
are modified. This unit cuts a smaller core and
puts less pressure on the fruit during extraction,
thereby reducing the amount of peel oil getting
into the juice. These modifications may also lead
to a reduction in juice yield. When the top spray
of water is stopped, the amount of peel oil to be
recovered is thereby reduced.
As an alternative, hermetic centrifuges or vac-
uum flashing can be used for deoiling the single-
strength juice in conjunction with the standard
extractors. This allows a higher juice yield to be
maintained during extraction, while excess oil is
removed after the extraction process.
 5.4 Juice extraction

5.4.3 THE REAMER-TYPE EXTRACTOR

The reamer-type extractor is based on the same
principle as a typical manual kitchen squeezer
used to prepare orange juice for breakfast. An Fruit

extraction line comprises several extractors, and

it is very important to set up each extractor to
suit the size of fruit fed into it. A reamer-type
extractor is illustrated in Figure 5.7.
Fruit is fed into the feed wheel and cut in half.
The halves are oriented and picked up in syn-
thetic rubber cups mounted on a continuous belt
system. A series of nylon reamers (cone-shaped
inserts that have ridges moulded into the form
from tip to base of the reamer) are mounted on
a rotating turntable.
The reamers, in the vertical plane for most
models, enter each fruit half and rotate as they
penetrate them. The speed of rotation varies as the
reamer penetrates the fruit, being slower towards
the end of the operation. Juice, pulp, rag and seeds
pass out through one outlet, and the remaining
peel passes out through the peel chute.
The juice and pulp are separated from the rag
and seeds by a strainer, then pass on to the finish-
ers. The size, pressure and rotation speed of the
reamer can be adjusted to suit the maturity, size
and quality of fruit.
The reamer-type system typically gives a better
quality of pulp (longer and larger cell fragments)
than standard squeezer-type extractors. Juice
yields between the two systems are comparable.
Juice
Fig. 5.7 A reamer-type orange juice extractor.
The oil extraction system
Peel oil can be recovered from the peel using a
separate oil extraction system which is placed
upstream of the juice extractors. It operates
on the principle of puncturing oil sacs in the
flavedo and washing the oil out to make an
emulsion (see Figure 5.8). In the first stage of
the oil extraction system, whole fruit passes
over a series of rollers with small but sharp nee-
dle-like projections. The oil glands are pricked
rather than scraped open so that little damage
is done to the peel. Therefore, the amount of
contaminating material washed away with the
oil is minimal. This, in turn, makes the water
stream separated from the emulsion cleaner and
easier to recycle.

Water
Fruit

Water

Oil emulsion Oil emulsion

Fig 5.8 An oil extraction system.

71
 5.5 Clarification

The rollers conveying fruit are

Pulpy juice
placed in a water bath and the oil from extractors
from the pierced glands is washed
out with water. After a finishing
(straining) stage to remove any
large particles of peel, the oil-water
emulsion can be concentrated and Pulp
polished in a series of centrifuges Finisher 1 Finisher 2 Pulp wash
production/
(see subsection 5.8 on peel oil re- Juice Juice
feed mill
covery). The water is recycled to a
large degree.
Instead of more recently de-
veloped oil extraction system
upstream of juice extraction, older Clarifying centrifuge
installations incorporate peel shav-
ers placed after the juice extraction
stage. The outer layer of flavedo is Product chiller
literally shaved off from the peel
mechanically. It is washed and
pressed to remove the oil. The Buffer storage tank
emulsion is then centrifuged in
the conventional manner.
The reamer-type extraction sys-
tem requires two separate steps to
extract juice and oil from the fruit.
Concentrate production NFC production
Nevertheless, the oil emulsion is
often considered cleaner, easier to
centrifuge compared with other types oil recovery Fig. 5.9 The clarification process.
system, and the extracted juice has less contact
with the oil.
5.4.4 DOWNSTREAM OF THE JUICE
EXTRACTORS 5.5 Clarification
The juice streams leaving either a squeezer-type The juice leaving the extraction process is clar-
extractor line or reamer-type extractor system ified as it contains too much pulp and membrane
flow to clarification and then evaporation, or material to be processed in the evaporator or as
pasteurisation if the end-product is NFC. The oil NFC. Typical process steps in juice clarification
emulsion flows to peel oil recovery for separation are shown in Figure 5.9.
by centrifugation. Peel, rag, seeds and other solid Pulp levels in pulpy juice from the extractors
material are conveyed to the feed mill. are generally around 20–25 % of floating and
sinking pulp. The juice is therefore finished, that
is, pulp is removed from the juice. A finisher is
basically a cylindrical sieving screen. There are
two types of finisher – screw-type and paddle.
Their operating principles are shown in Figures
5.10 and 5.11.

72

Screw-type finishers
These include a stainless-steel screw that conveys
the pulpy juice through the unit and presses the
pulp against the cylindrical screen. The juice
flows through the screen holes.
The pulp is consequently “concentrated”
inside the screen and is discharged at the end
of the finisher. As pulp is discharged through a
restricted opening, the resulting back-pressure in
the finisher helps to squeeze out more juice from
the pulp mass.
Paddle finishers
These incorporate a set of paddles rotating on
a central shaft within the cylinder. The pulp is
pushed against the screen by the paddles. Pad-
dle finishers apply centrifugal force rather than
pressure to separate the pulp from the juice. This
usually provides gentler pulp treatment and higher
flow rates than screw finishers.
Two finishers are often placed in series at
the end of the extraction line. The upstream
primary finisher is not set as tight as the down-
stream secondary unit and so will have a higher
flow capacity.
The exact configuration of the clarification
stage depends upon the manufacturer of the ex-
tractor system and the type of pulp that the proc-
essor wishes to recover. The pulpy juice stream
from a reamer-type system or premium pulp
squeezer-type extractor may first pass through a
classifying finisher (with larger holes) to remove
peel and membrane pieces before pulp recovery.
Pulpy juice
Pulp
Finished juice
Fig. 5.10 Operation of screw-type finishers.
73
5.5 Clarification
The standard squeezer-type extractor includes a
prefinishing tube in the extractor and the pulpy
juice flows directly to the primary finisher.
Centrifugal clarification
Typically, the pulp content in juice leaving the
secondary finisher is about 12 %. This pulp is pre-
dominately sinking pulp. If the market requires a
juice with lower sinking pulp content, the juice can
be further clarified by centrifugation. A two-phase
clarifier is normally used for this application.
Separation in the disc stack centrifuge takes
place in the spaces created between a number of
conical discs stacked on top of each other to pro-
vide a large separation area. Most models rotate at
between 4,000 and 10,000 rpm. The accumulated
solids can be discharged, without having to stop
the centrifuge, by rapidly opening an annular slot
at the periphery of the rotating bowl. The clarified
juice leaves the centrifuge under pressure. Clari-
fication by centrifugation often leads to improved
operation of the evaporator system by providing
consistent pulp levels in the juice.
In order to meet recent demands for FCOJ with
very low and low pulp content (<1 and <3 % pulp
respectively) for use in the production of orange
nectars and drinks, a new type of hermetic cen-
trifuge with continuous pulp discharge is applied.
Usually this type of machine is located within
the evaporator system, between stages, in order
to centrifuge warm juice. This type of hermetic
centrifuge can reduce pulp levels to less than 1 %
without frequent intermittent discharges.
Pulpy juice
Pulp
Finished juice
Fig. 5.11 Operation of paddle finishers.
 5.6 NFC production

Juice from
clarification

Buffer tank

Deoiling centrifuge

Pasteuriser Deaerator

Frozen drum Chilled aseptic Chilled aseptic

storage tank storage bag-in-box storage

Fig. 5.12 NFC production through to bulk storage.

Turbofilters 5.6 NFC production

Turbofilters were introduced in Brazil during the
mid-1990’s as an alternative to screw and paddle
finishers. Turbofilters are claimed to give a more
stable level of sinking pulp in the finished juice
than conventional finishers. They incorporate
a stainless-steel conveyor, rotating faster than
screw finishers, which pushes the pulpy juice
against a plastic screen. The pulp content of the
juice can be adjusted by changing the inclination
of the turbofilter.
Blending
After clarification, the juice often undergoes some
degree of blending with juice from other batches
in order to balance its flavour, colour, acidity and
°Brix levels before further processing. If intended
for NFC production, the juice leaving the clarifica-
tion section should be cooled to 4 °C to minimise
the potential of microbiological activity before
being passed into the buffer/blending tanks.
The aim of NFC processing is to produce orange
juice using the minimum of thermal processing.
Nevertheless, the thermal treatment should be suf-
ficient to ensure that the product is physically and
microbiologically stable. Since fruit harvesting
is seasonal and juice consumption is year-round,
the product must be stable enough to be stored
for several months up to one year so that seasons
can be bridged.
In some instances during the season, NFC is
pasteurised and packaged for the retail market
without long-term bulk storage. When this is the
case, some blending may occur following the
clarification step to minimise hourly variations
in acidity and °Brix. Some pulp may also be added
depending upon market demands.
More commonly, the juice is processed and
stored in bulk under aseptic or frozen conditions
for some months until it is reprocessed and pack-
aged. For large-volume NFC production, such as
found in Florida and Brazil, aseptic tank farms are
the most common form of NFC storage.

74

Juice oil
Deoiled juice
Fig. 5.13 Operational principle of a hermetic
centrifuge for deoiling juice.
The reprocessing often involves the blending of
juice from early and late season fruit in order to
standardise °Brix, ratio, colour, etc. The addition of
pulp to the consumer product may be done at this
stage. Sometimes, if volatiles have been removed
from the juice prior to storage, these are added back
to the juice during the blending step.
The steps for NFC production up to bulk stor-
age are shown in Figure 5.12. After clarification,
but prior to buffer storage, the product should be
cooled as soon as possible to prevent microbio-
logical growth or enzymatic reactions.
A plate or tubular heat exchanger can be used
for cooling, the choice of which will be dictated by
the type and quantity of pulp present in the juice.
However, cooling is seldom done before pasteuri-
sation in a traditional citrus processing facility.
5.6.1 OIL REDUCTION
Depending upon fruit variety and extractor op-
eration, the oil content in the juice from extraction
may exceed acceptable amounts. The levels may
be specified by a legal standard, for example Flor-
ida grade A juice should have a maximum oil
content of 0.035 %. Alternatively, the oil content
may be decided on the basis of consumer prefer-
ence. Acceptable levels of oil in juice ready for
consumption range from 0.015 to 0.030 %.
75
5.6 NFC production
Reduction of oil can be achieved in different
ways:
Adjusting the extractor. Less pressure is applied
to fruit during extraction or a low-oil extractor
(squeezer-type) is used. Both alternatives are
likely to reduce juice yield.
Vacuum flashing of preheated juice. This
method can remove desirable volatiles from the
juice along with the oil.
Centrifugal separation of the oil phase from
the clarified juice. With this method juice yield
from the extractors can be maintained at a high
level and there is no heating of the juice.
Deoiling with centrifuges
Removal of oil from single-strength juice with
centrifuges has been practised for years. It is a
difficult separation task because the oil droplets
are well emulsified, particularly in juice from
squeezer-type extractors. Hermetic centrifuges
give good results in separating oil even from juice
coming from squeezer-type extractors.
In a hermetic centrifuge the rotating bowl is
completely filled with liquid. This means that
there are no air pockets and thus no free liquid
surfaces in the bowl, which in turn avoids air
entrainment and high shear forces.
The feed enters the centrifuge bowl from
underneath through a hollow spindle. (See Figure
5.13).The smooth acceleration of the product as
it enters the centrifuge prevents scattering of
the oil globules, thereby enhancing separation.
The hermetic (gastight) design also prevents loss
of volatile components in the juice and ingress
of oxygen.
In the deoiling of single-strength juice with her-
metic centrifuges, oil concentrations can typically
be reduced from 0.04–0.08 % to 0.02–0.035 %.
In terms of juice yield, the use of a deoiling cen-
trifuge in combination with standard extractors
gives a yield increase of 2–4 % compared with
an extractor fitted with low-oil components.
The deoiled juice is buffer-stored for a short
period prior to pasteurisation. Some blending to
level quality variations may be carried out.
 5.6 NFC production
5.6.2 PRIMARY PASTEURISATION
Pasteurisation prior to storage, the primary pas-
teurisation, must achieve two goals – to deactivate
the enzymes present in the juice and to make the
juice microbiologically stable. (See also subsec-
tion 4.4). It is carried out using tubular or plate
heat exchangers. The choice of heat exchanger
depends on the amount and type of pulp in the
product and on the processor’s preference. Tubu-
lar heat exchangers are best for juice containing
floating pulp (see also subsection 7.5). Normally,
after bulk storage the juice is pasteurised at least a
second time prior to filling into retail packages.
The long shelf life required for NFC going to
bulk storage demands strict attention to hygiene.
Single-strength juice is more sensitive to micro-
bial contamination than concentrate (where the
high osmotic pressure resulting from high sugar
content retards microbial growth). The use of
chilled storage instead of frozen storage also
imposes much stricter hygiene requirements for
NFC production than what FCOJ producers may
be accustomed to.
Good manufacturing practice demands that the
pasteuriser system should be presterilised at 95 °C
or higher prior to production, and that a CIP pro-
gram be integrated with the control system. NFC
“Dissolved
loss of vitamin C during storage
volumes to be processed are normally large, so a
high degree of energy recovery is advisable.
Thermal treatment is a concern among many
NFC producers. Excessive heat load on the juice
should be avoided. Careful control of temperature
and residence time using well-designed heat ex-
changers is important. Low temperature differ-
entials between the heating medium (hot water)
and product minimises “shock” to the product.
THE PURPOSE OF PRIMARY
PASTEURISATION IS TWO-FOLD
- to deactivate enzymes
- to make the juice microbiologically stable
5.6.3 DEAERATION
Air tends to get mixed into the juice in the ex-
tractors and finishers. Some of the entrained air
may escape during buffer storage, but juice go-
ing to pasteurisation is normally saturated with
76
dissolved oxygen. It also contains some free air.
During product storage, oxygen present in juice
in the dissolved state and as free bubbles may de-
stroy a significant amount of the available vitamin
C by oxidation (see also Section 4). Air bubbles
present in the product during pasteurisation may
also lead to insufficient heat treatment.
Deaeration as part of the pasteurisation proc-
ess is therefore recommended for the production
of NFC. Deaeration is usually carried out by pass-
ing the product through a vacuum chamber. Free
air bubbles expand in a vacuum and tend to escape
quite easily from the juice, although dissolved
oxygen is more difficult to remove.
The deaeration efficiency, or reduction of
dissolved oxygen, depends on several operating
factors, such as the vacuum applied and juice
surface area in the deaerator. Deaerator operation
and equipment are described in subsection 7.5.
Volatiles which flash off during deaeration
are condensed and returned to the juice stream.
Alternatively, they are sometimes removed and
stored separately from the bulk juice.
oxygen in juice causes
”
5.6.4 LONG-TERM FROZEN STORAGE
After primary pasteurisation orange juice is stored
in bulk under either frozen or aseptic conditions.
NFC production involves large product volumes.
For the same amount of final juice, NFC volumes
are 5–6 times larger than FCOJ.
Vitamin degradation and changes in flavour
during the storage period are minimised by freez-
ing, but the energy and warehouse costs of freez-
ing and storing frozen NFC are high.
Freezing of NFC leads to handling problems
because it freezes solid, whereas frozen orange
concentrate is very viscous but still pumpable.
Frozen storage of NFC is more appropriate to
low NFC volumes. Large-volume producers store
NFC aseptically in very large tanks.
Juice to be stored frozen is filled into mild steel
200 l (55 US gal.) drums lined with a polyethylene
plastic bag. As the product is to be frozen, the net
filling volume is about 170 l (45 US gal.).

THERE ARE THREE MAJOR OPTIONS FOR
LONG-TERM STORAGE OF NFC JUICE
- frozen storage
- aseptic storage in tanks
- aseptic storage in bag-in-box bulk containers
Alternatively, the juice may be poured into block
formers and then frozen (mainly for on-site
storage).The frozen product is usually kept at
–18 °C or lower.
Thawing of NFC to make it ready for final
processing also leads to some logistical and hand-
ling difficulties. It takes several days or weeks for
bulk product in drums to thaw at ambient tem-
perature. The outer layer of juice may be exposed
to microbiological contamination during thawing
with subsequent negative impact on product qual-
ity. Crushing systems enable more rapid handling
but entail higher energy consumption and capital
investment.
Systems for freezing larger blocks of juice
incorporating novel techniques for rapid freezing
and thawing have been introduced, but so far have
limited commercial use.
5.6.5 ASEPTIC STORAGE IN TANKS
As an alternative to frozen storage, NFC may be
stored chilled in aseptic tanks. Technology exists
to build very large tanks, up to 4 million litres
capacity, for the aseptic storage of juice. Unique
fabrication techniques are used to coat the internal
surfaces of the carbon steel tanks with an expoxy
lining. While lined tanks are common in Florida,
Brazilian producers use mainly stainless-steel
tanks for NFC storage. The tanks are sterilised
prior to filling by flooding them with a sterilising
fluid (e.g. iodoform). Rather than fitting the tanks
with cooling jackets, they are installed within a
large refrigerated building. The preferred storage
temperature is about –1 °C, just above the freezing
temperature of the juice.
The juice must be agitated periodically to
avoid separation of sinking pulp and to maintain
°Brix uniformity. Pressurised nitrogen above the
juice surface is often maintained to minimise
the risk of vitamin C loss through oxidation.
“As an alternative to frozen
storage, NFC may be stored
77
5.6 NFC production
Normally, when product is required from these
tanks, it is drawn off, blended with juice from
another part of the season (and perhaps pulp)
and repasteurised.
In Florida, a large share of NFC is stored in
tank farms with very large aseptic tanks. This
technology was pioneered in Florida and gave
rise to rapid growth in storage capacity during
the 1990’s with still more capacity being added
today. Growth in NFC production in Brazil after
2000 has also led to the construction of large
storage tanks. But unlike Florida, where NFC is
mainly stored and utilised on a processor’s site,
NFC produced in Brazil is primarily intended
for export. The aseptic tank farms are therefore
installed at the dockside export terminal instead
of at the juice factory.
In this case, clarified juice is pre-pasteurised
and cooled down to 0 °C at the processing site
and then transported by road tanker to juice fa-
cilities at the export harbour (the distance from
one of the major citrus processing sites to Port of
Santos is 450 km). Full pasteurisation of juice
takes place at the terminal before it is transferred
to the large aseptic storage tanks for long-term
storage to bridge the seasons.
To avoid repasteurisation of juice before
overseas transport, relevant technology has been
developed that allows the aseptic transfer of juice
to sea vessels fitted with bulk aseptic tanks. Juice
is transported to the US and Europe under chilled
aseptic conditions on board specially designed
ships (see also subsection 6.3.3). On arrival at its
destination, the juice is aseptically transferred to
aseptic dockside tanks at the reception terminal
using similar technology to that at the export
facilities.
The aseptic NFC technology requires a sub-
stantial initial investment, and the value of product
at risk when stored in such large tanks is consid-
erable. Today, however, risks are minimised by
field-proven designs, advanced aseptic technology,
and more than ten years of experience with the
many large tank systems installed.
chilled in large aseptic tanks
”
 5.6 NFC production

5.6.6 ASEPTIC STORAGE IN BAG-IN-BOX

BULK CONTAINERS
As an alternative to aseptic tanks, the juice may
be filled into 1,000 l (300 gal.) aseptic bag-in-box
containers (see Figure 5.14). The bags, placed
in bins usually made from wood, are then stored
under refrigerated conditions. After storage, the
product is accessed by opening the bag and pump-
ing out the product. Alternatively, the bag can be
emptied and the juice transferred aseptically to
the filler.
The use of “one tonne” aseptic bag-in-box
containers for NFC storage requires more la-
bour for filling and emptying the containers
compared with large tanks. However, it gives Fig. 5.14 A filler for bag-in-box containers.
added flexibility regarding storage capacity as the
investment required to store additional volumes Other systems were developed specifically for
of juice is moderate. A drawback of the aseptic aseptic filling. An example of the latter type is
tank approach is finite storage volume unless a shown in Figure 5.14. It incorporates a simple
major investment is undertaken to have reserve filling system (spout and filling valve) and steam
capacity. Consequently, the bag-in-box solution is used as the sterilising agent.
is often preferred for start-up operations for NFC
5.6.7 REPROCESSING OF NFC
production. NFC processors who already have
In the USA, some NFC is moved in bulk by road
aseptic tanks installed may also use bag-in-box
and rail tankers to juice packers across the coun-
containers to provide additional storage capacity
try, but most NFC is filled into retail packages in
and shipment of NFC.
Florida and distributed from there. Shipping from
Aseptic security during product filling and
Florida to Europe in bulk is done in frozen drums
storage in the bag must be high. For long-term
and aseptic bag-in-box containers. For Brazilian
storage of juice (6 months or more), bag material
NFC, overseas shipping also occurs by bulk sea
with a very good oxygen barrier is recommended.
tanker. Overseas shipping of packaged product
Bags made with foil-based aluminium laminate
is at a cost disadvantage compared with ship-
offer higher protection against oxygen compared
ping bulk juice. Moreover, the additional delay
with metallised laminates where the aluminium
in transport time adds to difficulties with logistics
layer is much thinner.
and forecasting for the packaged product.
Aseptic security during product filling and
Traditionally, NFC taken from storage at the
storage must be high. Any contamination may
fruit processor’s site for reprocessing is blended
lead to blown bags during storage and shipment.
with juice from a different part of the season and/
Needless to say, a single blown bag during ship-
or with pulp. The juice blend is then repasteurised
ment can cause a lot of trouble.
prior to filling into consumer packages.
There are several filling systems for aseptic
Alternatively, specially designed equipment
bag-in-box (BiB) containers. Some evolved
can be used to transfer juice from aseptic bulk
from conventional (nonaseptic) BiB systems. A
bags to consumer packages, via an aseptic tank,
sterile chamber surrounds the filling head, and
without the need for repasteurisation.
chemical sterilants are used for sterilisation.
When NFC is shipped overseas, blending
with other orange juice varieties and pulp may
take place at the juice facilities at the reception
terminal or at a blending house.

78

Juice from
clarification
Evaporator
Essence recovery
Concentrate blend tanks
Plate cooler
Frozen concentrate
storage
5.7 Concentrate production
Globally, most orange juice is produced as
concentrate. Juice from the clarification step
is evaporated to remove most of the water (see
Figure 5.15). Currently, the most widely used cit-
rus evaporators are of tubular design, although
plate and cassette evaporators are also installed
in citrus plants.
The evaporators are designed for the enormous
juice volumes commonly processed in large citrus
plants, where evaporator capacities can exceed
100,000 kg/h (about 220,000 lbs/h) of water evapo-
rated. Versions with as many as seven effects are
installed (seven effects means basically that the
steam is reused to evaporate water in seven steps).
Such systems have a very low specific steam con-
sumption; only 1 kg (2.2 lbs) of steam is used to
evaporate 6 kg (13.2 lbs) of water. However, ad-
ditional effects increase the residence time for the
product in the evaporator accordingly.
79
5.7 Concentrate production
Condensate to
fruit washing
Fig. 5.15 Flow chart of
concentrate production.
During the 1970´s and 1980´s, there was a large
expansion in concentrate capacity in the major
citrus markets of Brazil and Florida. Today, little
increase in evaporator capacity is needed in these
regions, but new evaporators are being installed
to satisfy the requirements of other expanding
orange-producing regions.
5.7.1 TUBULAR EVAPORATOR SYSTEMS
The most common type of tubular evaporator
system used for orange juice is the TASTE
evaporator. It is generally described as a con-
tinuous, high-temperature short-time evaporator
of the long, vertical tube falling-film type. The
name is an acronym for Thermally Accelerated
Short-Time Evaporator. It was designed and
developed in Florida, and today this type of
evaporator is manufactured in many different
countries. These evaporator systems are dedi-
cated to citrus fruit.
 5.7 Concentrate production

Preheated juice

3 5 1
Steam

4 6 2

Steam

Steam

1 Condensate
= Product stage
Concentrate
65 °Brix Juice 12 °Brix

Fig. 5.16 A simplified flow diagram of a tubular evaporator.

A flow diagram of an evaporator with seven product 50 metres/second on leaving the tube bundle! The
stages is presented in Figure 5.16. The juice is first high degree of turbulence increases heat-transfer
preheated to 95–98 °C. Holding at pasteurisation rates and reduces burn-on, which helps to achieve
temperature stabilises the juice by means of mi- long operating runs.
crobial and enzyme inactivation. The product then
Other tubular evaporation systems
passes through a number of stages under vacuum
There are also other tubular evaporator sys-
until a concentration of up to 66 °Brix is achieved.
tems of similar design for citrus plants, which
By this time the product temperature has fallen to
include a conventional mechanical method of
about 40 °C. The residence time in the evaporator
distributing product across the tube bundles.
is typically 5–7 minutes or longer.
They in cor po rate thermal recompression to
Good distribution is of primary importance in
increase steam economy without increasing
the design of an evaporator. It ensures that all the
residence time. Relatively few of these evap-
product is uniformly treated and that the heat ex-
o ra tor sys tems have been installed for high
change surface is used to its maximum potential.
product capacities.
A special feature of the TASTE evaporator
is the way in which the product is distributed 5.7.2 PLATE AND CASSETTE
across the tube bundle. The juice is fed into the EVAPORATOR SYSTEMS
distribution section at a temperature and pressure In addition to tubular systems, plate and cassette
greater than in the entry zone of the tube bundle. evaporators are also used for concentrating or-
The liquid is fed through a diverging expansion ange juice. As the name implies, plate evapora-
nozzle which converts all the product into a tors consist of plates clamped together in a frame
liquid/vapour mixture. The expanding vapour with gaskets between them. It is more common
accelerates the liquid/vapour mixture through a to use cassettes (welded double plates) instead of
second nozzle and cone assembly. Further flash single plates because they further simplify main-
expansion of the vapour causes atomisation of tenance. The heating medium (steam or vapour)
the liquid phase into a turbulent mist. The accel- flows through the space between the welded plates
eration effect can cause mist velocities to exceed that make up the cassette.

80

Fig. 5.17 A rising film cassette evaporator.
Product channels are formed between individual
cassettes separated by gaskets. This configuration
allows ready inspection of product.
Some advantages of plate/cassette evaporators
when compared with other types of evaporator
are that capacity increases are easily achieved by
adding more cassettes, and that maintenance and
inspection are easily carried out by opening the
frame. Furthermore, as cassette evaporators are
more compact, they eliminate the need for several
walkways at different levels used to access the
equipment as found with tubular systems. The one-
level configuration offers easy operator control
and ready access for maintenance activities.
A small temperature difference between the
product and heating medium is sufficient in this
type of evaporator. This allows lower operating
temperatures to be used than with traditional
tubular evaporators. The main type of cassette
evaporator is the rising film unit.
Rising film cassette evaporator
In the rising film cassette evaporator the product
enters the bottom of the cassette and rises up over
the heating surface as it boils (Figure 5.17). No
mechanical feed distribution device is needed and
even distribution is achieved through gravity.
81
5.7 Concentrate production
The film flows upwards in a homogenous flow
thus giving a very short retention time over the
heating surface. The liquid/vapour velocity at the
outlet of the very short heating channel is very
high. It is possible to evaporate products of higher
viscosity and higher pulp content than in a falling
film evaporator.
As plate systems can be designed for flexibility,
some installations installed in citrus plants are
used to process other types of juice outside the
orange juice season.
5.7.3 HOMOGENISATION
Sometimes, homogenisation of concentrate is car-
ried out within the evaporator system. Product
then normally passes through a homogeniser be-
fore the last effect. At this stage the concentration
is approximately 40–42 °Brix. Homogenisation
breaks down the pectin, thereby lowering the
viscosity of the concentrate. This increases the
efficiency of the final stage of the evaporator.
It is also claimed that homogenisation reduces
the sinking pulp level in the product. This could
permit juice with higher pulp levels to be fed to
the evaporator.
In the case of special requirements of concen-
trate with very low pulp content (<1 %), specially
designed hermetic clarifying centrifuges may be
included in the evaporator system.
 5.7 Concentrate production
5.7.4 THE CENTRIFUGAL EVAPORATOR
Very gentle product treatment during evaporation
is achieved in the centrifugal thin-film evaporator
(Figure 5.18). The heating surface consists of
rotating cones. By combining heating and cen-
trifugal force, a high degree of concentration takes
place in one single pass, in a very short time and
at a very low temperature. A typical residence
time for concentrating orange juice from 12 to
65 °Brix is about 10 sec at a temperature of 50 °C.
These gentle conditions give the lowest possible
thermal impact on the product.
The centrifugal evaporator (Centritherm)
handles capacities from 50 to 5,000 kg/h of
evaporated water. It is configured in one effect
and consequently has a specific steam con-
sumption of approx. 1.1 kg steam per kg water
evaporated. Although its capacity is too low and
steam consumption is too high for cost-effective
production of standard concentrates, the superior
heat-transfer efficiency and gentle product treat-
ment of the centrifugal thin-film evaporator are
desirable features of units sometimes used for
producing premium concentrates that command
a high market price.
5.7.5 ESSENCE RECOVERY
During evaporation volatile juice components are
stripped from the juice together with the water.
These are often recovered in an essence recovery
system connected to the evaporator. The essence
process usually forms an integral part of the mass
and thermal balance of the evaporator system. Dr.
James Redd of Florida pioneered the development
work in the design of essence recovery units, the
first commercial system being installed in 1963.
The vapours from the early product stages
of the evaporator contain most of the volatiles
from the juice. These are captured and sent to a
still mounted on the evaporator. The important
volatiles are separated from the water by distil-
lation under vacuum and condensed by chilling.
The product essence is a concentrated mixture of
aqueous and oil-soluble aroma compounds. This
essence is separated into oil and aqueous phases
by either decantation or centrifugation.
82
Concentrate Juice feed
Vapour
Condensate
Fig. 5.18 The operational principle
of a centrifugal evaporator.
Some recently designed essence recovery sys-
tems use structured packing in the distillation
column instead of the traditional perforated plate
device. This new approach results in less aroma
liquid hold-up volume and residence time as well
as increased separation efficiency. These features
help to improve the yield of both water phase
aroma components and essence oil.
Water phase aroma and essence oil
The aqueous phase (called water phase aroma or
essence aroma), contains the flavour top-notes. It
has an alcohol strength typically standardised at
12–15 %. The oil phase (essence oil) holds the
fruity and sweet-tasting flavours of fresh juice. It
has different properties to those of peel oil (see
Section 8). Add-back of water phase aroma and
essence oil to concentrate has replaced the previ-
ous practice of adding single-strength juice (called
cut-back) to improve the flavour of concentrate.
In Florida, Valencia oranges are used to pro-
duce the best essence, but little essence can be
derived from early varieties of fruit, and it is often
of poorer quality.
Aroma and essence oil are either sold as sep-
arate products to concentrate blending houses or
juice packers, or alternatively purchased on contract
by speciality flavour manufacturing companies.

5.7.6 CONCENTRATE STORAGE
After evaporation, the 65 °Brix concentrate is
chilled to –10 °C. It is then routed to storage.
Blending of different production lots and addition
of peel oil and essences may be done on the way
to concentrate storage. Storage takes place in
bulk storage tanks or 200 l drums with plastic
liner. Drum storage is normally maintained at
–20 to –25 °C, bulk storage in large tanks often at
–10 °C. Just prior to dispatch from the plant, con-
centrate drawn from different bulk storage tanks
is often blended to meet product specifications.
Concentrates are sometimes diluted with pulp,
for example, to reduce the Brix level. Shipping
of frozen concentrate involves drums, tank cars
or bulk tanker ships.
Concentrate is traded as FCOJ. The term ‘fro-
zen’ may be misleading as concentrate at 65 °Brix
does not freeze solid at –10 °C due to its high
sugar content. 65–66 °Brix is the most common
concentration for FCOJ but bulk concentrates of
lower °Brix are also available. FCOJ of 55–58 °Brix
is typically supplied to dairies.
5.7.7 ALTERNATIVE CONCENTRATION
METHODS
Alternatives to evaporation for concentrating or-
ange juice have been developed and tested, but so
far their commercial application is limited. Lower
Brix levels of the concentrate and often high op-
erational costs compared with evaporator systems
in common use hinder the commercialisation of
the new systems.
Two methods which do not use heat for con-
centration are freeze-concentration and membrane
filtration.
83
5.7 Concentrate production
Freeze-concentration
This method is based on the fact that during the
freezing of sugar solutions, ice crystals are first
formed which can be separated out from solution,
thereby increasing the sugar concentration. When
freeze-concentration is applied to juice, inactiv-
ation of enzymes is necessary. This may be car-
ried out by pasteurising the juice before freezing
or pasteurising the resulting concentrate.
Several studies have shown that, compared
with conventional evaporation, freeze-concen-
tration yields superior flavour quality. However,
the low temperatures involved lead to high vis-
cosities of the concentrated products, which limit
the degree of concentration that can be achieved
and the amount of pulp and insoluble solids that
may be present in the juice to be concentrated
(Braddock and Sadler, 1989). Concentrates of up
to 40 °Brix can be obtained with this method.
Membrane filtration
Membrane filtration is another method evaluated
for concentrating orange juice without using heat,
but the resulting high viscosity of concentrate
reduces filtration efficiency and limits the degree
of concentration that can be achieved. To mini-
mise viscosity, the pulp is first separated from
the juice, e.g. by ultrafiltration (UF), to leave a
clear liquid (serum) which is concentrated by
reverse osmosis.
The pulpy stream, rich in enzymes, is pasteur-
ised before being recombined with the serum con-
centrate. Mixing back of the insoluble solids stream,
essentially at single-strength juice concentration,
reduces the Brix value of the concentrate. Concen-
trations up to 42 °Brix have been reported.
Concentration systems using other membrane
processes have also been tested. However, the
necessity to retain the sugars, acids and aroma
compounds in order to maintain a balanced citrus
juice flavour puts tough demands on potential
membrane systems.
 5.8 Peel oil (cold-pressed oil) recovery
5.8 Peel oil (cold-pressed oil)
recovery
The oil-water emulsion, or oil frit, from the ex-
traction process is sent to the peel oil recovery
section. Apart from the oil and water, other fruit
substances are present in the emulsion. These
include particles of peel and pulp, and soluble
pectin and sugars. The aim of the peel oil recovery
system is to recover pure oil by removing all other
substances with as little oil loss as possible.
Peel oil is commonly referred to as cold-
pressed oil.
5.8.1 STRAINING AND CONCENTRATION STEP
The first step involves using a finisher as a strain-
ing method to remove large bits of peel and other
parts of the orange that must not enter down-
stream centrifuges (see Figure 5.19). After
straining, the oil emulsion containing about
0.5–2.0 % oil enters the first stage centrifuge
(also called a desludger or concentrator). The
centrifuge concentrates the oil up to 70–90 %.
The first centrifuge is a three-phase machine.
The light phase is concentrated oil, the heavy
phase is water, and the third phase is residual
particulate matter. The control of solids discharge
from the sludge space is critical to the overall
performance of the oil recovery system. If the
discharge frequency is set too high then product
is lost, but if the sludge space is allowed to fill
up then separation efficiency is lost.
The water stream is often recycled back to the
oil extraction system as spray water, although it
is important that some water is removed from the
system to allow additional fresh water to enter it.
Microbiological problems may occur if the same
water is continuously recycled. Moreover, the cen-
trifuged water contains undesirable components
such as soluble pectin.
As the concentration of these components
builds up in the emulsion, the oil separation
efficiency decreases, thereby resulting in lower
oil yields. Again, this limits the amount of water
recycling possible.
84
Peel oil emulsion
from extractors
Oil finisher
First stage centrifuge Reclaimed water
returned to extractors
Second stage centrifuge
Winterisation tanks
Drum storage Bulk transport
Fig. 5.19 Flow chart of peel oil recovery.
The centrifuged water also contains microscopic
particles of oil that are too small to be separated
by the centrifuge. As this level of oil builds up
with water recycling, the effectiveness of the
water to extract oil from the peel decreases. This
will also lead to an overall drop in efficiency of
oil recovery.
The type of oil extraction used and the per-
formance of the centrifuges will determine the
amount of water that can be recycled. The cleaner
the peel oil emulsion, the higher the oil yield of the
peel oil recovery system and the larger the recy-
cling of water. The oil extraction system upstream
of the reamer-type juice extractor is claimed to
give a “less contaminated” oil emulsion than the
one-step squeezer-type extraction system.
For oil recovery, the hermetic centrifuge
has several advantages over the open bowl type
design. The fully flooded bowl in the hermetic
machine ensures that oil does not come in contact
with air. The precise manner in which the interface
between oil and water is controlled leads to higher
separation efficiency.
 5.8 Peel oil (cold-pressed oil) recovery
Fig. 5.20 Hermetic centrifuge for
peel oil concentration.
A hermetic centrifuge for concentration of peel
oil emulsion is illustrated in Figure 5.20.
5.8.2 POLISHING
The concentrated oil stream then passes to a
second stage centrifugation process (polishing).
Within this machine the oil is further concentrated
to >99 % purity. The flow rates are extremely small
(1–2 %) compared with the flow rates in the first
stage, or with flow rates used in juice clarification
and deoiling of single-strength juice.
Since the product has already undergone one
centrifugation process, virtually no solid particles
remain in the product. For smaller capacities, a
solid bowl machine is used and the water and oil
are continuously discharged. Periodic takedown
removes any material that collects in the bowl
periphery. For larger flow rates, a solids-ejecting
polisher is used in which water and oil leave the
machine under pressure. Accumulated solids are
discharged about once or twice per hour.
One tonne of fruit typically yields 200–300 l
emulsion to the first centrifuge and 3–6 l of con-
centrated oil to the polisher.
5.8.3 THE WINTERISATION PROCESS
The polished oil contains trace amounts of dis-
solved wax derived from the peel of the fruit. At
temperatures above 15 or 20 °C, the wax is totally
dissolved. However, at lower temperatures it may
give a haze to the product. To avoid this problem
the polished oil is dewaxed, or “winterised” as
it is called.
85
The winterisation process involves precipitating
the wax by causing it to crystallise and then settle.
The oil is stored in tanks at 1 °C or lower, which
causes the waxes to come out of solution and
sediment. The process typically takes 30 days or
more, although at lower temperatures this period
may be considerably shorter. The winterised oil
is then decanted from the tank. Larger processors
collect the sludge from different winterising tanks
so that once sufficient material has accumulated,
the waxes can be removed by centrifugation to
recover residual oil.
The winterised oil is packed in 200 l (55 US
gal.) drums or road tankers. Normally the oil is
stored under refrigeration (–10 °C) and is traded
as Cold-Pressed Oil, CPO. Sometimes it is called
Cold-Pressed Peel Oil, CPPO. It is used as a raw
material in the flavour manufacturing industry,
and by concentrate blending houses and drink-
base manufacturers.
5.8.4 D-LIMONENE RECOVERY SYSTEMS
The heavy phase from the peel oil first-stage
centrifuge is usually recirculated to extractors
as “yellow water”. Part of this flow (10 to 50 %)
needs to be replaced with fresh water in order not
to concentrate too much insoluble material like
pectin present in this poor oil emulsion before
it’s sent back to the juice extractors.
The nonrecirculated fraction of the yellow
water has some residual oil content (0.5–1.0 %)
that, instead to be sent to the feed mill or waste
water treatment, is separated using specific equip-
ment dedicated to recovering the residual oil. A
traditional d-limonene recovery system heats the
yellow water and further vaporises a mixture of
water vapour and d-limonene in one or more in-
series flash chambers. The vapour is subsequently
condensed to recover the terpenic fraction.
A more efficient new design eliminates the in-
dividual flash effects by incorporating a specially
designed fractionation column to perform the va-
pour enrichment. This results in better d-limonene
quality and yields, and a more compact recovery
unit. Both systems can usually be fed with sludge
discharge from the first-stage centrifuge as well
as from the polisher (second-stage) centrifuge in
the peel oil recovery unit.
 5.9 Feed mill operations

Peel, pulp, rag and

seeds from extractors

Hammer mills

Fig. 5.21 Flow chart of Reaction screws

feed mill operations.
Lime

Peel presses

Static screens Reaction screws

Press liquor tanks Peel presses

Waste heat evaporator Peel drier

Pelletiser Silo storage

Molasses tanks d-Limonene tank

5.9 Feed mill operations Feed mill process steps

After extraction of juice, about 50 % of the fruit
remains. Much of this residual fruit matter is
seemingly low-grade material in the form of peel,
rag, core, seeds and pulp not used for commercial
purposes. This waste is sent to a feed mill installed
in most larger processing plants.
Feed mill operations (see Figure 5.21) repre-
sent a significant part of the total plant running
costs. The drying of solids and evaporation of the
liquid stream are energy-intensive. Less waste
and increased recycling of liquids in other parts
of the plant are desirable for both economical and
environmental reasons. Legislative pressure for
environmental control in citrus plants continues
to increase.
The revenue from the sale of by-products from
the feed mill makes a significant contribution to
the overall profitability of orange processors.
There is continuous development in finding ad-
ditional products that can be recovered from peel
and other waste streams.
The feed mill receives rejected fruit from the grad-
ing tables in the reception area and waste mate-
rial from juice processing. The overall moisture
content of this combined material is about 80 %.
It is conveyed by screw conveyors to the wet peel
bins of the feed mill. From here it is broken down
to small pieces by hammer mills. Small amounts
of lime (0.15 to 0.25 %) are added after this step
to aid the dewatering process. After a dwell time
of 10–15 minutes the mixture is conveyed or
pumped to the peel presses.
In the primary peel presses some 10 % of the
moisture is removed. Continuous screw presses
have largely replaced hydraulic batch presses for
this task. Further addition of lime and secondary
pressing can remove 2 or 3 % extra moisture.
The liquid from the presses, press liquor, con-
tains approximately 9–15 % soluble solids, much
of which are sugar solids. The oil content can be
between 0.2 to 0.8 %. The press liquor normally
flows over static screens to remove peel solids and
then on to the waste heat evaporator.

86
 5.10 Pulp production

The press liquor is usually concentrated to
50 °Brix and added back to the peel residue prior
to pressing. Alternatively, it may be concentrated
up to 72 °Brix and used as raw material for a
fermentation process to make citrus alcohol.
The press liquor contains a high amount of
suspended materials and often includes sand-
like matter. When decanter centrifuges are used
for clarifying the press liquor, they should be
equipped with special internal tiles to minimise
erosion. Clarification of the press liquor can pro-
long the running time of the waste heat evaporator
and reduce cleaning time substantially, thereby
contributing to greater cost-efficiency in running
the feed mill. d-Limonene is stripped off in the
waste heat evaporator and can be recovered as a
separate stream from the vapour phase.
The pressed peel is dried in a rotary drier
to a moisture content of about 10 % and then
pelletised to make animal feed. The vapour that
comes from the peel drier is used as heating me-
dium in the waste heat evaporator.
In the past, most pulp went to pulp washing and
the feed mill. However, now that the current mar-
ket trend is to add more pulp cells to the final juice,
the proportion of pulp from the extractors going
to commercial pulp production is increasing. For
most processors, however, more pulp is obtained
from the fruit than is required by the juice industry
for add-back to juice.
The extractor type and operation will influ-
ence the quality of the pulp produced. In some
plants, the extractors used for pulp production
are adjusted to optimise pulp quality rather than
to maximise juice yield. The visual difference be-
tween pulp from reamer-type extractors (Brown)
and standard squeezer-type extractors (FMC) is
illustrated in Figure 5.22.

5.10 Pulp production

Floating pulp, i.e. the larger solid particles in the
Standard squeezer-type extractor
juice, mainly consist of small pieces of ruptured
cell sacs and segment walls. They are separated
from the juice in finishers. (The very small pulp
particles flow with the juice stream from the fin-
isher. These fine particles tend to sediment at the
bottom of the juice and are referred to as sinking
pulp.) The pulp stream from the finisher is handled
in different ways depending on the end use of the Reamer-type extractor
pulp. The alternatives are:
• Recovery for production of commercial pulp. Fig. 5.22 Illustration of relative pulp
sizes after extraction.
Pulp is used as add-back in juice and juice
drinks.
• Production of pulp wash, the juice sugars
obtained by washing pulp with water. The
remaining material is sold as “washed pulp”
or taken to the feed mill.
• Routing to the feed mill for drying into pel-
lets for animal feed.

87
 5.10 Pulp production

TABLE 5.1 INFLUENCE OF PROCESS CONDITIONS ON PULP PROPERTIES

Pulp properties Process conditions
Cell length and - fruit variety and fruit maturity
fragmentation degree - size of the holes in the strainer tube (squeezer-type ex tractors)
- extraction pressure
- use of paddle or screw finisher
- back-pressure applied to the primary and final finishers (screw type)
- equipment and operating conditions for the pulp stabilisation step.
Oil content - extraction pressure. High pressure gives higher juice yield but also
higher oil content in the pulpy juice stream.
Defects in final product - depends on what type of equipment is used to separate defects from
the pulpy juice stream.
Pulp concentration - tightness applied in the finishers.
(i.e the concentration
of pulp particles in
pulp slurry)

5.10.1 PRODUCTION FACTORS WHICH Extraction

AFFECT COMMERCIAL PULP QUALITY
Some of the process conditions which have a sig-
nificant influence on pulp properties are given in
Table 5.1.
5.10.2 PROCESS STEPS IN
PULP PRODUCTION
The exact configuration of the pulp line will vary
from plant to plant, and its design will depend
on the type of extraction system and processor
preference. The basic pulp production steps are
shown in Figure 5.23.
Instead of pulpy juice from the extractors, pulp
from the primary finishers in juice clarification is
sometimes taken as feed to the pulp production
lines. Dilution with juice prior to the defect re-
moval step may then be needed.
During the juice extraction process, segment
walls and cell sac walls are torn into pieces. Both
the reamer-type extractor and specially designed
squeezer-type extractor used for premium pulp
put less shear force on the pulp compared with
the standard squeezer-type extractor. This results
in larger and less fragmented pulp pieces. How-
ever, defects such as core and seeds also end up in
the pulpy juice from the extractors. This imposes
greater demands on the defect removal system.
Sometimes, pulp from the primary finishers in
juice clarification is conveyed to feed the pulp
production line. Dilution with juice prior to defect
removal may then be required.

Pulpy juice from Reclaimed juice to evaporator

extractors

Defect removal Primary finisher Pasteuriser Drying finisher

Fig. 5.23 Pulp production steps. Aseptic bag filler Box/drum filler

Aseptic pulp Frozen pulp storage

chilled storage

88

Cleaned pulp slurry
Pulp slurry
Fig. 5.24 A hydrocyclone used
for removing defects.
Defects stream
Defect removal
Defects are normally described as small frag-
ments of peel, membrane or seed. As the absence
of defects in the final product is an important
quality parameter, they have to be removed from
the pulp/juice slurry.
Defects are removed in a series of separa-
tion steps. The first step may be a classifying
finisher. This is a paddle-type finisher incor-
porating screens with large perforations that
will allow juice and cells to pass through but
retain large seeds and pieces of membrane. The
pulpy juice stream then goes to one or more
hydrocyclones. If there are a lot of defects,
two or more hydrocyclones are used in series.
Hydrocyclones are based on gravity separation
and remove defects which have a higher density
than the pulp slurry.
Figure 5.24 shows the liquid and particle
flow in a cyclone. The infeed, which is tangen-
tially introduced into the cone, starts moving in
a downward spiral along the cyclone wall. As it
nears the cone outlet, some of the product leaves
89
5.10 Pulp production
through the underflow orifice while the majority
changes its direction and flows upward to the
cyclone overflow, taking an inner spiral path. If
the density of the particles is higher than that
of the liquid, the centrifugal force presses the
particles against the cyclone wall from where
they are pushed down and out through the bot-
tom opening.
Separation in a cyclone is improved with
lower solids concentration and lower liquid vis-
cosity. As small immature seeds are lighter than
pulp slurry they are difficult to remove. Thus
the quality of fruit delivered to the processor is
important for the results of defect removal.
Concentration (primary finishers)
The “cleaned” stream from the defect removal
system is normally concentrated prior to heat
treatment. The reasons for this are two-fold:
• energy is saved by heating/chilling
less product
• less juice is subjected to additional
heat treatment
Concentration is done in a screw-type or paddle-
type primary finisher. Paddle finishers treat pulp
particles more gently. The operation of the finisher
can be adjusted so that the pulp concentration of
the discharged pulp slurry is at the required
strength for the downstream pasteurisation step.
In Florida, most processors operate so that the pulp
slurry from the primary finisher has a typical pulp
concentration of 400–500 g/l. In Brazil, there is a
difference between plants – from 150-200 g/l up to
500 g/l pulp concentration. The lower range is due
to using plate heat exchangers in the pasteuriser.
The pulp stream from the primary finisher
to pasteurisation cannot be kept constant, but
will vary in both flow rate and pulp concentra-
tion (10–15 %) during a production shift. Over
a season, different fruit varieties and extractor
settings will give wider variations.
 5.10 Pulp production
Heat treatment
The two objectives of pulp slurry
pasteurisation are:
• to inactivate enzymes
• to destroy relevant microorganisms
The necessary degrees of enzyme inactivation
and microbial reduction depend on how the pulp
will be further processed and stored. The required
inactivation determines the pasteurisation condi-
tions (temperature and time).
As the enzymes in oranges are located in
the fruit cell walls, the enzyme concentration is
significantly higher in pulp slurry than in clari-
fied juice. To achieve complete inactivation of
enzymes, more intensive heat treatment is needed
for pulp slurry than for juice. However, complete
enzyme inactivation is normally not required. En-
zyme activity should be reduced to such an extent
that the pulp:
• is stable during bulk storage
• will not lead to cloud separation in reconsti-
tuted juice
If the downstream handling of heat-treated pulp
is nonaseptic (e.g. the drying finisher), complete
killing of microorganisms is not required. This is
the case for pulp stored frozen, the most common
storage method. In this case the heat treatment
is referred to as “stabilisation”. Typical heating
conditions are 90–100 °C for 30 seconds.
When pulp is to be stored chilled in aseptic bag-
in-box containers, heat treatment may be referred to
as “pulp stabilisation/sterilisation”. Temperatures
in excess of 100 °C are normally used. A higher de-
gree of enzyme inactivation is required for chilled
storage compared with frozen storage. Aseptic
storage also requires that heat-treated pulp has
no microbial activity. Furthermore, downstream
equipment must not recontaminate the product.
“The enzyme concentration is
higher in pulp slurry than in
clarified juice
”
Which heat exchanger?
The heat exchangers used for pasteurisation of
pulp slurry are typically of tubular type. Any
obstructions on the product side, such as con-
tact points in a plate heat exchanger, should be
avoided. Often the heat exchangers incorporate
a single product tube. With this type there is no
risk of uneven product flow. However, throughput
is limited due to the pressure drop.
A multitube heat exchanger (see Figure 7.12)
can process high pulp flow rates without the
drawback of excessive pressure drops. The inlet
to the parallel tubes requires careful design to
ensure that pulp does not stick to tube entrances
thereby causing blockage and uneven flow rates
through the tubes.
Heat treating pulp at concentrations much
above 500 g/l is not really feasible in tubular
heat exchangers because heat transfer coefficients
rapidly decline above this concentration. Efficient
heat transfer is inhibited by the high cellulose
content of the product. If tubular heat exchang-
ers are used for higher pulp concentrations, they
become very large, which entails slow heat-up
and cool-down times resulting in a loss of product
quality. A pasteurisation system for pulp using
multitube heat exchangers can also have the dual
function of pasteurising NFC.
The nature of the pulp recovery process
tends to entrain air into the product stream.
This has to be considered in the design of the
heat treatment process.
90

Pulp
Pulpfrom
fromjuice
juice Multistage counter
clarification
clarification current wash system
Washed pulp
Box/drum filler
Drum filler Evaporator
Blending Orange juice concentrate
Fig. 5.25 Flow chart of pulp wash production.
Concentration (drying or final finisher)
Traditionally, the heat-treated pulp is further
concentrated up to 950–1,000 g/l using a final
or drying finisher. Although still wet it is called
“dry” pulp because it will not release any free
liquid when pressure is applied to it. The residual
liquid is mainly adsorbed onto the cellulose
membranes.
The concentration of dry pulp is measured
for product specification by a special method
called Quick Fibre (described in Section 8). The
liquid in the pulp, essentially NFC, typically
cor responds to 5–8 % of pulp mass for standard
pulp, and 9–13 % for premium pulp. Thus when
pulp is added during reconstitution at the juice
packer, the juice still present in the “dry” pulp
will provide additional NFC.
Packing in boxes/drums for frozen storage
The concentrated pulp is normally packed in
20 kg corrugated cardboard boxes lined with a
polyethylene bag which are then frozen. Freezing
can take several days. Pulp may also be packed in
drums (200 l/55 gal.) for frozen storage. However,
drums are not often supplied to juice packers as
they are usually too large for the batches of re-
constituted juice.
91
5.10 Pulp production
Pulp wash heater Enzymatic reactor
Water Enzymes
Pasteuriser
Evaporator feed tanks Clarifier
Debittering
Packing in aseptic bag-in-box containers
for chilled storage
If the stabilisation process is modified to become
a stabilisation/sterilisation process, it is possible
to pack pulp aseptically and store it refrigerated.
Packing is done directly after heat treatment.
Hence, the aseptic pulp will be bulk stored at a
much lower concentration than frozen pulp.
The disadvantage of packing pulp aseptically
at 500 g/l concentration is that a larger storage
(and shipping) volume is needed for the same
amount of dry pulp. The advantage is that the
pulp is much easier to handle as it is pumpable
and needs no thawing or crushing. It also gives
the possibility of enhancing the final product.
When the aseptic pulp is added back to juice
reconstituted from concentrate, juice present in
the aseptic pulp (effectively NFC) may provide
some of the desired flavour associated with NFC
products. Aseptic pulp is produced by several
processors in Florida.
 5.11 Pulp wash production
5.11 Pulp wash production
Pulp washing is carried out to recover juice solu-
bles in pulp coming from the juice finishers and
from the centrifuges in the clarification or deoiling
process. Thorough pulp washing can increase the
total yield of soluble solids by 4–7 %, which con-
tributes significantly to overall plant economics.
The process steps are shown in Figure 5.25.
The juice sugars are reclaimed by a counter-
current washing system. The pulp/water slurry is
strained through a finisher between the washing
stages and the separated “juice” is called pulp
wash. Process development includes the use of
static mixers to blend and allow equilibrium of
soluble juice and pulp components during washing.
The pulp stream is concentrated by evaporation. It
is added back to concentrated orange juice (if the
law permits) or used as a base for juice drinks.
“Pulp washing can increase
the total yield of soluble
solids by 4–7 %
” concentrate in Brazil and Florida provided that it
The number of stages in a pulp washing system is
chosen according to cost-effectiveness. A maximum
of four stages can recover up to 50 %, 63 %, 75 %
and 80 % respectively of the available juice sugars.
The amount recovered depends on the water to pulp
ratio as well as fruit variety and maturity.
Debittering and enzyme treatment
Pulp wash is high in limonin, which causes bit-
terness. Consequently, nontreated pulp wash has
limited use as add-back into high quality juice
drinks. However, the bitter taste can be removed
by a debittering process involving ultrafiltration and
adsorbing separated bitter components onto resin.
92
The high content of pectin in pulp wash leads
to a greater increase in viscosity during evapo-
ration compared with pure juice. This can lead to
a limit of 40 °Brix for pulp wash concentration.
Therefore, breaking down pectin by enzyme
treatment is often included in the pulp washing
process. Typical conditions are a retention time
of up to one hour at 45 °C in the reactor tank.
After centrifugation, enzyme-treated pulp wash
can be concentrated to the normal 65 °Brix level
and then blended with orange juice concentrate
or packed in 200 l drums and frozen.
Washed cells
Washed cells can either be sent to the feed mill
or be bulk packed in 25 kg cardboard boxes or
200 l drums which are stored frozen. The product
is traded as washed pulp or washed cells and used
in some drink applications.
Regulations for and use of pulp wash
Pulp wash is often used as a source of fruit solids
in formulated beverages and juice drinks, and as
a clouding agent for providing body and mouth-
feel. Pulp wash may be included in orange juice
is produced along with the juice extraction proc-
ess. In Florida, pulp wash addition is limited to
max. 5 %. Nevertheless, the quality standards
and marketing approach of some processors or
organisations may still preclude the addition of
pulp wash.
While the previous Fruit Juice Directive of
the European Union did not allow a product
containing pulp wash to be called orange juice,
the new Directive of 2001 allows in-line water
extraction of pulp for the production of orange
juice concentrate.
Pulp wash is also referred to as water-extracted
soluble orange solids, WESOS.
5.12 Essence recovery
Essence recovery is an integral part of the evapo-
ration process and is described in the section on
concentrate production.
6
Transport
and handling
of bulk
products

In section 6 you will read about:

• Which packing and shipping methods are
preferred for orange juice products.
• The alternative ways bulk FCOJ is shipped
over land and sea.
• What happens to bulk FCOJ en route from
Brazil to Europe.
• How overseas shipments of frozen and
aseptic NFC are handled.
• The advantages of shipping NFC in bulk
rather than in retail packages.
• The factors that determine shipping costs.
• Dedicated terminals for receiving bulk
FCOJ and NFC.
• Operations carried out by blending houses.

93
6. Transport and handling
of bulk products
FCOJ
Tank car Terminal Bulk tanker Terminal Tank car
frozen frozen frozen frozen frozen
Fruit processing
plant

FCOJ/NFC

Truck Terminal Cargo vessel Terminal Truck

frozen/chilled frozen/chilled frozen/ambient frozen/chilled frozen/chilled

NFC

Tank car chilled Terminal Bulk tanker Terminal Tank car chilled
aseptic chilled aseptic chilled aseptic chilled

Fig. 6.1. The transport

chain for the bulk Juice packers

shipping of orange
Soft drink producers
concentrate and NFC.
Blending house Chilled/frozen
transport

SUMMARY Receiving and blending juice

Shipping of orange juice products is domi-
nated by bulk shipments, mainly frozen
concentrate. In Florida, bulk not-from-
concentrate juice (NFC) is moved between
processors and to packers in other states.
However, significant quantities of NFC is
filled into consumer packages in Florida
before distribution.
Frozen concentrate is shipped in tanker
ships, conventional cargo vessels, railway
tanker wagons, road tankers and drums.
Some concentrate is filled into aseptic bag-
in-box containers. Transporting FCOJ from
Brazil to Europe is now a very streamlined,
cost-effective and time-saving process.
Bulk NFC is stored chilled under aseptic
conditions or frozen. Aseptic product may be
shipped under chilled or non-refrigerated
conditions. Special ships with refrigerated
aseptic tanks transport NFC from Brazil to
the US and Europe. Shipping bulk NFC for
retail packing in overseas consumer mar-
kets is more economical than shipping NFC
products in retail packages.
Shipping costs depend on the modes and
current rates of shipment. The sales price
for the bulk product usually includes the
cost of the bulk package, and often the
transport costs to the import harbour.
Dedicated terminals for bulk FCOJ are
found in Brazil and major juice importing
regions. Some terminals now also have
facilities to handle bulk NFC under aseptic
conditions. Products in storage tanks are un-
der nitrogen atmosphere to protect them from
oxygen. Operation of a terminal needs to be
controlled by a modern automation system.
Blending houses supply concentrates
(and NFC products) of defined and consist-
ent quality to juice packers. A wide range
of raw materials are used to prepare the
concentrates and bases, often made to
customer-specific recipes.

94
 6.1 Packing and shipping preferences
6.1 Packing and shipping
preferences
Orange juice consumption in Europe, the Far East
and the USA (with regard to imported Brazilian
juice) requires shipping large quantities of juice
products over long distances. Transport costs
constitute a significant part of the bulk product
price, typically 15–20 %. Hence, efficient control
of the transport chain is important.
Outside the US market by far the dominant
product shipped is bulk frozen concentrated
orange juice, FCOJ. Although overseas exports
of not-from-concentrate orange juice, NFC, are
increasing, they are still relatively small on a glo-
bal scale compared with FCOJ shipments. When
NFC is shipped overseas it is predominantly in
the form of bulk product, either frozen or aseptic
bag-in-box. Dedicated ships fitted with bulk tanks
also now transport NFC under aseptic chilled con-
ditions from Brazil to the US and Europe.
Long-distance overseas shipping of juice
products in retail packages is not common for rea-
sons of cost and logistics. However, some Florida
juice and some juice products from South Africa,
Australia and elsewhere are exported overseas in
retail packages.
In the US market the situation is different.
Most orange juice is produced in Florida, fol-
lowed by California, and the area of largest juice
consumption is northeast USA. Some ready-to-
drink juice is reconstituted from concentrate
and packed in retail packages at the processors
in Florida, although most is transported as bulk
FCOJ to packing plants around the USA. NFC in
liquid bulk form is transported chilled by road and
rail tanker in Florida and to juice packers in other
parts of the USA. Nevertheless, the majority of
Florida NFC is still packed in consumer packages
at fruit processing sites and distributed by truck
or train under refrigeration.
Frozen concentrate for home dilution is still
a common retail product in the USA. It is retail
packaged (typically in 12 ounce composite can)
in Florida and distributed frozen.
The international transport chain for bulk
orange product is shown in Figure 6.1.
95
6.2 Bulk shipping of FCOJ
Notable developments in the transport systems
followed the large expansion of concentrate
exports from Brazil in the 1970's and 80's. Ship-
ping of orange concentrate is done in tanker ships,
road tankers and drums. For shipping in tankers,
the product is typically kept at –8 to –10 °C. For
drums, the product is commonly packed in 200
l (55 gal) steel drums with double polyethylene
liners and stored frozen at –18 to –25 °C.
Some concentrate, in limited quantities, is also
packed in aseptic bags using drums or wooden bins
for outer support. Aseptic bags of concentrate are
typically put into frozen or chilled storage at the
producer site. However, as aseptic bags do not re-
quire frozen conditions, they allow more flexibility
– and possible cost-savings – in the transport chain.
In some markets, frozen conditions cannot be guar-
anteed throughout the entire transport chain.
Alternative ways of transporting concentrate
by land and sea are listed in Table 6.1.
TABLE 6.1 DIFFERENT WAYS OF
TRANSPORTING CONCENTRATE
Land transport at producer and receiving end
- Road tankers
- Frozen drums in refrigerated trucks
- Aseptic bag-in-drum in refrigerated or dry
container
- Railway tanker wagons
Overseas shipping
- Tanker ships
- Drums as frozen break bulk
- Drums in refrigerated containers
- Aseptic bag-in-drum in refrigerated or dry
container
The transport of FCOJ in bulk tanker ships is
made easier by special port terminals. Such
dedicated quayside facilities can now be found
in the major export and import regions for orange
concentrate, such as New Jersey, Western Europe
and Japan. The major Brazilian processors have
built their own terminal facilities in Brazil, Eu-
rope and Japan.
 6.1 Packing and shipping preferences
Today there are a number of large tanker ships
which have been constructed solely for trans-
porting FCOJ and other citrus products in bulk.
Tanker capacities are in the range of 6,000 to
15,000 tonnes of product. Some of the major
Brazilian processors run their own ships for
bulk orange product.
Drummed concentrate can be shipped in con-
ventional cargo vessels. Two common ways of
shipping FCOJ in drums are as “break bulk” and
in freight containers. With “frozen break bulk”, the
drums are loaded individually into a refrigerated
compartment in the vessel. Alternatively, drums
(often on pallets) are put into “refrigerated con-
tainers” (reefers) which are loaded into the ship. At
the importing end the same container can be used
for land transport by truck to the end user.
TYPICAL SHIPPING CONTAINERS
Refrigerated container (reefer)
An insulated container with a refrigeration unit
which can be set at the desired temperature
(chilled or frozen).
Dry container
A regular container for transportation at ambient
temperature or under non-refrigerated conditions.
Shipping rates are lower for break bulk than
for refrigerated containers, but drums in break
bulk require more handling at the exporting and
importing ends.
The handling of FCOJ in bulk tankers requires
heavy investment in infrastructure such as ships
and special dockside terminals. When these are
in place, however, it is a more efficient way of
transporting large product volumes compared
with drums or returnable containers. The total
cost for drum transport should take into account
both the cost of manufacturing or reconditioning
drums and possible charges to dispose of the
drums. There is often no use for the drums in
the importing region, in which case the juice
packers must pay to dispose of them.
96
Nevertheless, drums are likely to remain the
most appropriate shipping container for smaller
producers, regions with low production levels,
special quality concentrate, etc.
6.2.1 FROM BRAZIL TO EUROPE
Today, from a logistical standpoint, transport-
ing FCOJ from a production site in Brazil to
a European juice packer is a very streamlined,
cost-effective and time-saving process.
Most orange production in Brazil takes place
in the state of São Paulo. The distance from the
fruit processing plants to the export harbour, Port
of Santos, is 400–800 km. The FCOJ is trans-
ported to Santos by road tanker, and a continuous
fleet of dedicated trucks can be seen around the
clock making the journey to and from Santos.
When unloaded from road tankers, the prod-
uct is stored in dockside tanks at –10 °C under
nitrogen atmosphere. The scheduling of the or-
ange concentrate vessels is precisely controlled.
As soon as the bulk tanker ship arrives at Santos,
the stored product is pumped on board. Total load-
ing of a ship is completed within 24–36 hours.
The ship’s tanks are filled completely to allow
little or no headspace.
The crossing to Europe typically takes 13
days. En route the product and its environment
are continuously monitored. The ships arrive in
Europe at ports with dedicated dockside facilities
to receive FCOJ. Large positive displacement
pumps (for 8 inch piping) on board the ship
pump out the FCOJ directly into storage tanks
on land. Unloading a full vessel can be done in
24–36 hours. After unloading, the ship takes in
ballast and starts its return voyage to Santos. The
ship may also take freight containers on deck for
the return voyage.
Except for the transport by road tankers in
Brazil, juice concentrate is maintained under ni-
trogen atmosphere from processing plant storage
to European terminal storage. For the return trip
to Brazil, the ship’s empty tanks are not cleaned
out but kept under nitrogen.

6.3 Bulk shipping of NFC
There are two alternative ways of storing bulk NFC
– chilled under aseptic conditions, or frozen. Also,
shipping of aseptic product is usually carried out
under chilled conditions, although sometimes re-
frigeration is not used. Frozen (nonaseptic) prod-
uct must be transported under freezing conditions.
Unlike concentrate, which is still pumpable when
frozen although it is highly viscous, NFC freezes
solid. Because pumping frozen NFC into or out
of tanks is impossible, it must be frozen, stored
and transported in individual containers.
The expansion of NFC production in Brazil at
the end of the 1990's led to the development of
bulk sea transport for chilled aseptic NFC.
6.3.1 FROZEN NFC SHIPMENTS
For frozen shipments, NFC is usually filled into
200 l (55 gal) drums with plastic inner liners. It
takes several days or even weeks for NFC in
drums to freeze solid. Larger unit sizes would
be desirable for economical reasons, but the tech-
nology for quick freezing/thawing of larger unit
sizes of NFC for shipping has not gained wide
commercial acceptance.
Single-strength juice starts to freeze at
around –2 °C. Freezing of NFC in drums does
not occur homogenously throughout the product.
As water forms ice crystals, a gradually more
concentrated juice solution is left behind with
an accompanying slow decrease of the freez-
ing point. The reverse process occurs when the
product thaws out in drums. As a result, the first
melted portions have a lower °Brix content than
completely liquid juice.
Freezing causes NFC to expand, thus stand-
ard 55 gal drums are typically filled with NFC
to only 45 gal. As with drummed FCOJ, NFC
in drums is shipped as frozen break bulk or in
refrigerated containers.
“Single-strength juice starts
to freeze at around -2 °C
” lead to blowing of the bag. Therefore the good
97
6.3 Bulk shipping of NFC
Fig. 6.2 Wooden bin and drums for aseptic bags.
6.3.2 BULK UNITS FOR ASEPTIC
NFC SHIPMENTS
There are several different types of bulk units for
shipment of aseptic NFC. The one tonne aseptic
bag-in-box units are the most commonly used.
The units are normally shipped in freight contain-
ers, either refrigerated or dry.
The aseptic bags are multilayer plastic bags
with a barrier layer – normally aluminium foil
– to minimise oxygen ingress during storage and
transportation. The bags require an outer support,
usually a bin made of wood or cardboard. The
wooden bins are collapsible and returned for reuse
(see Figure 6.2). The cardboard bins are normally
used only one-way.
The dimensions of the bins are chosen so that
they can be efficiently stacked into the freight
containers used. The unit size may therefore
vary between different bag-in-bin users, but lies
typically in the range 900–1,200 l (240–320 gal).
There is little or no headspace in the bags.
Stringent demands must be placed on the in-
tegrity of aseptic bags used for NFC. It is a liquid
that flows freely inside a bag restrained by an
outer support, unlike, say, tomato paste which is
highly viscous and hardly moves. Whether chilled
or ambient conditions are used, asepticity must
be maintained throughout the transport chain
because reinfection of an individual bag may
handling procedures in common practice today
must be followed closely.
 6.3 Bulk shipping of NFC

Extracted juice

Frozen route Aseptic bag-in-box route Aseptic bulk sea vessel route

Pasteurisation Pasteurisation Pasteurisation

Packing in lined Packing in aseptic Aseptic chilled

steel drums bag-in-box storage at port

Freezing Aseptic transfer to

bulk tanks on ship
Frozen storage Chilled storage
Chilled transport
Frozen transport Ambient transport
Aseptic unloading
to dockside tanks
Thawing and crushing
Aseptic transfer Chilled transport
Blending and (or blending and by road tanker
repasteurisation repasteurisation)
Blending and
Retail package filling Retail package filling repasteurisation

Retail package filling

Fig. 6.3 Different handling routes for NFC.

When a product is required at the juice packer,
NFC is emptied from the aseptic bag either by
cutting open the bag and removing the juice with
a hose pump placed inside the bag, or by pump-
ing out the product through a separate emptying
spout (controlled emptying).
Alternatively, with an aseptic unloading sta-
tion, juice can be pumped out from the bag under
aseptic conditions followed by aseptic transfer
to retail packaging. As product sterility is main-
tained, the juice does not need to be repasteurised
prior to retail packaging.
The handling and processing steps for NFC
via the frozen route and the aseptic bag-in-box
route are shown in Figure 6.3.
Aseptic totes are an alternative to aseptic bag-
in-box containers. The totes are mobile stainless
steel tanks (1,000–3,000 l product volume). They
are steam-sterilised and pressurised with nitrogen
before filling. They may be used for the storage
and transport of NFC. However, totes are mainly
used for short-term storage and transport over
short distances because of the high investment and
freight costs (including return freight) involved.
Much larger juice quantities can be packed
in aseptic transport containers. These are mobile
aseptic tanks of 20,000 l (5,000 gal) or more and
of varying designs. Some are built inside a freight
container and transported as such; another design
takes the form of self-contained tanks sized to fit
into trucks, ships and trains.
Aseptic transport containers can also be used
for on-site storage of juice product before it is
shipped from the processing plant. Although the
large unit sizes of transport containers provide
better economy of scale for handling aseptic NFC,
the cost risks associated with faulty operation or
unsterile juice are much larger.

98

6.3.3 BULK SHIPPING OF ASEPTIC
“Investments in the port facilities
provided the technical solutions
NFC BY SEA
While NFC (single-strength orange juice) pro-
duced in Florida is mainly packaged locally or
delivered overland to juice packers in the rest
of the US and Canada, NFC from Brazil and
other regions is mainly destined for bulk export
overseas. During the late 1990’s, the desire to
increase the export of NFC orange juice from
Brazil by sea led to advances in technologies
enabling the integration of NFC seasonal stor-
age and export by bulk sea vessels. This now
facilitates the efficient handling and shipping
of large volumes of bulk NFC from Brazil to
the US and Europe.
The major Brazilian juice producers are very
large companies that have developed the logistics
expertise needed for large-scale operations. They
have their own port terminals and for many years
have run a fleet of “citrus” tankers dedicated to
shipping frozen concentrated orange juice.
Today, some companies also have aseptic stor-
age capacity at ports for exporting NFC instead
of at their processing plants. After extraction
at the processing plant, prepasteurised juice is
cooled to 0 °C and then transported by insulated
road tanker (25 tonnes) to the dockside storage
facilities. And after final pasteurisation, the juice
is stored in enormous aseptic tanks each of nearly
4 million litres volume (1 million US gallons)
until exported. The aseptic tanks are located in
insulated refrigerated storage areas where the
temperature is maintained at 0 °C.
Investments in the port facilities provided the
technical solutions required to integrate juice stor-
age with shipping conditions.
Initially, existing ships were rebuilt for trans-
porting bulk aseptic NFC, but in the early 2000’s
new ships were built and launched specifically
for carrying NFC along with FCOJ. These new
ships can take up to 35,000 tonnes of FCOJ and
NFC each. They are more than 200 m long (about
the length of two soccer pitches) and 30 m wide.
Each ship contains four insulated refrigerated
holds with several freestanding cylindrical tanks
in each hold. Some tanks are dedicated to NFC
and others can carry either frozen concentrate or
NFC. Sloping bottoms ensure that the tanks can
be completely drained.
99
6.3 Bulk shipping of NFC
required to integrate juice storage
with aseptic shipping conditions
”
The orange concentrate is loaded and transported
at –10 °C while NFC is shipped at a nominal
0 °C. Individual bulk tanks are maintained un-
der continuous nitrogen pressure, even during
loading/unloading when nitrogen is exchanged
with dockside tanks. For the return trip to Brazil
the empty tanks are filled with nitrogen.
Each ship is equipped with its own sterilisa-
tion system for the bulk tanks, and the piping
system is sterilised before juice transfer. Aseptic
seals are maintained on tank valves throughout
the journey. The import terminals have special
facilities to allow aseptic unloading of NFC and
routing it to dockside aseptic storage (see sec-
tion 6.5.2). To reduce the costs of empty return
voyages, the citrus tankers can also take on-deck
freight containers (dry and refrigerated).
Although these dedicated ships and specially
equipped terminals require large investments, they
result in more cost-effective storage and transport
of large NFC volumes.
6.3.4 TRANSPORT OF BULK PRODUCT
VERSUS RETAIL PACKAGED PRODUCT
For concentrate, it is obvious that bulk shipping
is more cost-effective than shipping reconstituted
juice in retail packages because shipping volumes
are 5–6 times smaller with concentrate.
For NFC, however, the volumes are about the
same whether shipped in bulk or retail packages.
Nevertheless, for long-distance overseas trans-
port, shipping of bulk product for retail packing
in the consumer market provides economical
advantages.
Bulk packaged NFC can maintain a long shelf
life, whereas after retail packaging in nonaseptic
packages its shelf life is relatively short. A month
of the shelf life in retail packaging is eliminated
by the transport chain. Shipping of retail pack-
ages requires additional outer packaging to protect
the packages. In addition, it is not possible to
respond quickly to market demands due to the
long lead time required to get retail packages to
the consumer.
 6.4 Shipping
6.4 Shipping costs costs
6.4 Shipping costs
Shipping costs for bulk packages depend on the
method of shipment and the rates applicable
at the time of shipment. The following factors
should be taken into account in estimating total
shipping costs:
• type of bulk package
• transport to the export harbour
• handling at the export harbour
• sea freight
• handling at the import harbour
• transport to the juice packer(s)
The product sales price usually includes the cost
of the bulk package, and often the transport costs
to the import harbour (e.g. cif Rotterdam). The
rates for sea freight depend on current supply and
demand, and may vary significantly over time. For
product which can be stored, shipment planning
aims for periods of low freight demand and hence
lower rates.
Generally, rental rates for refrigerated con-
tainers are double those for regular (dry) con-
tainers. Calculated per tonne of product, freight
costs for frozen break bulk (in 200 l drums) are
between the respective costs for refrigerated and
dry containers.
Rates for 40 ft containers are typically 20–40 %
higher than rates for 20 ft containers. Although
40 ft containers provide twice the shipping vol-
ume, their maximum weight load is typically
26 t compared with 20 t for 20 ft containers. In
assessing the alternative giving the lowest ship-
ping cost per tonne product, weight limitations
need to be taken into account. The density for
single-strength juice, such as NFC, is about
1.04 t/m3 but about 1.3 t/m3 for concentrate. More-
over, drums make less efficient use of shipping vol-
ume than rectangular bins. For this reason, drums
of frozen NFC are usually shipped in 40 ft con-
tainers because a 20 ft container would not reach
the maximum weight limit when fully loaded.
100
6.5 Terminals for receiving
orange juice
6.5.1 TERMINALS FOR BULK FCOJ
Dedicated terminals for receiving bulk frozen
concentrate are found in large ports in the Neth-
erlands (Amsterdam, Rotterdam) and in Bel-
gium (Ghent, Antwerp). Such terminals are also
found in Florida, New Jersey and in a few major
ports in Japan. Below, an example of a terminal
(Ghent in Belgium) equipped to handle bulk
FCOJ from a tanker ship is described with refer-
ence to Figure 6.4.
From the tanker ship, orange juice products
are pumped into six reception lines which feed
the 34 storage tanks on land (the largest of which
has a capacity of 2,000 tonnes). From bulk stor-
age in the tank farm, the juice products are
pumped to six blending stations. Here concen-
trates of different types are mixed to ensure that
products meet customer specifications. Peel oil
and other flavour fractions may also be added.
The concentrate is then pumped to one or more
of nine discharging lines used for filling road
tankers for product distribution around Europe.
In addition to concentrate, specialty products
such as peel oil are also pumped from the tanker
ship to storage tanks at the terminal, although in
smaller volumes.
A nitrogen system at the terminals is used to
ensure that storage tanks always contain a ni-
trogen atmosphere, both when empty and when
being filled with product from a tanker ship.
The terminals normally also store large vol-
umes of raw material and finished product in fro-
zen drums. Raw materials from emptied drums are
blended in the blending stations with concentrate
from tank storage. Blended products are packed in
drums and distributed frozen to juice packers.
Operation of a terminal, as described in the
example above, requires a practically unlimited
choice of product routes. Therefore it needs to be
controlled by a modern automation system which
allows the operators to get a rapid overview of
pumping operations at all times.
 6.5 Terminals for receiving
6.4 Shippingorange
costs juice

Reception lines Tank farm Blending stations Discharge lines

Fig. 6.4 Terminal handling of FCOJ.

Drum storage/emptying Drum filling

On-line communication of the control system In a similar way to FCOJ terminals, a nitrogen
with the scheduling and commercial departments system ensures that the entire system of tanks
is also important for this type of operation. and piping is under nitrogen pressure during
juice transfer.
6.5.2 TERMINALS FOR BULK ASEPTIC NFC
In the juice reception area there is a stand-by
NFC in frozen drums and aseptic bag-in-box bulk
pasteuriser used when necessary to pasteurise
containers can be unloaded at standard terminals
incoming juice or the content of a storage tank.
having refrigerated and frozen warehousing. How-
But in well-designed and well-functioning facili-
ever, special terminal facilities are required for
ties, this emergency pasteuriser should never need
NFC transported in bulk aseptic tanks on ships.
to be used. Juice in dockside tanks is sampled
In response to the use of bulk aseptic seagoing
regularly to verify that their contents are micro-
vessels, facilities for the aseptic unloading of or-
biologically acceptable.
ange juice were installed in Florida and Europe
The juice from tank storage is dispatched by
in the early 2000’s.
road tanker, hygienic but not aseptic, to juice
In a similar way to juice export ports, aseptic
packers. Blending of NFC may take place before
storage tanks – usually in stainless steel – are
dispatch (see section 6.6). At the juice packing
installed at the dockside, but the total number of
plant, blending of orange juice and the addition
tanks and the size of individual tanks are smaller
of pulp may be carried out before repasteurisation
because storage is only required to cover produc-
and retail packing.
tion between ship arrivals.
At a NFC port terminal in Belgium, facilities
Before unloading the ship, juice samples from
for retail packaging of the juice are located at the
onboard tanks are checked to confirm that the
same site, thereby eliminating the extra bulk road
juice is microbiologically acceptable. The piping
transport step and reducing the costs of delivering
system is sterilised before aseptic juice transfer
NFC juice products to consumers in Europe.
from onboard tanks to dockside storage.

101
 6.4 Shipping costs
The design requirements for terminals hand-
ling bulk aseptic NFC are high. Operations are
complex and much effort is spent in minimising
the inherent high risks. Experience gained from
aseptic processing plants and NFC storage facili-
ties in Florida has been vital in the construction
of European terminals.
Modern control system and automated valve
configurations ensure correct operation. On-line
networking between all de-partments of dock-
side juice-handling facilities is also important to
ensure smooth operations. And as with export
terminals, initial investments are high, but once
the installations are in place cost-effective han-
dling of bulk NFC volumes results.
6.6 Blending house operations
Blending houses supply concentrates (and NFC)
of defined and consistent quality to juice packers.
They also prepare bases for beverage producers.
Products supplied from blending houses are often
made to customer-specific recipes.
A wide range of raw materials is used by
blending houses to prepare the concentrates and
bases, such as different fruit juice concentrates,
flavour fractions, oils and pulps. High-volume
fruit juices, such as orange and apple, are taken
in from bulk storage tanks while other raw ma-
terials come in frozen drums, aseptic bags and
various smaller containers. Normally, the orange
products used by the blending houses come from
a larger number of countries than those used by
the terminals.
“Blending houses supply
concentrates (and NFC) of
Blending stations form the heart of blending
operations. As at the terminals, blending of FCOJ
and other very viscous concentrates requires very
powerful mixers. Raw material supply to the
blending units comes from tank storage, drum
emptying and from drum crushing (if the product
in the frozen state is not pumpable). After blend-
ing, the product is packed in drums or pumped
into road tankers.
102
Sometimes the final product is pasteurised after
blending but prior to distribution (e.g. in aseptic
bags). More commonly, pasteurisation is not
carried out but raw materials are maintained at
low temperature (<0 °C) during blending and
finished products are distributed frozen. Soft-
drink bases may include preservatives to make
them shelf-stable.
Strict quality hygiene control and cleaning-
in-place are indispensable to blending house op-
erations. They are necessary to avoid an increase
in microbial load on products, and to prevent a
batch of juice of poor microbial quality from
contaminating subsequent batches.
Laboratory analysis plays an important role.
Quality control procedures include authentic-
ity testing of the wide range of incoming raw
materials. Finished blended products also un-
dergo testing to ensure they meet the agreed
specifications.
Blending procedures require specialist know-
how on the products manufactured and their
intended use. This competence forms a valuable
part of the service offered by blending houses to
their customers, along with the development of
proprietary recipes.
Some of the FCOJ terminals also include the
functions of blending houses and manufacture
products according to customer specifications.
defined and consistent quality
to juice packers
”
7 Processing at
the juice packer
In section 7 you will read about:
• An overview of different process lines at
the juice packer.
• In what form raw materials arrive at the juice
packing plant and how they are handled.
• The water quality required for juice
reconstitution and water treatment methods.
• The importance of accurate blending, and a
comparison of different blending methods.
• How Brix and density are measured and the
relationship between them.
103
• Different aspects of the pasteurisation
process, including choice of heat exchanger,
deaeration and process control.
• How buffer tanks ensure smooth filling
operations and avoid product recycling.
• Hot filling of nonsterile packages.
• The aseptic transfer of NFC juice from
aseptic bags to filling machines.
• Cleaning-in-place (CIP) routines and the
major parameters involved.
• Quality control of the packaged product.
7. Processing at
the juice packer
SUMMARY
Juice packers process concentrate and NFC
juice and fill the end product into consumer
packages. Cost-efficient operation and gen-
tle product treatment are essential.
During raw material storage and hand-
ling, it is important to maintain conditions
that prevent microbial growth in products.
The quality of water used for concentrate
reconstitution must be high. Water treat-
ment methods aim to remove or destroy
undesirable substances. Examples of these
are organic matter, salts, chlorine and mi-
croorganisms.
Reconstitution involves diluting one or a
mix of different concentrates with water to
the right Brix level. Although NFC juice is
not diluted, NFC juices of different origins
may be blended to produce juice with the
desired properties. The more accurate the
blending process, the greater the cost-sav-
ings achieved. In-line continuous blending
offers advantages in certain respects com-
pared with batch blending.
Tank car frozen Storage
Truck frozen Drum
emptying
Filling machines
Fig. 7.1 Juice packer operations.
Maintaining juice quality
Pasteurisation, with either plate or tubular
heat exchangers, is carried out to destroy
microorganisms in juice before filling. A
deaerator may be included in the system.
An aseptic buffer placed between the pas-
teuriser and the filling machine(s) smoothes
product filling and increases production ef-
ficiency. In the hot filling method, hot prod-
uct kills microoganisms on the surface of
the nonaseptic container after filling.
Effective CIP is essential for the high
standard of hygiene demanded at the juice
packer. The most suitable combination of
temperature, time, type of detergent solu-
tion and flow rate is selected for a particu-
lar cleaning cycle.
Quality control of the packaged prod-
uct is determined by two prime factors, the
properties of the juice and its microbiologi-
cal status. Product sampling and analysis
are regularly carried out, which also helps
to define the processing conditions needed
to maintain juice quality.
Blending tanks Pasteuriser
Buffer
Storage Distribution network
104
 7.1 An overview of juice packer operations
7.1 An overview of juice
packer operations
Juice packers take in bulk raw materials (concen-
trate and/or NFC), treat them and then fill the final
product into consumer packages. Sometimes the
distribution of packaged products is also carried
out by the juice packer. Typical operating steps at
the juice packer are illustrated in Figure 7.1.
This section discusses the processing steps
that take place in a juice packing plant up to the
filling machine. Packaging activities are covered
in Section 9, packaging and storage of orange
juice, and the distribution of products to retail-
ers is outlined in Section 10, from juice packer
to consumer.
Capacities of juice packing facilities vary
greatly – from small plants producing 5,000 l/h
packaged juice to large plants with an output
exceeding 150,000 l/h. The larger facilities are
built up of multiple processing and filling lines.
One line of processing equipment can feed several
fillers. Conversely, one filler can be alternately
connected to several processing lines handling
different types of product.
Unlike the fruit processors’ seasonal yet non-
stop operation, production at juice packers is
year-round and typically involves 2–3 shifts/day,
5–7 days a week. Production throughput is not
uniform throughout the year. Peak output occurs
normally in the run-up to the summer months and
the Christmas period.
7.1.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
FOR JUICE PACKER LINES
Pressure on juice packers from the market is
steadily increasing. They are required to supply
a wider choice of products, better quality and
convenient packaging – at even more competitive
prices. Increased product diversification means
smaller volumes of each product. In turn, this
demands greater equipment flexibility and plant
designs that minimise product losses and down-
time when products are changed.
From a plant operation viewpoint, better prod-
uct quality means avoiding overprocessing.
105
Gentler product treatment is promoted by proc-
ess control, which allows close monitoring and
control of operating parameters, and careful
equipment design.
To supply products at competitive prices re-
quires cost-effective operation. High energy re-
covery that reduces heating and cooling costs, and
minimising product losses in the plant, are two
major ways of reducing operating costs. Together
with reducing waste from cleaning procedures,
these measures also minimise the impact on the
environment.
High-acid products put different demands on
processing equipment compared with low-acid
products like milk. Consideration must be given
to the fact that fruit juices differ in viscosity and
often contain particles (pulp). For both aseptic
products and nonaseptically filled (chilled) prod-
ucts with long shelf life (>20 days), high hygiene
standards and safety measures are applied to the
pasteurisation process and downstream equip-
ment in order to prevent any microbiological
recontamination of the product.
The juice packing plant is normally designed
to process and package a range of fruit juices and
juice-based still drinks. The equipment described
in this section is not used only for processing or-
ange juice. However, comments made regarding
equipment requirements and performance relate
to orange juice.
7.1.2 PROCESS LINES
The process line from the reception of raw ma-
terial up to product at the filler involves a number
of process steps. Which steps are required depend
on the type of raw material and product to be pro-
duced. Figure 7.2 illustrates the process steps for
production of orange juice starting from frozen
orange concentrate as raw material (Lines 1 and
2). Ingredient preparation for the production of
orange nectar and fruit drinks is also included. In
lines 3 and 4, the raw material is NFC.
 7.1 An overview of juice packer operations
Water treatment
Concentrate storage and preparation
LINE 1
Concentrate storage and preparation
LINE 2
Concentrate storage and preparation
Concentrate received in tank cars is pumped into
large storage tanks. The storage area is refrig-
erated or the tanks are equipped with cooling
jackets. The concentrate should be kept at less
than 0 °C. Concentrate received in drums is placed
in frozen storage.
From the storage tanks, concentrate may be
pumped directly to the blending area for recon-
stitution with water. If concentrates of different
origins or fruit types are to be blended, this may
take place in a separate tank prior to dilution with
water. Concentrate in drums is warmed up to –5 °C
or higher before it is poured or pumped out.
Water treatment
The required treatment of product water, used for
diluting concentrate to final product, depends on
106
Drink preparation
Batch blending
In-line blending
the quality of water supplied to the plant. Treatment
methods commonly used include sand filtration to
remove insoluble solids, active carbon filtration to
remove colour, and membrane filtration to reduce
dissolved salts (and organic matter). Ion-exchange
techniques may be used to soften the water or
reduce its alkalinity. When there is high water
consumption in a plant, e.g. during start-up and
cleaning cycles, treated product water is routed to
a buffer tank to ensure a sufficient supply.
Batch blending
The reconstitution step, referred to as the blend-
ing step, is carried out batchwise in Line 1. The
concentrate is diluted with water in large agitated
tanks. A batch is prepared in one tank while prod-
uct is pumped from another tank to pasteurisation
after sampling to check Brix value. Pulp slurry
 7.1 An overview of juice packer operations
Cleaning in-place

Automation
Filling

Pasteurisation Aseptic buffer

Pasteurisation Aseptic buffer

Fig. 7.2 Processing lines using concentrate

as raw material.

(and sugar solution for nectars and fruit drinks) Pasteurisation and deaeration
are added in the batch tank along with the con- In the pasteuriser, juice is heated in tubular or
centrate. Other ingredients may be added directly plate heat exchangers to pasteurisation tem-
to the batch tank but are often prepared as a pre- perature (80–95 °C), which is maintained as the
blended mixture in the drink preparation area. product passes through the holding cell. The juice
is then cooled to filling temperature and routed
In-line blending
to the filler. Free air and dissolved oxygen are
In Line 2, treated water and concentrate (and
removed from the juice in a deaerator.
other ingredients) are fed continuously to the in-
Most of the heat used is recovered from cooling
line blending system and mixed en route to the
pasteurised juice and additional energy is supplied
pasteuriser. The critical parameter, usually Brix
by circulating hot water heated by steam. During
of the final product, is monitored constantly. Flow
cleaning, start up, and any operating failure, the
rates of the respective components are adjusted
flow is recirculated over the pasteuriser.
by the control system to maintain the target Brix
value. The total flow of blended product, routed
via a buffer tank, is adjusted to suit pasteurisa-
tion capacity.

107
 7.1 An overview of juice packer operations
NFC frozen storage Thawing and crushing
LINE 3
NFC chilled storage Juice emptying
LINE 4
Aseptic buffer
In most cases pasteurised product goes directly
to the filler from where any overflow is returned
to the pasteuriser. A buffer tank ensures that vari-
ations in filler operation do not affect upstream
processing, and that continuous adjustment of
pressure and flow can be made to suit the filling
capacity. Buffer capacity is required for certain
types of filler. Buffer tanks should be of aseptic
design to avoid recontamination of product.
Filling
One pasteuriser system can feed product to one
or several fillers. The same type of pasteuriser
yielding commercially sterile product is used
for both aseptically filled juices and nonaseptic
juices intended for long shelf life under chilled
conditions. A different pasteuriser design is used
for hot filling.
108
Blending and buffer
Blending and buffer
Drink and nectar preparation
Sugar supplied to a plant in liquid form can go
directly to on-site buffer storage, whereas granular
sugar has to be dissolved in water to obtain a so-
lution of specified Brix content. Small quantities
of ingredients for the production of nectars and
fruit drinks may be premixed before routed to the
blending section. Sugar dissolving and ingredient
mixing are usually carried out batchwise.
Cleaning-in-place
Effective cleaning of all process line equipment
is essential for good operational results. The
cleaning unit supplies the required solutions and
controls the cleaning sequences. A large central
unit may clean the whole plant, or there may be
locally placed units for cleaning different parts
of the line.
 7.1 An overview of juice packer operations
Pasteurisation
Pasteurisation
Automation and process control
Operators control individual processing units
via panels located near the equipment or from a
central control room where the whole process line
is supervised. The automation system may supply
on-line information to management along with
regular reports, and may be directly linked to the
production scheduling department.
NFC storage
Processing lines using Not From Concentrate
(NFC) as raw material are shown in Lines 3 and
4. Frozen NFC, usually in 200 l drums, is stored
at –18 °C. Aseptic bulk NFC, typically in aseptic
storage tanks or aseptic bag-in-box containers, is
stored at 0 °C or higher.
Aseptic buffer Filling
Aseptic buffer
Fig 7.3. Processing lines using NFC as raw material.
NFC preparation
Solid frozen NFC is liquefied before processing.
Rapid thawing is achieved by initial heating in
a tunnel followed by tipping the drum contents
into an ice-crusher. The ice slurry is then melted
in a tubular heater.
Juice in tanks and aseptic bags is liquid and
can be pumped directly to buffer tanks. Aseptic
bags are emptied via a hose pump inserted into
the top of the bag, or with a pump connected to
the emptying spout at the bottom of the bag.
Liquid NFC goes to buffer tanks. Here juice of
different origins may be blended and pulp added.
Pasteurisation and other downstream process-
ing steps are carried out in the same way as for
reconstituted juice shown in Lines 1 and 2.
109
 7.2 Raw material reception and handling
7.2 Raw material reception
and handling
A certain on-site stock of raw materials is required
to ensure smooth production and avoid unplanned
stops. Stocks are generally kept as small as pos-
sible to minimise storage space and inventory
capital. However, stocks are also used to take
advantage of the market situation when changes
in supply prices are forecast.
Raw materials arrive in several different forms.
Concentrate for high-volume production arrives
by road tanker. Other raw materials may arrive in
frozen drums and aseptic bag-in-box containers.
Specialty and add-back products come in various
smaller containers, such as drums, boxes and cans.
Sugar, for production of nectars and juice drinks, is
delivered in granular form or as a liquid solution.
Sampling and lab analysis to check that in-
coming raw materials meet agreed specifications
is carried out regularly. Such routine checks for
orange concentrate are described in Table 7.1.
Authenticity checks to ensure product origin are
carried out as deemed necessary.
Analyses to control product authenticity are
quite elaborate and require sophisticated ana-
lytical equipment (see also Section 11).
7.2.1 TANKS FOR CONCENTRATE STORAGE
Concentrate arriving in refrigerated road tankers
is pumped directly to storage tanks (20–50 m3)
located in a refrigerated area. The refrigerated
area is preferably maintained at –5 °C to 0 °C, al-
though this is not always the case. The maximum
storage period depends on the actual refrigeration
temperature. There should be no significant in-
crease in microbial load of the concentrate while
in on-site storage.
Instead of using standard tanks stored under
refrigeration, individual storage tanks may be
equipped with double walls with a coolant flow-
ing in the jacket.
Microbial growth is slow in orange concen-
trate due to its high sugar content, i.e. high os-
motic pressure. Basically, there is no microbial
growth in concentrates of 66 °Brix at tempera-
tures below 0 °C. However, a liquid layer of low
sugar concentration may form on top of the
concentrate inside the storage tank due to con-
densation of water vapour on the cold product.
110
TABLE 7.1 QUALITY CONTROL OF
INCOMING CONCENTRATE
Sampling of road tankers
– one representative sample per compartment
taken at 10 cm minimum below the surface
– one microbiological sample
– temperature
Sampling of drums
– one representative sample per batch
At >55 °Brix direct sampling
At <55 °Brix sampling after thawing and mixing
Testing of concentrate
– Brix by refractometer – Acid content
– Brix corrected for acid – Brix/acid ratio
– Total microbial count
Testing of final product
(prepared in lab. according to own formula)
– Brix dilution – Taste
– Acid content – Appearance
– Colour - Flavour
– Defects
– Sinking and floating pulp
Source: Döhler-Eurocitrus
If this leads to microbial problems, a UV lamp
can be fitted in the top of the tank to inactivate
microorganisms.
The concentrate tanks, which are vented, are
equipped with slow and gentle agitators to avoid
layering of product. For relatively short on-site
storage periods, the concentrate tanks are not al-
ways equipped with nitrogen blanketing. However,
measures should be taken to prevent air from be-
ing mixed into the concentrate during agitation
or tank emptying.
Concentrate is pumped from storage tanks
to the blending system area, typically by using
positive displacement pumps. Concentrate at low
temperatures is very viscous and therefore the
fitting of valves between the tank and pump is
avoided as they cause high pressure drops. Pipe
routing for product transfers made in the concen-
trate room is usually carried out manually using
swing bend panels or flexible hoses. Automated
routing systems are not common because of the
large number of routing options and the desire to
avoid valves in concentrate lines.
 7.2 Raw material reception and handling

Water flushing and cleaning-in-place of the con- The drum contents are then emptied into a vessel
centrate lines are carried out less frequently than having rotating knives which chop up the frozen
in the downstream part of the plant. This is be- product into a slurry of ice. The slurry then passes
cause good operating routines, and the high Brix through a tubular heater to melt. The liquid prod-
values and low temperature of the concentrate, uct is collected in a buffer tank.
hinder microbial growth. Moreover, during flush- A quick-thawing line can process a large
ing, the water/concentrate interphase and possible number of drums per hour (up to 60 drums per
residual pockets of liquid at low Brix values cre- hour equivalent to 10,000 l/h of product). As hot
ate conditions for spoilage organisms to multiply air and steam are used to heat and melt the ice,
rapidly. The water from flushing is collected in it is an energy-intensive system that entails a
separate tanks to be used for the reconstitution significant investment. Juice packing plants that
of juice products. receive only a limited amount of frozen product in
drums have often developed their own less costly
7.2.2 DRUMS WITH FROZEN CONCENTRATE
solutions for thawing.
Product frozen in 200 l drums (typically frozen
Partial thawing of the drum contents at am-
concentrate, NFC and pulp) is placed in frozen
bient temperature is followed by crushing with a
storage at –18 °C or lower. As FCOJ at –18 °C is
smaller “chopper” before the slurry is added to
practically not pumpable, its temperature is raised
the blending tank. As there is a risk of microbial
to about –5 °C or higher at the time of use. This
growth while the juice or pulp slowly thaws at
is achieved through several methods, such as a
ambient temperature, this method must be care-
hot jacket around the drum, hot air circulation
fully monitored.
or simply leaving the drum in a nonrefrigerated
area. The preferred method depends on the daily
production volume and how much advanced
notice is received from scheduling.
Concentrate is either pumped out of a drum Drums from frozen storage
using a submersible hose pump, or emptied into
an open vessel connected to a discharge pump (a
quicker method). Concentrate flows either directly
Pre-thawing
to the dilution tanks for blending with water or to
a concentrate buffer tank for mixing with other
concentrate(s). As some product remains inside
the bag, it is recovered by mangling the plastic Drum tipper
bag or rinsing it with water which is then added
to the blending tanks.
7.2.3 DRUMS CONTAINING SOLID Ice-chopper
FROZEN PRODUCTS
Raw products such as NFC, pulp and concen- Ice flakes
trates of lower Brix freeze solid at –18 °C. These
are prepared for processing by placing them to Ice-slurry melter
thaw out in a nonrefrigerated area or by using a
system for quick thawing and crushing of product
in drums. Figure 7.4 shows the principal steps for
Liquid juice to buffer tank
rapid thawing of frozen product.
The drum passes through a hot air tunnel to
allow the outer layer of the product to melt.
Fig. 7.4 The thawing and crushing
of solid frozen product from drums.

111
 7.2 Raw material reception and handling
7.2.4 ASEPTIC BAG-IN-BOX CONTAINERS
Orange concentrate in aseptic bag-in-box con-
tainers (200 l drums) is placed in cold or frozen
storage on site. Long-term storage should be at
max. 5 °C to limit quality deg radation. When
required for processing, concentrate is pumped
from bags in a similar way to FCOJ in drums.
(See subsection 7.2.2.)
While aseptic bags are not often used for
orange concentrate, large volumes of NFC are
stored and transported in aseptic bags – typically
about 1,000 l (300 gal) juice per bag.
There are three methods of emptying juice
from aseptic bags:
• Manually with a hose pump inserted through
the filling spout or through a cut at the top of
the bag.
• Controlled emptying by connecting a pump
to an emptying spout at the bottom of the bag.
In this way the product may be less exposed
to air.
• Aseptic withdrawal of juice through an asep-
tic connection to the emptying spout. If this is
followed by aseptic transfer, the juice does not
require repasteurisation prior to packaging.
After emptying, NFC is sent to a buffer tank prior
to pasteurisation. Blending of NFC of different
origins may also take place here.
7.2.5 TANKS FOR NFC
NFC may also be delivered to the juice packer by
refrigerated tank car, either prepared by crushing
at a blending house or transferred from aseptic
storage tanks at a juice processing plant or a re-
ception terminal. Transport in tank cars is done
under hygienic but not aseptic conditions. Upon
arrival at the juice packer, NFC should be kept in
refrigerated tank storage at 0–4 °C for a limited
time before blending, pasteurisation and filling
consumer packages.
112
7.2.6 RECLAIM PRODUCT
Although reclaim, or rework, product is not a raw
material supplied to the gate of the juice packing
plant, it is still used as a basic ingredient in juice
production.
At many points in the juice packing plant,
product is collected which, for some reason, is
not allowed to be routed further in the process or
packaging sections. This “reject product“ can be:
• liquid rinsed out from concentrate containers
and delivery trucks
• product/water interphase from water flushing
at the start of cleaning cycles
• juice left in a batch blending tank at the end
of a production run
• juice of too low (or too high) Brix level at
the start of in-line blending operation
• juice rejected from the pasteuriser due to
underpasteurisation
• juice rejected from the pasteuriser due to
overprocessing caused by (excessive) recircu-
lation through the pasteuriser
• juice filled into unacceptable containers
The reclaim “juice” is too valuable to be sent to
drain. It has incurred costs in the form of raw
material, import duty, freight charges and process-
ing up to the point of collection. Moreover, its
discharge as effluent would not be acceptable for
environmental reasons.
As far as possible the reject product is used
to produce the same type of juice as it was
collected from. This, however, is not always
possible for products demanding strict qual-
ity specifications. In this case the reclaimed
juice is used in orange products not intended
as premium brands, or in the manufacture of
multi-fruit juices and fruit drinks.
Operating procedures and equipment design in
the juice packing plant should aim at minimising
reclaim volumes. Rework product not only entails
reprocessing costs but often ends up in a final
product of lower value than that it was originally
intended for.
 7.3 Water treatment

7.3 Water treatment

Water is the largest ingredient in reconstituted TABLE 7.2 SOME
SPECIFICATIONS FOR WATER USED
orange juice and orange-based drinks, cor re-
IN BEVERAGE PRODUCTION
sponding to 80–85 % of the final juice. The quality
of reconstitution water significantly influences the Smell none
final product. The water removed from the juice Taste none
Colour none
when it is concentrated is in principle distilled or Turbidity 1 unit or less
“pure” water. But distilled water is not normally Dry matter, mg/l <500
used for reconstitution. Water from municipal Total hardness
(as CaCO3), mg/l <100
supplies or from private wells normally needs Alkalinity
further on-site treatment to make it suitable for (as CaCO3), mg/l <50
reconstitution of good quality juices. Chlorine, mg/l <0.05
Iron, mg/l <0.1
7.3.1 WATER QUALITY Manganese, mg/l <0.1
Trihalomethane (THM) none
There are no regulatory standards specifying
water quality for beverage production other Source: Tetra Pak

than that it should fulfil individual national

standards for drinking water or those of the
WHO (the World Health Organisation run by
the United Nations). Council Directive 98/83/ In everyday language, water hardness is simply
EC provides legislation on water quality for described as soft or hard water. However, the
human consumption for the European Union. ranges from soft to hard vary between countries.
However, although water may be of accept- Typical ranges expressed in different units are
able drinking quality, it may be unacceptable given in Table 7.3. Water for juice production
as reconstitution water, giving rise, for ex- should be soft, <6 °dH.
ample, to off-flavours in reconstituted juice.
A list of some recommended specifications for
water used in beverage production, also referred TABLE 7.3 WATER HARDNESS
to as product water, is in Table 7.2. The effects
of various water impurities on juice quality are Degrees Millequi-
German valent
discussed in subsection 4.1.1. CaCO3 hardness /litre
Water hardness is an important quality pa- mg/l °dH meq/l
rameter. It is caused by dissolved calcium and
magnesium salts. Temporary hardness results from Very soft <50 2.8 1
Soft 50–100 2.8–5.6 1–2
calcium and magnesium bicarbonates, permanent Moderately
hardness results from chlorides and sulphates. To- hard 100–200 5.6–11 2–4
tal hardness, the sum of temporary and permanent Hard 200–400 11–22 4–8
Very hard >400 >22 >8
hardness, may be expressed in different ways.
In North America it is expressed as calcium Conversion factors:
carbonate, CaCO3, in water (i.e. the concentration 1 °dH = 17.9 CaCO3 mg/l
1 meq/l = 50.0 CaCO3 mg/l
of different salts calculated as the corresponding
1 °f = 10.0 CaCO3 mg/l
quantity of CaCO3). In Europe the expression 1 ° Clark = 14.3 CaCO3 mg/l
°dH, degrees German hardness, is commonly used 1 grain/US gal = 17.1 CaCO3 mg/l
along with °f (France). The concentration of ions
The ranges for soft and hard water may vary
in water (expressed as meq/l) is often used in East between different geographical regions.
European countries.
Source: Vattenteknik

113
 7.3 Water treatment
Raw water
Bag/cartridge filter
Ultraviolet light
Product water
to storage
7.3.2 WATER TREATMENT METHODS
The quality of incoming water determines the
types of water treatment carried out at the juice
packer. To fulfil water quality recommendations,
on-site water treatment should aim at:
• removing organic matter
• reducing hardness
• removing salts
• removing chlorine
• removing iron and manganese compounds
• destroying all microorganisms
• maintaining a consistent pH value
Several common water treatment methods are
described below. Some treatments such as ion-ex-
change, reverse osmosis and nanofiltration tech-
niques may be used on a partial stream followed
by blending with the rest of the water stream to
achieve the desired water quality parameters.
Figure 7.5 shows a combination of treatment
steps for product water. However, depending on
water quality and juice packer preference, several
alternative combinations may be worked out.
Flocculation
A method for removing suspended particles, such
as organic matter and humic acids from water. The
addition of appropriate chemicals (flocculants) to
incoming water aggregates the particles to form
flocs which settle on the bottom of the reaction
tank. Flocculants commonly used are aluminium
sulphate and iron sulphate.
Flocculation is normally not needed for a
municipal water supply because organic mat-
ter has already been removed in the municipal
waterworks.
114
Activated
Softening carbon filter
Buffer storage Reverse osmosis
Fig. 7.5 A typical water treatment system
used in a juice packing plant.
Sand filtration
This involves passing water through a sand filter
held in a tank to remove insoluble solids. A sand
filter consists of several layers of sand which vary
in coarseness. It may be used as final filtering after
flocculation or iron-manganese oxidation.
Iron and manganese removal
Under appropriate conditions, iron compounds in
water form flocs when oxidised by air. The flocs are
subsequently removed in a sand filter. Manganese
and iron compounds are removed by a combination
of oxidation and filtration through a sand filter with
a “manganese-treated” filter bed. The latter is re-
generated by potassium permanganate.
Dealkalisation by ion-exchange
A method used to reduce the alkalinity of water.
This may be required as high alkalinity neutralises
the acidity of fruit juices. The presence of carbon-
ates and hydroxides, e.g. of calcium and magne-
sium, in water makes it alkaline (pH >7). These are
removed by an ion-exchange process. When water
is passed through a resin bed (consisting of small
beads of appropriate polymer) the calcium and
magnesium ions attach to the resin, and water and
carbon dioxide are produced. Reducing alkalinity
also reduces the hardness of the water.
Softening by ion-exchange
In this method, calcium and magnesium ions are
replaced by sodium ions by passing water through
a bed of resin in a similar way to dealkalisation.
The hardness of the softened water is virtually
zero. Often only part of the water is softened so
that when it is blended back with the main water
stream the desired hardness is obtained.

Reverse osmosis
A membrane filtration system for removing small
dissolved molecules including salts. It produces
virtually pure water (>95 % of dissolved salts and
>99 % of organic matter are removed). Despite
higher costs, the reverse osmosis method, which
also reduces bicarbonate content, is sometimes
preferred to dealkalisation by ion-exchange.
Nanofiltration
A membrane filtration system having slightly
larger pores than those used for reverse osmosis.
It removes par ticles larger than 1 nanometer
(0.000 001 mm). This means that hardness and
colour are removed together with >90 % of dis-
solved salts and >99 % organic matter. Nano- and
ultrafiltration are being increasingly used as alter-
native methods to flocculation. (Microfiltration
and ultrafiltration methods incor porate mem-
branes with cor respondingly larger pore sizes.)
Chlorination
Chlorine is the most widely used sterilant for
water. Nevertheless, it should not be added to
water containing humic organic matter because
trihalomethanes (THMs) are formed. Chlorine
is most efficient as a disinfectant at pH <4. As
it reacts with several substances in water, suf-
ficient chlorine must be added to ensure enough
is available to destroy any microorganisms. The
chlorination step must be followed by the removal
of residual chlorine.
Chlorination is normally not needed for mu-
nicipal waters. However, residual chlorine left in
the water should be removed as it will otherwise
react with orange flavour and result in reconsti-
tuted juice with a flat taste.
Activated carbon filter
Activated carbon is a highly porous material with
a very high adsorbent capacity. Filtering water
through activated carbon removes colour and
odour. When there is a risk of microbial contami-
nation of filters, UV treatment on the outlet flow
is recommended as a safeguard. An alternative is
to equip the filters for steam sterilisation, although
this makes the filter system considerably more
complex and increases the investment. Chlorine
adsorbed to the active carbon is regenerated dur-
ing steam sterilisation.
115
7.3 Water treatment
Ultraviolet light
Passing water under ultraviolet (UV) light is a
method of destroying microorganisms in water. It
is a relatively simple technique of low energy us-
age. UV light effectively kills all microorganisms,
but ultraviolet radiation is impeded by insoluble
material in water. It should therefore only be ap-
plied to clarified water.
Ozone treatment
A method of water sterilisation using ozone gas.
Being a very strong oxidising agent, ozone may
also be used to remove off-taste, colour and iron
and manganese compounds. Ozone is generated
on-site from air. Control of the system includes
converting residual ozone gas to oxygen by heat,
activated carbon or ultraviolet light.
Particle filters
Safety filters used for incoming water to protect
downstream equipment. They are typically bag or
cartridge filters of 5–10 µm pore size.
7.3.3 IN-PLANT DISTRIBUTION
OF PRODUCT WATER
From the water treatment section, product water
is distributed through pipes to the point of use
in the plant. Short but intensive periods of water
usage may occur simultaneously at several out-
let points, exceeding the output from the water
treatment plant. Buffer storage of treated water is
therefore recommended with a volume typically
cor responding to two hours’ water production.
It is advisable to recirculate water in the stor-
age tank through a UV disinfectant unit to limit
bacterial growth.
The water distribution system must be capable
of handling high peaks of water consumption
while maintaining high water supply pressure.
An increase of production capacity in the juice
packing plant may make the water distribution
system inadequate. In this case, a pressurised
tank of a few m3 can overcome the problem of
drop in supply pressure during periods of peak
water consumption.
 7.3 Water treatment
Water feed
7.3.4 DEAERATION OF WATER
The amount of air – or more precisely the oxygen
content – in water greatly influences the oxygen
content of reconstituted juice. Treated product
water may contain both free and dissolved air.
Free air (bubbles) may be released by holding
the water in a buffer tank for a certain time, but
the removal of dissolved oxygen requires a de-
aeration process.
Dissolved oxygen levels in cold water are
typically 10–12 ppm, depending on temperature
and pressure. The solubility of oxygen in water
is shown in subsection 4.2.
Provided that the concentrate has been handled
carefully (without mixing in air) and that blending
with water is done in the absence of air, reconsti-
tuting with deaerated water results in a packaged
juice with very low oxygen content.
There are several different water deaeration
systems intended for preheated water or water
at ambient temperature. Figure 7.6 illustrates a
deaeration system working under vacuum suitable
for both preheated water and water at ambient
temperature. Water passes down through a column
with internal packing. The large contact area be-
tween water and vapour phase makes it easier for
the dissolved oxygen to leave the water. Dissolved
oxygen in the outgoing water is about 0.5 ppm.
Water deaeration is common practice in brew-
eries and carbonated soft-drink production, as it
facilitates the subsequent carbonation step. It is
not yet so common in juice production, where
juice deaerators dominate. In juice packing plants
today, the equipment used upstream of pasteurisa-
tion often allows the product to come into contact
with air. Oxygen is thereby reintroduced into al-
ready deaerated product.
7.4 Blending
In the context used here, the term “blending”
means the actual reconstitution step whereby
concentrate is blended with water to make a
ready-to-drink juice. Blending takes place just
prior to pasteurisation.
116
Vacuum
Fig. 7.6 The operating principle
of a water deaeration system.
Deaerated water
7.4.1 BLENDING OF NECTARS
AND FRUIT DRINKS
Several different concentrates can be premixed
prior to the blending step or they can be added to
the blending tank (in the case of batch blending).
When oil fractions are added at site, they should
be thoroughly mixed into the concentrate prior
to the blending step. Alternatively, they can be
prepared as a water-oil emulsion added at the
blending step. Moreover, pulp and water-soluble
flavours may be added at the blending step.
As the name implies, NFC is not diluted with
water, although NFC having different charac-
teristics are often blended before pasteurisation.
Essence aroma may also be added to NFC at this
stage if legally permitted.
If the end product is a nectar or fruit drink,
other ingredients are added at the blending step.
When sugar is added to orange juice it may no
longer be called juice but becomes a fruit nectar.
Regulations stipulate what may be added to fruit
nectars. For example, EU Council Directive 2001/
112/EC defines fruit nectars as fruit juice to which
water and sugar have been added. The fruit juice
can be as juice, concentrate or powder, and sugar
may be substituted by honey or sweetener.
Minimum juice contents are specified for each
type of fruit, which for orange nectar in Europe
is 50 %.

Fruit juice regulations do not cover fruit drinks,
which fall under general food legislation. In addi-
tion to what may be used for nectars, ingredients
for still fruit drinks include:
• artificial flavours
• natural and artificial colour
• stabilisers and antioxidants
• preservatives
Stabilisers used to maintain product consistency
are, for example, pectin and guar gum, and some
preservatives used are benzoic acid, sorbic acid
and sulphur dioxide. Examples of antioxidants are
ascorbic acid and sulphur oxide. For orange drinks
with low juice content, acid needs to be added.
Brix level and Brix:acid ratio are typically higher
for nectars and drinks compared with pure juice.
Preservatives are not required when the product
is pasteurised and aseptically packed.
Several of the ingredients for drinks (and
nectars) are added in very small quantities. They
may be added directly to the blending tanks or
preferably a premix of these ingredients is pre-
pared separately. Dissolving granulated sugar to
give a sugar solution of defined concentration is
often done at the juice packing plant. Sugar may
be dissolved batchwise or continuously. Alter-
natively, sugar may arrive as a liquid solution by
tank car and pumped to storage tanks on site. The
choice depends on the amount of sugar used and
the proximity to sugar suppliers.
7.4.2 DEFINING THE BLENDING FORMULA
The Brix value of the reconstituted juice is the
key parameter for the blending operation. Ap-
propriate regulations stipulate minimum concen-
trations of soluble solids for reconstituted juice.
The EU demands a minimum value of 11.2 °Brix
for orange juice made from concentrate, whereas
the USA sets a minimum value of 11.8 °Brix.
The Brix value is measured by a refractometer
and cor rected for temperature, and also for acid
content for concentrates. The Brix value can also
be measured with a density meter.
117
7.4 Blending
The required hourly output from the blending
section is determined by the downstream filling
rate and the total volume of juice to be pack-
aged. The quantities of concentrate and water to
be blended can be calculated approximately from
the Brix value of the concentrate and that of the
final product. A calculation example is shown in
the fact box.
Certain tables with density values for pure
sugar solutions at different concentrations are
used in the citrus industry as a common reference
to determine the weight of solids in juice and
concentrate. (An abstract is given in Section 13,
Abbreviations weights and measures.)
In practice, the density values are approximate
for orange juice because it is not a pure sugar
solution but contains varying amounts of in-
soluble solids and acid. The actual Brix value of
concentrate may differ from the specification by,
say, ±0.5 °Brix. Hence, in the case of orange juice,
the exact Brix value of the final juice cannot be
calculated from a formula, but for high accuracy
it must be determined by laboratory or in-line
measurements.
QUANTITY OF CONCENTRATE NEEDED
TO MAKE 1 LITRE JUICE
Basis:
Final juice: 11.2 °Brix
Concentrate: 65 °Brix, corrected
Calculation:
Juice of 11.2 °Brix has a specific gravity of ap-
prox. 1.045 kg/l. In other words, 1 litre juice at
20 °C weighs about 1045 grams.
1 litre final juice of 11.2 °Brix contains 1045 x
11.2/100 = 117 grams soluble solids.
1 kg concentrate of 65 °Brix contains 1000 x
65/100 = 650 grams soluble solids.
Result:
To prepare 1 litre of juice you therefore need
Concentrate: 117/650 x 1000 = 180 g
Water: 1045–180 = 865 g
These values are approximate because juice is
not a pure sugar solution.
 7.4 Blending
7.4.3 SAVINGS MADE BY ACCURATE
BLENDING
The stipulated Brix values for reconstituted juice
are minimum values and so actual values must
not fall below the stipulated value. To allow for
variations and inaccuracies in commercial produc-
tion plants, the target Brix level for juice from
the blending room is set a bit higher than the
official minimum value. The necessary “safety
margin” depends on the accuracy of the blending
operation. Blending as close as possible to the
stipulated Brix value saves a significant amount
of raw material. Process control equipment and
blending system design may improve the blending
accuracy. An estimation of the savings involved
is shown in the fact box.
EXAMPLE OF SAVINGS
IN RAW MATERIAL
Blending the final juice 0.1 °Brix closer to the
minimum specification corresponds to the
following annual savings:
Basis:
Line capacity: 20,000 l/h
Daily production: 10 h/day
Operating days: 200 days/year
Annual production: 42,000 tonnes juice
Final juice (min. conc.): 11.25 °Brix
Cost of raw material: 1,300 USD/tonne
(Orange concentrate 65 °Brix)
Savings:
A reduction by 0.1 °Brix, e.g. from 11.35 °Brix
to 11.25 °Brix, gives a reduction in raw material
consumption of 0.1 °Brix/11.35 °Brix = 0.9 %.
Annual savings in concentrate will be:
42,000 x 0.1 °Brix/65 °Brix = 65 tonnes equal to
a value of 84,000 USD.
118
7.4.4 COMPARISON OF BLENDING METHODS
There are two principal methods for reconstitut-
ing juice:
• the batch method for preparing a certain
quantity of juice in a tank
• continuous, in-line blending
Tank blending, or batch blending, is the traditional
method carried out manually or with the help of
automation systems. In-line blending systems,
which are more recent, incorporate a high degree
of automation and process control.
Features of batch blending
Preparation in advance: As blending of a
batch typically requires 1–2 hours’ preparation,
blending room personnel need to come early to
complete the first batch before the start of daily
production.
Fixed volume production: It is difficult to
prepare exactly a predetermined batch volume.
This may result in insufficient juice volume for
packaging or juice left over after the production
run, for which an alternative use must be found
in the plant.
Labour-intensive: Manual or semiautomatic
blending requires the frequent attendance of
blending room personnel.
Variation of Brix concentration: Achieving a
value close to the target Brix for the blended juice
usually requires several laboratory Brix measure-
ments followed by water additions to the blend-
ing tank. In practice, however, a shortage of time
and/or labour may prevent the standard routine of
repeated Brix checks from being carried out.
Low investment: Manual and semi-automatic
tank blending systems require a comparatively
low investment. Additional raw materials may be
added without the need for further equipment.

Features of in-line blending
Labour-saving: No advanced preparation, auto-
matic flow control and continuous in-line Brix
measurements free personnel for other duties.
Variable juice volumes: Blending is carried out
to the exact juice volumes required.
Consistent accuracy: Process control and in-line
Brix monitoring maintain consistent measurement
accuracy close to the target Brix value.
Compact equipment: In-line blending requires
less space as large tanks for blending product
are eliminated. Moreover, less product is lost
during CIP.
Small volumes of blended product: No large
product volumes are at risk from, for example,
power failure. Less and more compact equip-
ment, and short residence times reduce the risk
of microbial contamination.
No exposure to air: Closed in-line blending
system avoids exposing the product to air.
Less concentrate usage: Blending closer to
minimum Brix levels and no excess product left
in tanks after a production run result in lower
concentrate consumption.
High investment: Automatic systems for in-line
blending require a relatively high investment, par-
ticularly when many separate ingredients have to
be blended.
General conclusions
The choice of blending system depends on several
factors, but the major conclusions are:
Batch blending is best suited to small production
runs and/or many ingredients as found with spe-
ciality beverages, for example.
In-line blending is best suited to large volumes
of products requiring few ingredients, e.g. high
turnover consumer products like pure juices.
A combination of the two blending principles
may be applied to fruit nectars and fruit drinks
containing several ingredients. The smaller
quantity ingredients are pre-mixed batchwise
followed by in-line blending with water and juice
concentrate. The two blending principles involve
different features.
119
7.4 Blending
7.4.5 BATCH BLENDING SYSTEMS
Each batch blending line incorporates two blend-
ing tanks. While one tank is used for preparing a
new batch, juice is pumped from the other tank
to the downstream pasteuriser. Both tanks are
equipped with agitators for effective mixing of
the ingredients. However, agitation should be car-
ried out in such a way as to avoid entrainment
of air into the juice, which may otherwise cause
operational problems in downstream processing.
Efficient tank cleaning-in-place is also important
to prevent microbial contamination of juice for
the following production run.
In a manual system, the quantities of con-
centrate and water (plus any other ingredients)
required for a batch are calculated. First, a pre-
determined quantity of water (majority of the
calculated volume) is fed into the blending tank
followed by concentrate. The volume of concen-
trate is often measured as a number of drums.
Other ingredients, including flushing water from
drum rinsing, are then added to the tank.
The Brix value of reconstituted juice is
checked after thorough mixing in the tank. More
water is then added to get nearer the target Brix
value. When the desired Brix value has been
reached, the product is ready for pasteurisation.
Changeover to the full tank takes place when the
other tank becomes empty. Product is pumped
from the full tank to the pasteuriser section.
In the semi-automatic batch blending systems,
recipes are preprogrammed in a process control
unit. When a recipe is selected, together with
relevant data for the production run in question,
the control unit calculates the quantities of ingre-
dients to be blended.
 7.4 Blending

Treated water

Concentrate
The addition of water and concentrate (and per-
haps syrup) is automatic and controlled through
weighing the tank contents (by load cells in the
tank legs) or by mass flow meters. Sampling to
check Brix values is done manually. The actual
Brix value is entered in the controller and the water
volume needed to make the correct adjustment to
the tank contents is calculated and the water then
added. After thorough mixing, the Brix value is
again checked manually and further adjustments Fig. 7.7 The operating
principal of a typical batch Blended
made to the tank contents if necessary. juice
blending system.
In a fully automatic tank batch blending sys-
tem, the Brix value of blended product is checked
continuously by an in-line meter. Adjustments are In-line blending based solely on volumetric meas-
then calculated and carried out through the control urements achieves limited blending accuracy. This
system. The in-line Brix sensor is placed in a cir- is due to variations in density and Brix of the
culation loop over the tank to make sure that the concentrate caused, for example, by air bubbles
sample is representative of the tank contents. trapped in the viscous concentrate and Brix vari-
Figure 7.7 shows the operational principle of ations of the concentrate in the tank.
a batch blending system. Semi-automatic systems Thus volumetric blending, for example with
are widely used for batch blending, but fully auto- piston pumps, needs to be combined with an exact
matic systems, which require significantly higher Brix measurement system for the blended juice,
investment, are less common. in order to obtain high blending accuracy.
Mass flow meters, which are highly accurate,
7.4.6 IN-LINE BLENDING SYSTEMS
measure both mass flow and actual density of
The operational principle behind in-line blending
the ingredient streams. The Brix value of final
is that the ingredients are continuously fed and
juice is calculated from the ratio of the two flows.
mixed in-line on the way to pasteurisation.
For FCOJ, however, flow meters are deliberately
Critical factors for the high performance of in-line
overdimensioned to avoid excessive pressure
blending systems are:
drops on the very viscous fluid. In this case the
• high blending accuracy
flow meters may be less accurate as they operate
• effective mixing of concentrate and water
outside their optimal flow range.
• ability to adjust the flow rate through the
In-line Brix measurement of blended product
blending unit to suit that required by down-
by refractometry is a direct measurement of the
stream equipment (pasteurisers and fillers).
final juice. As it is the same measurement method
as specified for the final product, deviations due
There are three methods of measuring and control-
to inaccurate conversion factors are avoided.
ling the flow rate of the ingredient streams, which
If, however, the in-line analyser is a density
in turn determines the blending accuracy:
meter, which gives higher accuracy, and the lab
• by volume (piston pumps)
analyser is a refractometer (common in a juice
• by weight (mass flow meters)
plant) there is a slight difference between the
• by Brix values in blended juice
measured Brix values due to citric acid and aroma
(in-line Brix meter)
content. This deviation is adjusted to zero by using
a correction factor in the in-line density meter.
FCOJ from cold storage is very viscous and
does not mix easily with water, so effective in-line
mixers are required to obtain a homogenous mix.

120
 7.4 Blending
N2 /CO2
Concentrate
or premix

Brix meter

Mixer

Figure 7.8 Flow diagram of a two- Brix meter

stream in-line blending system.

Treated water

Blended juice

An example of an in-line blending system is
shown in Figure 7.8. Brix control is achieved by
combining an in-line Brix meter (density meter)
located in the juice stream and ratio control of water
to concentrate flow. The total flow rate through the
blending unit varies to match filler demand, but the
ratio of water to concentrate is maintained constant.
Other raw goods, including reclaimed product, are
added at a certain percentage of the total flow.
On the way to the pasteuriser section, blended
juice flows through a small buffer tank which al-
lows operational flexibility and enables smooth
adjustments to the flow rate of blended juice.
7.4.7 HOW A REFRACTOMETER WORKS
The most common way to measure Brix in juice
plants is by refractometry. This is carried out by
using either hand-held, laboratory or in-line re-
fractometers. These measure the refractive index
of a liquid by detecting how much of the emitted
light is reflected by the liquid. (The refractive
index of a liquid depends on its concentration of
soluble solids. Refer to subsection 2.2.)
The measuring unit of a refractometer con-
sists of three main components – a light source,
a prism and an image detector. The measuring
unit illustrated in Figure 7.9 detects the critical
angle of light.
The light source directs light rays through
the prism into the liquid. The light rays meet the
liquid surface at different angles. Rays with a
steep angle are partly reflected to the detector and
partly reflected to the liquid. Rays with a gentle
angle are totally reflected to the image detector.
The angle at which the total reflection starts is
called the critical angle.
The critical angle is determined from the
borderline between the light and dark areas on
the detector, which corresponds to the refractive
index. The measured value, expressed as Brix
value, must be cor rected for temperature. This is
often done automatically by a temperature sensor
in the instrument.
The measurement accuracy depends on the
sensitivity of the instrument. Advanced refrac-
tometers for use in a controlled laboratory en-
vironment are far more accurate than hand-held
units used for quick checks in the plant. Refrac-
tometers placed in-line of a process are calibrated
against laboratory refractometers. High accuracy
of the latter is therefore important.
Optical
image
Light Prism
Source
Liquid
Fig. 7.9 The working principle of a refractometer.

121
 7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration

7.4.8 HOW A DENSITY METER WORKS

Density (Greek letter ρ) is the quotient of the mass
m and the volume V of a substance:

ρ = m/V (kg/m3)

As density depends on temperature, a measured

density must be stated together with the surround-
ing temperature. Compensation to express density
values at a reference temperature (usually 20 ºC) is
necessary to allow comparison of measurements
taken at different temperatures. There is a correla-
tion between density and sugar concentration, or
Brix. The relationship density/Brix for sugar solu-
tions has been determined and published.
One common method of measuring the den-
sity of a liquid is to feed the sample through an
oscillating tube. When the liquid enters the tube,
the frequency of the oscillation decreases, and
the density can be calculated from the difference
in oscillation between the empty and full tube.
Temperature and density signals from the density
meter are used in a calculation needed to express
density values at the reference temperature.
The accuracy of a density meter is generally
higher than that of a refractometer. Although den-
sity meters are frequently used to measure Brix
in carbonated soft drink production, they are not
commonly used in the juice industry as yet.
For orange juice, a correction factor is re-
quired when converting density measurements
to Brix values to compensate for solids other than
sugars in the juice. See subsection 13.3.
7.5 Pasteurisation and
deaeration
The pasteurisation of reconstituted juice and NFC
at the juice packer is carried out to destroy any
microorganisms that have entered the concentrate
or NFC after the heat treatment(s) earlier in the
production chain. Enzymes in the juice were
inactivated by the first heat treatment at the fruit
processor´s plant.
Cold product
Hot product
Fig. 7.10 Principles of flow and heat transfer
in a plate heat exchanger.
General aspects of microbiology and pasteuri-
sation are discussed in subsections 4.3 and 4.4
respectively.
It is recommended that juice intended for
nonaseptic packaging, chilled distribution and
long shelf life (> 20 days) is commercially sterile
as it leaves the pasteurisation process. It should
therefore be processed in the same equipment
and under the same hygiene conditions as juice
to be filled aseptically. However, the combina-
tion of temperature and residence time may be
chosen closer to the theoretical minimum level,
i.e. a lower safety margin to take care of raw
material variations.
Conversely, the misconception is sometimes
found in the industry that juice for aseptic filling
requires considerably more heat load than chilled
(nonaseptic) juice. However, orange juice, along
with other high-acid products, requires heat treat-
ment of 80–95 °C for 15–30 sec. to be made micro-
biologically stable for chilled storage or storage
at ambient temperature. (Ultra high temperature,
UHT, is not required). The most important crite-
rion for selecting pasteurisation conditions is the
microbial load of the juice to the pasteuriser.

122
 7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration
7.5.1 SELECTING THE HEAT EXCHANGER
Plate and tubular heat exchangers are the most
commonly used equipment for heat treating juice
(and other fruit drinks). Both types of heat ex-
changer enable good heat recovery, thus keeping
down operating costs.
A plate heat exchanger consists of a series of
stainless steel plates clamped together in a frame
(see Figure 7.10). Product to be heated flows on
one side of the plate, while the heating medium
usually flows in the opposite direction on the other
side. The heating medium may be product being
cooled down or circulating hot water.
Characteristic features of plate heat ex-
changers are compact design, high heat transfer
rates, very high degree of heat recovery and low
hold-up volumes.
Plates are designed with different corrugation
patterns. Patterns which result in few contact
points between the plates yet cause good liquid
turbulence are recommended for juices with a
high content of suspended solids or containing
short cells. This is important for effective cleaning-
in-place and preventing particles from sticking
to the contact points. Such a plate is shown in
Figure 7.11. For products with suspended solids,
reversing the direction of flow – “back-flushing”
– is recommended during cleaning.
Multitube-type tubular heat exchangers are
based on the classic shell and tube principle. The
product flows through a group of parallel tubes
and the heating (or cooling) medium flows be-
tween and around the tubes in the opposite direc-
tion. Both ends of the parallel tubes are welded
into circular end plates which are sealed into the
outer shell, usually with rubber O-rings. The tube
end plate directs incoming liquid into the tubes.
Fig. 7.11 The pattern of
a widestream-type heat
exchanger plate.
123
Product tubes
Fig. 7.12 A multitube
tubular heat exchanger.
There are no obstructions or contact points for
product within the tubes.
An example of a multitube heat exchanger,
with a floating end design that allows for ther-
mal expansion of the tubes, is shown in Figure
7.12. The tubes are corrugated to increase the
heat transfer rate.
Another type of tubular heat exchanger is the
triple tube. This consists of three concentric tubes
placed inside each other to form channels for the
alternating flow of product and heating medium.
Typically, product flows through the intermediate
channel, while heating/cooling medium flows
through the inner and outer channels.
Tubular heat exchangers are commonly de-
signed for indirect heat regeneration (as opposed
to direct product-to-product heat regeneration)
using a circulating water loop to transfer heat
from hot to cold product.
Characteristic features of tubular heat ex-
changers are their ability to handle juice with
cells or other liquid foods containing particles,
and their low fouling rate which allows long
production runs between CIP. Compared with
other types of heat exchangers, the maintenance
and service requirements of tubes are reduced
because they have fewer seals and other parts that
need replacement. The level of heat recovery is
normally lower for tubular heat exchangers com-
pared with plate heat exchangers.
 7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration
For the final heating of product to pasteurisation
temperature, a small temperature difference
between product and the heating media may be
chosen for both plate and tubular heat exchangers,
thereby avoiding overheating the product.
The choice between plate and tubular heat ex-
changers depends on the properties of the product
to be processed. Table 7.4 is a guideline for select-
ing the most suitable type of heat exchanger for
a particular application. Generally, tubular heat
exchangers are more versatile in application than
plate heat exchangers, although they entail higher
capital investment. During recent years tubular
heat exchangers have become the preferred so-
lution thanks to application flexibility and low
service need.
7.5.2 THE PASTEURISATION PROCESS
Although the heat exchanger is the heart of the
pasteuriser, balance tank, valves and pumps are
required to build a properly operating pasteuriser
system. A diagram of a pasteuriser system and the
flow of juice through it is shown in Figure 7.13.
Juice from the blending room enters via the
balance tank. This tank makes the pasteurisation
process independent of flow fluctuations in the
upstream feed line and keeps the conditions in the
pasteuriser stable. Circulation during start-up and
presterilisation is through the balance tank.
TABLE 7.4 A GUIDE TO SELECTING THE MOST
SUITABLE TYPE OF HEAT EXCHANGER
PRODUCT
Standard plate
Clear juices and drinks
Juices with high content of suspended solids
Juices with cells
Concentrates without cells
Concentrates with cells
Key:
+++ Best choice
++ Good, but higher investment than best choice
+ Good, but with limitations (such as cell length)
— Not suitable
124
From the balance tank juice is pumped to the heat
exchanger where it is heated by outgoing juice
or by a circulating water loop. An intermediate
water loop, as shown in Figure 7.13, is used
when there is no direct product-to-product heat
recovery in the heat exchanger. Preheated juice
then passes to the deaerator, if included in the
pasteurisation system.
Deaerated juice is heated further to pasteuri-
sation temperature, typically 80–95 °C. The ad-
ditional energy needed, i.e. that not obtained by
heat recovery from outgoing product, is supplied
by steam. The steam heats hot circulating water
in a separate heat exchanger. The temperature
of the hot water must be maintained close to the
juice pasteurisation temperature to avoid over-
heating the product. It is not recommended to
use steam directly in the juice heat exchanger
as it creates product burn-on and temperature-
control difficulties.
Juice at pasteurisation temperature flows to the
holding cell. This ensures that the juice is held
at the pasteurisation temperature for a defined
period, typically 15–30 sec. The pasteurised juice
then returns to the heat exchanger where it is
cooled down by regenerative heat transfer. Juice
to be packed at ambient temperature then flows
directly to the filler. Juice for chilled distribution
is first chilled by cooling water (or other coolant)
in an additional heat exchanger section before
being routed to the filler.
HEAT EXCHANGER
Widestream Tubular
+++ ++ ++
+ +++ ++
— + +++
+++ — ++
— — +++
 7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration
Product reject
Cooling
water
Holding
cell
Juice
Circulating
water
Fig. 7.13 Flow diagram of
a pasteurisation process.
Steam
Condensate
The holding cell and all equipment downstream
of it must be aseptic, i.e. must not cause any
microbiological recontamination of the juice.
Equipment and controls must therefore be de-
signed accordingly.
Prior to taking in product at the start of the
production run, the pasteuriser system is pres-
terilised. During sterilisation, water heated to
95–110 °C is circulated through the system for
20–30 minutes. Where applicable, the circulating
water is cooled to below 100 °C as it returns to
the balance tank.
After the production run, residual juice is
flushed out with water and the pasteuriser system
cleaned in place. Detergent may be dosed into the
balance tank and circulated through the pasteur-
iser, or it may be connected to a central supply of
cleaning liquids (see subsection 7.9). The regular
cleaning routine, once every 1–3 days, should
include a wash with a caustic or similar solution.
Rinsing with a mild acid solution is carried out,
for example, on a weekly basis.
125
Filler or
aseptic
buffer
Vacuum
7.5.3 DEAERATION
Juice from blending is normally saturated with
dissolved oxygen, typically at 8–10 ppm (the
exception being when deaerated water is used
for reconstitution and a nitrogen blanket protects
the blending operation, which result in very low
oxygen level in the blended juice).
If floating cells (pulp) have been added, small
air bubbles may also be adsorbed to the surface
of the particles. As orange juice is sensitive to
oxygen, it is recommended that a deaerator is
included in the pasteurisation process. The effects
of oxygen on orange juice quality and different
operating principles of deaerators are discussed
in subsection 4.2.
Deaeration of reconstituted juice is similar to
deaeration of NFC. It is usually carried out by
passing the product through a vacuum chamber.
Free air bubbles expand under vacuum and tend to
escape readily from the juice, whereas dissolved
oxygen is more difficult to remove.
The deaeration efficiency or reduction of
dissolved oxygen depends on a combination of
operating factors. These are:
• applied vacuum
• product temperature
• surface area of juice
• juice film thickness
• product residence time
 7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration
For juice preheated to 50–60 °C, which allows
the juice to “flash” in the vacuum chamber, good
deaeration efficiency (oxygen typically reduced to
0.5 ppm) is achieved using very short residence
times. At lower deaeration temperatures and with
no product flashing, the removal of oxygen is
much slower. Correspondingly, a larger surface
area and a longer residence time are required to re-
duce the dissolved oxygen to acceptable levels.
Some volatile components in the juice will
vaporise in the vacuum chamber, both with or
without product flashing. Effective condensation
of these volatiles and returning them to the juice
are therefore important to avoid flavour losses.
A vacuum chamber for a juice deaerator sys-
tem with in-line aroma recovery is illustrated in
Figure 7.14. Juice entering the vacuum chamber
is sprayed in an umbrella-shaped thin film to pro-
duce a large area of thin-layer liquid. As it enters
the vacuum vessel, the product flashes (i.e. some
water boils off) and its temperature drops a few
degrees. The pressure in the vacuum chamber, or
the juice inlet temperature, is adjusted so that the
inlet temperature is 2–5 °C above the boiling point
of the juice at the actual pressure. This fine-tuning
may be carried out manually or, preferably, as part
of the control system.
Vapours are condensed by an internal con-
denser and returned to the liquid in the vessel
Fig. 7.15 Preassembled pasteurisation unit.
126
CIP
Coolant
Vacuum
Juice in
Fig. 7.14 Vacuum vessel
for a juice deaerator.
Deaerated
juice out
without any time delay ensuring consistent prod-
uct quality throughout the run. Deaerated juice is
pumped out of the bottom of the vessel carefully
so as to avoid entrainment of gases from the vac-
uum chamber (oxygen) into the liquid.
7.5.4 SYSTEM DESIGN
The pasteuriser may be assembled on-site or
purchased as a pretested and preassembled
frame-mounted unit, including all piping and
control wiring, as shown in Figure 7.15. The lat-
ter choice is gaining preference dut to its proven
machine quality, particularly for systems with a
high degree of automation. It shortens installation
time and start up.
A combination of field-proven engineering
solutions and the continuous improvement of
machine features is essential for the design of
high-performance aseptic pasteuriser systems.
The design requirements are much stricter than
those found with conventional pasteurisers.
7.5.5 PROCESS CONTROL
The control system is one of the most important
features of the pasteuriser system. Orange juice
pasteurisers in operation today range from man-
ually operated units to fully automatic systems.
The minimum requirements for control func-
tions, to provide a certain degree of microbio-
logical safety, are:
• control of pasteurisation temperature
in the holding cell
• control of flow rate through the pasteuriser
• prevention of juice flow to the filler if the
pasteurisation temperature is too low
 7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration

7.5.6 CONTROL OF PASTEURISATION UNITS

DEFINITION OF PASTEURISATION UNITS The effect of heat treatment on the destruction of
T–Tref microorganisms depends on the combination of
General definition: PU = t x 10 Z
Key:
temperature and time. With a longer residence time,
PU = Pasteurisation Units a lower temperature level is sufficient to achieve the
t = Holding time, minutes same microbial reduction (see subsection 4.4.4).
T = Effective holding temperature, °C
Pasteurisation Units, PU, is a way of cor-
Tref = Reference temperature, °C
z = Temp. coefficient of microflora heat relating thermal effect with different time/tem-
resistance, °C perature combinations. It is commonly used for
tunnel pasteurisation and in the brewing industry.
Calculated example for fruit juice:
For microorganisms commonly found in fruit One PU is defined as the thermal effect of hold-
juices z values are typically 5–7. ing the product for one minute at a defined refer-
ence temperature.
With Tref = 80 °C and z value = 7 the PU
formula is: In the case where the flow rate through the pas-
T–80
teuriser is reduced but the pasteurisation tempera-
PU=t x 10 7 = t x 1.39 (T–80) ture is maintained, the increased residence time
On this basis:
makes the juice subject to overpasteurisation.
1 min. hold at 80 °C = 1 PU For pasteurisers equipped with holding cells
20 sec. hold at 90 °C = 9 PU of fixed volume but which operate at multiple
At constant hold temp:
capacities or process juice at constantly varying
reduction of flow to 50 % → increase of PU by flow rates, PU control may be incorporated into
factor 2 the control system. In this case, the desired PU
For constant PU:
value is selected by the operator. The control
reduction of flow to 50 % → decrease of hold
temp. by 2 °C system will automatically adjust the pasteuri-
sation temperature to cor respond to the actual
Source: Shapton et al.
juice throughput (and effective holding time) to
maintain the specific PU.
The pasteurisation effect depends on the
residence time in both the holding cell and the
For systems supplying commercially sterile pro- heat exchanger. Typically 10–30 % of the total
duct, more advanced process control is required pasteurisation effect takes place in the heat ex-
to minimise human error and equipment failure. changer, which can be taken into account by the
Such systems incorporating microprocessors or control system.
programmable logic controllers (PLC’s) also take
care of recipe handling, production sequencing,
automatic valve switchover and the supply of
management information.
The benefits of PLC control include improved
product quality and safety, high process repeat-
ability, increased production efficiency and
reduced labour costs.
Frame-mounted pasteuriser units are typically
equipped with a control panel with PLC’s and
an operator unit for manual input of data to the
pasteuriser control system. The control system
can also be connected to a central control room
for remote communication.

127
 7.6 Aseptic buffer

7.6 Aseptic buffer

Pasteurised juice is ready for filling. In most cases
the pasteuriser is linked directly to the filler(s),
which makes the two systems interdependent.
However, the two systems can be operated inde-
pendently by installing an intermediate aseptic
Blanketing gas
buffer downstream of the pasteuriser.
The buffer tank is generally connected to
Cooling water
the product line as a “floating” buffer. Most of
the juice flows directly from the pasteuriser to
the filler, and only juice which is in excess (or
shortfall) for the filler demand flows into (or out Barrier steam
of) the buffer tank. In the case where blending
of several juice streams is desired, and the buffer
Juice from Juice to filler
tank is used for blending, product may enter the pasteuriser Valve cluster
tank through a separate inlet and leave via a
separate outlet. Fig. 7.16 Aseptic tank for juice buffer
A constant positive pressure is maintained between the pasteuriser and filler(s).
in the buffer tank by a blanket of sterile gas (air
or nitrogen). The juice is fed to the filler by the
positive pressure.
An aseptic buffer tank system adds to the capital
The benefits of using an aseptic buffer between and operational investment of a filling plant. On
pasteuriser and filler(s) are: the other hand, a well-designed aseptic buffer sys-
• Avoiding recycling product through the pas- tem saves production time, reduces production
teuriser during interruptions to filling. losses, provides flexibility in scheduling, reduces
• Avoiding product recycling through the energy consumption, and eliminates overprocess-
pasteuriser in order to maintain constant feed ing of heat-sensitive products.
pressure to the filler. Conventional tanks (equipped with CIP)
• Smooth changes in pasteuriser throughput are sometimes suggested for use as buffer ca-
when one of several fillers (served by the pacity downstream of pasteurisation. However,
same pasteuriser) is taken into or out of for aseptically filled juices, and for nonaseptic
operation. chilled juices of long shelf life, such a tech-
• Smooth filler operation by close control of nical solution provides an unacceptable risk of
constant feed pressure to the filler. microbiological recontamination. The savings
• Automatic and smooth adjustment of pasteur- in investment costs do not compensate for the
iser capacity for fillers of varying speed, such high product value at risk.
as bottle fillers.
• Reduced product losses at changeovers (water
to product and product to water).

128
 7.7 Hot filling

7.6.1 OPERATIONAL STEPS 7.7 Hot filling

For aseptic tanks “floating” on the production line,
As the name implies, in hot filling the package is
a buffer capacity equal to one hours’ production or
filled with hot (>84 °C) pasteurised juice. Unlike
more is recommended. Tanks for single-strength
aseptic filling at ambient temperature, the pack-
juice may have round-shaped bottoms while conical
age is not aseptic when filled and the hot juice is
bottoms are preferred for handling high-viscos-
used to kill the microorganisms on the surface of
ity concentrates. Tanks of heavy-duty design are
the container. The necessary fill temperature and
needed to withstand overpressure during production
“holding time” in the package depend on the type
and steam sterilisation, and full vacuum. A cool-
and size of container and its degree of initial mi-
ing jacket enables rapid cooling after sterilisation.
crobial contamination (see also subsection 9.6.3).
Figure 7.16 shows an aseptic tank including the
Containers used in hot filling are typically glass
connections for product flow and service media.
and plastic bottles, and cans.
Prior to taking in product, the tank is prest-
The hot filling technique is old. Simpler
erilised with steam at a minimum 110 °C for 30
processing and filling equipment may be used
minutes. The tank is then cooled down by water
than for aseptic “cold filling”, but the energy
circulating through the cooling jacket. During
consumption and heat load on the product are
cooling, sterile gas is fed into the tank to prevent
higher. Recent designs for hot fill systems aim
the creation of a vacuum. The piping system is
to speed up cooling of the packaged product and
sterilised together with upstream and downstream
increase heat recovery. Nevertheless, the choice of
equipment.
hot filling is not based on product quality but on
During production sterile gas fills the tank
other factors, such as package type, distribution
space above the product level. Positive pressure
methods and availability of equipment.
is required in the tank at all times, otherwise the
system is not considered sterile. The pressure is
controlled to maintain the feed pressure required
by the filling machine. Juice is not pumped but
flows to the filler by means of pressure differential.
For deaerated juice, the use of nitrogen as blanket-
“With hot filling the hot juice is
used to kill the microorganisms
ing gas is recommended to prevent reintroducing
on the surface of the container
air into the juice.
A valve cluster directs the product flow, clean- ”
ing liquids and steam to and from the tank. The
valves should be of aseptic type and shielded
with barrier steam to prevent reinfection. For
juice with added floating cells, it is preferable
that the aseptic tank is equipped with a variable-
speed agitator to maintain a homogenous mix
in the tank. Moreover, the agitator should be of
steam-shielded aseptic design.
Operation of the aseptic buffer tank system
may be automatic or manual. The former is
preferred as it ensures high safety levels and the
correct timing of process steps.

129
 7.8 Aseptic transfer of NFC
Juice from
blending room
Hold in
Heating holding cell
Drying Tunnel cooling
Packages for labelling
and distribution
Fig. 7.17 Basic steps of a hot filling system.
7.7.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The basic steps in pasteurisation and filling are
shown in Figure 7.17. The pasteuriser for hot fill-
ing is quite similar to that used for filling juice at
ambient temperature. The heat exchanger, however,
is more compact as there is only little cooling of
pasteurised product. Figure 7.18 shows a flowchart
for a pasteuriser with tubular heat exchangers used
for hot filling. Plate heat exchangers are also com-
monly used for hot fill systems.
Incoming juice is heated to pasteurisation
temperature (typically 90–98 °C) in the heat
exchanger and then held at this temperature as it
passes through the holding cell. Juice then flows
to the trim cooler where it is cooled down to the
desired fill temperature (typically 84–95 °C) be-
fore entering the filler.
The pasteuriser system usually includes a
return cooler for overflow of juice and to avoid
overheating juice which is recirculated during
filler stops.
Fillers for hot filling normally work with
a pressurised filling tank, although fillers of
less complex design may work at atmospheric
pressure. The type of filler will determine the
need for a deaerator unit within the pasteuriser.
Upstream deaeration of juice prevents problems
with foaming in the containers. The solubility of
oxygen and other gases in juice is low at the high
filling temperatures.
130
Trim cooling
In-package hold Filling
The filled packages are held at fill temperature
for a certain time period and then cooled down
in the cooling tunnel by a spray of cold water.
The cooling water flow is usually counter-current
to increase heat efficiency and reduce thermal
shock, particularly with glass bottles. After cool-
ing, the containers pass through an air blower
for drying before being sent to labelling and
secondary packaging.
7.8 Aseptic transfer of NFC
For NFC supplied in aseptic bags to the juice
packer, there are several different ways of un-
loading the juice from the bags (see subsection
7.2.4.). By means of an aseptic transfer system,
orange juice may be transferred from the bags to
consumer packages under aseptic conditions. This
eliminates the need for repasteurisation and avoids
additional thermal treatment of the juice.
In an aseptic transfer system, the complete pip-
ing and valve system from the emptying valve at
the unloading station to the filler valve is sterilised
before the production run.
After connecting each new bag to the unloading
station but prior to withdrawal of juice, the emp-
tying valve and bag connections are sterilised.
The nature of an aseptic transfer system does
not allow inspection of the incoming raw material
in the same way as for other production processes
at the juice packer. Hence, high and consistent
product quality is particularly important.
 7.9 Cleaning-in-place

Product reject

Cooling water

Filler

Holding Opional heat recovery

cell from tunnel cooler water

Juice

Warm water

Circulating
water

Fig. 7.18 Typical process flow for

a pasteuriser used for hot filling. Steam
Condensate

7.9 Cleaning-in-place
For good operational results, effective cleaning
of plant equipment used for juice packing is es-
sential. Depending on the size of the plant and
its automation level, cleaning-in-place (CIP) is
carried out in different ways.
The cleaning unit is a dedicated system,
frame-mounted or assembled on site, for pre-
paring and supplying cleaning solutions to
the processing equipment according to spec-
ified cleaning programs. The programs include
selection of liquid, predefined temperatures and
time periods. More advanced programs also
allow selection of flow rates.
Cleaning solutions are returned to the cleaning
unit for reuse. Conductivity meters for measuring
the concentration of detergent in solution may be
used to check this concentration and to differenti-
ate between the detergent solution, rinsing water
or product.
The cleaning unit also provides hot water to pres-
terilise the equipment prior to production start.
There are three principal approaches to clean-
ing at the juice packing plant:
• No separate cleaning unit but detergent is
added, often manually, to the processing
equipment to be cleaned, e.g. to the balance
tank in a pasteuriser system.
• Small cleaning units installed locally in the
plant serving a couple of processing units each.
• A large central cleaning unit that provides
cleaning media for the whole or part of
the plant.

131
 7.9 Cleaning-in-place
Fig. 7.19 Cleaning unit for cleaning-in-place of juice
processing equipment and filling machines.
An example of a small self-contained cleaning
unit is illustrated in Figure 7.19.
In the design of processing equipment care-
ful consideration must be paid to its cleanability.
This is not only to allow cleaning of all surfaces,
such as carefully dimensioned spray nozzles, but
also to minimise the interphase volumes because
they result in product losses and additional use
of cleaning agents. Efficient CIP gives good
hygienic results as well as minimum costs for
cleaning and lost product.
The use of automation in cleaning also im-
proves efficiency. It ensures consistent results
as every cleaning cycle is repeated as specified.
Detergent is recovered for reuse, which also con-
tributes to reduced costs and less environmental
pollution.
7.9.1 CIP PROCEDURES
In determining cleaning procedures, four clean-
ing parameters are considered – temperature,
time, chemical and mechanical. The interaction
between these parameters determines the cleaning
result. This is illustrated in the “cleaning circle”
(see Figure 7.20.) Examples of cleaning cycles
are given in Table 7.5.
132
Temperature
Choosing the correct temperature for the cleaning
agent used and type of fouling is a major factor
in achieving effective CIP.
Time
The longer a cleaning liquid is allowed to cir-
culate, the better the result. However, after a
certain period of time, the effect of additional
time is negligible.
Chemical
This means choosing the right type of detergent
at optimal concentration. Too weak solutions will
not work properly, while too strong solutions in-
crease cost and may be corrosive to equipment.
Mechanical
Increased flow rates give higher turbulence and
better mechanical removal of deposits. Insuf-
ficient flow rates are often the cause of unsatis-
factory cleaning results.
Caustic soda is a traditional cleaning liquid
for daily use at the juice packing plant. It is com-
monly used as a water solution of 1–2 % con-
centration. This solution dissolves and removes
coatings of organic matter. Caustic soda is also
referred to as lye or its chemical name sodium
hydroxide, NaOH. It is strongly basic.
Temperature Time
Chemicals Mechanical
Fig. 7.20 The cleaning circle.
 7.9 Cleaning-in-place

TABLE 7.5 EXAMPLES OF CLEANING CYCLES

An example of cleaning cycles for different processing equipment in an orange juice packing plant:

Cleaning step Temperature, °C Duration, minutes

Daily cleaning for nonheated surfaces (e.g. tanks and pipes)
- Water rinse cold 3–5
- NaOH circulation (1.5 %) 70 10
- Water rinse cold 5

Daily cleaning for heated surfaces (e.g. plate heat exchangers)

- Water rinse cold 3–5
- NaOH circulation (1.5 %) 70 20
- Water rinse cold 10

Weekly cleaning for heated surfaces (e.g. plate heat exchangers)

- Water rinse cold 5
- NaOH circulation (1.5 %) 70 20
- Water rinse* cold 5
- Acid circulation (1 %) 65 10
- Water rinse cold 10

* Use of preheated water reduces cooling down of the equipment during the intermediate water rinse.

An acid solution (e.g. 1 % nitric acid) is required 7.9.2 PIGGING

to remove calcium deposits and other mineral
salts. It is used less frequently than caustic soda
as the high acid juice retards build up of such
deposits. In addition to these primary cleaning
solutions, various kinds of complex detergents
containing surfactants, emulsifiers or other useful
additives are available from speciality suppliers.
After use, cleaning solutions of high pH may
be routed to a tank where they are neutralised
with acid before being discharged. In this case,
spent cleaning solutions and flushing water from
the cleaning unit flow past an in-line pH meter.
Liquids with a pH value exceeding a preset value
are diverted to the neutralisation tank in order
to prevent the effluent stream from being too
alkaline before discharge.
To reduce interphases with water at product
changeover or at the start of cleaning cycles,
“pigging” may be car ried out in some parts of the
processing plant. During pigging, an object the
same size as the internal pipe diameter is forced
through the piping by compressed air or flushing
water. The object is often similar to a ball or large
cigar but referred to as a “pig”.
The pig pushes any residual product in the
pipes forward to downstream processing equip-
ment or to a collection tank. Pigging systems can
be useful for recovering high-value products like
concentrates and aromas but they require special
engineering solutions for valves.

133
 7.10 Quality control of final product
7.10 Quality control
of final product
There are two major quality factors for the fi-
nal product – the properties of the juice and its
microbiological condition. Most of the properties
of the final juice are not influenced by the juice
packing operations but result from the raw mate-
rial. The quality specifications for this are defined
at purchase.
For reconstituted juice, the most important
quality control parameter is the concentration,
or Brix level, of the juice. When pulp has been
added, the concentration of floating pulp in the
juice must be checked. For NFC, Brix level is
checked for unintentional dilution and content
of floating pulp, if added.
The sampling frequency for control of Brix
level varies, but should be 1–2 times per hour
(packaged product). The same sampling fre-
quency is used to check the content of floating
pulp. For blending systems with in-line Brix
analysis, juice samples from the blending room
should be taken for laboratory analysis 1–2 times
per hour. For batch blending, samples for Brix
control are taken from each batch before juice is
withdrawn from the tank.
Sampling and full laboratory analysis of juice
properties on juice produced from each batch of
concentrate is recommended (see Section 2 for
further discussion on juice properties).
7.10.1 MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTROL
The procedures for sampling and microbiological
control of end product differ between juices asep-
tically packaged and juices filled into nonaseptic
packages for chilled distribution.
Yeast is by far the most common spoilage or-
ganism in juice. Yeast contamination is usually
accompanied by extensive gas formation, espe-
cially when the oxygen supply is limited. Hence,
spoilage by yeasts tends to result in blown pack-
ages. Spoilage by moulds is very rare in aseptic
packages with very low oxygen content. Low
oxygen pressure suppresses the development
of moulds.
134
Some strains of acid-tolerant Lactobacillus grow
faster under low oxygen pressure. They break
down sugars to lactic acid without formation of
gas. Spoilage caused by Lactobacillus spp usually
results from insufficient cleaning and presterilisa-
tion of processing equipment. Such spoilage will
normally occur at the start of a production run.
The action of these bacteria usually results in a
high level of defects.
Sampling to detect yeast spoilage is rec-
ommended throughout a production run, while
checks to detect any spoilage by Lactobacillus spp
should be carried out at the start of production.
Some procedures for microbiological control
of the end product are given below. However, it
should be kept in mind that end control of pack-
aged product does not replace hygienic control
and preventive measurements in the plant.
Aseptically packaged juice
Procedure to detect spoilage by yeast:
• Sampling of packs corresponding to 1–2 %
of production, e.g. one tray from every pallet.
• Incubate sample trays in a room separate
from the ordinary storage at about 25 °C
(or at the normal storage temperature if it is
higher) typically for one week.
• Inspect visually every day, or every two days,
looking for blown packs.
Procedure to detect spoilage by Lactobacillus:
• Weekly sampling of 5–10 packs at the start
of a production run after longer production
breaks (such as a weekend).
• Incubate samples at 25 °C for 7–10 days or,
preferably, 30–35 °C for 4–5 days.
• Inspect the juice visually and by other sensory
means (smell). Also perform microbial de-
tection tests on agar plates of different media.
Nonaseptically packaged juice
for chilled distribution
The sampling procedures to detect microbial con-
tamination of juice filled into nonaseptic packages
vary between juice packers. The appropriate end
control depends on the shelf life of juice and
distribution temperature.
8 Add-back components
– volatile flavours and
floating pulp

In section 8 you will read about:

• Orange juice flavours added back to
orange juice.
• Origin of natural orange flavours.
• Important flavour molecules.
• What is meant by the folding of oils.
• What an add-back system consists of.
• Useful terms used in discussing pulp.
• The characteristics of floating pulp.
• How floating pulp is measured.
• Components added back to juice at fruit
processors, blending houses and juice packers.

135
 8. Add-back components
– volatile flavours and
floating pulp
SUMMARY
To obtain the desired flavour characteris-
tics in reconstituted orange juice, volatile
flavour components recovered from concen-
trate production are added back to orange
juice. This can be done at several steps of
its production.
Peel oil, essence oil and essence aroma
are the three most important flavour frac-
tions derived from the orange fruit. Often
the raw flavour materials are standardised
to provide uniform and consistent flavour
composition, and to improve the stability
of flavour components.
Orange oils contain only small amounts
of the desired flavouring compounds and
are often folded. This means that the bulk
of the oils’ hydrocarbon content is reduced
by either distillation or solvent extraction,
thereby increasing the concentration of the
desired compounds.
Flavour systems and pulp
Flavour systems are developed to give
particular juice products desired flavour
8.1 Volatile flavours
A number of volatile flavour types derived from
different sources can be found on the market (see
fact box). Volatile flavours added to orange juice
must be natural flavour components derived solely
from oranges.
“Only natural flavouring
components from oranges may
be added to orange juice
” identical materials but are obtained by means
136
characteristics. A blend of terpeneless oils
enhanced with essence aroma and top-note
compounds such as acetaldehyde and ethyl
butyrate is an example of a complex fla-
vour system.
Pulp is considered an important by-
product for adding to juice because many
consumers think it gives juice a fresher
appearance and a better mouthfeel. Cell
length, which is affected by the juice extrac-
tion method used, is an important property
of pulp.
Add-back to juice
At juice processors, peel oil may be added
to juice concentrate before it is stored. In
addition to blending concentrates of differ-
ent origin, blending houses can add volatile
flavours and pulp to produce concentrates
with distinct characteristics. Juice packers
can add a combination of oil- and water-
soluble flavour systems and pulp to juice
products to achieve variety in taste, mouth-
feel and appearance.
VOLATILE FLAVOUR
DEFINITIONS
Natural flavouring materials are those de-
rived from acceptable vegetable or animal
material by means of physical, enzymatic or
microbiological extraction processes.
Nature-identical flavouring materials are
chemically identical to substances found nat-
urally in acceptable vegetable or animal ma-
terial. They are made by chemical synthesis or
separated by chemical methods.
Artificial flavouring materials are not nature-
of chemical synthesis. For example, a particular
synthesised compound may have an orange-like
taste but cannot be found in the orange fruit.

Boiled-off water
& flavours
Juice
Juice concentrate
Peel oil
Fig. 8.1 The origin of volatile orange flavours.
8.1.1 ORIGIN OF NATURAL VOLATILE
ORANGE FLAVOURS
Orange flavour is the most delicate and complex
of the major citrus flavours. So far, more than
200 volatile compounds have been determined in
orange juice, although not all of these are believed
to contribute significantly to the orange flavour.
Volatile flavours of oranges are found in two
parts of the fruit, the peel and the juice. Liquids
containing volatile flavours derived from oranges
are divided into the three main fractions given be-
low depending on their origin and characteristics
(see Figure 8.1).
Peel oil (cold-pressed oil)
Peel oil originates from oil sacs or glands within
the peel. It is recovered from the oil-water emul-
sion resulting from the extraction process (see sub-
section 5.8). The oil is clear and dark yellow, and
contains mainly water-insoluble hydrocarbons.
Peel oil is responsible for much of the char-
acteristic flavour of the final juice product. Peely,
heavy and green juice notes are its main sensory
attributes. The recommended maximum amount
of peel oil in orange juice reconstituted from
concentrate is about 0.02 %. At higher levels,
the oil tends to impart a harshness and burning
taste to the juice.
137
8.1 Volatile flavours
Essence oil
Essence Essence
aroma
Essence and essence oil
During the concentration process in the juice evap-
orator, a portion of the saturated vapour from the
juice is captured. This stream, containing volatile
aromas and essential oils, is sent to a still mounted
on the evaporator in which the important volatiles
are separated from the water by distillation under
vacuum and condensation by chilling.
The product essence is a concentrated mixture
of aqueous and oil-soluble aroma compounds.
This essence is separated into oil and aqueous
phases by either decantation or centrifugation.
The essence oil is clear and pale yellow. This
phase contains juice oil originating in the juice plus
peel oil entering juice during extraction. It con-
tributes a floral fruity, sweet and green flavour.
Essence aroma (aroma, water phase)
Essence aroma is the water phase recovered from
the evaporator. It is clear and colourless and con-
tains water-soluble compounds originating from
the juice. It contributes a fruity, fresh aroma and a
light citrus taste. Because the volatile compounds
that make up the aroma hydrolyse and gradually
lose their flavour, aroma is usually stored apart
from concentrate.
 8.1 Volatile flavours

TABLE 8.1 SOME MAJOR COMPONENTS OF ORANGE

PEEL OIL, ESSENCE OIL AND ESSENCE AROMA

Compound Peel oil1 Essence oil2 Essence aroma2

Water 85.0 %

Alcohols
Ethanol 0.1 % 13.0 %
Methanol 0.5 %
1-Propanol 0.01 %
Linalool 0.6 % 0.5 %

Aldehydes
Acetaldehyde 0.06 %
Acetal 0.002 % 0.007 %
Trans-2-hexanal 0.005 % Trace
Hexanal 0.02 % Trace
Octanal 0.5 % 0.5 %
Decanal 0.6 % 0.5 %
Neral 0.1 % 0.2 %
Geranial 0.1 % 0.1 %
Nonanal 0.1 %
Citranellal 0.1 %
Dodecanal 0.1 %
α-Sinensal 0.3 %
β-Sinensal 0.1 %

Esters
Ethyl acetate 0.005 % 0.01 %
Ethyl butyrate 0.1 % 0.005 %

Hydrocarbons
d-Limonene 93.5 % 93.6 % 0.02 %
Myrcene 1.3 % 1.8 %
Valencene 0.1 % 1.7 %
α-Pinene 0.3 % 0.4 %
Sabinene 0.2 % 0.4 %

Other 2.0 % 0.07 % 1.4 %

Source: 1) Givaudan Roure 2) Johnson and Vora

During orange juice processing some other flavour Distilled oils

by-products are sometimes recovered: The oil yield from peel oil production can
be increased by passing the underflow (water
Deoiler oils (juice oils)
phase) from the centrifuges used for separating
Orange juice intended for NFC products often
oil through a steam stripper. Oils recovered in
contains an excess of peel oil. This oil can be
this way are called distilled oils.
recovered by centrifugation, by flashing the
juice in a vacuum chamber or by steam distilla-
tion. The by-product oils recovered this way are
called deoiler oils.

138

TABLE 8.2 D-LIMONENE CONTENT IN SINGLE AND
FOLDED ORANGE COLD-PRESSED OILS AND ESSENCE OILS
Product Approximate d-Limonene conc. ( % v/v)
Orange cold pressed oil
5-Fold orange oil
10-Fold orange oil
25-Fold orange oil
Orange essence oil
36-Fold orange essence oil
Source: Braddock, 1999
8.1.2 MAJOR CONSTITUENTS
OF FLAVOUR FRACTIONS
Two characteristics of the molecules that make up
orange flavour greatly determine their behaviour and
in which fraction they will be found. These are:
• solubility in water or oil, which depends on
the structure and the size of the molecule
• boiling point, which determines how volatile
the flavour is
For the basic structure of different groups of
volatiles see the fact box in subsection 9.4.1.
Peel oil
Peel oil consists of over 90 % d-limonene, a
water-insoluble hydrocarbon. d-Limonene does
not contribute significantly to the flavour but
can have a role as a carrier of other molecules.
The aldehyde compounds in the oil are the most
important compounds for its flavour even though
they are present in very low concentrations.
Peel oil can be folded, which means that its
hydrocarbon content is reduced (see following
subsection) to increase the proportion of desired
flavouring substances such as aldehydes and es-
ters. These compounds provide the lighter peel
flavour notes.
139
8.1 Volatile flavours
95
90
80–85
60–65
95
1–2
Some major components of orange peel oil are
given in Table 8.1. d-Limonene content of some
folded oils is shown in Table 8.2.
Essence oil
Essence oil is used directly as a flavour fraction
or is blended with peel oil to provide the peel oil
with the lighter juice-like flavour notes it naturally
lacks. Essence oil is also used as a raw material
for distilling out specific top-note compounds,
mainly esters and aldehydes, added to natural
orange aroma.
The resulting enriched aroma solutions pos-
sess desired enhanced flavour properties, and
they can be tailored to the needs of specific
customers. Essence oil generally contributes
the most fruity juice notes when added back to
orange juice.
Essence oil comprises a mixture of com-
pounds found in peel oil and essence aroma.
Over 90 % is d-limonene as in peel oil, but the
contribution from aldehydes, esters and alcohols
is also significant. The most important compound
is ethyl butyrate. In fact, the price of essence oil
is set by its ethyl butyrate content.
The major composition of essence oil is given
in Table 8.1.
 8.1 Volatile flavours
Essence aroma
Aqueous orange essence aroma, sometimes called
natural orange aroma or water phase, is usually
collected to contain approximately 13 % etha-
nol as its major organic component. The ethanol
content is used as a process control monitoring
technique for operating the evaporator essence
recovery still.
Aroma comprises a complex mixture of alde-
hydes, esters, ketones and alcohols. Aldehydes
form the most important group of compounds
with acetaldehyde in highest concentration. The
aldehydes found in this fraction are highly volatile
and contribute significantly to the fragrance of
juice. These compounds are often referred to as
the orange top-notes.
The major components of orange essence
aroma are listed in Table 8.1.
8.1.3 FLAVOUR STANDARDISATION
AND FOLDING OF OILS
Raw flavour materials vary greatly in compo-
sition. This is due primarily to fruit variety, dif-
ferent extraction methods, the type of recovery
equipment used, seasonal variations of orange
fruit properties, and flavour storage conditions.
If raw flavour materials are used directly, juice
product quality will be inconsistent, which is
unacceptable to both the juice packer and juice
consumers.
Raw flavour materials are standardised to:
• provide uniform flavour composition all
year around
• improve the stability of flavour components
• increase the water solubility of flavour com-
ponents
700 kg peel oil
Aldehyde content 15 kg
Fig. 8.2 Concentration effect
of 7-fold peel oil.
140
Standardisation and folding of flavour fractions are
achieved by such methods as blending, distillation
and extraction. This can be achieved by blending
raw materials from different times of the season
and/or from different orange varieties. A more
sophisticated way of standardisation is to adjust
the content of certain compounds to a standard
level by adding single compounds separated from
a fraction by distillation.
Peel oil and essence oil both contain about
2–2.5 % flavour compounds (called oxygenated
compounds), the remainder of the oils being
mainly hydrocarbons. Increased oxidative sta-
bility and water solubility of the oils are achieved
by separating the oxygenated compounds from
hydrocarbons.
An oil that becomes reduced in volume by
removal of hydrocarbons or, to be fully cor rect,
terpenes (the main group of hydrocarbons in
orange oils) is said to be “folded” by the ratio of
volume reduction. For example, a five-fold oil
has had its volume reduced by 80 %, i.e. 100 ml
of single-strength oil will give 20 ml of 5-fold
oil. Folded oils have increased fragrance with
lighter peel notes because the harsh “burn” taste
of terpenes has been removed in the folding proc-
ess. Although some top- and body-notes are lost
during folding, the latest processing technology
minimises this loss.
600 kg terpenes
Aldehyde content 7 kg
Folding by distillation
100 kg 7-fold peel oil
Aldehyde content 8 kg
 Vapour
Cooling medium out
Cooling medium in
Condenser
Reflux
Condensate
Feed
Heat in Residue
Fig. 8.3 The principle of distillation.
Raw peel oil and essence oil are referred to as
single-fold oil. In this form they are difficult to
blend into single-strength orange juice because
single-fold oils are not water-soluble. Moreover,
the terpenes in single-fold oils undergo acid
hydrolysis and oxidation to produce unwanted
off-flavours in foods and beverages.
Folding increases water-solubility and stabil-
ity (including shelf-life stability) of oils as the
ter pene content is reduced. Folded oils are not
used as sole flavour components, but as part of
a flavour package. The theoretical concentration
effect of 7-fold peel oil is outlined in Figure 8.2.
However, in reality, over 20 % of the aldehydes
may not be recovered in the folding process due
to losses into the terpenes during distillation
(Braddock, 1999).
When oils have been folded 20 times or more,
they are called terpeneless oils, as most of the
d-limonene has been removed. As they are
highly concentrated, they possess good sta-
bility and better water solubility. Terpeneless
oils thus find wide application as modifiers
with single-folded oils, blended oils and citrus
flavour fractions.
8.1.4 METHODS OF SEPARATING AND
CONCENTRATING FLAVOURS
Separation of flavour components can be achieved
by either distillation or solvent extraction. The
principle of distillation is that substances with
lower boiling points will evaporate earlier and
faster than substances in the mixture having
higher boiling points.
141
8.1 Volatile flavours
Peel oil is distilled by heating it under vacuum to
evaporate the oxygenated compounds while leav-
ing the higher boiling point components in solu-
tion. In this way separation is achieved. However,
distillation cannot fully separate the two groups
of compounds and a small residue of oxygenated
molecules is always found in the distillate, thus
lowering the aldehyde content of the pot residue or
folded oil. Distillation is widely used to produce
5- to 10-fold oils. Distillation is normally carried
out under reduced pressure to lower the boiling
temperatures, thereby minimising unwanted
chemical changes. The principle of distillation
is shown in Figure 8.3.
In the solvent extraction process, flavour
compounds are separated from the hydrocarbons
based on their solubility and polarity. The orange
oil is mixed with an aqueous solution of alcohol.
When thoroughly mixed, the polar flavour com-
pounds move from the oil into the solvent. The
polar flavours are recovered from the alcohol
by removing the solvent using low-temperature
distillation. The principle of solvent extraction is
shown in Figure 8.4.
Solvent extraction almost completely sep-
arates terpenes from the desired flavour com-
pounds and can therefore be used to produce
highly folded oils in the 40- to 60-fold range.
Terpenes
Peel oil
Solvent
Solvent &
Solvent oxygenated
compounds
Peel oil and sol- The peel oil and solvent The terpene fraction
vent (ethanol) are are thoroughly mixed. separates from the
added to a sepa- Oxygenated com- solvent now con-
rator chamber. pounds move from the taining the oxygen-
oil into the solvent. ated compounds.
Fig. 8.4 The principle of solvent extraction.
 8.2 Floating pulp
8.1.5 CREATION OF FLAVOUR SYSTEMS
The main objective in creating a flavour system
is to supply the juice packer with an easy way to
optimise and diversify the taste of products. A
flavour system can be designed to give a unique
flavour to a juice and is often the result of joint
development between the flavour company and
the juice packer.
Blended oils are a simple form of flavour sys-
tem containing a mixture of peel oils, essence oils
and certain other oil fractions.
A more sophisticated flavour system can be
based on terpeneless oils with addition of essence
aroma and enhanced with top-note compounds
such as acetaldehydes and ethyl butyrate. The
basic components used to create a flavour system
are shown in Figure 8.5.
Flavour systems represent an easy tool for the
juice packers to standardise the quality of their
products and to obtain an optimised flavour for
particular juice products, e.g. orange juice for
chilled storage or storage at ambient temperature,
or for juice intended for different European and
Asian markets.
Top-note compounds
Folded oils
Terpeneless oils
Aroma fractions
Fig. 8.5 The basic components of a flavour system.
142
8.2 Floating pulp
Premium pulp production has become more
important because adding pulp to juice prod-
ucts is thought by many people to give a fresher
appearance and better mouthfeel to juice. Pulp
can also add value to products because many
consumers are prepared to pay more for a juice
containing pulp.
Floating pulp consists of the larger solid
particles in juice comprising mainly ruptured
cell sacs and segment walls. It is separated from
the juice in finishers. Pulp contains mostly car-
bohydrates, pectin and crude fibres. The crude
fibres are built up of hemicellulose and cellulose
polysaccharides and give stability to the tissue
forming individual juice sacs.
For many years orange pulp was a by-product
of little value used for the production of pulp wash
or cattle feed. This has changed in recent years.
Today, more pulp is processed for sale as floating
pulp for addition to juice.
Section 5 describes the different ways pulp is
processed. This section deals with the quality and
characteristics of the commercial pulp product
sold for addition to orange juice.
8.2.1 USEFUL TERMS
In talking about orange pulp, it is of great help
to know the correct meaning of terms commonly
used to describe raw materials and products. Pulp,
juice sacs, juice cells and fibres are all terms used
to describe the same thing. Adding to the confu-
sion is the fact that many terms have different
meanings when used in fruit processing and with
reference to the end product at the juice packers.

AT THE FRUIT PROCESSOR
Pulp
The by-product stream at different process steps
within the plant and also the product sold com-
mercially.
Finished pulp
The pulp stream leaving the final finisher with a
very high concentration of solid particles. This is
the product sold as “frozen pulp”.
“Dry” pulp
Another term used for finished pulp. The name is
misleading because the “dry” pulp contains juice
adsorbed to solid particles
Pulpy juice
Used in Florida for the pulp stream to the pulp
pasteuriser and to the aseptic bag-in-box filler.
The concentration of solid particles is about 500
g/litre.
Solid particles in pulp
These are mainly cell walls and segment walls.
The cell walls are fragmented during extraction.
The length of particles varies from <0.5 mm up
to 25 mm.
Bottom pulp (= sinking pulp)
Very small solid particles which flow with the
juice through the finisher screens.
Washed pulp
Solid particles which have been washed with wa-
ter to remove juice. Used for cattle feed or sold in
frozen form after removing most of the water.
Pulp wash
Sugars and other juice solubles recovered from
pulp by washing it with water. Sold as 65 °Brix
concentrate in frozen form. Sometimes added to
orange juice before evaporation.
Pulp concentration
A confusing term which means the amount of
solid particles in the pulp stream. Methods to
measure pulp concentration vary.
143
8.2 Floating pulp
FOR TRADING
Frozen pulp
Finished pulp sold in frozen form.
Frozen cells
Same as frozen pulp.
Aseptic pulp
Pulp sold in aseptic bag-in-box containers. Con-
tains considerably more juice than frozen pulp.
AT THE JUICE PACKERS (END PRODUCT)
Pulp
Used by some people to mean “sinking pulp” and
by others to mean “floating pulp”.
Sinking pulp (suspended pulp)
Very small solid particles (<0.5 mm) which settle
from the juice with time (or spin down in a cen-
trifuge). Sinking pulp is part of all citrus juices,
even those without added floating pulp.
Floating pulp
Larger solid particles. Most float to the top after
juice is stirred.
Floaters
Used mainly in Florida for floating pulp.
Fibres (= floating pulp)
Sometimes used to mean large solid particles.
Added cells (= floating pulp)
Frozen or aseptic pulp added to juice.
Added pulp (= floating pulp)
Frozen or aseptic pulp added to juice.
Sacs or whole cells
Intact citrus cells which still contain juice. These
liquid-filled cells cannot be obtained by normal
extraction methods. A product often sold canned
in syrup and added to juice drinks.
Floatability
The proportion of added cells that float to the top
when added to juice.
Unless otherwise stated, in this text the expression
“pulp” refers to the product sold commercially or
the by-product stream at the fruit processor.
 8.2 Floating pulp

TABLE 8.3 FACTORS EFFECTING SELECTED QUALITY

PARAMETERS FOR PULP PRODUCTION
Cell length Oil level Brix/acid ratio Defect rate Microbial status
Extraction method • •
Fruit variety • • •
Time of season • •
Fruit size •
Pulp recovery process • •
Extractor settings •
Operation of finishers •

8.2.2 FLOATING PULP PROPERTIES Oil content

The two main types of orange pulp on the market The concentration of oil is an important quality
originate from squeezer-type and reamer-type ex- parameter when floating pulp is added to juice.
tractors. The two extraction methods produce pulp This is because the oil level in the pulp stream
with somewhat different properties and therefore is often higher than in the corresponding juice
affect pulp quality. Pulp from reamer-type extrac- stream. Hydrophobic (not mixing easily with
tors has longer cells and lower oil levels than pulp water) oil droplets and hydrophobic cell mem-
produced in standard squeezer-type extractors. branes are naturally attracted to each other, par-
Due to the increased demand for high-qual- ticularly when present together in a hydrophilic
ity pulp, some plants have extractors adjusted to (mixing easily with water) juice environment. An
optimise pulp quality rather than to maximise excessive oil content in the final juice gives it a
juice yield. harsh and burning taste.
A reamer-type extractor normally gives an oil
Pulp properties
content of 0.03–0.06 % v/v, whereas pulp from
The properties of floating pulp are not very well
a squeezer-type extractor may contain oil levels
defined in the juice industry or by juice packers.
from 0.05 % v/v upwards. To minimise the oil
However, some properties are more important
content from squeezer-type extractors, so-called
than others. These are discussed below. See also
low-oil extractors can be used.
Table 8.3.
Cell length
Generally, pulp with longer and less damaged
cells has better floatability and provides a mouth-
feel closer to fresh juice.
A reamer-type extractor produces a pulp with
longer fibres and less fragmented cells compared
with pulp from a standard squeezer-type extrac-
Standard squeezer-type extractor
tor. Pulp from reamer-type extractors can contain
fibres up to 25 mm long. In pulp from a standard
squeezer-type extractor, most cells are shorter
than 5 mm and about 40 % are shorter than 1 mm.
However, a new system of squeeze extraction that
yields longer cells has been introduced.
The visual difference between pulp from the
two types of extractor is illustrated in Figure 8.6. Reamer-type extractor

Fig. 8.6 Illustration of relative pulp

sizes after extraction.

144
 8.2 Floating pulp

In calculating the total oil content in the final

Mesh number Hole size, m
product, the contribution from both the floating
20 850
pulp and the juice must be taken into account. 40 425

Other properties
Apart from cell length and oil levels, quality pa-
rameters such as taste, colour, °Brix, ratio and A special method called Quick Fibre (QF) is
microbial status are also important. The °Brix used to analyse commercial pulp (finished pulp)
and ratio values strongly depend on what orange leaving the producer. It determines the dryness
variety the floating pulp comes from, but they of finished pulp and this method also uses a FMC
should be similar as for orange juice. Flavour and shaker and a screen. The dryness of the pulp is
colour are often specified as “typical”. set in the finishers and is an important process
parameter because it determines not only the juice
8.2.3 FLOATING PULP CONCENTRATION
yield but also the quality of both juice and pulp.
It is important to know the floating pulp con-
centration both at the juice processor and at the
packer. There are several different methods of QUICK FIBRE (QF)
analysing the pulp concentration depending on Quick Fibre is an analysis method used to de-
whether it is a pulpy juice stream, finished pulp termine the “dryness” of finished pulp. 200 g of
or final single-strength juice. pulp is mixed with 200 ml of water and stirred for
1 min, left alone for 3 min and then stirred again
The pulp stream or final juice can be analysed for 1 min. Thereafter, the mixture is screened and
by pouring it onto a screen with defined hole shaken for 3 min. A QF value equals the weight
size. Excess juice is drained from the screen, with of the liquid (g) drained from the screen. A high
Quick Fibre value means that the pulp analysed
or without shaking, and the screen plus pulp is has a high juice content. A low QF indicates that
weighed. The result is expressed as grams pulp the finished pulp analysed is dry and has ab-
per litre (or quart) juice. Alternatively, juice is sorbed some of the added water.
The QF method is mainly used during fruit
poured into a glass beaker to see how much set- processing to determine the correct finisher set-
tles and how much floats after a certain time. A tings. Typical classifications of QF values are
method used by many processors in Florida and listed below.
Brazil uses screens and a certain shaker that Classification of Quick Fibre (QF)
shakes the screens at a defined frequency and Finisher Brazil Florida
amplitude. This is an attempt to standardise the settings (40 mesh (20 mesh
screening method. screen) screen)
QF value QF value
Screens with different mesh numbers are used
Very tight <130
to analyse floating pulp content in the laboratories Tight 130-150 <150
of juice plants. In Florida the 20 mesh screen is Moderate 150-180 150-180
the norm, whereas some Brazilian producers use Loose 180-210 180-200
a 40 mesh screen. The hole size of screens can Very loose >210

have a significant effect on analysis results. When Source: 1) E. A. Nonino 2) Dan A. Kimball

smaller screen holes are used, the pulp releases

more water during analysis. Therefore, exactly
the same method must be used if measurements
are to be compared.

145
 8.3 Components added back to juice

FRUIT PROCES SORS BLENDING HOUSES JUICE PACKERS

Add-back: Add-back: Add-back:

• Peel oil • Peel oil • Flavour systems
• Essence oil • Floating pulp
• Essence aroma
• Floating pulp
Fig. 8.7 Volatile flavours and floating pulp.

8.3 Components added Blending houses

back to juice
The overall juice quality is already determined at
the fruit processor by the choice of raw material
(quality and variety of oranges) and extraction
methods. Further processing cannot increase juice
quality. On the contrary, during some processing
steps, e.g. evaporation, the juice loses most of its
original freshness and aroma. To provide the de-
sired flavour characteristics in reconstituted juice,
volatile flavour and floating pulp can be added
back at different steps of orange juice processing
and packaging (see Figure 8.7).
Fruit processors
At the fruit processor, peel oil is often added to
concentrate before frozen bulk storage in tanks. It
is believed that the oil-soluble volatile components
help to mask any processing off-flavours present
in orange juice reconstituted from concentrate. A
typical concentration of added peel oil in juice
concentrate before storage is 0.008 % v/v. This
low level still allows addition of a flavour package
to the juice for reconstitution at single-strength
concentration at which it is consumed.
Blending houses supply juice packers with con-
centrates of consistent quality. Along with blend-
ing concentrates of different origin, flavour addi-
tion is important to achieving product uniformity.
By altering the amounts and types of volatile fla-
vours added, blending houses can produce orange
concentrates with different characteristics.
Floating pulp is added to improve the mouth-
feel of juices and to give a fresher appearance.
The pulp can be added directly to the concentrate
by the blending house.
Juice packers
The juice packer can modify the taste of orange
juice by adding selected volatile flavours before
finished product packaging.
Oils are difficult to mix homogeneously
with single-strength orange juice, and therefore
need to be added to the juice concentrate before
reconstitution. This is usually achieved with a
batch premix system. It is possible to disperse
a maximum of 2 % oil into FCOJ at a minimum
42 °Brix. This should preferably be done under a
nitrogen blanket. The premix can be kept overnight
under refrigerated conditions ready for production
the next day. Before reconstitution, the premix
blending time into the concentrate should be not
less than 30 minutes to assure an even distribution
of flavours in the final product.

146
 8.3 Components added back to juice
In general, the addition of water-soluble aromas
can be carried out at any time during the recon-
stitution process. Normally they are added either
together with the oils in the premix or later at
the reconstitution step. Since the water-soluble
aromas contain the most volatile flavour compo-
nents, they should be added as late as possible
in the process.
A flavour system based on terpeneless oils
provides the juice packer with a tool to simply
optimise the juice taste with one single addi-
tion of flavours. Since terpeneless oils are much
more water-soluble they can be added to single-
strength juice.
In this context it should be noted that the
addition of flavours is not the single answer to
good juice taste. A sophisticated and well-bal-
anced flavour system can enhance the flavour of
a juice but can never fully mask the off-flavours
from a badly produced concentrate.
147
When pulp is added back to the juice at the juice
packer, it has first to be crushed or thawed be-
fore being added back to the blending tank. Pulp
packed in 20 kg boxes can be left at ambient
temperature for a few days to thaw, or the blocks
of pulp can be sliced into smaller pieces and
thawed in water. Nevertheless, both methods are
very labour-intensive.
If pulp in 200 l drums is used, crushers sim-
ilar to the ones used to thaw frozen NFC are
needed since the time needed to thaw a drum
is long enough to result in microbial problems.
The labour-intensive part of pulp thawing can be
avoided by using aseptic pulp. However, there are
only a small number of aseptic pulp suppliers
on the market.
The pulp is added to the concentrate in the
reconstitution tank before it is diluted. Constant
low-speed agitation of the tank is necessary to
obtain even distribution of cells. Moreover, it
is very important to prevent too much air from
entering the juice during tank agitatation (see
subsection 4.2).
8.3 Components added back to juice

148
9 Packaging and storage
of orange juice

In section 9 you will read about:

• The quality parameters that need protection • The impact of light on juice quality.
during storage and what affects them. • Orange juice aroma and the effect of different
• The role of oxygen in vitamin C degradation, package types on aroma retention.
juice browning and flavour changes. • Different types of packaging systems.

149
9. Packaging and storage
of orange juice
Summary
One of the primary aims of a packaging
system is to protect the product from mi-
crobial spoilage and chemical deteriora-
tion during its distribution and storage.
For orange juice, measures should be
taken to protect vitamin C and flavour
compounds, and to prevent microbial
growth and colour changes.
Vitamin C is the compound in orange
juice that reacts most readily with oxygen,
and its loss correlates with the oxygen-
barrier properties of the package. The deg-
radation products of vitamin C contribute
to browning.
Light, in the presence of free oxygen, is
known to accelerate aerobic degradation
of vitamin C. Anaerobic degradation of
vitamin C also takes place but independ-
ent of oxygen.
The culprits of quality loss
High storage temperatures combined with
oxygen are the main factors involved with
quality deterioration over time.
Raw materials Processing
Quality Heat treatment
Treatment Oxygen
Fig. 9.1 Factors which influence juice quality.
The results are loss of nutritional value
concerning vitamin C, unpleasant col-
our changes, and off-flavour formation,
which is caused predominantly by chemi-
cal changes in the juice matrix, and to a
lesser degree by changes in the volatile
flavour fraction.
Almost all changes can occur under
anaerobic storage conditions and are
greatly accelerated by oxygen (headspace
and dissolved oxygen, and oxygen permeat-
ing through the package).
In general, packaging for orange juice
should contain an aroma barrier to pre-
vent aromas permeating out through the
the package.
Laminated cartons rule
Laminated carton packages are the
predominant form of packaging in most
countries for chilled and shelf-stable
orange juice. They are both made from
prefabricated blanks and fed from rolls.
Worldwide, glass bottles are the second
most common type of container, closely
followed by plastic bottles.
Bulk storage Packaging Shelf storage
Temperature Barriers Temperature
Time Hygiene Time
150

9.1 The role of packaging
One of the main aims of a packaging system and
packages is to protect orange juice from microbial
spoilage and chemical deterioration during dis-
tribution and storage. The shelf life of food and
beverages is the time period up to the point when
the product becomes unacceptable from a safety,
sensorial or nutritional perspective. The influence
of packaging material and package type on the
shelf life of orange juice has been the subject of
many investigations.
Although the package is important in pro-
tecting its contents, it cannot improve the qual-
ity of orange juice made from poor raw materials
or disguise quality degradation originating from
nonoptimal processing. Moreover, it is inevitable
that product deterioration related to product-
specific characteristics and storage conditions
gradually takes place over time. Therefore, re-
gardless of the package, the degradation of vita-
min C and the browning of orange juice always
take place in stored orange juice when a certain
temperature and/or storage time is exceeded.
In conclusion, the quality of orange juice at
consumption depends on all the processing and
packaging steps from raw material intake up to
the product being consumed. Some important op-
erating parameters which influence juice quality
at different steps are presented in Figure 9.1.
9.1.1 PRODUCT QUALITY PARAMETERS TO
BE PROTECTED DURING STORAGE
In addition to its most obvious function of con-
taining the product, a consumer package must
protect the specific quality parameters of orange
juice. To better understand the term “quality pa-
rameters”, one could question why consumers buy
orange juice. The main answers will most probably
be its enjoyable taste and high nutritional value
due to a high vitamin C content. Therefore these
quality parameters should be protected during a
given shelf life.
151
9.1 The role of packaging
This means taking measures to:
• protect the relevant flavour compounds
• protect the high vitamin C content
• prevent colour changes
• prevent microbial growth
9.1.2 FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY
PARAMETERS DURING STORAGE
No packaging system is able to completely inhibit
changes in quality taking place in orange juice
– or other beverages in general – during storage.
From the day of processing to the day of con-
sumption, the product will change to a greater or
lesser extent depending on the storage conditions.
And in most cases, except perhaps for wines, the
changes will be for the worse.
With regard to the quality parameters already
identified for orange juice, the packaging and
storage conditions given in Table 9.1 influence
how long acceptable quality can be retained
during storage.
Before looking closer at barrier properties,
it is important to keep in mind that packaging
can never be discussed without considering
the intended storage conditions – particularly
temperature and time – because these mainly
determine the barrier demands.
TABLE 9.1 FACTORS
INFLUENCING SHELF LIFE
Package properties Storage conditions
Barrier against: - Time
- Oxygen - Temperature
- Light - Aseptic
- Flavour losses - Nonaseptic
- Microorganisms
 9.2 Barrier properties against oxygen
9.2 Barrier properties
against oxygen
Oxygen plays a major role in the loss of quality in
orange juice during storage, mainly because of:
• vitamin C degradation
• colour changes (browning)
Several publications also indicate the involvement
of oxygen on flavour compounds and on off-fla-
vour for mation during the storage of orange
juice at ambient temperature. This is not yet
fully understood.
9.2.1 VITAMIN C DEGRADATION
Vitamin C is the most sensitive compound in or-
ange juice that reacts with oxygen, and its loss is
consequently closely related to the availability of
oxygen in packages. Generally, vitamin C is lost
through two different chemical pathways – anaer-
obic and aerobic degradation. As its name implies,
the anaerobic pathway is independent of oxygen
and is mainly driven by the storage temperature.
Losses caused by this degradation pathway cannot
be prevented by packaging, and they are the same
in all types of package. The only possible counter-
measure is to reduce the storage temperature.
The aerobic pathway needs oxygen and is
therefore strictly related to the presence of head-
space oxygen, the dissolved oxygen in juice, and
the oxygen-barrier properties of the package.
Both anaerobic and aerobic degradation take
place simultaneously in orange juice. Which one
predominates depends on the storage temperature
and the availability of oxygen.
152
For packages with good oxygen-barrier properties,
e.g. glass bottles, anaerobic degradation plays the
major role regarding the total loss of vitamin C.
In cases where permeation of oxygen into the
package is considerable, headspace oxygen is
present or oxygen is dissolved in the product,
the contribution of anaerobic deg radation to
the total vitamin C loss is small compared with
aerobic degradation.
Since both anaerobic and aerobic pathways
for vitamin C degradation occur simultaneously
in most packaged products, vitamin C deg ra-
dation curves cannot usually be attributed to
solely one pathway.
EXAMPLES OF VITAMIN C LOSS
FOR A 1 LITRE PACKAGE DURING
AMBIENT STORAGE BASED ON
STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATION
Headspace
A headspace volume of 5 ml air, containing 1 ml
oxygen (about 21 %), can theoretically oxidise
approximately 15 mg vitamin C.
Dissolved oxygen
1 mg oxygen corresponds to a loss of approxi-
mately 11 mg vitamin C.
Anaerobic degradation corresponds
to an approximate loss of:
1 mg/l vitamin C per month at 10 °C
5 mg/l vitamin C per month at 20 °C
20 mg/l vitamin C per month at 30 °C
Oxygen permeating through the package
An oxygen permeability of 0.02 ml oxygen/
package/day in a 1 litre package results in a
loss of 9 mg/l vitamin C per month during
ambient storage.
For a package with a permeability of 0.05 ml
oxygen/package/day the loss is 22 mg/l vitamin
C per month.
 9.2 Barrier properties against oxygen

500 It is quite obvious that when a certain

450 oxygen permeability of the package
400 is exceeded, the aerobic pathway pre-
Vitamin C content mg/l

350 dominates. The anaerobic reaction

300
250
200
150
100
Good O2 barrier, anaerobic storage
Good O2 barrier, aerobic storage
Less good O2 barrier, aerobic storage
50
0
0 5
Fig. 9.2 Vitamin C degradation curves for different
packages of orange juice stored at 23 °C.
Source: Tetra Pak
Figure 9.2 shows vitamin C degradation in orange
juice stored at ambient temperature in two types
of package. These were laminated cartons with
a barrier layer of alu-foil and polymer, such as
ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH), respectively. The
alu-foil layer is a good oxygen barrier, whereas
packages with a polymer barrier layer like EVOH
allow higher oxygen permeability. Some packages
were stored in an oxygen-free atmosphere, and
in this case the vitamin C loss represents mainly
the anaerobic degradation pathway.
pathway is mainly temperature-
driven. The impact of temperature
can be seen from the example of a 1
litre package in the fact box.
Storage temperature is also
important for aerobic degradation
of vitamin C. Figure 9.3 shows
10 15 20 25 the change in vitamin C content
Weeks in orange juice during storage for
30 weeks at 4 °C and 23 °C re-
spectively in the same package type (Tetra Brik
Aseptic, TBA). The calculated vitamin C loss due
to anaerobic degradation is indicated in the graph.
The difference in vitamin C retention between
storage at 4 °C and 23 °C is obvious. During 30
weeks storage, an increase in temperature from
4 °C to 23 °C results in increased losses of vitamin
C of 28 mg/l due to anaerobic degradation, and
42 mg/l due to aerobic degradation.
The rate of oxidative degradation of vitamin C
is slowed down dramatically under chilled storage.
Consequently, packages for chilled distribution
do not need as high oxygen-barrier properties
as are required for packages stored at ambient
temperature.

340

320
Vitamin C content mg/l

300

280

260

240

220 Anaerobic degradation, 4 °C TBA – 250 cc, 4 °C

Anaerobic degradation, 23 °C TBA – 250 cc, 23 °C
200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Weeks

Fig. 9.3 Effect of temperature on vitamin C content

in orange juice during storage.
Source: Tetra Pak

153
 9.2 Barrier properties against oxygen
25
20
15
delta - L
10
5
0 ferent oxygen-barrier properties dur-
0 5 10 15
Weeks
Fig. 9.4 The browning of orange concentrate during
storage at different temperatures.
Source: Values taken from Kanner et al.
9.2.2 COLOUR CHANGES
The colour of orange juice is primarily determined
by its carotenoid content. However, carotenoids
are relatively stable in orange juice since they are
protected by vitamin C and are not regarded as
being responsible for the colour changes, which
are most evident during long-term storage at
ambient temperature.
The colour changes, or rather the darkening of
orange juice, during storage are based on the ap-
pearance of brown-coloured compounds caused by
the chemical reaction of orange juice components
present in the juice matrix. The brown compounds
are formed in the end phase of the “Maillard Reac-
tion” (also known as nonenzymatic
10
browning), which is a well-known
9
reaction between sugars and amino
acids. This reaction type is gener- 8 Package with low
ally not dependant on oxygen, but 7
is clearly temperature-driven. 6 Glass
delta – L*
Figure 9.4 shows the effect of 5
temperature on the browning of or-
4
ange concentrate. It is evident that
3
browning results mainly from the
long-term storage at temperatures 2
higher than 12 °C. 1
Vitamin C can participate in the de-
velopment of browning via its degra-
37 °C
dation products resulting from both
25 °C
17 °C the aerobic and anaerobic pathways.
12 °C
Consequently, the oxygen barrier
of packages influences browning
because it determines the supply of
oxygen to the aerobic pathway of
vitamin C degradation.
Figure 9.5 shows colour changes
in orange juice in packages with dif-
20 25 30
ing storage at 23 °C. There is a clear
increase in browning with increased
oxygen permeation through the package. This
leads one to conclude that the better the oxygen
barrier, the lower the risk of browning.
Methods of measuring colour in orange juice
are described in subsection 2.2.4.
9.2.3 THE IMPACT OF OXYGEN ON STORAGE-
DEPENDENT FLAVOUR CHANGES
Orange juice flavour is a very delicate mixture
of different fractions which contain a variety of
volatile chemicals of different chemical classes
(see subsection 9.4 for more details). These
flavour fractions are known to undergo several
changes during storage that gradually lead to
a loss of freshness and unpleasant odours, and
tastes not associated with the orange fruit. Most
of these changes are acid-catalysed reactions.
oxygen barrier
TBA
0
0 4 8 12
Weeks
Fig. 9.5 Colour changes in orange juice in packages with different
oxygen-barrier properties during storage at 23 °C.
Source: Tetra Pak
154
 9.2 Barrier properties against oxygen

Source Type of reaction Consequences

Degradation of
important top-notes Loss of top-notes,
(e.g. aldehydes) loss of freshness

Volatile flavour
fraction
Chemical reaction to
detrimental flavour E.g. α-terpineol
compounds from (carvone, carveol)
terpenes, e.g. limonene

Maillard reaction Furans, pyrones

Juice matrix: Vitamin C degradation

sugar, amino acids, Methional, off-flavour
products + amino acids
vitamin C, ferulic acid

Degradation of Off-flavor, vinyl-

ferulic acid guaiacol, guaiacol

Fig. 9.6 Storage-dependent flavour changes in orange juice.

They are supported by the high acidity of the
aqueous juice matrix as well as high storage
temperatures, and thus occur independently of
the packaging type.
Degradation pathways of important flavour
constituents like aldehydes are not always
known in detail but some of the reactions are,
chemically speaking, oxidation reactions. This
raises the question to what extent oxygen-bar-
rier properties influence changes in the volatile
flavour fraction.
Limonene degradation to α-terpineol has
been shown to be independent of oxygen per-
meating into a package. Currently no available
data prove that chemical changes in the volatile
flavour fraction of orange juice correlate with the
oxygen-barrier properties of packages as long as
reasonably good oxygen barriers are used. This
is not surprising when one realises that vitamin
C is a strong antioxidant in orange juice which
immediately binds incoming oxygen.
Three compounds have been identified as im-
portant contributors of malodorous properties in
orange juice. These compounds, which gradually
develop in juice, are:
• 4-vinyl guaiacol (PVG)
• 2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone
(DMHF)
• α-terpineol
When these compounds are added to freshly
prepared orange juice, PVG imparts an old
fruit or rotten fruit aroma; DMHF imparts a
pineapple-like aroma typically found in old
orange juice and α-terpineol is described as
stale, musty or piny.
Two out of the three flavours mentioned above,
PVG and DMHF, derive from changes in the juice
matrix and only α-terpineol is a degradation prod-
uct of volatile flavour compounds. This stresses
the importance of juice matrix changes in off-
odour formation. The acid-catalysed reactions
between sugars, and reactions of vitamin C deg-
radation products with or without amino acids, are
possible sources of changes in the matrix. Since
vitamin C degradation depends very much on the
availability of oxygen, oxygen-barrier properties
of packages should therefore have a considerable
effect on off-odour formation in the matrix of
orange juice during storage.
Storage-dependent flavour changes in orange
juice are described in Figure 9.6.

155
 9.3 Barrier properties against light
9.3 Barrier properties
against light
The impact of light on the quality of orange
juice during storage has been proven in respect
to its impact on the aerobic pathway of vitamin
C degradation (and only this pathway). Light is
known to accelerate the aerobic degradation of
vitamin C. One can therefore draw the following
conclusions:
• Light has an effect only when oxygen is
present, consequently packages with high
oxygen-barrier properties, e.g. glass bottles
and high-barrier PET bottles, do not need a
light barrier.
• During storage at ambient temperature in
packages with a good oxygen barrier, low
permeation rates of oxygen limit the rate of
vitamin C degradation and, moreover, all
oxygen entering through the package is
almost immediately consumed. Consequently
light cannot accelerate the reaction and
should therefore have no significant impact.
• During chilled storage, where packages with
higher oxygen permeability are mainly used
and where the reaction between vitamin C
and oxygen is significantly slowed down,
oxygen will accumulate in the product. Light
can then accelerate vitamin C degradation.
TABLE 9.2 THE CONTRIBUTION OF VOLATILES TO ORANGE JUICE AROMA
Contribution to typical aromas
Important Desirable
ethyl butyrate linalool
neral limonene
geranial α-pinene
valencene
acetaldehyde
octanal
nonanal
α-sinensal
ß-sinensal
Source: Dürr et al.
156
As a consequence, light protection should be con-
sidered for use in packages for chilled distribution
which have low oxygen-barrier properties.
9.4 Barrier properties
against aromas
In most cases, orange juice packaging is required to
provide a barrier which prevents aroma compounds
permeating out through the package. Another re-
quirement of packaging is to provide a barrier against
odours from the surrounding atmosphere perme-
ating into the packaged orange juice. This subsec-
tion discusses the composition of the aroma frac-
tion in orange juice and the properties of different
polymers and different packages commonly used.
9.4.1 COMPOSITION OF ORANGE
JUICE AROMA
Orange juice aroma, as a term generally used in
this section on packaging, includes all the volatile
compounds of orange juice flavour. Hence it is
not identical to “essence aroma” (or water-phase
aroma), which is the water-soluble volatile frac-
tion recovered in the essence recovery unit during
evaporation. See also section 2.2.
Orange juice aroma is a complex mixture of
many volatile compounds. In chemical terms, it is
mainly a mixture of hydrocarbons, aldehydes, al-
cohols and esters (see fact box). The predominant
fraction consists of hydrocarbons, of which one
single compound, d-limonene, accounts for more
Contribution to off-aromas
Precursors Detrimental
linalool α-terpineol
limonene carvone
valencene t-carveol
nootkatone
hexanal
t-2-hexenal
hexanol
4-vinyl guaiacol
2,5-dimethyl-
4-hydroxy-
3-(2H) furanone
 9.4 Barrier properties against aromas

Besides specific knowledge about the composition

THE BASIC STRUCTURE of aromas, it is also essential to identify those
OF AROMA COMPOUNDS individual aroma compounds that contribute most
Hydrocarbons
to taste and smell of the product.
A group of compounds that contain only hy- Dürr et al. (1981) ranked juice aroma com-
drogen and carbon in their molecular structure. pounds into four groups (listed in Table 9.2):
Example: d-limonene
• important
Alcohols, aldehydes and esters contain only • desirable
hydrogen, oxygen and carbon in their molecular • off-odour precursors
structure. • detrimental
Alcohols
Typical functional group: R-OH Off-odour precursors mean that these compounds
Example: linalool can undergo chemical changes during storage that
Aldehydes lead to undesirable off-odours, even if the original
Typical functional group: R-CHO compounds themselves may contribute positively
Example: hexanal to orange aroma. Examples of such off-odour pre-
Esters
cursors are limonene, linalool and valencene.
Typical functional group: R-COOR
Example: ethyl butyrate
9.4.2 PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT POLYMERS
Aromas can be absorbed into or permeate through
R = a particular molecular side chain the packaging material depending on the type
of aroma compound (chemical class, polarity)
and the nature of the packaging material. This
than 90 % of the total aroma fraction. The aroma effect, often called “flavour scalping”, has been
oil content of orange juice is usually evaluated by a extensively studied, especially for laminated
standard test method (Scott titration), which more carton packages.
or less reflects the d-limonene content only. There- The absorption and/or permeation of aroma
fore, limonene loss during packaging and storage compounds through polymers is based on the
is often incorrectly equated to flavour loss. general equation that permeation (P) is a prod-
uct of diffusion (D) and solubility (S), P = D×S.
Consequently, only those aroma compounds
“The concentration of an
aroma compound cannot be
with high diffusion and solubility coefficients in
respective polymers are likely to be lost through
permeation or absorption during storage. The
correlated directly with its solubility of a compound in a polymer can be
importance for flavour estimated simply by making use of the fact that
” “like dissolves like”.

It is not possible to directly correlate the relative

concentration of an aroma compound with its
importance for flavour. For example, a compound PERMEATION THROUGH POLYMERS
that is 90 % w/w of the aroma fraction may con-
tribute very little to the flavour, whereas a com- P=D×S
Permeation rate = Diffusion × Solubility
pound that has only a 0.001 % w/w share of the
aroma fraction may have a very high impact on
the flavour sensation. The reason is that the human
nose and taste buds can respond very differently
to compounds of different chemical structure.

157
 9.4 Barrier properties against aromas
Type 1
Orange
juice
Fig. 9.7 The three general types of package.
% Limonene
% Limonene
Time
Fig. 9.8 The loss of limonene during storage in the three package types.
In nonpolar polymers, such as polyolefins, nonpo-
lar aroma compounds like limonene have high sol-
ubility. Examples of polyolefins are low-density
polyethylene (LDPE), high-density polyethylene
(HDPE) and polypropylene (PP). While there is a
minor difference in solubility for nonpolar aroma
compounds in the stated polyolefins, their dif-
fusion and consequent permeation rates differ by
orders of magnitude in the different polyolefins
– in decreasing order LDPE>HDPE>PP. Aroma
losses into the polymer layer are therefore signifi-
cantly slower in PP and HDPE than in LDPE.
Unlike nonpolar components, polar compo-
nents such as ethyl butyrate have low solubility in
polyolefins. Consequently, their permeation rates
are very low and losses due to permeation are
rather negligible in barrier packages with LDPE
as product-contact layer.
Polar polymers like polyester (PET), EVOH
and polyamide (PA) essentially show very low
FLAVOUR SCALPING
The term flavour scalping is widely used in pub-
lications to mean the almost exclusive absorp-
tion of limonene into the internal polyethylene
coatings of laminated carton packages.
As limonene contributes little to orange juice
flavour, the loss of limonene does not correlate
with the loss of flavour in a product.
Type 2 Type 3
Orange Orange
juice juice
% Limonene
Time Time
diffusion coefficients with polar and nonpolar
aroma compounds. This results in good barrier
properties against both types of compound. How-
ever, polar polymers are sometimes more difficult
to heat-seal than polyolefins.
In short, aroma losses due to absorption
into or permeation through polymer packaging
primarily involve nonpolar aroma compounds
(e.g. hydrocarbons like limonene) in contact
with nonpolar polymers (LDPE, HDPE, PP)
commonly used as sealing layers. There is lit-
tle absorption of aroma compounds into polar
polymers (PET, PA, EVOH).
9.4.3 PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT
PACKAGES
The extent of loss of aroma compounds due to
absorption or permeation can vary a great deal
between different package types. Generally three
types of package can be discussed as shown in
Figure 9.7:
• Type 1 package has no efficient aroma barrier,
such as carton packages without a barrier
layer and HDPE bottles.
• Type 2 package has an aroma barrier not in
contact with product, and a sealing layer like
LDPE in contact with product. Most lami-
nated cartons are type 2 packages.
• Type 3 package has an aroma barrier in
direct contact with product, such as glass
and PET bottles.
158
 9.4 Barrier properties against aromas
Because absorption and permeation mainly in-
volve nonpolar aroma compounds, limonene is
a key compound in monitoring flavour scalping.
For the three package types, the loss of limonene
can be demonstrated using the graphs shown in
Figure 9.8.
Type 1
The limonene content decreases continuously
by permeation through the package due to the
absence of an aroma barrier. The loss over time
is mainly determined by the choice of polyolefin
polymers, and the slope of the curves is deter-
mined by the diffusion of limonene into the
individual polymers. Consequently, for a given
shelf life, e.g. 9 weeks, the limonene loss in PP
would be lower than in LDPE.
Type 1 packages cannot be used for long-term
storage of orange juice at ambient temperature
because of the extensive loss of aroma compounds.
Moreover, the absence of an aroma barrier also
implies the lack of an oxygen barrier. (Oxygen
barriers are generally also good aroma barriers.)
It is possible to use Type 1 packages for orange
juice stored chilled for a few weeks, as is done
in the US market with HDPE bottles. The low
diffusion coefficient of HDPE limits aroma loss
within the short shelf-life time period. When
significant loss of quality needs to be prevented,
laminated carton packages based on LDPE as
sealing polymer need an aroma and oxygen bar-
rier, even under cold storage conditions.
Type 2
In this package, having an aroma barrier and a
polyolefin sealing layer in contact with product,
limonene content will decrease within the first
few weeks of storage due to its absorption into
the sealing layer. As soon as this layer is saturated
with aroma compounds, an equilibrium level will
be reached and no further absorption/permeation
will take place because the effective barrier (such
as aluminium foil, PET, PA, EVOH) behind the
sealing layer prevents further permeation through
the material structure.
The extent of limonene retention at equilib-
rium is determined in this package type by the
thickness of the internal sealing layer and by the
159
ratio of internal surface area to product volume
of the packages. The larger the package size
and the lower the internal coating thickness, the
higher the limonene retention. Saturation will be
reached after 2–4 weeks at ambient temperature.
Type 2 packages are extensively used for orange
juice distributed at ambient temperature or under
chilled conditions.
Type 3
In this package, the aroma barrier is in direct con-
tact with product and practically no absorption/
permeation of limonene takes place. The slight
loss of limonene that takes place during stor-
age at ambient temperature is related only to
chemical degradation, which is independent of
the packaging. Type 3 packages are mainly glass
and PET bottles. In flexible packages, aroma-
barrier polymers simultaneously used as sealing
layers are sometimes more difficult to seal than
polyolefins.
9.4.4 CONSEQUENCES OF FLAVOUR
SCALPING
Laminated cartons used for orange juice pack-
aging are often Type 2 packages, which permit a
greater or lesser degree of flavour scalping.
However, absorption into this package type
does not affect the whole aroma profile but rather
the nonpolar aroma compounds like limonene.
Nevertheless, the loss of nonpolar aroma com-
pounds is limited by the barrier (aluminium foil)
in the laminate structure.
So the question arises whether flavour scalp-
ing has a significant impact on juice quality and
taste. This subject has met with controversy in
the literature. Dürr et al. (see Table 9.2) have
ranked the hydrocarbon fraction of orange juice
aroma mainly under the desirable portion. How-
ever, they have also indicated that limonene, for
instance, is a precursor for development of off-
odour during storage. They showed that losses of
up to 40 % of limonene actually had no effect on
the sensory quality of orange juice during 90 days
storage at 20 °C, and suggested that limonene
made a low contribution to the typical aroma of
orange juice.
 9.5 Aseptic versus nonaseptic packaging

Microbiological Aroma/odour Oxygen barrier

growth barrier

Joint investigations between Tetra Pak and the

Citrus Research Centre in Florida (Pieper et al.
1992) showed that flavour scalping of up to 50 %
of the original concentration of limonene in orange
juice has no effect on the sensory ranking in a
preference hedonic scale test of quality of orange
juice stored for up to 23 weeks at 4 °C.
Although absorption of limonene into the inner
layer of barrier packages was found not to affect
the taste of the juice, additional aroma oil is some-
times added in juice preparation to compensate Short shelf life (chilled), Long shelf life (ambient),
for any loss caused by limonene absorption, for nonaseptic packages. aseptic packages.
example, when the same product is distributed in
several different package types. Fig. 9.9 Factors affecting product shelf life and their
relative importance during product distribution.
9.5 Aseptic versus nonaseptic
packaging
For storage at ambient temperature, it is es- oxygen barrier properties are of minor importance
sential that: compared with a package where the juice is spoiled
• orange juice is free of spoilage micro- by microorganisms after 6 weeks or more. As the
organisms when packed shelf life of aseptically packed juice is not limited
• packages do not recontaminate the product by microbial action, oxygen and aroma barrier
• packages provide an effective barrier against properties determine product shelf life.
external microorganisms Figure 9.9 presents the factors that affect
product shelf life and their relative importance
Since these conditions are an absolute prerequisite during chilled and ambient distribution.
for storage at ambient temperature, product shelf
life is not determined by microbiological factors 9.6 Different packages and
but mainly by barrier properties against oxida- packaging systems
tive changes.
Orange juice for home consumption is sold main-
For juice under chilled distribution, the situ-
ly in shelf-stable or chilled form. The shelf-stable
ation can be more complicated. Microbial spoil-
form, stored at ambient temperature, dominates
age may become the limiting factor of shelf life
all global retail markets except in the USA where
depending on the selected heat treatment of the
chilled juice leads. Frozen concentrate for home
product, hygienic status of the packaging sys-
dilution is still a common product in the USA.
tem and storage temperature of filled packages
It is rare elsewhere because of poor quality do-
(2–10 °C).
mestic water or the inconvenience of dilution.
It is outside the scope of this section to discuss
Ready-to-drink juice from concentrate and not-
the different options with respect to the expected
from-concentrate juice sold as shelf-stable products
shelf life under chilled conditions, but it is important
are pasteurised and either packaged aseptically or
to understand that the requirements for other bar-
hot-filled. The types of orange juice sold in chilled
rier properties of a package depend on whether or
form – freshly squeezed juice, NFC, and ready-
not product shelf life is limited by microbiological
to-drink juice from concentrate – are not usually
spoilage. For example, if a juice is spoiled by mi-
packaged aseptically or hot-filled.
crobial action after 3 weeks at 4 °C, the aroma and

160
 9.6 Different packages and packaging systems

Laminated carton packages are the predominant
form of packaging in most countries for orange
juice. One notable exception is Germany, where
glass bottles are mainly used. Worldwide, glass-
bottles are the second most common type of
container, closely followed by plastic bottles. In
the USA, plastic bottles for chilled orange juice
now take second place after cartons. Today, less
and less juice for consumption is sold in cans,
although Japan is one exception. PET bottles
with added oxygen barrier have been introduced
recently for ambient orange juice. The packaging
preferences for fruit juices in Western Europe can
be seen in Figure 9.10.
This subsection describes the two major types
of packages used for orange juice, laminated car-
ton packages and bottles.
9.6.1 CARTON-BASED PACKAGES
The laminated carton material normally consists
of layers of paperboard coated internally and ex-
ternally with polyethylene, and a barrier layer.
The most commonly used barrier layer today
is aluminium foil. Other barriers include SiOx
on polyester, ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH),
and polyamide (PA). A schematic structure of
laminated packaging material for orange juice
cartons is shown in Figure 9.11. Depending on the
packaging system used, the packaging material
is delivered to the juice packer as prefabricated
carton blanks or printed and creased in rolls.
Oxygen-bar rier proper ties of a laminated
carton package depend not only on the bar rier
properties of the packaging material itself, but
also on the barrier properties of strips and closures
and the tightness of seals.
PE
Print
Liquid paperboard
PE
Barrier layer
PE
Fig. 9.11 The structure of
a laminated packaging material.

5000

4500

4000
Cartons
Glass bottles
3500 Plastic bottles
Million litres

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Year
Fig. 9.10 Packaging of fruit juice in Western Europe.
Source: Tetra Pak

161
 9.6 Different packages and packaging systems
Fig. 9.12 Carton-based packages made
from prefabricated blanks.
Carton-based packages
from prefabricated blanks
With prefabricated systems, the blanks are die-cut
and creased, and the longitudinal seal is completed
at the packaging material factory. The flat blanks
are delivered to the juice packing facility where
they are finally shaped and sealed in the filler.
Blanks to be used for chilled orange juice are
handled under nonsterile conditions but steps
are taken to avoid recontamination. The filling
temperature should be low (4–5 °C) to minimise
microbial growth. At these low temperatures the
risk of foaming is higher compared with filling
at higher temperature.
All packages made from prefabricated blanks
are filled leaving a certain amount of headspace.
An inert gas like nitrogen can be used in the
headspace to protect the orange juice from aer-
obic changes during storage. The advantages of
a headspace are that pulp-containing juice can be
shaken and that package sealing occurs above the
product line, thus preventing floating pulp from
getting trapped in the top seal.
162
The filling of juices containing floating pulp
should be done continuously since separation of
the juice and cells in upstream buffer tanks hap-
pens quite fast. To avoid separation, agitation of
upstream tanks is sometimes car ried out. Care
should be taken to prevent agitation from intro-
ducing air and gas bubbles into the juice.
Carton-based packages from rolls
Packaging materials are supplied in rolls that have
been printed and creased. The packaging mate-
rial roll is fed into a machine where it is formed
into a tube and the longitudinal seal made by a
heat-sealing system. In this process, a strip is heat-
sealed along the inner surface of the longitudinal
seal (LS) to provide protection for the different
layers of packaging material from contact with
product and vice versa. The oxygen-barrier prop-
erties of the longitudinal seal are important for
oxygen-sensitive products such as orange juice.
Some carton-based packages made from rolls are
shown in Figure 9.13.
Orange juice is poured into the tube and a
transversal seal (TS) is made below the level of
the orange juice. Alternatively, packages may be
produced with a headspace by either injection of
nitrogen or low-level filling.
Carton-based packages with a polyethylene
lid are made from roll-fed packaging material.
In the packaging machine the material is folded,
sealed longitudinally and cut into sleeves. The
plastic tops are injection moulded and applied to
the packages. After filling, the bottoms are sealed
by heating elements.
In an aseptic filling system, the material web
is treated with hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, using
either a wetting system or a deep bath system,
after which the H2O2 is completely evaporated.
The sterilisation, filling and sealing processes
are all performed inside a sterile chamber under
positive pressure.
The quality of the seals is of utmost importance
in aseptic systems since the entry of microorganisms
should be prevented. When filling orange juice with
a high content of floating pulp, special considera-
tion should be given to the transverse sealing.
 9.6 Different packages and packaging systems

Fig. 9.13 Carton-based packages made from rolls.

9.6.2 BOTTLES steam. Steam injection keeps foaming to a min-

imum, reduces the oxygen content of the neck
Glass bottles
space and lowers the recontamination risk. Hot-
Glass bottles are the second most common orange
filled bottles are frequently overfilled in order to
juice package used worldwide. For shelf-stable
ensure sterilisation of the neck by the hot product.
orange juice in glass bottles, the most common
Another possibility for neck sterilisation is to turn
filling method is hot filling. Aseptic filling of glass
the bottle upside down.
bottles at ambient temperature is of minor impor-
tance compared with hot filling. Of the package
types used today for orange juice, glass bottles
are normally considered to have the best oxygen Fig. 9.14
barrier properties. Glass bottles.
In hot filling, the deaerated and heated juice
is directly poured into cleaned bottles that are
capped. The filling temperature is usually between
90 °C and 98 °C; the holding time may vary be-
fore the bottle is cooled in a tunnel. Preheating of
glass bottles is necessary before filling in order
to reduce the risk of glass splintering.
The hot product sterilises the inside surface
of the bottle, whereas bottle closures should be
sterilised before they are applied to the bottle.
Prior to closure the bottle neck is flushed with

163
 9.6 Different packages and packaging systems
Fig. 9.15 Plastic bottles.
Plastic bottles
Blow-moulded plastic bottles are an alternative to
glass bottles for orange juice. The most common
plastic bottles used are high-density polyethylene
(HDPE) bottles and polyethylene terephtalate
(PET) bottles.
As HDPE has a poor oxygen bar rier, plain
HDPE bottles allow relatively high oxygen in-
gress and are used for chilled juice of short shelf
life (about 3 weeks). The oxygen bar rier can be
improved by adding some polymers with better
bar rier proper ties. The most common bar rier
layers in HDPE bottles for orange juice are eth-
ylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) and polyamide (PA).
These can allow ambient storage for 6 months or
longer, depending on the choice and thickness of
the barrier layer. HDPE bottles are fairly opaque,
often pigmented, and produced by the extrusion
blow-moulding (EBM) process,
PET bottles were introduced in the late 1970’s
and are now widely used for carbonated bever-
ages. The application of PET bottles in the still
drink segment is growing steadily.
PET bottles are made by stretch blow mould-
ing (SBM), starting with a preform. A preform is
an injection-moulded PET tube closed at one end
and with the finished neck at the open end.
164
The stretching during blowing of the bottle gives
high tensile strength and increased gas barrier to
provide a lightweight bottle, and thus relatively
low bottle cost. In their natural state PET bot-
tles are transparent and colourless, but coloured
bottles can be produced by adding appropriate
pigments to the raw PET material.
The robustness of PET bottles compared with
glass is obvious, but regular PET bottles do not
provide as good an oxygen barrier as glass. Bar-
rier properties for PET bottles increase with the
degree of crystallinity, which is influenced by the
conditions during blow moulding and material
thickness. Regular PET bottles give a shelf life
for orange juice of about three to four months;
large volume bottles give a longer period. Adding
a barrier may extend shelf life up to 12 months
or more.
There are several methods for barrier addition,
such as mixing the PET polymer with other com-
pounds, coating the bottle with a barrier layer, or
forming several material layers in the preform. In
this case, barrier addition is more complicated
than with extrusion blow-moulded bottles.
PET (and HDPE for ambient storage) bottles
are often filled by hot filling. Aseptic filling of
PET bottles at ambient temperature requires a
significantly larger investment but is increas-
ingly gaining ground as bottlers become more
experienced and the aseptic filling technologies
become verified.
The temperature for hot filling of orange juice
in PET bottles is 84°C to 88 °C. For the material
to withstand the high hot filling temperatures,
relatively thick plastic and special thermal sta-
bilisation, “heat setting”, of the bottles during
stretch blow moulding are required. To withstand
the vacuum created when product cools down in
the bottle after filling, PET bottles for hot filling
are designed with “vacuum panels” (flat surfaces
on the side of the bottle) or other features that
allow bottle contraction.
PET bottles for aseptic filling are sterilised
prior to filling with product. During sterilisation
the bottles are treated with a sterilant such as
hydrogen peroxide or peroxyacetic acid (PAA)
and then rinsed with sterile water. PET bottles
 9.6 Different packages and packaging systems

100

80
Temperature °C

60

Heat treatment Heat treatment

40 for hot filling
for aseptic filling

20
Heat treatment
for cold filling

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Minutes
Fig. 9.16 Comparison of aseptic filling and hot-filling methods.
Source: Tetra Pak

for aseptic filling are of lower weight than hot-fill
bottles and do not need heat setting. This results
in lower bottle cost while oxygen permeability
is slightly higher. Bottles for aseptic filling allow
more freedom in their design as vacuum panels
or similar features are not needed.
9.6.3 HOT FILLING
Hot-filling procedures used for the production
of shelf-stable orange juice involve pouring the
heat-treated juice, without significant cooling,
directly into the package. The high temperature
of the juice is used to kill microorganisms on
the surfaces of packages. The time period and
temperature needed will depend on:
• the microbial contamination of packages
and closures
• the number of microorganisms in the
surrounding air, production area and
filling machine
• the quality requirements for the product
• pH value of the product
• the shape of the package
• the material used for packaging
Glass bottles have to be heated before filling and
cooled down after filling by means of a cascade
system, otherwise the glass will break. PET bot-
tles have the advantage of tolerating immediate
exposure to high filling temperatures and cooling
more rapidly after the time needed to kill spoilage
microorganisms.
The quality of hot-filled orange juice com-
pared with the quality of aseptically filled orange
juice has been the subject of much discussion.
Mannheim and Havkin (1981) compared the qual-
ity of aseptically filled juice to a hot-filled orange
juice during storage. Their conclusions were that
immediately after filling, the aseptically filled
juice was judged slightly better, although dif-
ferences in taste between the juices disappeared
during storage. Vitamin C losses and browning
were lower in the aseptically filled juice after
ambient storage.
Figure 9.16 shows the heat treatment to
which orange juice is subjected during aseptic
filling and hot filling. For aseptic filling, the pas-
teurised juice is quickly cooled down to filling
temperature, whereas the time required to cool
down hot-filled juice is dependent on the bottle
size and type of tunnel cooler.

165
 9.6 Different packages and packaging systems

9.6.4 SELECTING THE MOST APPROPRIATE

PACKAGE FOR A PARTICULAR JUICE
To facilitate selecting the most appropriate
packaging system for a particular juice, certain
questions need to be answered. Some of these
are listed below:
• Which quality parameters should the pack-
ages protect and to what extent? One answer
is the minimum vitamin C content at the end
of product shelf life.
• How long is the expected product shelf life
and at what storage temperature?
• How many of the parameters limiting product
shelf life are left after processing?
• Is dissolved oxygen present in the orange
juice and to what extent?
• Which oxygen barrier is needed to protect
the selected quality parameters during the
intended shelf life?
• Is a light barrier needed?

Whatever packaging system is selected, the ul-

timate aim must be to maintain the quality of a
particular orange juice product during its defined
shelf life conditions.

166
10 From juice
packer to
consumer

In section 10 you will read about:

• The three main paths of orange juice distri- • When and where orange juice is consumed.
bution from the juice packer to the retailer. • Some of the major reasons why people buy
• How packaged orange juice is handled at the orange juice.
retailer depot and sales outlet. • The composition of orange nectars and
• Primary, secondary and tertiary packaging still drinks.
and distribution units.
• How product handling and distribution affect
direct product profitability.
• Who consumes what types of orange juice.

167
10. Orange juice quality
and categories
SUMMARY
Juice distribution from the juice packer to
the retailer follows three main paths: the
traditional path where a product reaches
the retailer via a wholesaler; delivery of
full pallets or roll containers directly to the
retailer; and delivery of products to the re-
tailers’ own central depots. Computer-aided
product intake, storage, picking and distri-
bution facilitate handling at the depots.
Orange juice is filled into primary pack-
aging. This is contained in secondary pack-
aging, which can be split up into distribution
units and sales units: it sometimes functions
as both. Pallets of various types form the
main tertiary unit for product distribution.
Direct product profitability (DPP) is a
measure of retailer margin contributed by
a particular product. An optimal package
and distribution unit, knowledge of how to
handle these, high product turnover rate
and low occupancy cost are essential for
maximising DPP.
168
The most popular fruit drink
In the US more than 72 % of adults consume
orange juice, and almost 50 % of the total
juice volume consumed in Western Europe
is orange juice. Although juice made from
concentrate packed for distribution at
ambient temperature remains the most
popular orange juice product in Western
Europe, chilled NFC is showing significant
growth in many markets.
Orange juice is regarded as a healthy
drink and is primarily consumed in the
home as part of breakfast. But new trends
are making orange juice an all-day bever-
age available in smaller retail outlets in
single-portion containers for on-the-go
consumption.
Orange juices constitute a wholesome
alternative to many other drinks. Freshly
squeezed and NFC juices have perceived
properties which are very close to the orig-
inal fruit. Therefore they represent the fresh
taste of oranges in a convenient form.
A significant volume of orange juice
concentrate is used for the production of
beverages having an orange flavour, such
as nectars and still drinks.
 10.1 Distribution of product to retailer
Truck
Wholesaler depot
Truck
Juice packer
Central retailer depot
Truck
Fig. 10.1 The three main paths of orange juice distribution.
10.1 Distribution of product
to retailer
The production process at the packer involves
taking liquid juice and packing it into consumer
packages. In turn, these are packed into secondary
units (e.g. cardboard trays and crates), and later
on in tertiary units (e.g. pallets). To facilitate han-
dling and distribution for both the juice packer
and retailer, it helps if packages are “iso-modular”,
i.e. they can be efficiently packed on standard
pallets, half pallets and quarter pallets.
In the case of chilled juice, the secondary
package is frequently plastic crates or roll con-
tainers. If the package is returnable, a reverse
stream of empty packages occurs.
The three main paths of orange juice distri-
bution from the juice packer to the retailer are
briefly described below.
10.1.1 DELIVERY DIRECTLY
TO THE RETAIL STORE
The producer, in this case the juice packer such
as a dairy, delivers full pallets or roll containers
directly to the retailer. This path is often found
with chilled products.
169
Truck
Consumer
Retailer
Truck
The advantage for the producer is that he keeps
control of distribution, which could make it dif-
ficult for competitors to penetrate his region. The
advantage for the retailer is that it may be easier to
get just-in-time deliveries of products with short
shelf lives. However, this system results in a lot of
truck traffic to the stores. Sometimes, distribution
alliances are formed between producers of dif-
ferent products, e.g. chilled juice and yoghurt.
10.1.2 DELIVERY THROUGH WHOLESALERS
The traditional distribution chain is where a pro-
ducer sells products to a wholesaler, who in turn
sells them to the retailer. The wholesaler has a
central depot from which deliveries to a number of
stores are effected. The advantage for the producer
is that it is easier to deal with one customer than a
number of stores, a fact that allows the producer
to gain a wider geographic distribution area. This
distribution system is also more rationalised than
delivery directly to all stores.
 10.1 Distribution of product to retailer
Fig. 10.2 Handling at the retailer depot.
10.1.3 DELIVERY TO A RETAILER’S
CENTRAL DEPOT
In many countries there is a growing trend for
retailers to take charge of the wholesaler function
through their own central depots. This allows the
shops to take frequent deliveries of all products
in one or few trucks, which leads to small stor-
age areas and maximal shop area. The resulting
reduced truck traffic is cost-effective and entails
less environmental impact. The time needed to
receive and check products is also reduced.
As retailers grow larger, this alternative will
become more common. Improvement of bar-cod-
ing technology and the trend towards centralised
purchasing is also driving this development.
Deliveries to the depot are handled by the
producer directly or by a transport company, in
which case mixed deliveries are common, i.e. the
truck picks up goods from other producers as well.
Deliveries generally take place once a week for
most products, but high volume items may be
delivered twice or even three times a week. The
handling steps at the depot are briefly explained
below with the help of Figure 10.2.
Pallets are unloaded from a truck in the in-
coming goods area at the warehouse (1). All deliv-
eries are checked against the delivery document
170
and entered into a computer system. The computer
system allots each pallet a bar-code label bearing
product information and an intermediate storage
location (2). Fork-lift truck drivers then scan the
bar code and the destination of each pallet is
shown on a screen. The pallets are put in racks,
which can be several levels high (3).
When the number of product trays at the pick-
ing line level drops below a predefined amount,
order execution personnel enter a request for re-
plenishment in the computer system. The closest
forklift driver receives the location and destination
of a pallet and executes the request (4).
Orders from retailers are printed on a sheet
of labels which functions as a work order for
order personnel, who drive along the picking
line route and place trays of products on roll
containers, or pallets in some cases (5). The
sheet of labels contains an end-label which is
scanned into the computer system. A location in
the outgoing goods area is thus obtained for the
roll containers, which are then put in numbered
fields so that deliveries to retailers near each other
can be grouped together (6).
At the outgoing goods counter, the delivery truck
driver receives a delivery document which specifies
each roll container and its destination (7).
 10.2 Orange juice at the retailer
Shrink-wrap unit
Wraparound unit
Fig. 10.3 Typical one-way secondary packaging.
10.2 Orange juice
at the retailer
Because of its importance to the consumer, orange
juice is one of the more important pro-ducts for
the retailer to keep in stock. In many countries,
fruit juice is distributed both chilled and at ambi-
ent temperature. This can make it difficult for the
retailer to display juice as one category and for
the consumer to make a purchase decision.
Roll container
Plastic crate
Fig. 10.4 Typical returnable packaging.
171
Corrugated cardboard tray
10.2.1 DISTRIBUTION UNITS
In general, juice distributed at ambient tem-
perature comprises one-way systems and juice
distributed chilled comprises returnable systems.
This is mainly in accordance with the shorter shelf
life of chilled juice and with established distri-
bution systems that exist in some countries.
One-way secondary packaging (see Figure
10.3) can be split up into distribution units and
sales units; it sometimes functions as both.
Typical distribution units are cardboard trays,
wraparound boxes, sleeves and film-wrapped
units. Cardboard offers the best protection for the
packages, as boxes more than trays. Distribution
units in film are not so commonly used for juice.
Examples of sales units intended for consumers
who buy more than one package at a time are
board-wrapped units, sleeves and film-wrapped
units. The choice here depends on the purpose
of the unit, i.e. simply to sell a larger quantity of
packages in one unit or whether it is also used to
enhance the image of the juice product.
Examples of returnable secondary packaging
are plastic crates in various shapes and sizes, and
roll containers (see Figure 10.4). In some coun-
tries, roll containers and crates are used all the
way from the juice packer to the chilled sector
in the store. In other countries, the units are un-
loaded when they ar rive at the store for storage
and display purposes.
 10.2 Orange juice at the retailer
Fig. 10.5 Pallets of various types form
the main tertiary packaging units.
Pallets of various types of material and sizes form
the main tertiary unit used for transportation of
cardboard units, film-wrapped units and crates
(see Figure 10.5). The most common pallets used
are 800x1,200 mm, 1,000x1,200 mm and 40x48".
Half pallets (800x600 mm) and quarter pallets
(400x600 mm) are also used. Another type of
tertiary unit is the roll container.
Storage area
Figure 10.6 Handling at the retailer.
172
10.2.2 HANDLING AT THE RETAILER
The retailer handles full pallets, roll containers,
secondary units (trays) and individual packages.
For high volume or promotional items, the most
efficient unit is a full pallet. With the average-
sized retailer it is more common to handle
secondary units which are placed directly onto
shelves or opened to allow individual packages to
be stacked onto shelves. Handling at the retailer
can be explained with the help of Figure 10.6.
The delivery truck unloads roll containers or
pallets and places them in the shop’s storage area
(1). The delivery is checked against the delivery
document to confirm that the retailer has received
what he ordered (2).
A roll container may hold shelf-stable products
destined for different departments of the store
(though chilled products are normally packed
separately). Therefore products have to be sorted
according to department (3). Products are then
transported out to the display area (4) where
they are put on shelves (5). Transport packaging
(mainly for shelf-stable products) is removed and
separated for later recycling. The final step at the
retailer is the checkout (6).
Display area
 10.2 Orange juice at the retailer

DPP: Direct product profitability A package with a good DPP will be attractive to
During the handling steps from juice producer the retailer. Even if the gross margin is satisfactory
to consumer, a product which is easy to han- for the product, if the direct product cost cannot
dle and efficient to transport has an advantage be optimised the DPP will be smaller. Therefore
because this will translate into a better margin it is important to have an optimal package and
for the retailer. This is what DPP measures. The distribution unit, as well as knowledge of how
gross margin is adjusted for all costs added by to handle them, in order to minimise the direct
the product, including transport, occupied shelf- product costs (DPC). It is also important that the
space, time on the shelf and product handling package is designed to utilise the shelf space in
(see Figure 10.7) the best possible way.
The variables that affect DPP cover the
package itself, more importantly the secondary
package, e.g. trays and boxes, which are the units
handled up to the final placement of product on
the retailer shelf. When on the shelf, the product
turnover rate and occupancy cost will also affect
the DPP.

Sales price Gross margin

Adjusted gross
margin

Costs of Other direct

goods sold revenues Direct product
profit

Warehouse Direct product

direct costs costs

Transport
direct costs

Store
direct costs Fig. 10.7 The DPP model.

Retunables
costs

173
 10.3 The orange juice consumer
10.3 The orange juice
consumer
Orange juice is a natural part of the daily diet of
many people in the industrialised world. More than
72 % of US adults consume orange juice, and of
all beverage types only milk is consumed by more
people. Orange dominates the juice market with a
60 % market share of packaged juices in the US.
Apple juice comes second with a 15 % share.
For Western European consumers, orange is
still the dominant flavour, with some 45 % of
the total packaged juice volume consumed as
orange juice in 2003 (Figure 10.8). Apple is the
second flavour with 20 % of the overall volume
share thanks to its popularity in Germany, which
is the largest juice market in Europe. However,
multivitamin blends as well as tropical blends
show strong growth. The multivitamin-added
juice blends appeal to health-conscious Euro-
pean consumers.Moreover, blending satisfies
the increasing demands of consumers for new
pleasing juice flavours.
In other geographical regions, such as South
America and Asia/Pacific, orange juice is just as
popular with more than a 50 % volume share of
packaged juice.
10.3.1 REGIONAL PREFERENCES FOR JUICE
CATEGORIES
Most consumers link the term “juice” intimately
with orange juice, which is the first flavour men-
tioned when asked. However, the many brands,
qualities and package formats for juices have led
to some consumer confusion. Separating juices
from juice drinks, chilled storage from storage
at ambient temperature, not-from-concentrate
from reconstituted juice is very difficult for many
shoppers. Considering the importance of the juice
segment to the average consumer, people know
surprisingly little about juice categories.
174
Large marketing efforts by some of the major
juice brands have increased consumers’ aware-
ness of the NFC category. Consumers now also
recognise that drinks with low juice content,
although clearly labelled high in vitamin C, are
not the same as pure juice.
Freshly squeezed orange juice is a product
category familiar to consumers, but it is often too
expensive to merit consumption in large quan-
tities. Short shelf life is a drawback compared to
pasteurised NFC.
In the US orange juice market there has been a
continuous shift in consumer preference regarding
the main orange juice categories. NFC has grown
steadily to a 45 % share in 2003, while sales of
frozen concentrate have gradually declined
from a dominant position to about 10 % of retail
sales based on juice volume. Orange juice made
from concentrate has declined slowly over the
past decade and was overtaken by NFC in 2002.
Other fruits 21%
Orange 45%
Tropical,
multivit. & other
blends 12%
Apple 22%
Fig. 10.8 Volumes of different flavours of packaged
juice consumed in Western Europe, 2003.
Source: Euromonitor

60
RTD from concentrate
50
40
% vol as SSE
30
20
10
0
95/96 96/97
Fig. 10.9 Retail sales of orange juice categories in the US.
Source: Florida Department of Citrus.
The share of retail sales is shown in Figure 10.9,
which is based on Nielsen statistics for all retail
outlets. Practically all RTD orange juice in the
US is distributed chilled (4 °C).
A recent trend in Western Europe is that chilled
orange juice is increasing in popularity because
of its perceived better quality, supported by the
presence of NFC juice in the chilled segment. NFC
now accounts for more than 10 % of orange juice
consumption. Aseptically packed concentrate for
home dilution is found in some markets in north-
ern Europe. However, the dominant product is
juice made from concentrate packed for distri-
bution at ambient temperature.
In Europe, orange juice faces competition
from multivitamin juice blends. And beverages
with lower juice and energy content but containing
added vitamins are trying to take a bigger share
of the health-conscious consumer market.
The orange juice consumer in mature juice
markets has an ever-increasing choice of orange
juice with a variety of added nutrients such as
calcium. Such fortified juices satisfy the nutrient
needs for an “on-the-go breakfast”. Smoothies, a
blend of fruit juice and milk or yoghurt, is a recent
entry to the juice market that gives consumers a
further alternative for consuming fruit juice as a
replacement for skipped meals.
In the effort of making orange juice an all-day
beverage for consumption outside the home, it is
10.3 The orange juice consumer
NFC
Frozen concentrate
97/98 98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02 02/03
Season
increasingly common for the orange juice drinker
to find single-serve container sizes sold in a vari-
ety of outlets and convenience stores.
In south and central America, where fresh fruit
is available at affordable prices, home-squeezed
orange juice is most common. Purchased bever-
ages are mainly juice drinks. In contrast to Europe,
there is a close correlation between income levels
and fruit content of purchased beverages; with
increasing income there is a shift towards nectar
and then on to 100 % juice. Health consciousness
in all income groups leads to the replacement of
carbonates with juice beverages.
In the Asia and Pacific region, consumer be-
haviour differs between mature and developing
markets. In mature markets, such as Japan and
Australia, consumers prefer to buy 100 % orange
juice, whereas in developing markets purchased
beverages are predominantly low-content juice
drinks. Fresh fruit is usually available at low cost.
Also in these markets there is a trend to move to
higher fruit content with increasing disposable
incomes. In urban areas of China, a rapidly grow-
ing group of consumers are asking for packaged
orange juice.
The following sections refer mainly to North
America and Western Europe, where more than
80 % of packaged orange juice is consumed.
The US market influences consumer trends in
other markets.
175
 10.3 The orange juice consumer

10.3.2 WHO BUYS JUICE IN THE USA
Several demographic studies of orange juice con-
sumers in the US have been made over the years.
Orange juice is consumed throughout the US and
is fairly representative of the fruit beverage seg-
ment, including nectars and juice drinks.
The results for 2000 show that somewhat more
women than men consume orange juice, 73 % of
all women compared with 71 % of men. Young
adults drink orange juice to a lesser degree than
average for the US population. On the other hand,
orange juice penetration in the elderly part of the
community (age 65+) has increased compared to
previous studies. Marketing that targets the eld-
erly, and emphasises the health benefits of orange
juice, ensures that consumption is maintained in
this age group. Orange juice penetration is slightly
lower for black and Spanish-speaking Americans
than for other ethnic groups (Figure 10.10).
10.3.3 WHEN ORANGE JUICE IS CONSUMED
Orange juice is closely linked to the breakfast
meal, whereas apple juice is more widely con-
sumed on other occasions during the day.
The reason for this, apart from pure habit, is
probably that orange juice is not as thirst-quenching
as alternative drinks. On the contrary, some con-
sumers feel that orange juice makes you thirstier
after drinking it. However, many consumers experi-
ence an “energy-kick” from orange juice, which
may be particularly needed in the morning.
Alongside the traditional consumption of
orange juice at breakfast, bought in family-size
packages from large retail stores, the trend in the
USA and Europe is to promote orange juice as an
all-day beverage. Available in single-serve sizes
in, e.g. convenience stores and petrol stations, it is
a healthier alternative to carbonated soft drinks.

50% 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80%

Men
Sex

Women

18-24

25-34

35-44
Age

45-54

55-64

65+

White

Black
Ethnic

Hispanic

Other

Fig. 10.10 Orange juice penetration in the USA, 2000.

Source: Beverage Marketing

176
 10.3 The orange juice consumer

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

United Kingdom

Norway

Austria

Ireland

Denmark

France

Belgium

Netherlands

Switzerland

Italy

Spain

Finland

Cyprus

Sweden

Germany

Portugal

Greece

West Europe

in-home out-of-home

Fig. 10.11 The Western European juice and nectar market

split into in-home and out-of-home consumption, 2000.
Source: Tetra Pak

10.3.4 WHERE ORANGE JUICE IS CONSUMED
Orange juice is still very much a “home” product
purchased in normal grocery outlets. Part of this
relates to the fact that it is traditionally regarded
as a breakfast drink and breakfast is usually eaten
in the home. But the trend in the US, closely fol-
lowed by the UK, is that fewer people have break-
fast at home. To cater for the new consumer needs
orange juice is now available in more outlet points,
like convenience stores and petrol stations.
The ”on-the-go” consumption of orange juice
is further promoted by an increase in small-size
containers. This is evidence of the juice produc-
ers’ strategy since the late 1990’s in the US and
Europe of encouraging juice drinking in offices,
on private and public transport, and in other lo-
cations outside of the home. Thus orange juice
is promoted as an alternative to carbonated soft
drinks and waters for adult consumers.
Consumption in restaurants, cafés and bars is
also becoming more common now that orange juice
in no longer considered just a breakfast drink.
In-home consumption of juices and nectars
(all flavours) averages 78 % for Western Europe,
which is high compared with alcoholic beverages
(55 %) and carbonated soft drinks (66 %), but low
compared with milk (88 %). National averages
for in-home consumption range from 65 % for
Greece and Portugal to 95 % for Norway and the
UK (Figure 10.11).

177
 10.3 The orange juice consumer
10.3.5 WHY PEOPLE BUY ORANGE JUICE
Health/vitamins
Consumers recognise orange juice as an important
source of vitamin C, and a very natural and “true”
product which closely resembles the fresh fruit.
This is often in contrast with still drinks and
carbonates where high added sugar content is of
concern. Moreover, among other nutrients, orange
juice contains folic acid, which may be important
for pregnant women as it helps to reduce the risk
of certain birth defects. Antioxidants and other
constituents beneficial to health is a good reason
for the elderly to continue consuming orange juice.
Indeed, consumption is increasing within this age
group in the US.
In addition to nutrients naturally present in
orange juice, consumers can now find orange
juice products enriched with a variety of vita-
mins and minerals. Calcium fortification can be
important if a person’s diet includes few dairy
products. Orange juice with added plant sterols
that help to reduce cholesterol levels was recently
introduced in the US, enhancing health benefits
even further.
178
Good for children
Parents feel that pure juice is a healthy alternative
to carbonated soft drinks for their children. Even
if most mothers consume juice themselves, chil-
dren in the home are an important driving force
behind purchases. In fact, orange juice has a much
higher market penetration with families having
children than with single adults.
Natural alternative to other drinks
As a refreshment drink, juice is definitely seen as
healthier than carbonated soft drinks and it has
more nutritional value than mineral water. On
social occasions, orange juice is often served
as an acceptable alternative to alcoholic drinks.
Because orange juices are closely governed by
regulations, they are also considered as a natural
alternative to some other types of drink.
Habit/traditional breakfast drink
In many markets the traditional breakfast includes
a glass of juice, especially orange juice. There-
fore it is regularly purchased and consumed as a
matter of routine.
Fruit substitute
Orange juice can provide the same benefits as
eating a fresh orange without being as messy
to consume. Freshly squeezed and NFC have
properties which are even closer to the original
fruit. Juices with added fruit cells are perceived
as tasting similar to fresh oranges.
 10.4 Orange nectars and orange drinks
10.4 Orange nectars and
orange drinks
In many markets, a substantial share of orange
juice concentrate is used for production of other
beverages having an orange flavour. The names
and definitions of these beverages vary between
markets, but in general we speak about nectars
and still drinks.
Fruit nectars usually have a juice content of
25 % to 99 % (50–99 % for orange nectars in
the EU), and beverages with a fruit juice content
below 25 % are generally called fruit drinks or
still drinks.
In markets where nectars are popular, e.g.
Germany and France, some consumers see nec-
tars as a superior product than 100 % juice. This
is because the word “nectar” has a very positive
association.
10.4.1 FRUIT NECTARS
Originally, nectars signified beverages from
fruits which were too viscous to be consumed in a
100 % form, e.g. apricots, peaches and pears. Con-
sequently, water and sugar were added to dilute
the purée and make it more drinkable. Today, the
term nectars has been applied to fruit beverages
with less than 100 % juice content, with basically
only water and sugar being allowed as additives
to the fruit juice product. The fruit juice used for
nectar production may be as juice, concentrate or
powder. For orange nectars, a minimum of 50 %
juice content applies in the EU. Moreover, the fruit
juice content has to be declared on the package.
Sugar and honey addition is allowed up to 20 %
final weight: sugar may be replaced by sweeteners
for low-energy fruit nectars.
Nectars (or fruit juice drinks) can be seen as
a less expensive substitute for 100 % juice, fre-
quently bought in larger packages (750 ml and
higher) by less affluent consumers.
Low-energy nectars appeal to consumers who
want the benefits of fruit juice but would like to
reduce their calorie intake. Their increased popu-
larity accords with the awareness that high-energy
beverages may contribute significantly to the calo-
rie content of diets.
179
10.4.2 STILL FRUIT DRINKS
If nectars can be seen as an alternative to 100 %
juice, still fruit drinks are more of an alternative
to carbonated soft drinks. Often high in sugar
and low in juice content, still fruit drinks are fre-
quently sold in smaller packages (200–300 ml) for
“on-the-go” consumption, but larger family-size
packages of 2 litres (64 fluid oz) are also common.
Many still drink products have a “kids” image
since many of these products are directly targeted
at children, but there are also some products for
adults with a premium profile.
There is little specific regulation of still fruit
drinks, but many countries demand that the juice
content be stated. Some countries have minimum
juice content requirements (e.g. 5 %) for fruit
drinks. In the UK, the manufacturer may not
imply that a product is a fruit drink if it does
not meet the required juice content level unless
the suffix “-ade” is linked to the fruit name, e.g.
lemonade, or if the fruit name is followed by the
word “flavour”, e.g. “orange flavour drink”. In
Switzerland, manufacturers are not allowed to use
pictures of fruits on fruit drink packages.
Recent product development in fortified fruit
drinks, containing a high juice content (20 % and
more) and added vitamin blends, such as ACE,
has effectively raised the health profile of fruit
drinks. With a lower energy content than 100 %
fruit juices, these beverages are aimed at promot-
ing health at a reduced calorie intake.
10.4 Orange nectars and orange drinks

180
11 Standards and
regulations
In section 11 you will read about:
• Standards governing juice composition and
labelling in the USA, EU member states and
some other major regions around the world.
• The Codex Alimentarius Commission set up
by the FAO and WHO to implement the Joint
FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme.
181
• The problem of orange juice adulteration and
why it is still carried out.
• The measures taken to prevent the adulteration
of orange juice and check its authenticity.
• The major analytical methods used to detect
adulterated juice.
11. Standards and
regulations
Summary
In the USA, the standards covering the com-
position of juices and juice products, and
their labelling, are governed by the FDA
and USDA. Canada has similar regulations.
The fruit juice industry in EU countries is
guided by both compulsory directives and
recommendations. Other major juice-
importing regions also have a mixture
of obligatory and voluntary standards to
control imported food products.
The Codex Alimentarius Commission
was set up by the FAO and WHO to pro-
tect the health of consumers, to ensure fair
practices in the food trade, and to promote
international trade in food.
11.1 Standards governing
juice composition and
labelling
Many countries have several regulations gov-
erning fruit juices. These regulations typically
cover juice origin, processing methods and the
composition of orange juice. Although attempts
are continually being made to harmonise the leg-
islation between different global trading blocs
aimed at facilitating juice production and trade,
several significant differences between regu-
lations still remain. Moreover, regulations will
continue to change as world standards evolve.
In the European Union and many other coun-
tries, the term orange juice may only be used
for juice extracted from sweet oranges, Citrus
sinensis. In the USA, however, regulations allow
for up to 10 % of tangerine or hybrid orange/
tangerine juice to be included in orange juice.
These juices can improve the colour and flavour
of blended juice.
182
Combating adulteration
Because the monetary value of the fruit
juice market is so enormous, juice adul-
teration is common. Most countries im-
plement a number of measures to discover
and prevent the adulteration of orange juice,
and to check its authenticity, that is, its de-
clared origin and content. In Europe the
AIJN Code of Practice provides standards
for evaluation of identity and authenticity
for juices.
Today, analytical methods can detect
all three of the most commonly used juice
adulterants – sugar cane, sugar beet and
corn syrup.
Regulations governing direct juice, or NFC, in
principle require that nothing should be removed
or added during juice extraction and further
processing of the juice.
In the USA this is interpreted to mean that
there may be no removal of water or redilution
of NFC, while it is acceptable to remove and later
add back, for example, flavour fractions.
For reconstituted orange juice, water should be
added back to the minimum concentration defined
in the standard used in a country. Essences should
be added back to restore flavours, and pulp may
be added to achieve the desired properties of the
final juice product.
The revised EU Directive for fruit juices (2001)
specifies orange juice to be extracted by mechani-
cal means but allows addition of water- extracted
juice to juice made from concentrate. This means
that pulp wash may be added in-line to the orange
juice stream before concentration. However, addi-
tion is not permitted to direct juice or NFC. The
previous Fruit Juice Directive (1993) did not allow
for any water-extracted juice.
 11.1 Standards governing juice composition and labelling
Another change in the EU fruit juice Directive
is that debittering (removal of limonin) is au-
thorised, provided that the composition of other
compounds in the orange juice, such as acids and
sugars, is not significantly affected.
The mentioned changes brings EU regulations
more in line with those in the USA, Brazil and
several other countries where in-line pulp wash
addition and debittering is permitted.
In the European Union, legislation covering
fruit juices and fruit nectars is based on Council
Directive 2001/112/EC concerning fruit juices
and certain similar products.
Some specific labelling requirements are
given in the Fruit Juice Directive. Apart from
this, more general EU food legislation like the
directives on labelling and on additives also ap-
ply to fruit juices.
In addition to the EU Council Directives, the
fruit juice industries in individual EU countries
must follow their own national fruit juice regu-
lations. The EU stipulates that local regulations
should not include provisions that may create
barriers to the free movement of products.
“Attempts are continually
being made to harmonise the
legislation between different
global trading blocs
” from unfermented oranges except that its Brix
The Association of the Industry of Juices and
Nectars from Fruits and Vegetables of the Eu-
ropean Economic Community (AIJN) published
a “Code of practice for the evaluation of fruit and
vegetable juices” in 1993. This is a more detailed
guideline, including values for a large number of
quality, authenticity and identity parameters that
the fruit juice industry should adhere to. The Code
of Practice is increasingly used also outside EU.
In the USA, the standards of orange juice iden-
tity are enforced by the Food and Drug Adminis-
tration (FDA), whereas the standards for orange
juice grades (quality) are enforced by the United
States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
183
The Juice Products Association (JPA, a merger
of the National Juice Products Association and
the Processed Apples Institute), whose members
are mainly drawn from North, Central and South
America, has stated that they would like to see the
USDA standards covering the grade and quality
of orange juice to be applicable throughout the
major citrus juice producing countries. The JPA
even suggests that USDA standards should be
adopted as a worldwide harmonised standard.
An overview of the most important aspects of
legislation in the US, EU and certain other coun-
tries is given below. More detailed descriptions
can be found in publications listed in Section 14,
Further Reading.
11.1.1 THE USA AND CANADA
For the USA, the standards covering the compo-
sition of juices and juice products are found in
FDA regulations entitled Code of Federal Regu-
lations, Title 21. Standardised products include
different types of orange juice, namely canned,
frozen, pasteurised, from concentrate, frozen
concentrate, orange juices for manufacturing
and orange juice with preservatives.
The first types of orange juices are sold di-
rectly to the consumer, while the standards for
orange juice for manufacturing and orange juice
with preservatives cover products intended for
further processing. Like orange juice intended for
retail, orange juice for manufacturing is derived
and Brix:acid ratio may be lower than specified
for retail juice.
Labelling requirements include the decla-
ration of any sweeteners added and the addition
of orange concentrate to modify the solid content
as permitted by the standard. Juice may be heat-
treated to reduce enzyme or microbial activity.
The success and acceptance of the FDA
standards for orange juice identity is evident
considering that since they were introduced in
the 1960’s, they have only been amended twice,
once to allow the removal of undesirable bit-
terness, and secondly to allow the use of juice
from the Amber sweet orange.
 11.1 Standards governing juice composition and labelling

The grade standards for fruit juices are issued 11.1.2 THE EUROPEAN UNION
by the USDA Agricultural Marketing Services. The fruit juice industry in EU countries is guided
Grade standards concern product quality and by both compulsory directives and recommen-
should therefore be understood by anyone export- dations. A directive is a law drawn up by the
ing products to the USA. The terms “Fancy” or European Union.
“Grade A” may only be used on products meeting
Obligatory regulations comprise:
the specifications defined for such grades by the
a) National fruit juice regulations that are in
USDA. The current grade standards for orange
force in respective EU countries.
juice became effective in 1983.
b) Council Directive 2001/112/EC covering
As an example, to be labelled USDA Grade A,
fruit juices and certain similar products. It
orange juice produced in Florida must meet the
was implemented by member states by July
quality requirements shown in Table 11.1. The
2003 replacing Directive 93/77/EEC. The
quality factors are measured on a 100-point scale.
revision was undertaken in order to make
If the total score is above the limit but one of the
the rules on manufacturing and marketing
scores does not meet the Grade A requirements,
conditions more accessible. In many cases,
the juice may not be labelled Grade A. (Table 11.1
national fruit juice regulations are similar in
concerns orange juice from Florida. Some of the
content to the EU Fruit Juice Directive.
values differ for orange juice originating from
other states such as California and Arizona.)
The main areas covered by the Directive for fruit
In Canada, the Canadian Food and Drugs
juices are:
Regulations include standards for a number of
• definitions of products and authorised proc-
juices including orange. These, as in the USA,
esses and treatments during their manufacture
strictly control the composition, quality and label-
• permitted ingredients
ling of a range of orange juice products.
• certain labelling requirements for raw mate-
rial and final products

TABLE 11.1 USDA GRADE A ORANGE JUICE PRODUCTS

Orange juice NFC From concentrate

Analytical factors
°Brix min. 11.0 min. 11.8
Ratio (Brix:acid) 12.5–20.5 12.5–20.5
Recoverable oil % vol. max. 0.035 max. 0.035

Quality factors
Appearance fresh orange juice fresh orange juice
Reconstitution —— reconstitutes properly
Colour very good, very good,
min. 36 points min. 36 points
Flavour very good, very good,
min. 36 points min. 36 points
Defects practically free, practically free,
min. 18 points min. 18 points

Total score min. 90 points min. 90 points

Source: USDA

184
 11.1 Standards governing juice composition and labelling
Fruit juice is defined as the product obtained
from fruit, fermentable but unfermented, having
the characteristic colour, flavour and taste typi-
cal of the fruit from which it comes. Flavour,
pulp and cells separated during processing may
be restored to the same juice.
The plain term “fruit juice” refers only to
juice that has not been concentrated (NFC or
direct juice). Reconstituted juice is referred to
as fruit juice from concentrate. This product
must have sensory and analytical characteristics
at least equivalent to those of an average type of
juice obtained from the same kind of fruit.
Only certain ingredients and additives may
be added to orange juice. The addition of vita-
mins is permitted in some EU countries, and
under the fruit juice Directive EU countries
may follow different rules provided that it does
not prevent free movement of products within
the EU. Harmonised regulations regarding ad-
dition of vitamins and minerals to fruit juice
are proposed to be part of horizontal legislation
on food additives.
“The fruit juice industry in EU
countries is guided by both
compulsory directives and
recommendations
” states the following with regard to orange juice:
Sugar may be added up to 15 g/l orange juice
for balancing acidity without having to be de-
clared “sweetened” on the label. Nevertheless,
declaration is required in the ingredient list. If
the amount of sugar added for sweetness ex-
ceeds 15 g/l, it must be declared on the label
along with the term “sweetened”, although the
Brix values are not specified.
Lemon juice may be added up to 3 g/l as
citric acid to regulate acidity. However, com-
bined addition of both sugar and acid is not
permitted.
185
The new EU Fruit Juice Directive 2001/112/EC was
published in 2001 based on a revised proposal ap-
proved in 1996. As mentioned above, it allows the
addition of pulp wash to orange juice made from
concentrate but not to direct juice, and the removal
of limonin from orange juice.
The new directive is simplified to avoid statements
that are covered in other EU horizontal legislations
such as the labelling directive (2000/13/EC) and food
additive directives. While the Fruit Juice Directive
is a vertical directive the trend is for horizontal di-
rectives that can be applied more generally and for
several foodstuffs.
Recommended guidelines
Recommendations are given by the Association
of the Industry of Juices and Nectars (AIJN) from
Fruits and Vegetables of the European Union. This
organisation is based in Brussels although it is in-
dependent of the EU. An expert committee within
the AIJN has established a “Code of practice for
the evaluation of fruit and vegetable juices” pub-
lished in 1993. Members of the expert committee
are selected for their expertise and come from dif-
ferent countries, fruit juice companies, institutes
and laboratories upon recommendation of AIJN
members. Local quality and authenticity standards
from European countries are incorporated in the
Code of Practice.
The code of practice developed by the AIJN
• Orange juice is obtained from mature and sound
fruit, extracted by mechanical processes and is
treated by physical means
• Orange juice is produced from Citrus sinensis
(L) Osbeck and includes blood oranges
• Floating cells may be re-added to juice
• Specific conditions are to be fulfilled for in-line
water extraction
 11.1 Standards governing juice composition and labelling
TABLE 11.2 AIJN QUALITY REQUIREMENTS
FOR ORANGE JUICE
Direct
Properties juice
Relative density 20/20 min. 1.040
Corresponding °Brix min.10
Properties
L-ascorbic acid (vit. C)
at end of shelf life, mg/l
Volatile oils, ml/l
Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), mg/l max. 10
Volatile acid as acetic acid, g/l*
Ethanol, g/l
D/L Lactic acid, g/l
Arsenic and heavy metals, mg/l
* Indication of hygiene, not juice acidity.
Source: Reference guideline for orange juice, AIJN Code of Practice, 2003
The AIJN Code of Practice includes reference
guidelines (i.e. guidelines for what is considered
an acceptable juice) for different fruit juices. The
guidelines give both criteria that are absolute re-
quirements as regards the quality of a juice, and
other criteria to be used to check the identity and
authenticity of juice.
The reference guidelines for orange juice
were revised in 2003. Absolute requirements
for some of the quality parameters are given in
Table 11.2.
11.1.3 OTHER MAJOR REGIONS
AND COUNTRIES
Australia and New Zealand
Fruit juice and other food regulations differed
between Australia and New Zealand. But based
on a treaty established in 1995, the two countries
have jointly developed uniform food standards, the
Australian New Zealand Food Standards Code.
It was presented in 2000 and remained as
an alternative to existing food regulations until
December 2002 when it became the sole food
code for both countries. The code applies to all
packaged food that is sold in Australia and
New Zealand, and imported food must
comply with the regulations. The food
Reconstituted
standards have the force of law and are
juice enforced by the two governments.
min. 1.045 Orange juice is covered by the stand-
min. 11.2 ards for fruit juice and vegetable juice. The
standards include products that have been
Direct juice concentrated and later reconstituted with
/ Reconstituted juice water to a concentration consistent with
that of the undiluted juice from which it
min. 200
was made. Orange juice is defined as the
max. 0.3 juice coming from the endocarp of mature
and sound oranges of Citrus sinensis (L)
max. 0.4
max. 3.0
Osbeck. Orange juice may include up to
max. 0.2 10 % mandarin or tangelo juice. Sugar
max 0.01–5.0 may be added up to 40 g per kg product
(various values)
without the product being considered
sweetened. If more sugar is added, this
must be indicated with the term “sweet-
ened orange juice”. Juice derived from
concentrate must also be declared.
Latin America
In most Latin American countries the control
of food products is governed by the Ministry of
Health or equivalent institution. Today, there is
a general trend towards harmonising food legis-
lation in the region. MERCOSUR, the Southern
Common Market, with member states of Brazil,
Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, has developed
common food labelling regulations. ICAITI, a
standards organisation based in Guatemala, issues
a wide range of food-related standards voluntarily
applicable in the Central American Common Mar-
ket countries of Guatemala, Costa Rica, Honduras,
Nicaragua and El Salvador.
Comprehensive standards of fruit juices can
be found in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, the
Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Mexico, Uruguay,
Venezuela and countries of the Central American
Common Market. These standards vary in scope
and detail. Other countries, for example, Cuba,
Chile, Panama and Peru have no standards for
fruit juice composition although the use of ad-
ditives is controlled.
186
 11.1 Standards governing juice composition and labelling
Middle East
Middle East countries have a mixture of obliga-
tory and voluntary standards to control imported
food products. Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Jordan,
Kuwait and Israel are some of the countries with
mandatory standards for fruit juice.
Harmonisation of food law in the region by
means of Gulf Standards issued by the Gulf Co-
operation Council (GCC) is in progress. The GCC
comprises Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab
Emirates, Oman, Bahrain and Qatar. Where na-
tional standards are non-existent, most countries
will normally accept products that comply with
standards drawn up by the Codex Alimentarius
Commission (CAC, see below).
Far East
Countries in the Far East have both guidelines
and legally enforceable standards with regard to
food quality and composition. Japan has stand-
ards covering additives, labelling requirements,
purity criteria and testing methods. There is no
standard of composition, therefore juice imports
to Japan are not restricted by minimum levels
of fruit content. However, in practice, Japanese
Agricultural Standards are used to guarantee
the quality of both imported and domestic pro-
cessed foods.
Other countries that regulate the quality of
fruit juices are India, Indonesia, Malaysia, The
Philippines, Pakistan, Singapore and South
Korea. On the other hand, China, Taiwan and
Thailand, for example, have no standards for
composition but have detailed regulations for
additives. There seems to be no attempt at har-
monising legislation in the region.
187
11.1.4 FRUIT JUICE STANDARDS
OF CODEX ALIMENTARIUS
The Codex Alimentarius Commission is a joint
body set up by the Food and Agricultural Or-
ganisation (FAO) and World Health Organisation
(WHO) in 1962 to implement the Joint FAO/WHO
Food Standards Programme. This was carried out
to protect the health of consumers, to ensure fair
practices in the food trade, and to promote interna-
tional trade in food. Member governments of the
United Nations are involved in producing specific
recommendations for standards covering food.
Certain countries, for example some in Latin
America and the Middle East, may accept Codex
standards as official legislation if they have no
national regulations or as an addition to national
law. Trade blocs like the European Union also
consider Codex standards when drawing up their
own legislation.
Most of the Codex standards covering fruit
juices and concentrated fruit juices date from
1981. In 1992, the various standards for fruit
juices and nectars were reissued in volume 6,
Codex Alimentarius 1992. This contains stand-
ards defining juice products, their composition
and quality factors, and regulations covering
food additives, contaminants, hygiene, weight
of product in containers, and labelling require-
ments. Analytical methods and sampling are also
defined. A revision of the fruit juice standards is
foreseen in 2005.
Codex standard 45-1981 (from 1981) applies
to orange juice. It describes it as the juice obtained
by a mechanical process from the endocarp of
oranges [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck] preserved
exclusively by physical means. It may contain
up to 10 % mandarin juice. Minimum °Brix is
10 for direct juice and 11 for orange juice made
from concentrate. Natural volatile orange juice
components may be restored to any orange juice
from which such have been removed.
 11.2 The problem of adulteration
11.2 The problem
of adulteration
Because the monetary value of the fruit juice mar-
ket is so enormous, juice adulteration is a common
feature of commercial life. For orange juice, the
term “adulteration” means the addition of non-
orange materials to products that are labelled and
sold as orange juice. The value of orange juice is
such that even modest adulteration can result in
large profits, something which encourages fraud
among both producers and those handling con-
centrate for reconstitution and packaging. Any
importing country can be affected, particularly
when there is a shortage of orange juice supply.
The problem of juice adulteration is seldom
related to health risk, but primarily related to
fraudulent practices. Although there may be a
slight reduction in juice quality, the same decline
in quality can result from poor processing condi-
tions. The issue at stake is that someone is making
a lot of money by adding cheap materials such as
sugar, acid and colour to juice in order to cheat the
consumer into paying too much for what is thought
to be a premium product. When checks on quality
are inadequate or unenforced, this inevitably leads
to a greater degree of adulteration.
Consumers should be protected from such
fraud by regulatory authorities using their power
to ensure that the composition, quality and la-
belling of orange juice are strictly controlled. Re-
sponsible authorities in every producing country
and importing country deplore adulteration.
Therefore, most take active steps to discover and
prevent it, and to ensure that orange juice com-
plies with the relevant standards applicable. The
aim of most work on safeguarding the authenticity
of orange juice is essentially to make adulteration
so expensive that it is no longer attractive.
It should also be noted that adulteration
cannot be considered contamination. Unlike
contamination, which is often harmful to health,
the materials unlawfully added to juice are so like
the juice’s natural constituents that they cannot be
regarded as contaminants in the accepted sense.
188
The term “adulteration” is used to describe the
addition of materials not derived from citrus fruit.
This includes the addition of water, sucrose and
citric acid to maintain the soluble-solids content.
On the other hand, the term “sophistication” is
used to describe the use of other citrus products
to extend or attempt to mimic genuine juice. Non-
orange citrus juices, orange pulp wash and other
matter derived from peel, rag or seeds constitute
sophistication.
11.2.1 PROTECTING THE CONSUMER
A number of measures are taken to prevent the
adulteration of orange juice and check its au-
thenticity, that is, its declared origin and content.
Producing countries, aware of the damage that
adulteration can do to the legitimate trade, carry
out various inspection and control procedures.
Companies buying orange juice products try to
purchase only through reliable suppliers known
to have a good reputation. Voluntary organi-
sations with declared self-control are estab-
lished in Europe. Both suppliers and buyers are
members. They are committed to carrying out
self-control and following certain agreed rules.
Examples of such organisations are SGF/IRMA,
originating in Germany, and EQCS, European
Quality Control System for juices and nectars.
EQCS was founded by AIJN and its EU-based
participants produce more than 85 % of all the
fruit juices and nectars in the EU.
The basis for testing quality and authentic-
ity parameters by the EQCS and its European
members, and SGF/IRMA for their members (raw
material suppliers in more than 50 countries), is
the AIJN Code of Practice.
Due to intensive collaboration directed by the
AIJN, local standards such as the RSK values
in Germany, old AFNOR standards in France
and the quality criteria in the Netherlands are
incorporated in the AIJN Code of Practice. This
means that the old, and sometimes still available
standards, are not updated anymore and therefore
no longer applied.
 11.2 The problem of adulteration

11.2.2 TELLING WRONG FROM RIGHT 4. Isotopic fingerprinting of sugar content.

As the adulteration of orange juice has become Because of the high price of natural juice,
increasingly sophisticated, the analytical methods the economic temptation to adulterate or-
needed to detect fraud have been developed to re- ange juice by adding sugar from sugar cane
veal specific types of adulteration. These analytical and sugar beet, or in the form of corn syrup,
methods can be divided into four main groups. is considerable. Fortunately, isotopic tech-
nique can now tell the differences between
1. Simple physical measurements such as these different sugars by analysing their
weight, volume, density, acidity, purity and carbon content.
sample concentration. Although these meas-
Isotope analysis
urements do little to prove the authenticity of
The carbon atom exists in two different isotopes,
the product, they do give an indication of the 12C, which has a natural abundance of 98.89 %,
value or price of the commodity tested.
and 13C, the heavier isotope with a natural abun-
dance of 1.11 %. During photosynthesis, plants
2. Comparing the analytical composition of
discriminate against 13C. The degree of depletion
samples with reference standards. Typical
of 13C in plant tissue as a result of this depends on
parameters include the content of sugars, or-
how a plant extracts carbon dioxide, CO2, from
ganic acids, amino acids, trace elements, etc.,
the air. As the orange plant extracts its carbon
and flavour profiles. Spectrographic adsorp-
in a different way from sugar cane and maize,
tion patterns derived from visible light, ul-
the relative proportions of 12C and 13C in these
traviolet light and fluorescent measurements
plant tissues also differ. This fact can be used to
are important for providing “fingerprints” of
trace the origin of sugar with the help of carbon
orange juice samples. Although useful, the
stable isotope ratio analysis (CSIRA), and hence
main disadvantage of this method is that the
to determine whether juice has been adulterated
pattern for authentic products varies to an un-
by adding either cane sugar or high fructose corn
acceptable degree and can often be matched
syrup (HFCS).
by adulterators adding appropriate “cocktails”
to adulterated orange juice.

3. Testing for components that are not normally

present in orange juice, or only present in
“The value of juice is such that
even modest adulteration can
trace amounts. Such components include result in large profits
natural or artificial flavours, D-malic or
D-amino acids (as opposed to their common
”
L-counterparts), synthetic intermediates or A trickier problem is to tell the difference between
catalysts, preservatives like benzoates, etc. natural orange sugars and sugar from sugar beet,
If these substances are found in amounts as both these plants extract carbon dioxide from
above accepted levels, then this is usually air in exactly the same way. However, the posi-
good proof of adulteration. Nevertheless, tion of the 13C atom in the sugar molecule does
skilled adulterators are known to use pure differ between the two sugar sources. This can
or modified additives that can mislead both be detected using SNIF-NMR analysis (Site-spe-
analysts and their instruments. cific Natural Isotopic Fractionation measured by
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance). Thus all three of
the most commonly used sugar adulterants can
now be detected.

189
11.2 The problem of adulteration

190
12 Absorption
Glossary
Penetration of a substance (e.g.
food component) into another ma-
terial (e.g. packaging material).
Adsorption
The binding of gases, liquids or dissolved sub-
stances by adhesion on the surfaces of solids.
Acid
Being acid means having a pH below neutral.
Hence, an acid liquid is a liquid of pH<7.
The opposite of alkaline on the pH spectrum.
Foodstuffs of pH<4.6 are often referred to as
“high-acid”.
Acid content
Total acidity for orange juice is expressed as
grams citric acid per litre juice (Europe), or
as grams citric acid per 100 g juice, % w/w
(USA).
Acid catalysed hydrolysis
A chemical reaction promoted by an acid envi-
ronment in which a complex molecule is split into
two smaller molecules by the addition of water.
Acidity
Total acid content of juice.
Aerobic reaction
A reaction which requires free oxygen to take
place.
Albedo
The white spongy layer of tissue found just
under the coloured outer portion of the peel
(flavedo). The albedo layer is rich in pectin sub-
stances and hemicellulose.
Alkaline
Being alkaline (or basic) means having a pH
above neutral. Hence, an alkaline liquid is a
liquid of pH>7. The opposite of acid on the pH
spectrum.
Anaerobic reaction
A reaction which does not require free oxygen
to take place.
191
Antioxidant
A compound which oxidises readily, thereby
preventing or minimising oxidation of other
compounds. It can occur naturally or be added
to food and drinks.
Aroma
An odour with a pleasant connotation. For or-
ange juice, the word is also used for the flavour
fraction called essence aroma (defined below).
Ascorbic acid
A vitamin found in plants, especially fruits and
green vegetables. It forms white crystals when
purified and dried. Also called vitamin C.
Box
Weight unit for orange fruit used
in reporting of harvest and plant
intake. 1 box (field box) is defined
as 90 lb (or 40.8 kg) of oranges.
(A box of grapefruit equals only 85 lb of fruit.)
° Brix
Concentration of all soluble solids in juice. It is
not a measure of sugars only, although sugars
make up the bulk of the solids in orange juice.
Brix is determined by measurement of juice
density or refractive index.
Brix:acid ratio
See Ratio.
Carotenoids
A class of yellow, orange and red pigments
which occurs naturally in fruits and vegetables.
The carotenoids have traditionally been clas-
sified as carotenes (pure hydrocarbons) and xan-
thophylls (hydrocarbons containing oxygen).
 Glossary
Cells
A commercial expression sometimes
used for pulp. It is also referred to as
frozen cells and frozen pulp.
Cell sacs or whole cells
Intact citrus cells which still contain juice.
Whole cells cannot be obtained by conventional
juice extraction methods because these, as im-
plied, break open cells to remove the juice.
Cloud
Cloud gives rise to the opaque appearance of
orange juice. It is formed by soluble and insolu-
ble compounds released during juice extraction.
The solid particles are kept in suspension by the
presence of soluble pectin in the juice. Cloud
is an important quality attribute of most citrus
juices and contributes to their mouthfeel.
Cloud loss
The undesirable occurrence of orange juice sep-
arating into a clear upper phase (serum) and a
bottom sediment. Cloud loss occurs when juice
viscosity is reduced by a too low a concentration
of soluble pectin (in turn the result of enzyme
activity). Hence, insoluble compounds can no
longer be maintained in suspension.
Cold-pressed oil
See cold-pressed peel oil
Cold-pressed peel oil
The oil derived from the peel of citrus fruits.
Oil sacs are found in the surface of the peel and
these are ruptured during oil extraction. The oil
is recovered from the oil/water emulsion by me-
chanical means (as opposed to thermal process-
ing). Also known simply as cold-pressed oil,
peel oil or CPPO.
Colour score
A numerical value to rate the colour of citrus
juices. In the USA it is often determined by the
use of a Hunter citrus colorimeter. By com-
paring the red and yellow colour components of
the sample to a USDA standard, a “score” can
be assigned.
Core wash
The process of recovering soluble solids (mainly
sugars) from the centre core of the fruit discharged
separately from squeezer-type extractors. The re-
sulting liquid product is also called core wash. See
also the analogous “Pulp wash”.
192
Corrected °Brix
°Brix value obtained after correction for the
acid content of juice. It represents the actual
sugar concentration of juice.
Crystallinity
The degree of crystallinity is the amount of
well-organised areas of molecules in a solid
material. The higher the crystallinity, the more
difficult it is for for small molecules like ox-
ygen to penetrate.
Deaeration
The process of removing air (ox-
ygen) from juice. Dispersed air
as free air bubbles is quite easily
removed from juice but dissolved
air requires an effective deaeration process.
Deaerator
The equipment in which juice is deaerated, typ-
ically a system including a vacuum vessel.
Defects
Factors that degrade citrus product quality. Ex-
amples of defects are the presence of small seeds
or black specs in juice, poor colour scores and out-
of-range ratios.
Diacetyl
Diacetyl is a natural fermentation by-product
of acid-forming bacteria and imparts a “but-
termilk” odour if its concentration exceeds 1.0
ppm.
Diffusion
The mass transport of substances (e.g. oxygen
and limonene) through material (e.g. polymer).
The driving force is the difference in concen-
tration of the substance in question on the inside
and outside of a material. The substance will
flow from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration.
Diffusivity
The ability of a substance to permit diffusion.
d-Limonene
The main component of oil found in oranges.
d-Limonene makes up >90 % of peel oil and
essence oil. It is also recovered as a by-product
from waste peel. d-Limonene belongs to a group
of hydrocarbon molecules called terpenes.

Endocarp
Another name for the edible por-
tion of the orange fruit.
Enzyme activity
A measure of enzyme concentration in juice.
The necessary inactivation of enzymes is
achieved by heat treatment of juice.
Enzymes
These are proteins which catalyse biochemical
reactions. As regards orange juice quality, pec-
tin methyl esterase (PME) is the most important
enzyme in the juice as it is responsible for break-
ing down pectin, thereby causing cloud loss. It is
found in cell walls (e.g. peel and juice sacs) and
is squeezed out from the fruit and mixes with the
juice during the extraction process.
Essence
The volatile components recovered from the
evaporation process. Essence is separated into
an aqueous phase (essence aroma) and an oil
phase (essence oil).
Essence aroma
A fraction of volatile flavours recovered from
the evaporation process together with essence
oil (in a ratio of about 10:1). Essence aroma is
clear and colourless and contains water-soluble
flavour components originating from the juice.
It contributes a fruity aroma and a light citrus
taste to juice. Also known simply as aroma or
water phase.
Essence oil
This is a clear, pale yellow oil recovered from
the evaporation process. Essence oil is a source
of specific flavour notes, mainly esters and car-
bonyls. It contributes a floral fruity aroma and a
juicy flavour to juice.
Essential oils
A general term for volatile oils, extracted from
plants, fruits and flowers, having characteristic
odours.
Evaporation
The process of removing water from juice by heat.
Extraction
Extraction related to oranges is the process
of squeezing out juice from either whole or
halved oranges by means of mechanical pres-
sure. Peel oil is also obtained by a mechanical
extraction process.
193
Glossary
FCOJ
Abbreviation for Frozen Concen-
trated Orange Juice. It is the most
common bulk orange juice product
stored and shipped. FCOJ is pro-
duced commercially by concentrating juice up
to 66 °Brix by evaporation.
Fibres
The original definition of dietary fibres (Hip-
sky, 1953) is materials derived from plant cell
walls in foods. It is sometimes used to mean
large solid particles in juice, better described as
floating pulp.
Finisher
Equipment used to separate pulp from juice.
This process is referred to as juice finishing.
Flash pasteurisation
The expression used for pasteurisation carried
out in a heat exchanger (during a very short
period of time, a “flash”) as opposed to tun-
nel pasteurisation. There is no flash of product.
Also referred to as HTST, high temperature
short time heat treatment.
Flavedo
The coloured outer portion of peel. Carotenoids
in the flavedo impart the characteristic colour
of orange fruit. The flavedo also includes the oil
glands which contain peel oil.
Flavour
A complex combination of the sensations expe-
rienced through the senses of taste and smell,
as well as the textural sensations perceived via
the mouth or throat.
Fold
The word used to express the concentration fac-
tor of flavours in a liquid. For example, in a 5-
fold flavour, the flavour compounds have been
concentrated 5 times.
 Glossary
Gelation
The tendency of concentrate to
become lumpy and difficult to
reconstitute is known as gelation.
It results from enzyme activity
caused typically by insufficient pasteurisation
prior to juice concentration, or from incorrect
storage temperature.
Hesperidin
A flavonoid found in citrus juices.
As it is highly insoluble, it precipi-
tates during juice concentration
and accumulates on surfaces in
evaporators and extractors. Although it im-
parts no off-flavour to juice, it may appear as
white specks and be considered a defect.
Hot filling
The filling procedure whereby the high tem-
perature of the product being filled is used to
“sterilise” the food-contact surface of the pack-
aging material.
Hydrogen peroxide
A chemical with the formula H2O2. It is a clear
liquid with strong oxidative power and is pro-
duced as aqueous solutions of 35-90 % w/w
hydrogen peroxide concentration. It is used as a
sterilisation agent in filling machines.
Hydrometer
An instrument placed in a liquid for measur-
ing its relative density or °Brix. It comprises a
sealed graduated tube with a weighted bulb at
the lower end.
Inert gas
A chemically inactive gas (for ex-
ample nitrogen).
Juice vesicles
Another name for the juice-con-
taining sacs in orange fruit.
194
Limonin
A complex compound that causes
bitterness in juice. It is formed in
orange juice shortly after extraction.
In most juices, the limonin concen-
tration is very low and does not cause a prob-
lem except for juice made from Shamouti and
Navel (seedless) oranges.
Maillard reaction
A non-enzymatic chemical re-
action involving condensation of
an amino group and a reducing
group (sugars), resulting in the
formation of intermediates which ultimately poly-
merise to form brown pigments (melanoidins).
Mandarins
A group of orange fruit, Citrus reticulata. This
group includes tangerine varieties.
Mesh
The unit used for screen sizing. Mesh is the
number of equal openings per linear inch. A
20 mesh screen therefore has much larger
openings than a 60 mesh screen.
Naringin
A bitterness substance (flavonoid)
mainly found in grapefruit juices.
NFC
Abbreviation for not-from-con-
centrate juice. Juice of natural (single) strength
which has neither undergone concentration nor
dilution during production.
Oil content
The oil content of orange juice is
often equated to the concentration
of d-limonene, since it makes up
90 % or more of peel oil and essence
oil. d-Limonene can be measured by a relatively
simple titration method, the Scott method. Oil
content, also referred to as Scott oil, is expressed
as % v/v in single-strength juice.
Organoleptic
Relating to a property of food that can be per-
ceived by the sense organs.

POJ
Abbreviation for pasteurised or-
ange juice. It is a term used in
Florida for NFC juice.
Pectin
A type of polysaccharide found mainly in the
albedo but also in other parts of the fruit. It is
a naturally occurring colloidal stabiliser that
gives juice its “body” or viscosity.
Peel oil
See cold-pressed peel oil.
Permeability
It is a measure of a material’s ability to be pene-
trated, particularly by gases. The permeability
value is obtained by multiplying diffusivity and
solubility.
Phytosanitary
Measures taken with plants to protect human,
animal and plant health.
Polar (and nonpolar)
A polar molecule, e.g. water, has both positively
and negatively charged regions. Two polar mol-
ecules intermix as they are attracted by each
other’s dipole forces. A nonpolar molecule, e.g.
oil, has no areas of positive and negative charge
within it. Generally, nonpolar molecules do not
intermix well with polar ones.
Polymer
A large molecule which is obtained by polym-
erisation of many smaller identical molecules
(monomers). In this document, polymer is used
synonymously with plastic.
Polyolefines
Polymers prepared by polymerisation of α-ole-
fins. Examples of polyolefines are polyethylene
and polypropylene.
Plate count
A method of determining the number of microor-
ganisms in food. It is often expressed as colony-
forming units per millilitre sample (CFU/ml).
Pounds juice per box
The actual weight of juice extracted from a
90 lb. box of orange fruit as measured by the
State Test extractor (Florida).
195
Glossary
Pounds solids per box
A measure in weight of the total dissolved sol-
ids in a given box of fruit. Used in Florida as
basis for payment of fruit. It is calculated by
multiplying the amount of juice per box (by the
State Test) with the Brix level of the juice.
Press liquor
A product stream in the feed mill area obtained
by removing moisture from the citrus peel in a
(screw) press. The press liquor is concentrated
in a waste heat evaporator to form molasses.
Pulp
The solid particles in orange juice. Also the com-
mercial name for the product, consisting of broken
pieces of cell sacs and segment wall, added back
to the final juice.
There are several terms related to pulp in
juice, of which some are:
Floating pulp – larger solid particles in juice
consisting of pieces of ruptured cell sacs and
segment walls. Most float to the top after juice
is stirred.
Sinking pulp – very small solid particles
(<0.5mm) which are suspended in the juice and
settle from the juice with time or spin down in
a centrifuge. Typical values range from 5 to 12 v/v
centrifuged pulp.
Suspended pulp, bottom pulp and centrifuged
pulp are sometimes used instead of sinking pulp.
For pulp as a product:
Aseptic pulp – pulp product stored in aseptic
bag-in-drums.
Frozen pulp – pulp product sold in frozen form.
Pulp wash
The process by which soluble solids (mainly sug-
ars) are recovered from pulp. The soluble solids
are leached from the pulp with water through a
system of mixing screws and finishers. The liq-
uid stream from a pulp wash system is referred
to as pulp wash, secondary solids, or WESOS
(Water Extracted Soluble Orange Solids).
 Glossary
Quick Fibre
A test method to determine the rel-
ative dryness of pulp. It indicates
how hard the squeezing of pulp to
remove juice in the finishers has
been. Quick Fibre (QF) is also a measure of
how wet the pulp is as it exits the final, or dry-
ing, finisher in the pulp production line.
Ratio
The ratio is obtained by dividing
the °Brix of a juice product by the
acid content (as % wt). The ratio,
also referred to as Brix:acid ratio,
is important for describing taste as a measure of
the balance between the sweet and sour sensa-
tions. Consumers prefer a ratio of around 15:1.
Recontamination
Contamination of juice with microorganisms
after it has been pasteurised. Also known as
reinfection.
Refractive index
A measure of how much light is refracted, that is,
changes direction, on passing from one medium
to another. The refractive index for a solution de-
pends on its concentration. The measured refrac-
tive index can be translated into concentration of
soluble solids of a solution such as orange juice.
Refractometer
An instrument for measuring refractive index.
Sensory analysis
Examination of a product by the
sense organs.
Shelf life
The time period up to the point when a food
product becomes unacceptable from a safety,
sensorial or nutritional perspective.
Single-strength
The term assigned to juice at its natural
strength, either directly from the extraction
process or in a reconstituted form.
Solids
Insoluble solids are, simply put, solids that will
not dissolve in the liquid in question. In orange
juice they consist mainly of cellulosic and in-
soluble pectic substances generally associated
with pulp.
196
Soluble solids are solid materials that will dis-
solve in the liquid in question. Sugars and acids
in citrus juices are commonly referred to as
soluble solids.
Specific gravity
Refers to the actual weight of a liquid in rela-
tion to water (at defined temperatures). Also
called relative density.
State Test
Standardised method used in Florida to establish
the potential juice yield from a delivered load of
fruit. Juice extraction is carried out using a State
test extractor under well-defined operating con-
ditions. The actual juice yield during commercial
processing of the same fruit batch is different to,
and often higher than, the State Test yield.
Sweet oranges
For orange juice, the sweet orange, Citrus sin-
ensis, is the most important group of orange
fruit. Regulations in the EU stipulate that or-
ange juice may only be made from the sweet
orange, whereas in other markets legislation
allows the addition of small amounts of juice
from other orange varieties, like mandarins, to
balance juice taste.
Taste
Sensations perceived via the taste
buds of the tongue when stimu-
lated by certain substances.
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the
“thickness” of a fluid. It affects
the “body” of the juice created
primarily by pectin-related stabili-
sation of the cloud or colloids in the juice. The
presence of insoluble material also contributes
to increased juice body or viscosity.
Washed pulp
The solid particles remaining
from the pulp wash process. It is
sold in frozen form for addition
to fruit beverages, or recovered
in the feed mill area for use as animal feed.
13
13.1 Abbreviations
Abbreviations, weights
and measures

The definitions of some abbreviations used in

the orange juice industry and in The Orange
Book are given below.
Scientific expressions and products for
which abbreviated names are used are given in
the Glossary (Section 12).
Trade expressions: Units of measurement :
cif cost, insurance and freight °Bx degree Brix
DPC direct product cost °C degree Celsius
DPP direct product profit cP centipoise (viscosity)
fca free carrier °F degree Fahrenheit
fot free on truck fl oz fluid ounce
fob free on board ft feet
RTD ready to drink gal gallon*
RTS ready to serve gpm gallons per minute
SSE single strength equivalent g gram
h hour
Materials and packaging manufacture:
kPa kiloPascal
EVOH ethylene vinyl alcohol
l litre
PA polyamide
lb pound (weight)
PE polyethylene
meq milliequivalent
HDPE high density polyethylene
µm micrometre (0.000 001 metre)
LDPE low density polyethylene
m metre
LLDPE linear low density polyethylene
min minute
PEN polyethylene naphtalate
mm millimetre
PET polyethylene terephtalate
m2 square metre
PP polypropylene
m3 cubic metre
EBM extrusion blow-moulding
mg milligram
SBM stretch blow-moulding
mph miles per hour
Organisations: oz ounce
AIJN Association of the Industry of Juices ppm parts per million (e.g. mg/kg)
and Nectars from Fruits and Vege- s second
tables of the European Union t tonne
FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation % v/v % volume by volume
(United Nations) % w/w % weight by weight
FDA Food and Drug Administration (USA)
IFU International Federation of Fruit Juice * Gallon means US gallon (128 fl oz or 0.83
Producers Imperial gallon) in The Orange Book.
IFT Institute of Food Technologists (USA)
JPA Juice Products Association
USDA United States Department of
Agriculture
WHO World Health Organisation (United
Nations)

197
 13.2 Unit conversions

13.2 Unit conversions

In the orange juice industry several different
systems are used around the world for units of
measurement. The list below shows how you
can convert between some of these units.

To convert into multiply by

boxes kg 40.8
boxes lb 90
ounces kg 0.02835
pounds (lb) kg 0.454
short tons kg 907.8
tons (metric) kg 1 000
long tons kg 1 016

fluid ounces (US) litres 0.02957

pints (US) litres 0.4732
quarts (US) litres 0.9463
gallons (US) litres 3.785
fluid ounces (Imperial) litres 0.02841
pints (Imperial) litres 0.5683
quarts (Imperial) litres 1.136
gallons (Imperial) litres 4.546
cubic feet litres 28.32
cubic metres litres 1000

gallons/min (gpm) cubic metres/hour 0.2271

(m3/hr)
inches metres 0.02540
feet metres 0.3048
yards metres 0.9144
miles metres 1 609.0

square feet square metres (m2) 0.09290

acres square metres (m2) 4 047.0

miles/hr (mph) kilometres/hr 1.609

bar kPa 100.0

kg/cm2 (at) kPa 98.1
atm (normal atmosphere) kPa 101.3
pounds/square inch (psi) kPa 6.895

Btu (British thermal units) kilowatt hour (kWh) 0.0002928

kilocalories (kcal) kilowatt hour (kWh) 0.001163

horsepower (UK, USA) kilowatts (kW) 0.7457

°Fahrenheit °Celsius (°F x 5/9) - 32

Relationship for liquid volumes:

US: 1 gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 128 fluid ounces
Imperial: 1 gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 160 fluid ounces

198
 13.3 Density tables for sugar solutions

13.3 Density tables for

sugar solutions BRIX LEVELS FOR
SINGLE-STRENGTH JUICES
The official table for true density values of su-
crose solutions (at 20 °C) was published by Pla- Conc. Conc. Relative
in °Brix in g/l density
to in 1900 and is still universally used today. or % w 20°/20 °C
Relative densities and weight of solids of 8.5 87.63 1.03385
sucrose solutions were derived from the Plato 8.6 88.69 1.03426
8.7 89.76 1.03467
table (1942). These values were adopted as an 8.8 90.83 1.03508
official table for determining solids weights 8.9 91.90 1.03549
in orange juice concentrates by the Florida
9.0 92.97 1.03590
citrus industry. Later the tables were further 9.1 94.04 1.03631
developed and computerised. They are used 9.2 95.11 1.03672
9.3 96.18 1.03714
throughout the citrus industry to provide a uni- 9.4 97.25 1.03755
form reference for determining the quantity of 9.5 98.33 1.03796
soluble solids (“pounds solids”) in fruit juices 9.6 99.40 1.03838
9.7 100.48 1.03879
and concentrates. 9.8 101.55 1.03920
An abstract from the sugar density tables 9.9 102.63 1.03962
developed by Chen (1989) is given below. The 10.0 103.71 1.04003
full table includes true density in vacuum, 10.1 104.79 1.04044
density in air, etc. The values in the list below 10.2 105.87 1.04086
10.3 106.95 1.04127
can be used to approximately relate the soluble 10.4 108.03 1.04169
solids (or sugar) content of orange juice to its 10.5 109.11 1.04210
10.6 110.19 1.04252
specific gravity, for example when calculating 10.7 111.28 1.04294
the blending formula for reconstituting juice. 10.8 112.36 1.04335
(See subsection 7.4) 10.9 113.45 1.04377
Orange juice is not a pure sugar solution 11.0 114.54 1.04419
but contains other solids, both dissolved and 11.1 115.62 1.04460
11.2 116.71 1.04502
insoluble. 11.3 117.80 1.04544
11.4 118.89 1.04586
Explanations to the table below: 11.5 119.98 1.04628
Conc. in °Brix or %w = sucrose concentration 11.6 121.07 1.04670
as %weight 11.7 122.17 1.04712
11.8 123.26 1.04754
11.9 124.35 1.04795
Conc. in g/l = sucrose concentration as grams
12.0 125.45 1.04837
sucrose per litre solution at 20 °C 12.1 126.55 1.04880
12.2 127.64 1.04922
Relative density 20/20 = density of sucrose so- 12.3 128.74 1.04964
12.4 129.84 1.05006
lution at 20 °C relative to the density of water at 12.5 130.94 1.05048
20 °C. Also referred to as specific gravity 20/20. 12.6 132.04 1.05090
12.7 133.14 1.05132
12.8 134.24 1.05175
12.9 135.35 1.05217

13.0 136.45 1.05259

13.1 137.56 1.05302
13.2 138.66 1.05344
13.4 140.88 1.05429
13.5 141.98 1.05471

Source: Fruit Juice Processing Technology, edited by S. Nagy, C.S

Chen and P. Shaw.

199
 13.3 Density tables for sugar solutions

BRIX LEVELS FOR CONCENTRATES

Conc. Conc. Relative Conc. Conc. Relative

in °Brix in g/l density in °Brix in g/l density
or % w 20°/20 °C or % w 20°/20 °C
40.0 470.17 1.17875 60.0 771.26 1.28908
40.5 475.70 1.18130 60.5 779.47 1.29203
41.0 484.03 1.18391 61.0 787.71 1.29500
41.5 491.01 1.18650 61.5 795.99 1.29797
42.0 498.01 1.18911 62.0 804.31 1.30095
42.5 505.05 1.19172 62.5 812.66 1.30394
43.0 512.11 1.19434 63.0 821.05 1.30694
43.5 519.21 1.19359 63.5 829.47 1.30996
44.0 526.34 1.19622 64.0 837.93 1.31298
44.5 533.49 1.19886 64.5 846.43 1.31601
45.0 540.68 1.20492 65.0 854.96 1.31905
45.5 547.90 1.20759 65.5 863.53 1.32210
46.0 555.15 1.21026 66.0 872.13 1.32516
46.5 562.43 1.20952 66.5 880.77 1.32823
47.0 569.74 1.21565 67.0 889.45 1.33130
47.5 577.08 1.21835 67.5 898.17 1.33439
48.0 584.46 1.21762 68.0 906.92 1.33749
48.5 591.86 1.22379 68.5 915.71 1.34060
49.0 599.30 1.22653 69.0 924.54 1.34372
49.5 606.77 1.22927 69.5 933.41 1.34684
50.0 614.27 1.23202 70.0 942.31 1.34998
50.5 621.80 1.23478
51.0 629.37 1.23756
51.5 636.97 1.24934
52.0 644.60 1.24313
52.5 652.26 1.24593
53.0 659.96 1.24874
53.5 667.69 1.25156
54.0 675.45 1.25084
54.5 683.25 1.25722
55.0 691.08 1.26007
55.5 698.95 1.26293
56.0 706.84 1.26580
56.5 714.77 1.26867
57.0 722.74 1.27156
57.5 730.74 1.27446
58.0 738.78 1.27736
58.5 746.84 1.28028
59.0 754.95 1.28320
59.5 763.09 1.28614

Source: Fruit Juice Processing Technology, edited by S. Nagy, C.S Chen and P. Shaw.

200
14 Further reading
and references

14.1 Books on orange juice

Below is a list of books containing detailed in-
Quality Control Manual for
Citrus Processing Plants
Vol. II, revised and enlarged 1992. 349 pp.
formation about orange juice, both as a product
Editors: J. Redd, D. Hendrix and C. Hendrix Jr.
and its processing. Some of these books have
Publisher: AgScience Inc., Florida.
been referred to in The Orange Book as sources
3 sections covering plant operations, citrus
of information.
blending techniques, and formulating and citrus
Production and Packaging of Non-carbonated
mathematics. It contains practical information
Fruit Juices and Fruit Beverages
about the everyday operation and management
2nd edition, 1995, 423 pp.
of citrus processing plants.
Editor: P.R. Ashurst,
Publisher: Blackie Academic Quality Control Manual for
Citrus Processing Plants
& Professional, UK.
Vol. III, 1996, 325 pp.
15 sections including general descriptions of
Editors: J. Redd, P. Shaw, C. Hendrix Jr.
processing of common juices such as citrus,
and D. Hendrix.
apple, grape juice and tropical fruits. Also sec-
Publisher: AgScience Inc., Florida.
tions on nutritional value, fruit juice legislation
A comprehensive review of state-of-the-art
and authenticity control for orange juice. Indi-
knowledge on respective topics. Sections cover:
vidual contributors to respective sections come
flavours, speciality and by-products; raw prod-
from the juice and supplier industry.
uct as applied to processing; processing param-
Fruit Juice Processing Technology
eters. The editors of this series of books have
1993, 713 pp. long experience in the Florida citrus industry,
Editors: S. Nagy, C.S. Chen and P. Shaw. particularly with flavours and by-products.
Publisher: AgScience Inc, Florida.
Handbook of Citrus By-Products
16 sections covering fruit processing of citrus
and Processing Technology.
fruits and several tropical fruits, berries and
1999, 247 pp.
apples (total 22 types of fruit). It gives an over-
Author: R. J. Braddock
view of how the various fruits are processed
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NY.
and what equipment can be used.
17 chapters detailing citrus juice and by-prod-
Quality Control Manual for ucts manufacture. Included are details of juice
Citrus Processing Plants
and thermal processing including concentrate,
Vol. I, revised 1986, 250 pp. NFC, enzyme inactivation kinetics, the proper-
Editors: J. Redd, D. Hendrix and C. Hendrix Jr. ties and manufacture of citrus essential oils, d-
Publisher: AgScience Inc., Florida. limonene chemistry and properties, dried pulp
9 sections covering regulations, analytical and descriptions of other citrus by-products.
methods, microbiology and conversion charts.
Citrus Processing: Quality
It is intended for plant technologists and others
Control and Technology
involved with analyses and understanding plant
1991, 473 pp.
operating procedures. The first of 3 books
Author: Dan A. Kimball.
compiling and presenting comprehensive infor-
Publisher: AVI Book of Van Nostrand Reinhold.
mation about citrus processing.
A comprehensive book describing in detail cit-
rus juice properties and processing technology
from an analytical and quality control point of
view. Analytical methods are included.
Enlarged 2nd edition published in 1999.

201
 14.1 Books on orange juice
Technical Manual - Reconstituted
Florida Orange Juice
and
Technical Manual - Freshly Squeezed
Florida Orange Juice
1985
Publisher: Florida Department of Citrus,
Scientific Research Department, University
of Florida -IFAS-CREC.
Includes instructions, regulations and analytical
procedures for production, packaging and dis-
tribution of respective products. These manuals
are specific to Florida.
Other books on citrus fruit
An Illustrated Guide to Citrus
Varieties of the World
2nd edition, 2000, 160 pp.
Author: J. Saunt.
Publisher: Sinclair International Ltd, UK.
Descriptions and colour illustrations of orange
and other citrus varieties.
Compendium on Citrus Diseases
2nd edition, 2000, 128pp.
Editors: L.W. Timmer, S.M. Garnesey,
J.H. Graham.
Publisher: APS American Phytopathological
Society Press, Minnesota.
Descriptions of citrus diseases and classifica-
tion of pathogens. Colour pictures for disease
diagnosis.
14.2 References
Below follows a list of publications to which
reference is made in various sections of The
Orange Book.
Articles and scientific papers
Ackermann, P.W. and Wartenberg, E.W.
“Shelf life of citrus juices. A comparison be-
tween packages.” International Federation of
Fruit Juice Producers, Scientific Technical
Commission XIX, Symposium The Hague,
1986; 143-160.
Braddock, R.J. and Sadler, G.D.
“Chemical changes in citrus juice during con-
centration processes.” American Chemical Soci-
ety Symposium Series, 1989 (405); chapter 22.
202
Chen, Chin Shu
“Mathematical correlations for calculation of
Brix-apparent density of sucrose solutions.”
Lebensmittel.-Wissenschaft.Technol, 1989
(22); 154-156.
Dürr, P., Schobinger, U., and Waldvogel, R.
“Aroma quality of orange juice after filling and
storage in soft packages and glass bottles.”
Alimenta, 1981 (20); 91-93.
Goodrich, R.M. and Brown, M.G.
”European Markets for NFC: Supply and De-
mand Issues.” Presented at the 7th International
Economic Outlook Conference for Citrus and
Non-Citrus Juices, Orlando, Florida, 2000.
Johnson, J.D. and Vora, J.D.
“Natural citrus essence: production and appli-
cation.” Presented at the 43rd Annual Meeting
of International Food Technologists, New Orle-
ans, Louisiana, 1983.
Kanner, J., Fishbein, J., Shalom, P.,
Harel, S., and Ben-Gera, I.
“Storage stability of orange juice concentrate
packaged aseptically.” Journal of Food Science,
1982 ( 47); 429.
Mannheim, Chaim and Havkin, Margalit.
“Shelf life of aseptically bottled orange juice.”
Journal of Food Processing and Preservation,
1981 (5); 1-6.
Nonino, Eliseu A.
“Orange juice quality upgrading.” Fruit
Processing, 1995; issue no. 11, 372-374.
Pieper, Gabrielle; Borgudd, Lars;
Ackermann, Paul and Fellers, Paul.
“Absorption of aroma volatiles of orange juice
into laminated carton packages did not affect
sensory quality.” Journal of Food Science, 1992
(57), issue no. 6, 1408-1411.
Redd, J.B.
“Distillation Systems.” Presented at the Annual
short course for the food industry, International
Food Technologists, University of Florida,
Gainsville, Florida, 1976.
Shapton, D.A., Lovelock, D.W.
and Laurita-Longo, R.
“The evaluation of sterilisation and pasteurisa-
tion processes from temperature measurements
in degrees Celsius.” Journal of Applied Bacteri-
ology, 1971 (34); issue no. 2, 491-500.
 14.1 Books on orange juice
Other published and unpublished material
Internet links valid August 2004
Citrus fruit, fresh and processed:
Annual statistics 2002.
FAO: Rome, Italy.
Accessible at www.fao.org/es/ESC
Citrus Reference Book 2004.
Florida Department of Citrus:
Lakeland, Florida.
www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/citrus/pubs/index.htm
Code of Practice: Reference Guideline
for Orange Juice, 2003.
AIJN: Brussels, Belgium.
Compass Market Statistics.
Internal publication.
Tetra Pak: Lund, Sweden, 2002.
Dairy Processing Handbook.
Tetra Pak: Lund, Sweden, 2003.
Fruit Beverages in the US, 2000.
Beverage Marketing Corp.: New York, USA.
Fruit/Vegetable Juice Country Reports 2004.
Euromonitor: London, UK.
Givaudan Roure, Florida, USA.
Personal communication.
Livsmedelstabell Energi och Näringsämnen.
Statens Livsmedelsverk: Uppsala, Sweden.
Redd, J.B. and Praschan V.
Quality Control Manual for
Citrus Processing Plants.
AgScience Inc.: Auburndale, Florida, 1975.
Robertson, Gordon L.
Food Packaging: Principles and Practice.
Marcel Dekker Inc.: New York, USA, 1993.
Soft Drinks Report 2003.
Canadean: London, UK.
Technical Vademecum: Beverage manual.
Döhler-Eurocitrus: Darmstadt, Germany, 1999.
203
USDA Foreign Agricultural
Services -GAIN reports 2003.
Citrus annual reports for various countries.
USDA FAS: Washington D.C., USA.
Accessible at www.fas.usda.gov
Vattenbenbehandlingsmetoder.
(Water treatment methods.)
Vattenteknik AB: Malmö, Sweden, 1992.
Publications on fruit juice regulations
Australian New Zealand Food Standards
Code -Standard 2.6.1, 2000.
Valid for Fruit Juice and Vegetable Juice.
FSANZ Food Standards Australia New Zealand:
Canberra, Australia.
www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/Standard261_
Juice_v62.pdf
Codex Alimentarius - Codex Standard 45, 1981.
Covers orange juice preserved exclusively by
physical means.
Codex Alimentarius Commission/FAO:
Rome, Italy.
ftp.fao.org/codex/standard/en/CXS_045e.pdf
or via
www.codexalimentarius.net/web/standard_
list.do?lang=en
European regulation for fruit juice - Council
Directive 2001/112/EC, 2001.
Covers fruit juices and certain similar products
intended for human consumption.
Council of the European Union:
Brussels, Belgium.
http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2002/l_010/
l_01020020112en00580066.pdf
United States Standards for Grades
of Orange Juice, 1983.
USDA, Agricultural Marketing Services:
Washington DC, USA.
www.ams.usda.gov/standards/cnorange.pdf
Juice HAACP Hazard and
Controls Guidance, 2004.
US FDA, Center for Food Safety & Applied
Nutrition: College Park, MD, USA.
www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/juicgu10.html
 14.3 Useful websites
14.3 Useful websites
Internet links valid August 2004
Below is a list of useful websites covering
the orange juice industry.
ABECITRUS -The Brazilian Association
of Citrus Exporters.
Presentation of Brazil orange juice industry
incl. research studies and export statistics.
www.abecitrus.com.br
CREC- Citrus Research and Education Center
at University of Florida.
Website includes information about citrus train-
ing courses, events and research publications.
www.lal.ufl.edu
Citrus Flavour and Colour
Very informative website published by
the flavour research team at CREC.
www.crec.ifas.ufl.edu/rouseff/
FDOC - Florida Department of Citrus
Website for and about the Florida citrus industry
including commercial and regulatory news.
www.floridajuice.com
FDOC - Florida Department of Citrus
Economic and Market Research
Comprehensive website incl. production
and market data on citrus in various
databases and publications.
www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/citrus
Ultimate Citrus - The Ultimate Citrus Page
A comprehensive list of websites covering
the citrus industry.
www.ultimatecitrus.com
204
UNCTAD* Info Comm - Market information
in the commodities area - Citrus Fruit
Overview of production, manufacturing
and trade.
*United Nations Conference On Trade And Development
http://r0.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/orange/
market.htm
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization
of the UN
Statistics on fruit crop, processing
and utilisation.
www.fao.org/es/ESC
Codex Alimentarius Commission
Joint FAO/WHO food standards programme.
www.codexalimentarius.net
AIJN - Association of the Industry of Juices
and Nectars From Fruits and Vegetables
of the European Union.
www.aijn.org
IFU - The International Federation
of Fruit Juice Producers
www.ifu-fruitjuice.com
JPA - Juice Products Association
www.juiceproducts.org
TCJJP - Technical Committee for Juice
and Juice Products
www.tcjjp.org
Index

Topic Page Topic Page

Acetaldehydes 138-140 Categories of orange juice 28

Acidity 21 Clarification 72
Acids 21 Cloud 22, 60
Acid-tolerant bacteria 54 Cloud loss 60
Activated carbon filtration 115 California 13
Adulteration 188 Caribbean 13
Ad Valorem tariffs 39 Carton-based packages 161, 162
AIJN quality requirements 19, 186 Central America 13
Air – see Oxygen Centrifugal clarification 73
Albedo 6,7 Centrifuges 73, 75, 84, 85
Alcohols – basic structure 157 China 3, 4, 14
– in flavour fractions 139, 140 Chlorination of water 115
Aldehydes – basic structure 157 Citrus aurantium 3
– in flavour fractions 139,140 Citrus molasses 9
Australia 14, 186 Citrus reticulata 3
Aroma compounds – basic structure 157 Citrus sinensis 3
Ascorbic acid – see vitamin C Cleaning-in-place (CIP) 108, 131
Aseptic buffer 128 Colour 25, 154
Aseptic storage Colour measurement 25
In tanks 77 Colour changes in packaged juice 154
In bag-in-box containers 112 Comminuted citrus base 8
Aseptic transfer of NFC juice 130 Composition of orange juice 27
Concentrated orange juice
Categories 28
Impact of long-term storage 49
Bacteria 54 Storage at the juice processor 83
Bag-in-box bulk containers 78, 112 Storage at the juice packer 110, 111
Barrier properties of packaging 152, 156 Consumption of orange juice
Bitterness 25 By categories 174, 175
Blending houses 35, 102 Consumer preference 176-178
Blending systems Worldwide 40, 42, 43
Batch blending 106, 119
In-line blending 107, 120
Bottles – as packaging 161, 163-165
Brazil Deaeration 76, 116, 122, 125
Fruit processors 34 Deaerators 52, 54, 125
Orange production 3-5, 10-16 Dealkalisation of water 114
Orange varieties grown 12 Debittering 92
Growers 33 Defect removal from pulp 89
Harvesting 10, 11 Density measurement 20, 21
Shipping FCOJ to Europe 96 Deoiler oils 138
Break bulk 96 Depot – retailer´s 170
Brix 20, 21 Diacetyl 54
Brix corrections 20 Direct product profitability (DPP) 173
Browning 26, 154 Diseases - orange crop 4
Bulk juice products Distillation for concentrating flavours 141
Frozen storage 76 Distilled oils 138
Impact of long-term storage 49 Distribution of packaged products 169
Shipping costs 100 Distribution units 171
Transport and handling 93 Drum emptying of concentrate 111
Bulk processors 34, 35

205
 Index

Topic Page Topic Page

Fruit reception 65
Fruit sizer 68
Endocarp 7 Futures market 38
Enzymes 59, 60
Essence aroma
Major components 138
Related to flavour 24, 137, 138 Glass bottles 161, 163-165
Essence oil Grade A (Florida) 19, 184
Major components 138 Grading of orange fruit 67
Related to flavour 24, 137, 139
Essence recovery 82, 92
Esters – basic structure 157
– in flavour fractions 138, 139 Harvesting seasons 4, 5
Ethyl butyrate 138 Heat exchangers
Evaporator systems Plate 80, 123
Centrifugal 82 Tubular 79, 123
Plate 80 Henry’s law 53
Tubular 79 Hermetic centrifuges 75, 85
Export of FCOJ 10 Hesperidin flavonoid 27
Extractor types 68 Homogenisation as part of evaporation 81
Hot filling 129, 165
Hybrid oranges 3
Hydrocarbons – basic structure 157
Feed mill operations 86 – in flavour fractions 138
Finishers 73, 89, 91 Hydrocyclone 89
Flavedo 6,7
Flavonoids 27
Flavour
Changes in flavour during processing 48 Import duties with typical examples 41
Quality parameters 23 Import of orange juice 39
Standardisation 140 Industry structure 32
Volatile 136 Iron removal from water 114
Flavour scalping 158, 159 Isotope analysis 189
Flavour systems 142
Flocculation for water treatment 114
Florida
Fruit processors 34, 35 Japan 14, 41
Orange production 4, 6, 12 Juice extraction 68
Orange varieties grown 12 Juice packers
Growers 33 Overview 36, 104, 105
Harvesting 4, 12 Process lines 105-109
Folding of oils 140 Juice sac 6, 7
Folic acid 27 Juice vesicle 6, 7
Fortified orange juices 29
Freeze concentration 83
Frozen Concentrated Orange Juice (FCOJ)
Bulk shipping 95
Commodity trading and futures market 38 Korea - Republic of 41
Commodity trading, units 38
Definition 5
Microflora 57
Terminals for receiving products 100 Lactic acid bacteria 54
Types 29 Laminated carton material 161, 162
Fruit growers 33 Light refraction measurement 20
Fruit processor – types of 34
Fruit processing – overview 64

206
 Index

Topic Page Topic Page

Light – impact on packaged juice 156 Oxygen

d-Limonene 24, 25, 138, 139, 156, 157 Effect on products 50, 152, 154
Limonin 92 Problems caused by oxygen 52
Removal from liquids 53
Sources 51
Solubility 51
Maillard reaction 154 Ozone treatment of water 115
Major orange-growing regions 3
Mandarin orange 3
Manganese removal from water 114
Marketing processors 34, 35 Packages
Mediterranean 4, 15 Bottles 163
Membrane filtration 83 Carton-based 161, 162
Mexico 13 Properties of 157
Microflora of different products 57 Types 160
Microorganisms in orange juice 54 Packaging
Moulds 56 Quality parameters 151
Secondary 171
Tertiary 172
Types of system 160
Nanofiltration of water 115 Pasteurisation
Nectars 29, 108, 116, 179 At the juice packer 124
Not-from-concentrate (NFC) Primary 59, 61, 76
Aseptic transfer 130 Purpose 59
Bulk shipping 97 Secondary 59, 61
Definition 5 Related to deaeration 122
Frozen storage 76 System control 126
Impact of long-term storage 49 Time-temperature conditions for PME 60
Microflora 57 Pasteurisation units 126
Production 74 Pathogenic microorganisms 56
Reprocessing 78 Pectin 9, 22, 49, 60
Types 28 Pectin methyl esterase (PME) 59-61
Peel oil
Concentration 84
Major components 138-140
Off-flavours 48, 49, 155, 157 Polishing 85
Off-colours 26, 154 Recovery 84
Oil content 24, 144 Related to flavour 23, 137-139
Oil content measurement 24 Winterisation 85
Orange crop diseases 4 Pigging (as part of CIP) 133
Oil extraction 71 Plastic bottles 163, 164
Oil reduction 75 Plato 199
Orange fruit Polymers – properties of 157
Growers 33 Press liquor 86, 87
Products 8, 9 Pricing of bulk juice products 37
Primary 8 Processing – impact on juice quality 46
Secondary (by-products) 8, 9 Processing plant – overview 64
Structure 6, 7 Pulp
Orange juice categories 28 Floating pulp 7, 23, 142
Orange juice consumer 174 Production 86
Orange juice consumption 42, 43 Quality 144
Orange juice quality 18 Terminology 143
Orange nectar 29 Sinking pulp 7, 22
Orange varieties 10-12, 25 Pulp wash production 92
Orifice tube 70 Pulpy juice 68, 143
Origin of orange fruit 2 PVG 49, 155

207
 Index

Topic Page Topic Page

Quality control 110, 134 Tangerine varieties 3

Quality of orange juice 18, 19 Terminals for FCOJ 100
Quick Fibre 145 Terminals for NFC 101
Terpenes 139-141
Thawing of solid frozen product 111
Thermal processing 61
Ratio 21 Trade tariff terms 39
Reamer-type extractor 71 Trading 38
Ready-to-drink (RTD) orange juice 28 Turbofilters 74
Reclaim product 112
Refractometer 21, 121
Regulations
Australia and New Zealand 186 UV treatment of water 115
European Union 30, 184
Far East 187
Juice quality 30
Latin America 186 4-vinyl guaiacol (PVG) 49, 155
Middle East 187 Vitamin C
USA and Canada 30, 183 Content in orange and some other fruits 26
Retailers – handling and distributing Degradation in packaged juice 152, 153
products 169, 170 Impact of oxygen on vitamin C degradation 48
Reverse osmosis 115 Volatile flavours 24, 136, 156
Rework product 112
Rotary press extractors 69

Water
Deaeration 116
For processing 47
Sand filtration of water 114 Hardness 113
Shipping costs 100 Quality at the juice packer 112, 113
Shipping FCOJ 95, 96 Treatment at the juice packer 113
Shipping NFC 97-99 Winterisation of peel oil 85
Squeezer-type extractor 69 World citrus/orange production 2-5, 10-16
Soft-drink producers 37
Solvent extraction for concentrating flavours 141
South Africa 16
Spectrophotometry 22, 25 Yeasts 55
Spore-forming microorganisms 56 Yield of juice from an orange 8
Stabilisation 90
Standards
Juice composition and labelling 182
Codex Alimentarius 187
State Test extractor 34
Storage
Concentrate at juice packer 110, 111
Fruit 67
Pulp 91
Still fruit drinks 108, 116, 179
Strainer tube 70
Sugars 20
Suspended solids measurement 22

208
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