Heat treatment of Metals

1. Introduction
The key to improve the material property is to
change its structure at atomic level. This can be
achieved through
(i) Alloying- adding other elements
(ii) Heat Treatment- controlled heating and
cooling
(iii) Mechanical Working- cold or hot deformation
 Heat- treatment
• Heat treatment is an operation involving heating and
cooling of solid metals at pre-decided controlled rates
so as to achieve properties suitable for its proper
performance.

• Properties changes which occur in the metal are

associated with changes in the nature ,form ,size and
distribution of phases at micro level (microstructural
changes).
Heating – Soaking- Cooling
Heat treatment –Basic Varaibles

Heating -> Soaking -> Cooling

Temperature Time of soaking Rate of cooling

Medium of cooling

- Different combinations of the above

parameters
- Different compositions of materials and initial
phases of materials Different heat treatments
 2. Purpose of heat treatment
(1)Soften the metal prior to shaping; improve
machinability
(2)Relieve the effects of strain hardening that
occurs during cold forming
(3) To relieve internal stresses induced by some
previous treatment such as rolling, forging etc
(4)Refine grain size
(5)Achieve the final strength and hardness
required in the finished product by converting
existing phases in to the desired phases
 Heat-Treatment
Various heat treatments

• Annealing
• Normalising
• Spherodising
• Hardening
• Age Hardening
Metals – Phase diagram for Iron and Carbon

Eutectic

Eutectoi
d
Fe3C
 Non-equilibrium phases
• Iron carbon diagram does not give complete
picture of the phases forming under faster
cooling rates. Additional phases which can form
under fast cooling are
Martensite,
Upper bainite ,
Lower bainite ,
Side plate ferrite or Widmanstatten ferrite
and
Acicular ferrite
Formation of these phase can be understood by
TTT Diagrams
 TTT- Diagrams
• When austenite is quenched in baths held at constant
temperatures, the rate of transformation is dependent at
the temperature at which bath is held.
• The time required for the beginning and completion of
transformation of austenite are plotted against
temperature.
• The curve generated is known as time-temperature-
transformation or TTT-curve.
• On X- axis log scale is used to plot time.
• Ae1 and Ae3 represent the equilibrium transformation
temperatures.
• Austenite is completely stable above Ae3, partially stable
between Ae3 and Ae1and completely unstable below Ae1 ,
transforming to different phases with time at constant
temperatures in salt bath.
5. TTT curve Schematic
TTT DIAGRAMS
 TTT curve
-Left side boundary indicates the start of transformation o
austenite to different phases
-Right side boundary indicates the completion of the
transformation
-Most rapid transformation of austenite occurs at 550°C
and at/ below 250°C
- Austenite transform to various phases depending upon th
temperature of the bath
Pearlite, P
Bainite, B Upper bainite , lower bainite
Alternative forms of ferrite-carbide mixtures- acicular
Structures Forming in Steel
 Formation of Pearlite
• The upper left line indicates formation of
Ferrite which is single phase and can form
under equilibrium conditions also.
• Curve just right to it, represent the
transformation of remaining austenite to
two phase ferrite-carbide aggregate, called
pearlite.
• At about 700°C the formation of nuclei is
slow, growth is fast to form coarse pearlite.
• As the transformation temperature is
lowered, the pearlite becomes finer.
A variety of microstructures & hence properties can be obtained in steel
by controlled cooling
Pearlitic structure is lamellar with
alternate bands of ferrite + pearlite

Faster cooling
V. Fine pearlite 35 – 40 Rc

Fast cooling
Fine pearlite 20 – 25 Rc
( air cooled )

Slow cooling
Coarse pearlite 5 – 10 Rc
( furnace cooled )

Cooling rate
 Bainite Formation
• Between 500°C and 350°C upper bainite is
suppose to form.
• It is feathery structure
• Below 350°C lower bainite forms/
• It is ferrite needles containing carbide
precipitates at 55°.
 Martensite formation
• In cooling to 250°C, no diffusion is possible
• A phase known as Martensite forms at high
speed.
• The amount of martensite formed is practically
independent of time and depends on the
temperature at which the steel is held.
• Some austenite is retained in a quenched steel
which can only be decreased by lowering the
temperature further.
• This is the reason some steels are given sub
zero treatment.
 Ms temperature
• Ms: the temperature Martensite starts to form.
• Ms depends on alloy and carbon content ; some
elements can bring it lower than room
temperature
• Mf temperature of the finish of martensite
formation
• Martensite formation start temperature (Ms) is
progressively lowered as the carbon content
increase.
C% 0.02 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.2
Ms°C 520 490 420 250 150
Mf is about 215°C below the Ms
 Effect of alloys on TTT-Curve
• TTT-curve are overlapping curves for ferrite,
pearlite, bainite.
• Carbon, nickel, manganese, silicon and copper
move both pearlite and bainite C-curve to right.
TTT-curve for lower carbon steels will be more to
the left.
• Mo,Cr and Vanadium moves the pearlite curve to
the right and displace it upward to higher
temperature. Bainite curve is not moved to right
but is depressed to lower temperature. Thus
there may be two noses to the curve.
 Other factors affecting TTT-Curve
• Increasing the austenitic grain size shifts
the pearlite curve to the right.
• Grain size have little effect on the rate of
formation of Bainite.
• Structural in-homogeneities such as
undissolved carbides nucleates the
pearlite rapidly and shifts the curve to the
left
 CCT-Curve
• TTT-Curve displays transformation at
constant temperature, while most hardening
operations involves continuous cooling.
• TTT-Curve obtained under continuous
cooling conditions occupies a position
downward and to the right of orininal curve.
CCT Diagram
CCT DIAGRAMS
 Critical Cooling Rate

• Critical Cooling Rate is defined as the lowest

cooling rate which produces 100% Martensite.
• If hard martensitic structure is to be avoided,
cooling rate shall be slower than critical cooling
rate.
• In case martensite is the desired product, the
cooling rate of the component has to be faster
than the critical cooling rate
Critical Cooling Rate
Annealing

• Full annealing
• Normalizing
• Process Anneal
- Recrystallization anneal
- Recovery Anneal
• Stress-relief annealing
 4. Annealing

Heat -> Soaking -> Cooling

-Reduce hardness and brittleness

-Alter microstructure for desired mechanical
properties
-Soften metals to improve formability
-Recrystalize cold worked (strain hardened)
metals
-Relieve stress from shaping
 Full Annealing
• Full annealing is the process of slowly raising the temperature
about 50 ºC (90 ºF) above the Austenitic temperature line A3 or line
ACM in the case of Hypoeutectoid steels (steels with < 0.80%
Carbon) and 50 ºC (90 ºF) into the Austenite-Cementite region in
the case of Hypereutectoid steels (steels with > 0.80% Carbon).

• It is held at this temperature for sufficient time for all the material
to transform into Austenite or Austenite-Cementite as the case may
be. It is then slowly cooled at the rate of about 20 ºC/hr (36 ºF/hr) in
a furnace to about 50 ºC (90 ºF) into the Ferrite-Cementite range. At
this point, it can be cooled in room temperature air with natural
convection.

• The grain structure has coarse Pearlite with ferrite or Cementite

(depending on whether hypo or hyper eutectoid). The steel becomes
soft and ductile.
 Normalizing
• Normalizing is the process of raising the temperature to
over 60ºC (108 ºF), above line A3 or line Acm fully into the
Austenite range. It is held at this temperature to fully
convert the structure into Austenite, and then removed
form the furnace and cooled at room temperature under
natural convection. This results in a grain structure of
fine Pearlite with excess of Ferrite or Cementite. The
resulting material is soft; the degree of softness
depends on the actual ambient conditions of cooling.
This process is considerably cheaper than full annealing
since there is not the added cost of controlled furnace
cooling.
Heat treatment to form Martensite

Austenitising:
heat up to a temperature 30 to 50 degree above
critical temperature to form austenite and
cooled at very fast rate to obtain Martensitic
structure
Quenching: cooling media:
brine: the fastest;
air: the slowest
Carbon containing martensite is very hard and
brittle
5. Heat treatment to form Martensite phase
Austenitizing – quenching - tempering
 Hardening of Iron

• Martensite is very hard phase when

containing some carbon.
• It can be obtained by fast cooling of steel
from austenitic condition.
• To impart some toughness, it needs to be
softened by tempering treatment
 Quechants
• a quenching medium should be selected that will cool
rapidly at the higher temperatures and more slowly at the
lower temperatures
• Quenching in Water: there is greater danger of cracking
in a fresh-water bath than in one containing salt water or
brine.
• Quenching in Water: In order to secure more even
cooling and reduce danger of cracking, either rock salt
(7 or 8 per cent) or caustic soda (3 to 5 per cent) may be
added to the bath to eliminate or prevent the formation
of a vapor film or gas pockets, thus promoting rapid early
cooling.
• Brine is not inherently a more severe or drastic
quenching medium than plain water, although it may
seem to be because the brine makes better contact with
the heated steel and, consequently, cooling is more
effective
 Consideration in Selecting Quenchants
• The size, composition, and initial temperature of the part and final
properties are the deciding factors in selecting the quenching
medium. A quenching medium must cool the metal at a rate rapid
enough to produce the desired results.
• The composition of the metal determines the maximum cooling
rate possible without the danger of cracking or warping. This critical
cooling rate, in turn, influences the choice of the quenching medium.
• The cooling rate of any quenching medium varies with its
temperature; therefore, to get uniform results, temperature must be
kept within prescribed limits.
• The volume of quenching liquid should be large enough to absorb all
the heat during a normal quenching operation without the use of
additional cooling. As more metals are quenched, the liquid absorbs
the heat and this temperature rise causes a decrease in the cooling
rate. Since quenching liquids must be maintained within definite
temperature ranges, mechanical means are used to keep the
temperature at prescribed levels during continuous operations.
 Properties and Average Cooling Abilities of
Quenching Media

 
•

                                                                                                   
 Quenching Procedure
• The temperature of the hardening bath has a great deal
to do with the hardness obtained.
• The higher the temperature of the quenching water, the
more nearly does its effect approach that of oil;
• If boiling water is used for quenching, it will have an
effect even more gentle than that of oil, in fact, it would
leave the steel nearly soft.
• The bath should be amply large to dissipate the heat
rapidly.
• Irregularly shaped parts should be immersed so that the
heaviest or thickest section enters the bath first.
• After immersion, the part to be hardened should be
agitated in the bath; the agitation reduces the tendency
of the formation of a vapor coating on certain surfaces,
and a more uniform rate of cooling is obtained.
Effect of Agitation during Quenching
 Oil Quenching
• Oil is used to quench high-speed and oil-
hardened steels and is preferred for all other
steels provided that the required hardness can
be obtained.
• Practically any type of quenching oil is
obtainable, including the various animal oils, fish
oils, vegetable oils, and mineral oils.
• Oil is classed as an intermediate quench. It has
a slower cooling rate than brine or water and a
faster rate than air.
• The quenching oil temperature should be kept
within a range of 80°F to 150°F.
 Agitation of Quenchant
• The absorption of heat by the quenching
medium also depends, to a large extent,
on the circulation of the quenching
medium or the movement of the part.
Agitation of the liquid or the part breaks
up the gas that forms an insulating
blanket between the part and the liquid.
 Air
• Air quenching is used for cooling some
highly alloyed steels.
• When use still air, each tool or part should
be placed on a suitable rack so the air can
reach all sections of the piece.
• Parts cooled with circulated air are placed
in the same manner and arranged for
uniform cooling.
• Compressed air is used to concentrate the
cooling on specific areas of a part.
Tempering

Tempering: heat up to temperature below

eutectiod
soak for one hour & slow cooling
BCT to BCC
Tempering temperature vary very widely
depending on carbon and alloying elements.
Temperature also depend on the purpose for
which the steel is finally to be used.
Effect of Tempering on Mechanical
Properties
 Quench cracks
• Quench cracks forms due to Expansion/ contraction
during transformation .
• It also result due to uneven contraction at surface and
interior of the part during quenching process
• However these will be form to greater extent
i) Due to the presence of inclusions, cementite masses
etc.
ii) When the austenite is coarse grained.
iii) Due to uneven quenching.
iv) In pieces of irregular sections where there are sharp
re-entrant angles.
 Hardenability

- It is the relative capacity of a steel to be hardened by

transformation to martensite; hardness penetration

- Hardenability = Hardness ? No

-Hardenability is the measure of the depth to which a steel will

harden on quenching

-Maximum hardness is mainly a function of the carbon content

-alloying elements increase the hardenability:

-They shift the CCT curve to right:

-Increase the time to start the transformation of Austenite to

Martensite
 Factors affecting Hardenability
• Quenching medium and method of quenching.
• Composition of steel and method of manufacturing.
• Section of the steel.

• Same cooling rate is not experienced throughout the

section of a steel bar. Progressively slower rate of
cooling is experienced from surface to inside of a bar.
• For given composition there is a particular cooling rate
which produces completely martensitic structure.
• Or for each composition there will be largest diameter
which can be thoroughly hardened.
 Hardenability Cont.

• One of the function of the alloying elements is to have

large diameter bars to be hardened fully.
• All elements such as Ni, Cr and Mn, which shifts the TTT-
Curve to the right, increase the depth of hardening for
same conditions of hardening.
Viz .045 C steel bar of 76 mm gives a hardness of 212
BHN in WQ & Tempered condition, 3% Ni and 15 Cr steel
at 0.31 %C gives 285 BHN in OQ and tempered condition.
It has been found that small addition of a number of
alloying elements are more effective than an equivalent
total addition of one element.
Jominy test gives a measure of the hardenability by using
the 100 mm long 25 mm dia bar
 Martempering
• Martempering is the process of forming
martensite with minimum of distortion.
• The piece is cooled faster than critical
cooling rate down to just above the
martensite transformation temperature. It
is held at this temperature in salt bath for
sufficiently long time for temperature to
become through out the section and then
cooled in air to allow it to transform to
martensite.
 Austempering
• The steel in austenitic condition above
Ae3 is cooled at a faster than critical
cooling rate to the bainitic region.
• The piece is held at this temperature in
salt bath until all the austenite is
transformed to bainite.
• Bainitic structure produced in this way is
free from cracks and posses much better
impact strength.
7. Surface heat treatment

1) Thermo chemical treatment

2) Composition of part surface altered by addition
of other elements
3) Adding of carbon, nitrogen, or other elements

Carburizing Nitriding

Carbonitriding
Surface heat treatment
Pack carburizing- Pack
- Carburizing
carbonaceous materials (charcoal);
Very thick hard outer layer

Gas carburizing- Diffuse

Hydrocarbon fuels (propane in a
furnace); thin hard outer layer

Liquid carburizing- Diffuse molten

salt bath containing sodium
- Low hardness
- Ductile cyanide, barium chloride, and other
- Capable of compounds; medium sized hard
withstanding stress outer layer
Surface heat treatment

Carburizing -> HRC 60, Thickness: 0.025 – 4 mm

Nitriding -> HRC 70, Thickness: 0.025 – 0.05 mm
Carbonitriding -> HRC 70, Thickness: 0.07-0.5
mm
Chromizing and Boronizing -> HRC 70
SURFACE HARDENING METHODS
- flame hardening
- induction heating
- Laser beam heating