Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1
Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers
1.2
Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review
1.3
Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction
1.4
Failure Criteria of Materials
1.5
Review
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers
2

Section 1.1
Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated
PDMS Fingers
Problem Description

[1] The pneumatic

[2] A single
fingers are part of a
finger is studied in
surgical parallel robot
this case.
system remotely
controlled by a surgeon
through the Internet.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers
3

5
[3] [4] The strain-stress
Geometric 4 curve of the PDMS
model. elastomer used in

Stress (MPa)
this case.
3

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Strain (Dimensionless)

[6] Undeformed
shape.

[5] As air pressure

applies, the finger bends
downward.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers
4

Static Structural Simulations

[1] Prepare [4] Set up loads

material and supports.
properties.

[2] Create [5] Solve the

geometric model. model.

[3] Generate finite [6] View the

element mesh. results.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers
5

[8] Strains.

[7] Displacements.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers
6

Buckling and Stress-Stiffening

• Stress-stiffening: bending stiffness increases with increasing axial tensile stress, e.g., guitar string.
• The opposite also holds: bending stiffness decreases with increasing axial compressive stress.
• Buckling: phenomenon when bending stiffness reduces to zero, i.e., the structure is unstable.
Usually occurs in slender columns, thin walls, etc.
• Purpose of a buckling analysis is to find buckling loads and buckling modes.

[2] The upper surface would

undergo compressive stress.
It in turn reduces the bending
stiffness.
[1] If we apply
an upward
force here...
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers
7

Dynamic Simulations

• When the bodies move and

deform very fast, inertia effect
and damping effect must be
considered.
• When including these
dynamic effects, it is called a
dynamic simulation.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers
8

Modal Analysis

• A special case of dynamic

simulations is the simulation of free
vibrations, the vibrations of a
structure without any loading.
• It is called a modal analysis.
• Purpose of a modal analysis is to
find natural frequencies and mode
shapes.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.1 Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers
9

Structural Nonlinearities

[2] Solution of the

• Linear simulations assume that linear simulation pf
the PDMS finger.
the response is linearly 0

proportional to the loading. -5

• When the solution deviates from

Deflection (mm)
-10
the reality, a nonlinear simulation
-15
is needed. [1] Solution of the
-20 nonlinear simulation
• Structural nonlinearities come of the PDMS finger.

from large deformation, topology -25

changes, nonlinear stress-strain -30

0 40 80 120 160 200
relationship, etc. Pressure (kPa)
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review
10

Section 1.2
Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review

• Engineering simulation: finding the responses of a problem domain subject to

environmental conditions.
• Structural simulation: finding the responses of bodies subject to
environmental conditions.
• The bodies are described by geometries and materials.
• Environment conditions include support and loading conditions.
• Responses can be described by displacements, strains, and stresses.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review
11

Displacements

{u} = { uX uY uZ } [3] An arbitrary particle

of position (X,Y, Z), before
[5] The displacement
vector {u} of the particle is
the deformation. formed by connecting the
positions before and after
the deformation.

[4] After the

[1] The body before deformation, the
deformation. particle moves to a
new position.

[2] The body after

X deformation.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review
12

Stresses
[3] This face is called
negative X-face.
⎧ σ τ XY τ XZ ⎫ [2] This face is
⎪⎪ X ⎪⎪ Z
{ }
σ = ⎨ τ YX σY τ YZ ⎬ called X-face, since the
X-direction is normal σZ
⎪ ⎪
⎪⎩ τ ZX τ ZY σZ ⎪
⎭ to this face.

τ ZX
τ ZY
τ XY = τ YX , τ YZ = τ ZY , τ XZ = τ ZX [5] The Y-
component of the
stress on X-face.
τ YX
{σ } = { σ X
σY σZ τ XY τ YZ τ ZX } τ XY

τ YZ σY
σX τ XZ

X Y
[4] The X-component
of the stress on X-face.
[6] The Z-component
[1] The reference of the stress on X-face.
frame XYZ.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review
13

Strains [3] After

deformation,
[5] Translate A′B ′′C ′′ so ABC moves to [4] To compare with
A′B ′C ′ . original configuration,
that A′ coincides with A. rotate A′B ′C ′ to a new
The new configuration is configuration A′B ′′C ′′ .
AB ′′′C ′′′ . Now CC ′′′ is the C ′′
C′
amount of stretch of ABC in
Y-face.

C ′′′ B ′′
C
A′ B′
[1] The reference Y
frame. B ′′′

A B D
[7] And the vector
X
DB ′′′ describes the twist
BB ′′′ of ABC in X-face.
Strain on X-face =
AB
[2] Original
configuration ABC.
BD DB ′′′ [6] The vector BD
εX = , γ XY =
AB AB describes the stretch of
ABC in X-face.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review
14

• Physical meaning of strains: ⎧ ε

⎪⎪ X
γ XY γ XZ ⎫
⎪⎪
• The normal strain ε X is the {} ε = ⎨ γ YX εY γ YZ ⎬
⎪ ⎪
percentage of stretch of a fiber which ⎪⎩ γ ZX γ ZY εZ ⎪
⎭
lies along X-direction.
• The shear strain γ XY is the angle γ XY = γ YX , γ YZ = γ ZY , γ XZ = γ ZX
change (in radian) of two fibers lying
on XY-plane and originally forming a {ε } = { εX εY εZ γ XY γ YZ γ ZX }
right angle.
• We can define other strain components
in a similar way.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review
15

Governing Equations

{u} = { uX uY uZ }
{σ } = { σ X
σY σZ τ XY τ YZ τ ZX }
{ε } = { εX εY εZ γ XY γ YZ γ ZX }
Totally 15 quantities

• Equilibrium Equations (3 Equations)

• Strain-Displacement Relations (6 Equations)
• Stress-Strain Relations (6 Equations)
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review
16

Stress-Strain Relations: Hooke's Law

σX σ σ
εX =
E
−ν Y −ν Z
E E • For isotropic, linearly elastic materials,

εY =
σY
−ν
σZ
−ν
σX Young's modulus (E) and Poisson's ratio ( ν )
E E E
σZ σX σY can be used to fully describe the stress-
εZ = −ν −ν
E E E
strain relations.
τ τ τ
γ XY = XY , γ YZ = YZ , γ ZX = ZX
G G G • The Hooke's law is called a material
model.
• The Young's modulus and the Poisson's
ratio are called the material parameters
E of the material model.
G=
2(1+ ν )
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.2 Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review
17

εX =
σX σ σ
− ν Y − ν Z + αΔT
• If temperature changes (thermal loads)
E E E
are involved, the coefficient of thermal
σY σZ σX
εY = −ν −ν + αΔT
E E E expansion, (CTE, α ) must be included.
σ σ σ
ε Z = Z − ν X − ν Y + αΔT
E E E • If inertia forces (e.g., dynamic
τ τ τ simulations) are involved, the mass
γ XY = XY , γ YZ = YZ , γ ZX = ZX
G G G
density must be included.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction
18

Section 1.3
Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual
Introduction
Basic Ideas

• A basic idea of finite element methods is to divide the structural body into small and
geometrically simple bodies, called elements, so that equilibrium equations of each
element can be written, and all the equilibrium equations are solved simultaneously
• The elements are assumed to be connected by nodes located on the elements' edges
and vertices.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction
19

• Another idea is to solve unknown

discrete values (displacements at the
nodes) rather than to solve unknown
functions (displacement fields).
• Since the displacement on each node
In case of the pneumatic finger, the
structural body is divided into 3122
elements. The elements are connected by
17142 nodes. There are 3x17142 unknown
displacement values to be solved.

is a vector and has three components

(in 3D cases), the number of total
unknown quantities to be solved is
three times the number of nodes.
• The nodal displacement components
are called the degrees of freedom
(DOF's) of the structure.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction
20

• In static cases, the system of equilibrium equations has following form:

{ } {}
⎡⎣K ⎤⎦ D = F

• The displacement vector {D} contains displacements of all degrees of

freedom.
• The force vector {F} contains forces acting on all degrees of freedom.
• The matrix [K] is called the stiffness matrix of the structure. In a special
case when the structure is a spring, {F} as external force, and {D} as the
deformation of the spring, then [K] is the spring constant.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction
21

Basic Procedure of Finite Element Method

1. Given the bodies' geometries, material properties, support conditions, and loading
conditions.
2. Divide the bodies into elements.
3. Establish the equilibrium equation: [K] {D} = {F}
3.1 Construct the [K] matrix, according to the elements' geometries and the material
properties.
3.2 Most of components in {F} can be calculated, according to the loading conditions.
3.3 Most of components in {D} are unknown. Some component, however, are known,
according to the support conditions.
3.4 The total number of unknowns in {D} and {F} should be equal to the total number
of degrees of freedom of the structure.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction
22

4. Solve the equilibrium equation. Now, the nodal displacements {d} of each element are
known.
5. For each element:
5.1 Calculate displacement fields {u}, using an interpolating method, {u} = [N] {d}. The
interpolating functions in [N] are called the shape functions.
5.2 Calculate strain fields according to the strain-displacement relations.
5.3 Calculate stress fields according to the stress-strain relations (Hooke's law).
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction
23

Shape Functions
[1] A 2D 4-node
quadrilateral element
• Shape functions serve as interpolating d6

functions, allowing the calculation of

d8 d5
displacement fields (functions of X, Y,
Z) from nodal displacements (discrete d7

values).
Y
d4
{u} = ⎡⎣N ⎤⎦ {d} d2
d3
• For elements with nodes at vertices, X d1
the interpolation must be linear and
[2] This element's
thus the shape functions are linear (of nodes locate at
X,Y, Z). vertices.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction
24

• For elements with nodes at vertices as well as at middles of edges, the interpolation
must be quadratic and thus the shape functions are quadratic (of X,Y, Z).
• Elements with linear shape functions are called linear elements, first-order elements, or
lower-order elements.
• Elements with quadratic shape functions are called quadratic elements, second-order
elements, or higher-order elements.
• ANSYS Workbench supports only first-order and second-order elements.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction
25

Workbench Elements

3D Solid Bodies
[4] Tetrahedron.

[1] 3D 20-node [3] Quadrilateral-

structural solid. based pyramid.
Each node has 3
translational
degrees of
freedom: DX, DY,
and DZ.

[2] Triangle-based
prism.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction
26

2D Solid Bodies

[5] 2D 8-node
structural solid.
Each node has 2
translational
degrees of [6] Degenerated
freedom: DX and Triangle.
DY.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.3 Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction
27

3D Surface Bodies

[8] Degenerated
Triangle
[7] 3D 4-node
structural shell.
Each node has 3
translational and 3
rotational degrees
of freedom: DX, DY,
DZ, RX, RY, and RZ.

3D Line Bodies

[9] 3D 2-Node
beam. Each node has
3 translational and 3
rotational degrees of
freedom: DX, DY, DZ,
RX, RY, RZ.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials
28

Section 1.4
Failure Criteria of Materials

Ductile versus Brittle Materials

• A Ductile material exhibits a large amount of strain before it

fractures.
• The fracture strain of a brittle material is relatively small.
• Fracture strain is a measure of ductility.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials
29

Failure Points for Ductile Materials

• Mild steel is a typical ductile material.

• For ductile materials, there often exists an
obvious yield point, beyond which the [2] Fracture
[3] Yield point.
deformation would be too large so that the point.

material is no longer reliable or functional;

σy
the failure is accompanied by excess

Stress
deformation. [1] Stress-strain curve
for a ductile material.
• Therefore, for these materials, we are most
concerned about whether the material Strain

reaches the yield point σ y .

Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials
30

Failure Points for Brittle Materials

[2] Fracture
• Cast iron and ceramics are two examples point.

of brittle materials.
σf
• For brittle materials, there usually doesn't

Stress
exist obvious yield point, and we are [1] Stress-strain
curve for a
concerned about their fracture point σ f . brittle material.

Strain
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials
31

Failure Modes

• The fracture of brittle materials is mostly due to

tensile failure.
• The yielding of ductile materials is mostly due to shear
failure
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials
32

Principal Stresses
[8] Point of [4] Other stress
maximum pairs could be
• A direction in which the shear [5]
Mohr's
shear stress. drawn.

stress vanishes is called a circle.

τ
principal direction. [2] Stress in
the base
• The corresponding normal stress [7] Point of
minimum
direction.

is called a principle stress. normal

stress. (σ X , τ XY )
Y σ
(σ Y , τ XY )
σY
τ XY
[1] Stress [6] Point of
state. maximum
τ XY
[3] Stress in normal
X the direction that stress.
σX σX forms 90o with [9] Another
τ XY Point of
the base
τ XY direction. maximum shear
σY
stress.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials
33

• At any point of a 3D solid, there are three principal directions and

three principal stresses.
• The maximum normal stress is called the maximum principal stress
and denoted by σ1 .
• The minimum normal stress is called the minimum principal stress and
denoted by σ 3 .

• The medium principal stress is denoted by σ 2 .

• The maximum principal stress is usually a positive value, a tension;
the minimum principal stress is often a negative value, a
compression.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials
34

Failure Criterion for Brittle Materials

• The failure of brittle materials is a tensile failure. In other words, a

brittle material fractures because its tensile stress reaches the
fracture strength σ f .
• We may state a failure criterion for brittle materials as follows: At a
certain point of a body, if the maximum principal stress reaches the
fracture strength of the material, it will fail.
• In short, a point of material fails if
σ1 ≥ σ f
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials
35

Tresca Criterion for Ductile Materials

• The failure of ductile materials is a shear • It is easy to show (using

Mohr's circle) that
failure. In other words, a ductile material yields
because its shear stress reaches the shear σ1 − σ 3
τ max =
2
strength τ y of the material.
• We may state a failure criterion for ductile σy
τy =
2
materials as follows: At a certain point of a
body, if the maximum shear stress reaches the • Thus, the material yields if
shear strength of the material, it will fail. σ1 − σ 3 ≥ σ y
• In short, a point of material fails if
τ max ≥ τ y • (σ1 − σ 3 ) is called the stress
intensity.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials
36

Von Mises Criterion for Ductile Materials

• In 1913, Richard von Mises proposed a theory for predicting the yielding of ductile
materials. The theory states that the yielding occurs when the deviatoric strain energy
density reaches a critical value, i.e.,
w d ≥ w yd

• It can be shown that the yielding deviatoric energy in uniaxial test is

(1+ ν )σ y2
w yd =
3E

• And the deviatoric energy in general 3D cases is

1+ ν ⎡
( ) ( ) (
σ1 − σ 2 + σ 2 − σ 3 + σ 3 − σ1 ⎤⎥ )
2 2 2
wd = ⎢
6E ⎣ ⎦
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.4 Failure Criteria of Materials
37

• After substitution and simplification, the criterion reduces to that the yielding
occurs when
1⎡
( ) ( ) ( )
σ1 − σ 2 + σ 2 − σ 3 + σ 3 − σ1 ⎤⎥ ≥ σ y
2 2 2
⎢
2⎣ ⎦

• The quantity on the left-hand-side is termed von Mises stress or effective stress, and
denoted by σ e ; in ANSYS, it is also referred to as equivalent stress,

1⎡
( ) ( ) ( )
σ1 − σ 2 + σ 2 − σ 3 + σ 3 − σ1 ⎤⎥
2 2 2
σe = ⎢
2⎣ ⎦