Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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First order seismic attributes for clastic seismic facies interpretation: Examples
from the East China Sea
John D. Pigott a, Moo-Hee Kang a,b,⇑, Hyun-Chul Han b
a
University of Oklahoma, Conoco-Phillips School of Geology & Geophysics, Norman, OK 73019, USA
b
Korea Institute of Geoscience & Mineral Resources (KIGAM), Daejeon 305-350, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Seismic attributes for the interpreting explorationist are numerous. Some are useful, some duplicative,
Received 14 September 2011 and some less useful. However, with respect to optimizing a systematic basin analysis approach which
Received in revised form 12 November 2012 relies upon heavily upon integrating seismic facies, there are eight particularly useful attributes which
Accepted 29 November 2012
have clear geophysical meaning, strong underlying geological rock-fluid implications, and which for clas-
Available online 8 December 2012
tic depositional environments greatly assist in determining seismic facies, associated paleoenvironments,
and lessening the number of interpretive possibilities. They are: Amplitude Envelope, Chaos, Cosine of
Keywords:
Phase, Dip Deviation, Instantaneous Frequency, Q, Relative Acoustic Impedance, and Variance. A system-
Seismic attributes
Seismic facies
atic application of these first order attributes for the East China Sea in particular, and for other clastic
East China Sea environments in general, allows a first pass assessment of a basin’s exploration potential through seismic
reconnaissance, an interpretive reconnaissance whose accuracy is limited only by the seismic fidelity of
the lines and logic of the assumed geology employed.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction: Problem definition
To augment conventional reflection seismic amplitude sections,
for the interpreter there are almost an overwhelming variety of
seismic attributes available (Barnes, 2006). Some are useful, some
less so, many are duplicates, and some have questionable practical
significance. There are a variety of useful publications which can
assist in the understanding of the calculation and use of seismic
attributes, for example the seminal classic by Taner et al. (1979),
its update (Taner, 2000), and the Petrel work by Schlumberger
(2007). Perhaps the most recent compendium is that of Chopra
and Marfut (2007) which describes case-history and theoretical
applications to the prestack, to the stack, to the signal, and even
to distinguishing the noise (acquisition footprints, etc.). Table 1
lists as an example 50 of the most widely used seismic attributes
used at present.
It is in light of the practical geological aspects of seismic facies
analysis used most often in the practice of seismic stratigraphy
(e.g. Vail et al., 1977; Roksandić, 1978; Uttarathiyang and Pigott,
2008) that this paper makes its focus, paying particular attention
to those facies within the signal that contribute to a basin’s petro-
leum system analysis (Metwalli and Pigott, 2005) and thus its opti-
mized hydrocarbon exploration. Therefore, in order to
⇑ Corresponding author. Address: 30 Gajeong-dong, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-
350, Republic of Korea. Tel.: +82 42 868 3327; fax: +82 42 868 3417.
E-mail addresses: jpigott@ou.edu (J.D. Pigott), karl@kigam.re.kr (M.-H. Kang),
han@kigam.re.kr (H.-C. Han).
systematically characterize the seismic facies (geophysical aspects
of the geology) of the operational seismic sequences (that is, the
pragmatic interpretation of parasequence sets) and subdivided
parasequences (see Pigott and Radivojevic, 2010), we shall describe
those seismic attributes best suited to augment classic amplitude
sections. The examples are drawn exclusively from marine 2D
reflection seismic profiles from the East China Sea from some
11,000 km of 2D seismic (Fig. 1).
The East China Sea is a particularly underexplored basin with a
complicated tectonic and depositional history. In brief, physio-
graphically the East China Sea is composed of two major sedimen-
tary basins: The East China Sea Shelf Basin and the Okinawa
Trough Basin. These two basins are separated by the Taiwan-Sinzi
Fold Belt which trends NE–SW. Geologically, in the East China Sea
Shelf Basin, most of the sediments were deposited during the Late
Cretaceous to the middle Miocene (Oshima et al., 1988; Zhou et al.,
1989). In the Okinawa Trough, however, the middle to late Mio-
cene and Pliocene sediments were deposited upon Paleozoic base-
ment (Kimura, 1985; Sibuet et al., 1987). The East China Sea shelf
basin can also be subdivided into a series of sub-basins, which
are mainly composed of alluvial and fluvio-lacustrine deposits
(Lao and Zhou, 1995; Ren et al., 2002) separated by basement highs
or rises such as the Hupijiao, Haijiao, and Yushan rises (Yang, 1992;
Zhou et al., 1989). Initial rifting and extension in the proto-East
China Sea began in the late Cretaceous and continued until the
Paleocene/Eocene, terminating at the onset of regional uplift and
folding (Zhou et al., 1989; Yang et al., 2004). Rifting resumed in

1367-9120/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.11.043
 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54 35

Table 1
Fifty commonly used seismic attributes.

Apparent Polarityc Isofrequency (Spectral Decomposition)c Quadrature Amplitudec

Average Amplitude (Energy, Magnitude, Instantaneous (Phase) Dipa Rate of Change of Envelopea
etc.)c
Chaosb Instantaneous Accelerationa Relative Acoustic Impedancea
Coherencyc Instantaneous Band Widtha RMS Amplitude
Cosine of Instantaneous Phasec Instantaneous Dominant Frequencya Second Derivative of Envelopea
Dip of Maximum Lateral Semblancea Instantaneous Frequencya Signal Shape (Loop area, duration, etc.)c
Dip Deviationc Instantaneous Lateral Continuitya Smoothed Maximum Lateral
Semblancea
Dip Histogramb Instantaneous Phasea Structural Smoothingc
Dip Variance (Local Dip versus average Instantaneous Quality Factora Sweetnessd
Dip)a
Divergenceb Intensity Varying Phase Displaya 3D Curvatured
Dominant Frequencyc Lateral Continuitya Trace Gradientc
Envelopea (Reflection Strength) Local Structure (Azimuth, Dip, Flatness, etc.)c t  Attenuationc
Event Continuitya Maximum Lateral Semblance and corresponding Dips as Lateral Continuitya Variancea
Attributes
Flatnessb Normalized Amplitude Tracea Volume Reflection Spectral
Decompositionb
b c
Gabor Filter Number zero crossings (negative, positive, etc.) Wavelet Attributesa
Gaussian Dip Guided Filterb Orientation Tuned Chaosb Weighted Mean Frequencya
Gradient Magnitudec Projected Principal Gradientb
a
Taner (2000).
b
Randen and Sonneland (2005).
c
Schlumberger (2007).
d
Schlumberger (2009).

the early Oligocene, until a second phase of uplift in the early Mio-
cene terminated the rifting process (Lee et al., 2006). The post-rift
phase is characterized by regional subsidence, resulting in the for-
mation of a broad continental shelf through the tectonic inversion
during the middle Miocene (Zhou et al., 1989; Yang et al., 2004; Lee
et al., 2006). Although the timing of uplifts is unclear, uplifting
associated with the development of the rise likely was active prior
to late Miocene because erosional surfaces of early Miocene strata
developed on top of the eroded basement (Lee et al., 2006; Han
et al., 2008). These tectonic elements and the complicated basin
evolutionary history have provided a variety of structural and
depositional styles which in turn provide a wide spectrum of seis-
mic facies particularly amendable to seismic attribute analysis.
2. Approach
The definition of seismic attributes is somewhat general, refer-
ring to any feature which describes ‘‘either by direct measure-
ments or by logical or experience-based reasoning’’ (see Sheriff,
1992) a seismically observed character. Attributes are generated
in a variety of ways. Some are based solely upon the real part of
the complex seismic trace, others upon complex trace analysis
(quadrature traces generated by the Hilbert transform: Taner
et al., 1979), and still others using a variety of mathematical formu-
las or algorithms that describe their pre-stack or post-stack varia-
tions and even geometries (Taner, 2000; Schlumberger, 2007). The
mathematics which underlie these attributes have been exten-
sively described and cited elsewhere and are not repeated here,
but let us compress this definition and yet modify it to include a
pragmatic emphasis and state that ‘‘Practical seismic attributes are
quantitative or qualitative aspects which describe a seismic response
with an assumed underlying geological reality’’.
There are two approaches to attribute analysis with respect to
hydrocarbon exploration. One is a stochastic approach and the
other is a deterministic approach. The stochastic approach repre-
sents one which in a sense throws as many attributes as one has
available at the volume and see which ones stick and clump statis-
tically with respect to various geologically hypotheses which are
generated. The second approach is to employ attributes systemat-
ically in a petroleum system analysis either during or following the
sequence stratigraphic framework construction. While the first ap-
proach is quick, demands less understanding, and can satisfy short
deadlines, the end result can suffer from falsely interpreting the
non-unique and multiple geological possibilities which may result.
The second approach, on the other hand, requires a greater under-
standing both geologically and geophysically, and is a purposefully
systematic application of very specific seismic attributes that have
a clear geological grounding. The second approach can then be, if
the interpreter desires, be followed by seeing what additional attri-
butes might check early hypotheses. It is the deterministic ap-
proach which we now describe and illustrate.
Though there are many ways that one could classify attributes:
prestack, stack, based upon mathematical derivations, etc. (see
Chopra and Marfut, 2007), for this paper we suggest a simple
threefold classification. We term the standard amplitude display
Zeroth order as it is the most fundamental. First order are those ba-
sic geophysical attributes which deal with illuminating one or
more of the basic geological properties. Second order are all those
additional attributes (most of the attributes in Table 1) which
duplicate, supplement, or corroborate these fundamental attri-
butes with varying degrees of illumination or detection.
While first order attributes can provide a firm foundation for
subsequent input into a petroleum system analysis, there is a very
important caveat. It must be pointed out that while some attri-
butes directly indicate facies aspects while others indirectly illumi-
nate facies aspects, the attribute chosen for interpretation is only
as good as the geophysical fidelity of the seismic, and the resulting
interpretation is only as good as the geological logic constrained by
the borehole.
Importantly, a seismic image does not have a unique interpreta-
tion of its paleoenvironment. A prograding geometry could be rep-
rentative of an alluvial fan, reef talus, delta, submarine fan, etc.
However, if one links several facies together, the number of possi-
ble interpretations decrease. For example, if one could link a pro-
grading facies to those of an upstream meandering river, an
attached swamp, an adjacent shallow nearshore bay, and deeper
downdip marine shale, the porgrading geometry would be highly
suggestive of a delta front of alternating sands and silts. It is for this
reason, that seismic attributes if they have geologic meaning can
greatly assist the seismic interpreter in making seismic facies anal-
36 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54

Fig. 1. Location of seismic lines selected for the attribute displays. Inset shows major tectonic elements and location of larger plate (modified from Zhou et al. (1989)). Wells
are indicated by the small filled circles. Solid lines represent selected seismic profiles. Dotted lines represent strike–slip faults. DMB: Domi Basin; HJR: Haijiao Rise; HPR:
Hupijiao Rise; JJB: Jeju Basin; SCB: Socotra Basin; TPB: Taipei Basin; YSR: Yushan Rise; XHB: Xihu Basin.

ysis which accurately allow the portrayal of an accurate
paleoenvironment.
3. Procedure and analysis
The data for this study is 2D reflection seismic and was acquired
by KIGAM (Korean Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources)
during the years 2007–2010. The data were recorded in a seven
second record length using a 12 airguns with a total 2000 cubic
inch volume, at 25 m shot point intervals, a 2 km streamer with
12.5 hydrophone group interval, and 160 channels. All lines were
subsequently stacked and migrated. The Figures will be displayed
in two way time and for general depth determinations one may
use the approximate time depth relationship from well logs in
the study area (Fig. 2). Therefore, for most of these displayed sec-
tions, 3 s of two way travel time is 4 km in depth.
With respect to seismic facies analysis, in contrast to vertical
changes in seismic which represent changes through stratigraphic
intervals, changes which are viewed horizontally within a particu-
lar time window are termed seismic facies changes. A seismic fa-
cies change therefore is any change in seismic character (e.g.
amplitude, frequency, phase, geometry, etc.) which does not repre-
sent noise, and, in this case, are imaged through seismic attributes.
Consequently, if one is to employ seismic attributes in the most
meaningful way, one must be stratigraphically constrained
through having a firm sequence foundation either initially or dur-
ing the application of attribute analysis.
For this review of practical seismic attributes, we shall use Ta-
ble 2 as the index. Table 2 indicates those first order attributes se-
lected in this paper which best describe the variety of clastic
seismic facies which were viewed in the East China Sea. The num-
bers within the cells refer to the Section numbers with correspond-
ing illustrations.
First order geological seismic facies for the clastic systems im-
aged are these eight (in alphabetical order): 1. concave and convex
channels and clinoforms, 2. bed continuity, 3. gas (hydrocarbon
indicators), 4. faults and fractures, 5. lithologic change, 6. porosity,
 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54 37

ting episodes in the shallow clinoforms (green arrows) as a

possible meandering river moves to the right (Fig. 3). Note the
transparent isotropic (sand rich?) delta to the left (white arrow)
and the isotropic igneous intrusion deep within the section (pink
arrow).

3.1.1. Cosine of Instantaneous Phase

Cosine of Instantaneous Phase, which is also referred to as Nor-
malized Amplitude, lacks amplitude information and as such
emphasizes reflector continuity. The major difference between this
and the Instantaneous Phase attribute is that the Cosine of Instan-
taneous Phase exhibits strong and weak events with equal strength
(Partyka, 1998). In the Cosine of Instantaneous Phase attribute dis-
play (Fig. 4), without the amplitude information to obscure the
reflectors when acoustic contrasts decrease, the prograding clino-
forms and downcutting channels are dramatically emphasized in
comparison to the standard amplitude display.

3.1.2. Dip Deviation

Fig. 2. A time depth relationship determined from borehole data acquired in the
study area (Han et al., 2011). Depth is expressed in meters and two way time in
seconds.
7. sequence boundaries and unconformities, and 8. terminations.
The eight geophysical attributes for this matrix most fundamental
are 1. Amplitude Envelope, 2. Chaos, 3. Cosine of Phase, 4. Dip Devi-
ation, 5. Instantaneous Frequency, 6. Instantaneous Q, 7. Relative
Acoustic Impedance, and 8. Variance.
3.1. Channels/clinoforms
Channels and clinoforms while depth independent, when com-
bined with associated facies are particularly valuable for clastic
depositional system analysis allowing the interpreter to formulate
a paleoenvironment which can provide a variety of important
petroleum system elements. The analysis of changing vertical posi-
tions of the apex of convex clinoforms and the antapex (bottom) of
the concave channel reflectors additionally provide useful informa-
tion on changes in vertical and lateral accommodation space (rela-
tive changes in sea level versus transgressions and regressions).
For this and the following attributes assessment of a variety of
seismic facies, we begin each with the standard amplitude section,
the most fundamental of all seismic interpretive tools. From the
boundary between Jeju Basin and the Taiwan-Sinzi uplift zone, at
least two episodes (yellow and blue arrows, respectively) of left
to right progradation of deltas are apparent by the offlapping clino-
form geometry culminating with more recent channel downcut-
The Dip Deviation attribute (Schlumberger, 2007) is an edge
detection method which designates rapid changes in local dip,
e.g. such as is indicative of reflectors proximal to faults, channel
margins, etc.
The Dip Deviation attribute does indicate disruptions in reflec-
tors but in this instance only roughly indicates the position of the
channels owing to the depositional variability indicated by the
shallow reflectors (Fig. 5). However, the dip nonuniformity of the
delta package and the igneous body are dramatically highlighted
in comparison to the surrounding relatively less variable dipping
strata.
3.1.3. Variance
Variance which is an edge method which measures differences
from a mean value and, while yielding similar results to coherence,
in contrast to coherence the Variance attribute provides a more
computationally efficient product which is generally sharper (Sch-
lumberger, 2007). With the Variance attribute display (Fig. 6),
channel downcutting is especially highlighted by hot variance col-
ors, but the continuity of the deltaic clinoforms is not as well dis-
tinguished. The igneous body is disruptive to its surrounding
reflectors and also provides a bright variance.
3.2. Continuity
The continuity attribute of reflectors indicates, dependent upon
noise, the continuity of the compositely-tuned geological strata
which produce them. Continuity, discontinuity, and the geometry
of the continuity are some of the most important tools of facies
analysis for comparing observations with geological analogs.
From this migrated line taken from the Socotra Basin, the dis-
ruption in reflector continuity reflectors along the regional uncon-

Table 2
First order seismic attribute matrix for seismic facies delineation. numbers represent corresponding section numbers.

Seismic facies Attribute

Amplitude Envelope Chaos Cosine of Dip Instan. Instan. Rel. Acous. Variance
(ref. strength) phase Deviation Freq. Q. Imped.
3.1. Channels/clinoforms 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3
3.2. Continuity 3.2.1 3.2.2
3.3. Gas 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3
3.4. Faults/fractures 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4
3.5. Lith. change 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3
3.6. Porosity 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4
3.7. Sequence boundaries/unconform. 3.7.1 3.7.2 3.7.3 3.7.4
3.8. Terminations 3.8.1
38 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54

Fig. 3. The standard amplitude section from the boundary between Jeju Basin and Taiwan-Sinzi uplift belt shows channels and clinoform seismic facies. See the line location
at Fig. 1. Blue, yellow and white arrows represent deltas showing clinoform geometry. Green and pink arrows represent channels and igneous intrusion, respectively. (For
interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 4. The Cosine of Instantaneous Phase attribute display for Fig. 3. One particularly useful aspect of this attribute is its ability to delineate parasequence boundaries. For
example, three successive parasequence sets are observed in the deltaic facies indicated by the three arrows. Blue arrow indicates an HST (Highstand Systems Tract) with a
truncated apex; yellow arrow indicates an LST (Lowstand Systems Tract) with preserved toplap, and red arrow indicates the onlapping TST. Red dotted lines indicate
channels. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

formity is pronounced (Fig. 7). Other disruptions in reflector conti-
nuity indicate faulting or depositional facies changes.
3.2.1. Chaos
The Chaos attribute illustrates differences in dip and azimuth,
termed chaoticness, which can highlight directly positions of
reflector disruption. Zones of maximum chaoticness indicate zones
of reflector discontinuities such as fault zones, angular unconfo-
rmities, and possible zones of fractures (Fig. 8). The uncolored val-
ues indicate minimum chaoticness and correspond to inferred bed
continuity.
3.2.2. Cosine of Instantaneous Phase (previously described)
With the loss of amplitude information, the Cosine of Instanta-
neous Phase attribute appears to illuminate reflector continuity
irrespective of brightness or even of subtle amplitude differences
 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54 39

Fig. 5. The Dip Deviation attribute section for Fig. 3. The arrows illustrate some of these reflector discontinuities.

Fig. 6. The Variance attribute display for Fig. 3. Similar to the dip deviation attribute, this attribute also highlight reflector discontinuities (black arrows), with the absence
indicating continuity. For example, yellow arrow points to the LST delta which exhibits clinoform continuity and thus does not reveal internal variance. (For interpretation of
the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

(Fig. 9). Thus, disruptions in continuity from faults, unconformities,
and even mounds and channels can be easily interpreted irrespec-
tive of even small differences in acoustic impedance contrasts.
3.3. Gas
While gas is not a lithologic facies per se, its observation when
detected from the correspondence of several non-redundant attri-
butes provides important information into what the porosity of
that facies bears.
This migrated line from the Jeju Basin has a particularly inter-
esting feature (Fig. 10). This amplitude section shows several
bright amplitude occurrences, but only a few are anomalous
(where anomalous means to the interpreter something which is
not just distinguished from the ordinary, but suggestive of possible
hydrocarbons if the geological conditions are permissive). For
example, the white arrow indicates one particular interesting seis-
40 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54

Fig. 7. The standard amplitude seismic section acquired from Socotra Basin. See the line location at Fig. 1.

Fig. 8. The Chaos attribute display for Fig. 7. Fault zones and associated fractures are especially highlighted by this attribute. The arrows point to some of these fault zones
which are well-revealed.

mic anomaly. It is acoustically bright, flat, located in a structure
with two-way closure, and in what is considered to be geologically
a potential sand reservoir sandwiched by mature shale sources.
That there is sand and that there is shale in this clastic sequence
irrespective of the knowledge of polarity are two elements that
are strongly suggested simply by alternating changes in acoustic
impedance. What is not confirmed is the occurrence of hydrocar-
bons within the sand/s.
3.3.1. Amplitude Envelope
Amplitude Envelope or Reflection Strength displays acoustically
loud (bright) events irrespective of polarity. In the Jeju Basin one
has to be particularly careful in falsely interpreting basalt flows
as gas flat spots. In such instances where volcanics are prevalent,
velocity information together with the proper interpretation of
the geological environment are especially important for their dis-
crimination from gaseous hydrocarbons. Irrespective of polarity,
 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54 41

Fig. 9. The Cosine of Instantaneous Phase attribute display for Fig. 7. As this attribute highlights continuity, one can readily observed the angular unconformity indicated by
blue arrows and some faults which disrupt continuity at yellow arrow. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)

Fig. 10. The standard seismic amplitude section from Jeju Basin shows a flat spot feature and a prominent vertical amplitude trend (gas chimney?). See the line location at
Fig. 1. White arrow indicates a suggestive flat spot.

there are several bright amplitudes which stand out in color in
comparison to the standard amplitude section (Fig. 11). Nonethe-
less, the same caveats mentioned previously still apply with re-
spect to their proper interpretation.
3.3.2. Instantaneous Frequency
Instantaneous Frequency is a complex attribute which mea-
sures the center frequency which can respond to physical rock-
gas properties. Inspection of the general relationship V = fk sug-
gests the range of interpretations which must be geologically con-
strained. As two examples, if velocities are constant, frequency
increases with bed number (decreasing lambda); or if thicknesses
are constant, general low frequencies can indicate slower rock ma-
trix velocities and/or elevated gas content in pores. An additional
parameter which must not be ignored, is that of absorption. In
the Instantaneous Frequency section (Fig. 12), that the flat spot
42 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54

Fig. 11. The Amplitude Envelope attribute display for Fig. 10. Observe that both the flat spot (white arrow) and the vertical amplitude trend (red arrow) exhibit high
amplitudes. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 12. The Instantaneous Frequency attribute display for Fig. 10. White arrow indicates low frequencies at the flat spot and red arrow indicates low frequencies at the
vertical trend. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

viewed on the standard amplitude display now exhibits low fre-
quencies (cool colors) is suggestive of a gas frequency shadow
(see Ebrom, 2004).
3.3.3. Instantaneous Quality
Instantaneous Quality represents the decay rate of the Ampli-
tude Envelope which can relate to changes in absorption. High
Quality represents lowest absorption and low quality implies high
absorption. With the Instantaneous Quality display (Fig. 13), this
flat spot seismic anomaly with bright amplitudes and a frequency
shadow now shows low Q which suggests high absorption, consis-
tent with a gas zone hypothesis. Additional corroborative analyses
with AVO, velocity, and other analyses and comparison with near-
by geological analogs would considerably lower the risk of the
 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54 43

Fig. 13. The Instantaneous Quality attribute display for Fig. 10. White arrow indicates low Q at the flat spot and red arrow indicates low Q at the possible vertical gas chimney.
(For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 14. The standard seismic amplitude section from the Okinawa Trough. See the line location at Fig. 1. Blue and green arrows represent faults with differing ages (old
indicated by a blue arrow, and younger by a green arrow). Red arrow shows reactivated faults. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)

hypothesized gas accumulation in this seismic exploration
anomaly.
3.4. Faults/fractures
Faults and fractures which when placed in a fault-mechanical
stratigraphic approach (Pigott and Radivojevic, 2010) is a petro-
leum system critical (Metwalli and Pigott, 2005) which can poten-
tially form migration pathways, permeability barriers, and even
with reservoir is associated with fractures. Classically, fault zones
are interpreted by viewing reflector dislocations with or without
accompanying bending into the fault and/or zones of diagonal
amplitude changes (transparent indicating fractures and bright
amplitudes corresponding to fault planes). In this standard ampli-
tude migrated section from the Okinawa trough (Fig. 14), a tectonic
element with complex faulting, these criteria indicate several ma-
44 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54

Fig. 15. The Chaos attribute display for Fig. 14. Arrows point to the vertical fault zones.

Fig. 16. The Cosine of Instantaneus Phase attribute display for Fig. 14. Arrows point to the vertical fault zones.

jor extensional fault zones with differing fault ages (old indicated
by a blue arrow, younger by a green arrow, and the red arrow
showing reactivated faults above the tilted graben).
3.4.1. Chaos (previously described)
With the Chaos display (Fig. 15), one may observe that the
chaos illuminates those zones where there exists dip changes prox-
imal to the faults (the hot colors). Those zones lacking chaoticness
are less disturbed. The deeper sections can only be cautiously
interpreted as faults or even fracture zones as the noise to signal
ratio increases with depth.
3.4.2. Cosine of Instantaneous Phase (previously described)
In Fig. 16, the larger fault zones are better distinguished even
when penetrating the shallow sections where acoustic contrasts
diminish (compare with the standard amplitude display at
500 ms) when the amplitude information is suppressed in this
Cosine of Instantaneous Phase display.
3.4.3. Dip Deviation (previously described)
In contrast to simple enhanced illumination for the interpreta-
tion of fault zones, the Dip Deviation attribute directly indicates
faults when the reflector ends deviate from the regional dip trends
 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54 45

Fig. 17. The Dip Deviation attribute display for Fig. 14. Arrows point to the vertical fault zones.

Fig. 18. The Variance attribute display for Fig. 14. Arrows point to the vertical fault zones.

(Fig. 17). However, caution must be used in the deeper noisier sec-
tions in making similar fault-associated interpretations.
3.4.4. Variance (previously described)
This variance display directly indicates the major fault zones
(Fig. 18). However, the subtle displacement features which may
be viewed on the standard amplitude section are obscured owing
to the parameters chosen for this construction. The point is that
variance resolution depends upon the search window.
3.5. Lithology change
Lithology change is one of the weaknesses of a direct seismic
interpretation until geovalidation can be provided by borehole
control. However, there are attributes which can assist in perform-
ing an initial suggestion of possibilities, or at the very least, dem-
onstrate a change in lithologies.
From the Hupijiao Rise, these two large igneous bodies attenu-
ate the seismic signal and thus shadow zones of diminished atten-
uated amplitude are readily apparent showing marked differences
between these bodies and the onlapping sediments (Fig. 19).
46 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54

Fig. 19. The standard seismic amplitude section from the Hupijiao Rise. See the line location at Fig. 1.

Fig. 20. The Instantaneous Frequency attribute display for Fig. 19.

3.5.1. Instantaneous Frequency (previously described)
With the Instantaneous Frequency display (Fig. 20), the highest
frequencies appear to be located in sands above the igneous bodies
whereas the bodies appear to be dominated by low frequencies
(cool colors) possibly owing to absorption at their top by weath-
ered basalt (?).
3.5.2. Instantaneous Quality (previously described)
This Instantaneous Quality display exhibits high Q lines (dark
zones) and thus low absorption at the top of the igneous bodies
whereas internally the noise overwhelms the Q information
(Fig. 21). However, though internally these bodies may appear
homogeneous (caution with the preceding noise comment), adja-
cent and above are alternating lines of Q suggesting heterogeneous
layers of quite different lithologies.
3.5.3. Relative Acoustic Impedance
Relative Acoustic Impedance is an attribute which focuses upon
the real part of the trace and indicates the relative contrast in
acoustic impedance. The bright (acoustically loud) contrast at the
 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54 47

Fig. 21. The Instantaneous Quality display for Fig. 19. Blue arrow points to horizontal low Q white zones which may indicate shale whereas the horizontal high Q zones
(yellow arrow) may indicate sands. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 22. The Relative Acoustic Impedance attribute display for Fig. 19. This attribute is particularly well-suited for delineating the top of acoustic basement (see white arrows).

top of the igneous bodies appear dramatically in this Relative
Acoustic Impedance attribute display (Fig. 22). The flanking bright
horizons are useful top of acoustic basement markers.
3.6. Porosity
From the Jeju Basin, the bright amplitude contrasts within the
deltas and at the top of the igneous body represent anisotropic
contrasts in acoustic impedance which may be related to differ-
ences in porosity (Fig. 23). Deltas are particularly common as the
basin shallows following the Miocene with transportation punctu-
ated by sea level changes.

The porosity is that property which provides the foundation of 3.6.1. Amplitude Envelope (previously described)
reservoir characterization and critically determines with geometric In the Amplitude Envelope attribute display (Fig. 24), the higher
information the hydrocarbon volume of a sealed reservoir. values show in the generally upper portions of the deltaic sands
48 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54

Fig. 23. The standard seismic amplitude section from the Jeju Basin. See the line location at Fig. 1. Blue arrow indicates the prograding deltas. Black arrow indicates high
amplitudes within an interpreted LST delta. Green arrow points to a deeper dramatic regional unconformity. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend,
the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 24. The Amplitude Envelope attribute display for Fig. 23.

and the uppermost part of the igneous body. Without amplitude compared to Instantaneous Frequency as the geological possibili-
information, one could attribute both of these to porosity changes ties of the attributes become less variable. If the high amplitudes
causing acoustically bright zones associated with extremely low or correspond to low frequencies, then confidence in high porous
extremely high porosity. zones is heightened, though still not confirmed (Fig. 25).

3.6.2. Instantaneous Frequency (previously described) 3.6.3. Instantaneous Quality (previously described)
Now the evidence as to what is or is not porosity based upon the If the bright Amplitude Envelope, low instantaneous frequency,
Amplitude Envelope display begins to become less equivocal when negative acoustic impedance (assuming a SEG reverse polarity)
 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54 49

Fig. 25. The Instantaneous Frequency display for Fig. 23. Black arrow indicates low frequency in the LST delta which may indicate low velocities with high porosities in these
sands relative to adjacent layers, i.e. gas-filled sands.

Fig. 26. The Instantaneous Quality attribute display for Fig. 23. Yellow arrow indicates low Q in the LST delta which may indicate high absorption such as results from gas
filled porous zones. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

attributes correspond to a low Q (high absorption) attribute, then
the suggestion of gas hydrocarbons is increased (Fig. 26). In this
example, the high Q attribute in the delta (low absorption) unfor-
tunately introduces risk into a gas-filled porosity prognosis. Simi-
larly, the top of the igneous body is similarly suspect.
3.6.4. Relative Acoustic Impedance (previously described)
With the addition of acoustic impedance information, the polar-
ity becomes important (see Fig. 27). If, for example, these zero
phase data are SEG reverse polarity, then the sands in the deltas
(blue colors) are suggestive of gas-filled porosity. If instead, these
shallow deltaic sands are imaged under SEG positive polarity, the
blue colors indicate low porosity hard layers.
3.7. Sequence boundaries
Sequence boundaries (until complete analysis are performed,
are more correctly termed parasequence boundaries) are the fun-
damental punctuation marks of stratigraphic packages viewed on
50 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54

Fig. 27. The Relative Acoustic Impedance display for Fig. 23. Yellow arrow points to the high contrasting interpreted sands and shales in the LST delta front. (For
interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 28. The standard seismic amplitude section from Jeju Basin. See the line location at Fig. 1. White arrow points to dramatic regional angular unconformity.

seismic which allow chronostratigraphic and vertical changes in
accommodation space charts to be constructed.
Here a complicated geohistory from the Jeju Basin is revealed by
multiple phases of brittle deformation (faults), ductile deformation
(folds), unconformities, and sedimentary responses to local and re-
gional changes in sea level (Fig. 28). The reservoir quality, source
characteristics, and seal potential are affected by the magnitude,
style, and timing of these events.
3.7.1. Amplitude Envelope (previously described)
Those subhorizontal continuous similar polarity reflectors
indicate dramatically the unconformities which truncate the
folded deeper sections (Fig. 29). The Amplitude Envelope is an
especially useful tool for imaging continuous sequence bound-
aries in which homogeneous strata overlie heterogeneous strata
such as commonly occur as angular unconformities transgressed
by shale. The relative amplitude display instead exhibits many
 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54 51

Fig. 29. The Amplitude Envelope attribute display for Fig. 28. The high contrasting Amplitude Envelope does not discriminate between positive peaks and negative troughs,
but instead emphasizes acoustically loud zones if either peak or trough is of high amplitude. Such lack of polarity discrimination is particularly useful if one is following
operational sequence boundaries of heterogeneous lithologic contacts, such as occur across unconformities (see white arrows).

Fig. 30. The Cosine of Instantaneous Phase attribute display for Fig. 28. White arrows indicate the peg-leg multiples.

breaks in continuity owing to juxtaposed differences in acoustic demonstrating yet another use for the Cosine of Instantaneous
impedance. Phase attribute.

3.7.2. Cosine of Instantaneous Phase (previously described)

With the removal of all amplitude information, sequence
boundaries and unconformities are indicated as continuous reflec-
tors irrespective of lithologic heterogeneities and resulting acous-
tic anisotropies (Fig. 30). Note the peg-leg multiples (white
arrows) which become visible below the 1000 ms unconformity
3.7.3. Instantaneous Quality (previously described)
In this Instantaneous Quality attribute display (Fig. 31), the dark
areas indicate highest Quality or lowest absorption (possibly
sands) whereas the lighter areas indicate lowest Q and highest
absorption (possibly shales).
52 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54

Fig. 31. The Instantaneous Quality attribute display for Fig. 28.

Fig. 32. The Variance attribute display for Fig. 28. Red arrow highlights the location of a vertical faulted disruption of reflectors. (For interpretation of the references to color in
this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

3.7.4. Variance (previously described)
Unconformities and only the major sequence boundaries are
indicated in this variance display as dark to hot colors (Fig. 32).
The darkest regions which make vertical strips might suggest frac-
ture zones. As the variance display is a function of search parame-
ters, in this case the standard amplitude display provides greater
resolution than the attribute.
lows the construction of paleoenvironments and associated reser-
voir-source-migration characteristics.
Many packages of onlap and truncation are viewed in this stan-
dard migrated amplitude section from the Socotra Basin (Fig. 33).
The yellow arrow indicates the location of many truncation termi-
nations and the red arrow indicates some obvious onlap reflectors.

3.8.1. Cosine of Instantaneous Phase (previously described)

3.8. Terminations By suppressing amplitude information, the continuity and ter-
mination of all reflectors irrespective of acoustic impedance are en-
The terminations are the basic seismic stratigraphic tool used to hanced in the Cosine of Instantaneous Phase display (Fig. 34).
determined sequence hierarchies. Their proper identification al- Comparison with the standard amplitude display shows that this
 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54 53

Fig. 33. The standard seismic amplitude section from the boundary between the Hupijiao Rise and the Socotra Basin. See the line location at Fig. 1. Red and yellow arrows
indicate onlap and truncation terminations, respectively. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)

Fig. 34. The Cosine of Instantaneous Phase attribute display for Fig. 33. As on the previous standard seismic amplitude display, yellow arrows point to the large regional
unconformities. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Cosine of Phase attribute allows even the most subtle reflector ter-
mination to be seen. Altogether rather than individually, these
attributes allow in this case as in the others an interpretation
which when constrained with geology is lessened in its degree of
possible interpretations.
4. Conclusions
For an clastic depositional environment in which gravity and
aqueous discharge are the major factors for allochthonous trans-
port and in which tectonics modify syn- and post-depositional
architectures, one particular seismic facies which corresponds to
more than one particular geological facies provides interpretations
which are equivocal. In an exploration which has limited geological
information for constraint, the problem of making an accurate
interpretation is magnified. However, if one systematically com-
bines seismic facies determined through attributes, one can begin
to limit the number of possibilities of rock-fluid-gas interpretation.
Although the number of attributes available to the seismic
interpreter are numerous, the attributes described here are those
54 J.D. Pigott et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 34–54
the authors have found to be particularly useful for the East China
Sea in its complicated tectonic evolution of clastic depositional
environments which range from basin floor fans to shallow lacus-
trine-fluvial environments. A major caveat however is that any
attribute is only as good as the fidelity of the seismic, and the inter-
pretation is only as good as the geological logic.
The eight basic, pragmatic seismic attributes which help extract
clear geologic and tectonic information in the East China Sea are:
Amplitude Envelope, Chaos, Cosine of Phase, Dip Deviation, Instan-
taneous Frequency, Q, Relative Acoustic Impedance, and Variance.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Schlumberger in
its making available PetrelÒ to the University of Oklahoma, Platte
River for its BasinModÒ software, and the Korea Institute of Geosci-
ence and Mineral Resources (KIGAM) for its financial support and
seismic data for interpretation. This research was a part of the pro-
ject titled ‘‘Technological development on multi-azimuthal 3D
exploration and reservoir evaluation of the Jeju Basin’’ funded by
KIGAM.
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