Plato

Importance of Plato’s Political Philosophy

Plato deeply influenced on Western philosophy and developed distinct areas of philosophy
as epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics.
He was prototypical political philosopher whose ideas had a profound impact on
subsequent political theory. His greatest impact was Aristotle.
The Academy, the school he founded in 385 B.C.E., became the model for other schools of
higher learning and later for European universities.
Usage of dialectic- a method of discussion involving ever more profound insights into the
nature of reality, and by cognitive optimism, a belief in the capacity of the human mind to
attain the truth and to use this truth for the rational and virtuous ordering of human affairs.

Plato Life and influence on Plato

Plato was born in Athens in c. 427 B.C.E. Until his mid-twenties, Athens was involved in a
long and disastrous military conflict with Sparta, known as the Peloponnesian War.

Plato’s actual given name was apparently Aristocles, after his grandfather. “Plato” seems to
have started as a nickname (for platos, or “broad”), perhaps first given to him by his
wrestling teacher for his physique, or for the breadth of his style, or even the breadth of his
forehead
Family- Plato came from one of the wealthiest and most politically active families in Athens.
His father’s side descending from Codrus, one of the early kings of Athens, and on his
mother’s side from Solon, the prominent reformer of the Athenian constitution – he was
naturally destined to take an active role in political life. But this never happened.
He could not identify himself with any of the contending political parties or the succession
of corrupt regimes, each of which brought Athens to further decline (324b-326a).
Influence of Socrates- He considered Socrates the most just man of his time, and who,
although did not leave any writings behind, exerted a large influence on philosophy.

• It was Socrates who, in Cicero’s words, “called down philosophy from the skies.” The
pre-Socratic philosophers were mostly interested in cosmology and ontology;
Socrates’ concerns, in contrast, were almost exclusively moral and political issues.
• In 399 when a democratic court voted by a large majority of its five hundred and one
jurors for Socrates’ execution on an unjust charge of impiety, Plato came to the
conclusion that all existing governments were bad and almost beyond redemption.
 • “The human race will have no respite from evils until those who are really
philosophers acquire political power or until, through some divine dispensation,
those who rule and have political authority in the cities become real philosophers”

• It was perhaps because of this opinion that he retreated to his Academy and to Sicily
for implementing his ideas.

The Academy

• He visited Syracuse first in 387, then in 367, and again in 362-361, with the general
purpose to moderate the Sicilian tyrants with philosophical education and to
establish a model political rule.
• But this adventure with practical politics ended in failure, and Plato went back to
Athens. His Academy, which provided a base for succeeding generations of Platonic
philosophers until its final closure in C.E. 529, became the most famous teaching
institution of the Hellenistic world.
• Mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, dialectics, and other subjects, all seen as
necessary for the education of philosophers and statesmen, were studied there.
• Some of Plato’s pupils later became leaders, mentors, and constitutional advisers in
Greek city-states.
• His most renowned pupil was Aristotle.
Impact on Athens

• Plato died in c. 347 B.C.E. During his lifetime, Athens turned away from her military
and imperial ambitions and became the intellectual center of Greece.
• Athens gave host to all the four major Greek philosophical schools founded in the
course of the fourth century: Plato’s Academy, Aristotle’s Lyceum, and the Epicurean
and Stoic schools.

Influences on Plato
Heraclitus
According to Heraclitus, change is the characteristics of the world in which we live. Aristotle
and Diogenes agree that Plato had some early association with either the philosophy of
Heraclitus of Ephesus, the effects of this influence can perhaps be seen in the mature Plato’s
conception of the sensible world as ceaselessly changing.

Parmenides and Zeno

Parmenides gave idea of permanence. There is continuity as well as change. Plato’s theory
of the Forms, which are plainly intended to satisfy the Parmenidean requirement of
metaphysical unity and stability in knowable reality. Parmenides and Zeno also appear as
characters in his dialogue, the Parmenides. Diogenes Laertius also notes other important
influences:
He mixed together in his works the arguments of Heracleitus, the Pythagoreans, and
Socrates

The Pythagoreans
Plato’s Pythagorean influences seem especially evident in his fascination with mathematics,
and in some of his political expressed in various ways in several dialogues. Pythagoras who
was a the famous mathematician influenced Plato especially the idea of Universe is based on
some mathematical principles and Importance of geometry for the ruling class. Plato’s theory
of soul influenced by Pythagorean ideas.

Socrates
Nonetheless, it is plain that no influence on Plato was greater than that of Socrates. This is
evident not only in many of the doctrines and arguments we find in Plato’s dialogues, but
perhaps most obviously in Plato’s choice of Socrates as the main character in most of his
works. Socrates:
Plato considered himself as the disciple of the Socrates. He considered Socrates as the
wisest man on this earth. Plato was influenced by:
i. Socrates Theory of Knowledge.
ii. Socrates method of dialectics.

iii. Events in the life of Socrates:

Socrates was ordered to drink poison. Socrates had opportunity to escape. Socrates
preferred to die for his principles, when Socrates was ordered to drink poison at that time it
was democracy in Athens. Plato hated for democracy is linked to life of Socrates.

Plato’s perspective
• Plato is idealist; those who think what ought to be there rather than what is.

• Plato is utopian (imparticle).

• Plato is radical (who is looking for far reaching changes), Plato is a 1st feminist.

• There is a transition is Plato’s ideas; a process/period of changing from one condition

to another.

• Plato’s republic – it is a work of Plato when he was young.

• Statesmen – it is a book of Plato in transition.

• The laws – mature Plato – when Plato was mature.

Plato’s methodology
Deductive method
Plato's methodology is usually called deductive, also called the philosophical method.
The philosopher, while following this methodology, has his pre-conceived conclusions and
then seeks to see them in actual conditions around him: general pririciples are determined
first, and thereafter, are related to particular situation. The deductive method of
investigation stands opposite to the inductive one where the conclusions are reached after
studying, observing, and examining the data available at hand. Plato, it is said, followed the
deductive method in so far as he attempted to find the characteristic features of the state
lie founded in his imagination in the existing conditions prevailing in the city-states of the
ancient Greek Society.
That Plato's methodology is deductive is an important aspect, but it is, at the same time, an
amalgam of numerous methodologies is something more important a fact if one seeks
understand Plato.

Dialectical method
• 'Dialect' has been a tradition with the ancient Greeks.
• Socrates followed this methodology in responding to the views of his rivals by
highlighting fallacies in their thinking. Plato, following his teacher Socrates, pursued
this methodology in his search for 'the idea of good' and the way it could be reached.
• By following the dialectical method, Plato discussed the views of numerous
individuals, examined each such view, and ultimately reached the conclusion. Plato’s
notion of justice was the result of debate, which went on an long actors such as
Caphales, Polemarchus, Thrasymachus, GIaucon and Adeimantus-a dialectal method
of reaching true meaning of justice.

Analytical Method
Plato's methodology is analytical in so far as he divided a phenomenon into its possible
parts, analysing each part fully and thereafter knitting the results of all parts together.
According to Plato human nature constitutes human nature appetite, spirit and reason; he
found these elements in body-politic as well: 'appetite' in the producing class, 'spirit' in the
soldiers' class; and 'reason' in the ruling class, thus stating that the constituents of the ideal
state are producers (who provide the material base), soldiers (who provide the military
base) and the rulers (who provide the rational base).

Teleological method
Teleology means 'the object with an objective'. It follows that every phenomenon exists for
itself and keeps moving towards its desired goal. Plato's teleological approach can well be
seen in his theory of Forms. Plato was convinced that what appears is the shadow of what it
can be. Form is the best of what we see realities can attain their forms.
Plato is known for having pursued the deductive method of examining the phenomenon and
also expressing his philosophy. The Republic was nothing but the creation of this deductive
method.

Analogy method
Analogy means a form of reasoning in which one thing is inferred lo be similar to another
thing in a certain respect on the basis of known similarity in other respects. There is a clear
analogical method in Plato, a method pursued by Socrates who found analogy in his thought
processes by taking recourse ' to the realms of arts. Plato saw such analogies in the realms
of the material world. For the producers of the ideal state, Plato used the word 'human
cattle', 'the copper' or 'the bronze'; for the soldiers, he used the word 'the watch dogs' or
'the silver'; and for the rulers, 'the shepherd' and 'the gold'. Such analogies are too common
in Plato.

Historical method
His Statesmen and the and the Laws have been written by following the' Historical
methodology wherein he traced the evaluation and growth of numerous -types of state
Historically. Even in the Republic, Plato did not lose sight of history. He found the solution of
all evils prevailing in the City-states in history.

Political Philosophy of Plato

1. Theory of Ideas
(“Reality is the shadow of ideas”)

Theory of Forms or ideas is at the center of Plato's philosophy. All the other views on knowledge,
Psychology, ethics, and state can be understood in terms of the theory. His theory of Form or ideas
taken from the Greek word "Edios" is so inter-related to his theory of knowledge that they can be
understood together.

Plato has developed his theory of ideas on the basis of Socrates theory of knowledge.

Socrates theory of knowledge – context of the theory:

Socrates was against the type of knowledge which was being imparted in Athens. Education was in
private hands. Person’s opportunity to get educated was dependent on personas ability to pay.
Sophists were changing money. They were teaching what people wanted to listen. They were not
doing justice with their task.

What Sophists were teaching?

They were inspiring youth to join politics. They projected politics as a means for gaining money.
Money as a source of happiness. According to Socrates, they were misguiding. Sophists were
promoting:

i. Individualism.

ii. Materialism.
What is Socrates theory of knowledge?

➢ Importance of knowledge: According to Socrates, knowledge is virtual. It means knowledge

is a source of good life. In the words of Socrates “unexamined life is not worth living”.

➢ Which knowledge (is Socrates is talking about), the knowledge of what constitutes a good
life. The real knowledge is inherent in human soul. Soul can tell us what we should do and
what we should not.

Following Socrates, Plato believed that knowledge is attainable and believed it to have two essential
characteristics:

1. Certain and infallible;

2. Contracted with which is only appearance.

Knowledge, being fixed, permanent, and unchanging is, according Plato (following Socrates),
identified with the realm of 'ideal' as opposed to the physical world which is seen as it appears. In
other words 'Form', 'Idea' and 'Knowledge'-all constitute what is ideal, and what appears to the eye
is actual.

There is, thus, a difference between what is ideal and what is actual; between what are 'form' and
what are appearances; and between what is knowledge and what is an opinion; and between what
'can be' and what it is or what it is 'becoming'.

Myth of the cave

Plato's theory of Forms or Knowledge, or Idea is found in the Republic where he discussed the image
of the divided line and the myth of the cave. In the former, Plato made a distinction between two
levels of awareness: opinion and knowledge. Claims or assertions about the physical or visible world
are opinions. The higher level or awareness, on the other hand, is knowledge because there reason
is involved.

The Myth of the cave, as discussed by Plato, described individuals chained deep within the
recesses of a cave where the vision is restricted and no one is able to see another man; the only
visible thing is the wall of the cave. Breaking free, one of the individuals escapes from the cave into
the light of the day. With the aid of the sun, that person sees for the first the real world, telling his
fellow men that the only thing they have seen heretofore are shadows and appearances and that
the real world awaits them if only they are willing to struggle free of their bonds.

The essential characteristics of Plato's theory of Forms would, thus, include:

(a) There is a difference between 'Form' or 'Idea'; 'Knowledge' and 'Appearance'; 'Actual', or
'Opinion' as there is difference between the ideal/ invisible world and the physical/ visible
world.
(b) The form is the ultimate object of appearance.
(c) The actual world can attain the ideal world.
(d) Knowledge can replace opinion and is attainable.
(e) The visible world is the shadow of the real world.
(f) What appears to be is not the Form, but is a form of the Form.
According to Plato when we are in the state of ignorance, we consider the world of appearances
(physical world) as real. Our situation is like men in cave with his back towards sunlight and hands tied
only when this person is pushed out of the caves realize that what he was considering as real was just
the illusion of reality or a shadow of reality only when he have true knowledge we can understand
difference between shadow and reality.
Plato had conceived the Forms as arranged hierarchically-the supreme, form is the form of the
Good, which like the sun in the myth of the cave, illuminates all the other ideas. The forms of the
Good (i.e., the idea of the Good) represents Plato's movement in the direction of attaining goodness.
In a way, the theory of form, as propounded by Plato, is intended to explain how one comes to
know, and how things have come to be as they are, and also how they are likely to attain their
ideals.

Virtue is knowledge
Plato's theory of Form is closely related to his belief that virtue is knowledge. According to Plato, the
idea of virtue is the idea of action; the ultimate object of virtue is to attain knowledge; the
knowledge of virtue is the highest level of knowledge; knowledge is attainable; and so is virtue
attainable.

Theory of Idea extend to Plato’s political theory

Since Plato established the superiority of philosophy over physics he is called as the father of
political philosophy. It is because of the theory of ideas Plato is known as Father of political idealism.

Plato's theory of Form/ or Idea has been extended by him to his political theory. Plato wanted to
make Athens an ideal state. In order to make Athens ideal state, idea can be understood only
through the use of reason. Philosophers have reason so, only philosopher can establish the ideal
state. Thus theory of idea also justifies the institution of philosopher king.

The message behind the above statement is that ruling class should understand that physical world
is of temporary nature. They should understand that the money is not the ultimate source of
happiness is more important to be man of integrity rather than the man of wealth/property.

2. Theory of Justice.
For Plato, justice does not consist in mere adherence to the laws, for it is based on the inner nature
of the human spirit. It is also not the triumph of the stronger over the weaker, for it protects the
weaker against the stronger. A just state, Plato argues, is achieved with an eye to the good of the
whole. A just society, the ruler, the military, the artisan all do what they ought to do. In such just
society, the rulers are wise, the soldiers are brave, and the producers exercise self-control or
temperance.

'Justice' is the central theme of the Plato's Republic; its sub-title entitled "Concerning Justice". For
Plato, justice is a moral concept. Barker says: "Justice is, for Plato, at once a part of human virtue and
the bond which joins men together in the states. It makes man good and makes him social."

Almost a similar view was been expressed by Sabine. He says: "Justice (for Plato) is a bond which
holds a society together."
Justice gives the resemblance of what is used in the Greek language 'Dikaiosyne', a word which has a
more comprehensive meaning than the word 'justice'. 'Dikaiosyne' nleans 'just' 'righteousness'. That
is why Plato's notion of justice is not regarded legal or judicial, nor is it related to the realms of
'rights' and 'duties', it does not come within the limits of law; it is, as such, related to 'social ethics'.

The essential characteristics of Plato's notion can be stated as these:

(i) Justice is another name of righteousness.

(ii) It is more the performance of duties than the enjoyment of rights.
(iii) It is individual's contribution to the society in accordance with his abilities, capacities
and capabilities.
(iv) It is a social morality; man's obligation.
(v) It is the strength of the social fabric as it involves a web of social system.

Before stating these views through Socrates, Plato refuted the then prevailing theories of justice. He
denounced the father-son's (Cephalus- Polemarchus) theory of justice of traditional morality--
justice giving every man his due, in other words, 'doing to others what is proper' (Cephalus) or 'doing
good to friends and harming enemies' (Polemarchus).

Plato’s methodology:

Plato/Socrates; Cephalous, Polemarchus, Thrasymachus and Glaucon.

1. Cephalous (old man):

Cephalous gives two ideas:

a. Justice is doing one’s duties.

b. Paying one’s dues.

Plato’s response:

• Plato approves that justice is duty but he puts question mark on the 2nd idea.

• He asks whether it will be just to return a borrowed weapon to a person who has gone mad.

Since above statement cannot be applied in all circumstances it cannot be treated as the universal
idea of justice.

2. Polemarchus (son of cephalous):

He suggests that justice is giving everyone his dues. Being good to your friend and evil to your
enemy.

Plato’s response-

It is not easy to identify who is our enemy and who is our friend. We may end up doing harm to our
friend and favors to our enemy. Hence, it is better to be good with all.

3. Thrasymachus (Sophist):

Justice is the interest of the stronger. In other words, Might is Right. According to Thrasymachus
those who are in power make laws in their own interest. It becomes the duty of others to follow
laws. Thus, justice is the interest of the strong.
The reality of the world is that world understands the argument of power rather than power of
argument. For Thrasymachus it is better for person to overlook the laws in this way be will serve his
interest better. We see one of the earliest ideas of civil disobedience in the ideal of Thrasymachus.

Plato’s response-

Plato does not have a very strong argument against Thrasymachus because he is putting the reality
of the world of politics. However, Plato suggests that it is wrong to consider that laws of the state
are just the interest of the strong. They are in the benefit of all. It is our duty to obey the laws. It is
never better to disobey the law over obeying the law. The soul of the person who does not obey the
law is never satisfied. What Thrasymachus tells is the reality whereas what Plato says should be the
reality. Both the views have their importance only when we know what is we can try what ought to
be.

Plato's own theory, as stems from the discussion which went on among characters such as Cephalus,
Polernarchus, Thrasymachus, Glaucon, Adeimantus and Socrates, appears to be as under:

1) Justice is nothing but the principle that each one should pursue a function for which one is
fitted by nature; each one to do one's own for one's own and for common good.
2) Justice means specialization and excellence.
3) Justice helps people to be in a society; a bond that holds society; a harmonious union of
individuals, of classes with the state. It is a bond that brings together individuals, classes and
state into one frame.
4) Justice is both a 'public' and 'private' virtue. It aims at tlie highest good of the individual
(private), and of the whole society (public).

Plato's theory of justice leads to division of labour, specialisation and efficiency. It is, therefore, a
principle of specialisation, unity, non-interference and harmony. His notion of justice implies a social
virtue, a private and public ethics and a moral dictate. And yet Plato’s theory of justice is totalitarian
in the sense that it subordinates individual to the state.

Criticism:
1. Ignores conflict or disagreement
Plato enunciated the doctrine of specialisation as a vital precondition of justice and
harmony of society. But it is unfortunate that he has not uttered a single word about the
conflict or disagreement among the members of the same class or among the different
classes.
Only among the gods there may not be any disagreement, but it is unthinkable to assume
that people will never enter into conflict. If conflict arises who will resolve it—Plato
maintains silence on this issue. Plato was a philosopher of outstanding stature. He might
have made provision for the settlement of disputes.
There can be harmony in the body politic if all the categories of persons and classes can
practise self-control and adhere to their own appointed business. Without self-control
justice can never be achieved. But self-control is a moral principle and not a legal one. If
people fail to practise it, that will create problem. Legal provisions are necessary.
Barker says—”…the justice of whom Plato speaks is not really justice at all.
It is an indwelling spirit; but it does not issue in a concrete justice and still less in any law.
Law is one thing and morality is another. The one is concerned with the external rules…the
other with the ideas which lie behind rules and the ideals which lie behind order… Plato has
blurred the distinction and confused the boundary which lies between the moral duty and
legal obligations.” It may be emphasized that, without legal force, moral duty may not
always find fruition.
2. The theory establish hegemony over the entire society.
Plato’s concept of justice has another drawback. The guardian class endowed with wisdom
will predominate over the entire society. It is a very common experience that the persons or
class controlling the administrative affairs of the state will ultimately establish hegemony
over the entire society.
In Plato’s view, subor­dination of one class to another is the cause of unity and integrity. But
our idea is quite different. Equal share in the affairs of the state is the potent factor for
removing grievances and, hence, materializes unity.

3. Individual is completely merged with the state.

In Plato’s theory of justice there is no special or separate importance of the individual. He is
not an isolated self, but part of the whole order and the order is the ideal state. The
individual is not a whole and even he cannot claim that the whole is the state.
Plato has given no scope to the individual of thinking in his own way. In the vast order of the
state the individual cannot have separate identity.

3. Theory of Education.
Plato's Republic is not merely an essay on government, it is, as Rousseau informs us, a treatise on
education. The essence of his whole philosophy, as stated in the Republic, was to bring about
reforms (political, econolnic, social as well as moral, intellectual, cultural) in the ancient Greek
society. The object of the Republic was to locate and thereafter establish justice in the ideal state
and his scheme of education aimed, precisely, at that.

Plato’s theory of education is important in his political theory. It is important in so far as it provides a
basis for the ideal state designed to achieve justice. Following his teacher, Socrates, Plato had a
belief in the dictum that Virtue is knowledge and for making people virtuous. He made education a
very powerful instrument.

Education is not a private enterprise

Plato also believed that education builds man's character that it is, therefore, a necessary condition
for extracting man's natural faculties in order to develop his personalities. Education is not a private
enterprise for Plato; it is public in so far it provides a moral diagnosis-to the social ailments. Barker,
speaking for Plato, says that education is a path of social righteousness, and not of social success; it
is a way to reach the truth. Education, Plato emphasised, was necessary for all the classes in society,
especially for those who governthe people. The rulers, for Plato, are supreme because they are
educated by philosophers, for the rule of the philosophers, as Barker explains, is the result of the
State-directed education scheme

In Plato’s mind there was an idea of compulsory education system which we today see in many
modern states. Sabine says that state-directed education scheme of Plato is perhaps the most
important innovation.

Assumptions

Plato, in the proposed scheme of education, accepts certain assumptions:

(i) Soul, being initiative and active, throws up, through education, the best things that are
latent in it;
(ii) Education moulds the character of the growing young; it does not provide eyes tb the
blind, but it does give vision to men with eyes; it brings soul to the realms of light; it
activates and reactivates the individual
(iii) Each level of education has a pre-assigned function: the elementary education helps
individuals give direction to their powers; middle level education helps individuals
understand their surroundings; and higher education helps individuals prepare,
determine and decide their course of education;
(iv) Education helps people earn a living and also helps them to become better human
beings.

If the purpose of education is the development of soul, Plato proceeds to say that the growth of the
soul can be divided into two stages—early stage and later stage. According to Plato, education of the
young is important.

In The Republic he says—”the beginning is the most important part of any work, especially in the
case of a young and tender thing; for that is the time at which the character is being formed and the
desired impression is more readily taken.”

Structure of education system proposed by Plato

It consisted of three stages: elementary between 6 to 20; higher, between 20 and 35; practical,
between 35 and 50;

It divides into three stages-

1. Elementary education, which includes the training of the young persons up to about the age
of twenty and culminating the beginning of military service.

Younger people should be taught mythological stories treating of the divine nature whose very
essence is to be good and true. God is the manifestation of good and truth and mythology
containing the stories of God should be taught. From the very childhood young people should be
well-acquainted with good and truth. Education for the young will present heroic nature in its true
and good form.

• The reason will be presented in the guise of beauty and rhythm.

• The young will learn art, literature and rudiments of science and figures.
• The attainment of eighteen years will qualify them to learn gymnastics whose purpose is to
fit the young citizens for military and other duties which require a strong and healthy
physique.
• The elementary education was to be imparted to all the three classes.
 Plato has said that gymnastics will train the body and music the mind. “Both modes of training
are really intended to serve a moral purpose; both are means to the formation of character.”

2. Higher education, after the age of twenty, those selected for higher education were those
who were to hold the highest positions in the guardian class between twenty and thirty five.

The guardians were to be constituted of the auxiliary class, and the ruling class. These two classes
were to have a higher doze of gymnasium and music, greater doze of gymnastics for the auxiliaries,
and greater doze of music for the rulers. The higher- education of the two classes was, in purpose,
professional, and for his curriculum Plato chose the only Scientifics studies-mathematics, astronomy
and logic.

3. Third stage

Before the two classes could get on to their jobs, Plato suggested a further education till the age of
about fifty, mostly practical in nature.

• The purpose of learning science and philosophy is to produce a guardian class or, more
particularly, statesmen and rulers.
• In Platonic model of politics justice, education, and communism all correspond to the
concept of ideal state. The absence of one of these will make the state incomplete.
• Similarly, the character and mind of the individual will be so built up as to suit the state.
Remembering this fundamental idea Plato has sketched the scheme of education.

“Undoubtedly the most original as well as the most characteristic proposal in The Republic is the
system of higher education”—says Sabine. The purpose of higher education is to train the guardians
and this will be given to a selected number of students between the ages of twenty and thirty-five.
In Plato’s scheme of higher education the study of mathematics occupies a very vital place.

Evaluation:
Plato’s theory of education is “fascinatingly modern in many respects”. His scheme of higher
education is really innovating. Today, at the beginning of the 21st century, we fully realize the
importance of science. But about twenty four centuries ago Plato prescribed the study of science for
grown up people.

(i) His scheme of education was for the guardian class, i.e., the auxiliary class and the ruling
class; he had ignored the producing class completely;
(ii) His whole educational plan was state controlled;
(iii) It aimed at attaining the physical, mental, intellectual, moral development of human
personality;
(v) It aimed at preparing the rulers for administrative statesmanship; soldiers for militarily
skill; and producers for material productivity;
(iv) It sought to bring a balance between the individual needs and social requirement,

Criticism
• Undemocratically devised in so far as it ignored the producing class. It was limited in
nature and was restrictive in extent by laying more emphasis on mathematics than on
literature.
 • The whole plan was unexpectedly and unduly expensive.
• It was un-individual in the sense that it restricted man's thinking process and his
autonomy.
• It was too abstract and too theoretical, so much so, it lost sight of administrative
intricacies.

Community of Wives and Property

In his opinion if reason and spirit are to discharge their functions and to attain justice, then
they must keep themselves away from appetite. Domination of appetite is a great hindrance
to the purification and goodness of the soul. Similarly, in the ideal state, there are three
classes—the ruling class, military class and farmers.

If the former two classes are guided by economic motive, then there will be gross
negligence of duty on the part of these two classes and that will erode justice. Plato, for this
reason, had prescribed the introduction of communism for these two classes.
Only communism could enable the rulers and soldiers to devote their entire energy and
enthusiasm to the cause of the state and in this way justice could be achieved. “A
communistic life, in the sense of a life divested of economic motive, is thus necessarily
connected with and necessarily issues from, the proper position in the state of the two-
higher elements of mind” Plato believed that the absence of communism would invite
appetite. But justice demands that these three will discharge functions separately.
To Plato justice was not external, but internal. It was the result of habit. Mind must acquire
true habit. But habit depends upon the material conditions. That is how mind will act and
react that will be decided by the material conditions of society. Communism in property will
make men’s mind fully suitable for the attainment of justice.
Many of the political ideas of Plato can be traced to his predecessors and the theory of
communism is not an exception. In ancient Greek society which existed before Plato there
was a form of communism in land. Land was held in common in many tribal societies. But
subsequently land came to be divided among individuals and the authority of the state
manipulated and supervised this division.
At the time of Pythagoras and Pythagoreans there were traces of communism. “Friends’
goods were common goods”—this was the motto at the time of Pythagoras.

Communism as Stated in Republic:

In The Republic Plato says—True education will have the greatest tendency to civilize and
humanize the rulers and the soldiers in their relation to one another and to those who are
under their protection.
Not only their education but their habitations, and all that belongs to them, should be such
as will neither impair their virtue as guardians nor tempt them to prey upon the other
citizens.
None of them should have any property of his own beyond what is absolutely necessary;
neither should they have a private house. Their provisions should be only such as are
required by trained warriors.
They should agree to receive from the citizens a fixed rate of pay— enough to meet the
expenses of the year and no more—and they will go to mess and live together like soldiers
in a camp. But should they ever acquire homes or lands or moneys of their own, they will
become housekeepers and husbandmen instead of guardians, enemies and tyrants instead
of allies of other citizens, hating and being hated, plotting and being plotted against, they
will pass their whole life in much greater terror of internal than of external enemies. For all
which reasons may we not say that thus shall our state be ordered, and that these shall be
the regulations appointed by us for our guardians concerning their houses and all other
matters?
Interpretation of Plato’s Idea:
Barker says that his arguments of communism in property are ethical. We know that Plato
has always adhered to the organic concept which means that the individual is an
inseparable part of the state.
Similarly, the self, is an integral part of the whole order. Individual has no scope to satisfy his
personal and selfish desires by remaining away from the whole social order.

• If he is engaged in satisfying personal ambition or desires that would be quite

unethical on his part. Fulfillment of selfish desires does not find place in Plato’s
thought-system. Plato believed that personal property was a potent instrument to
satisfy desires and it clears the way for the appearance of negligence of duty and
also of corruption in all its manifestations.
• By advocating communism in property Plato wanted to materialize the divorce
between economic power and political power. Plato apprehended that the
combi-nation of two powers in a single hand would lead to corruption in the ideal
state, and this apprehension had factual basis.
• Plato saw that in the contemporary states the union of these two powers was the
source of corruption and mismanagement. If a ruler exercises two powers
simultaneously he will forget wisdom. This idea urged Plato to recommend the
introduction of communism for the guardian class.
• Advocating communism of property for the ruling class Plato wanted to set up an
example which would be unique in all respects. To shoulder the responsibility of
government is not an ordinary function; rather, it is an extraordinary duty.
• Persons carrying out this extraordinary duty are also not ordinary persons. They
belong to guardian class and the king is philosopher. A philosopher is an exceptional
person. Hence he should be guided by certain exceptional or unique regulations.
Communism of property is one such unique regulation.
Barker has emphasized another interpretation of Plato’s communism. It is better to put the
matter in his own words: “Platonic communism is ascetic; and just for that reason it is also
aristocratic. It is the way of surrender; and it is a surrender imposed upon the best and only
on the best”
The rulers will have to forego the personal comfort emanating from the ownership of
private property. They will have to forget the attraction for private property. Only very few
persons will embrace communism and in that sense it is aristocratic.
Since it is aristocratic it is also political. Only the governing class comes under the purview of
communism. Its purpose is to make suitable certain people for governmental job.

Communism in Wives:
• If the purpose of Plato’s community of property is to create a congenial atmosphere
for the rulers which will enable them to devote their time and energy completely to
the administration and progress of the state, then we will say half of the purpose is
achieved. Because temptation or distraction will still remain.
• If property is abolished and family remains as before, people will be encouraged to
acquire it, since without property family cannot be maintained. Plato understood it
fully and he strongly recommended the community of wives as well as children and
his discussion on this subject in The Republic occupies much larger space.
• In ancient Greek society the family life was private. Women were confined to home.
Men met at market-places and assembled at other areas. The functions of women
were to look after the domestic chores and to procreate children.
• They had no freedom and led a very secluded life. Women were not allowed to meet
men other than their husbands and to participate in the affairs of the state. This
seclusion of women from social life, Plato thought, was absolutely inimical to the
unity of state.
• In prescribing the community of wives Plato wanted to serve two purposes. To
emancipate the women from the bonds of family life and to reform the time-old
system of marriage. In Plato’s view it was an urgent task to free the women so that
they could invest their energy to the all-round progress of the state.
• In other words, he wanted to bring the family within the ambit of the ideal state by
reforming and transforming it in accordance with the ideals of the body-politic.
Confinement of the women within the four walls of the family deprived the state of
their valuable services.
• In order to import the services of women into the state Plato prescribed the
community of wives. His theory is based on eugenic and moral grounds. The
implication of the first is both men and women guardians will live in barracks like
soldiers and discharge their duties in common.
• Best and healthy men and women guardians will cohabit and their children will
naturally be healthy. Plato thought that healthy children would be the best assets for
the ideal state. Again, for the benefit of the state, the sexual life of both men and
women guardians would be regulated.
 • Plato assumes that as a result of the community of wives, the parentage of the
children will remain unknown not only to their parents but also to the society. All the
boys and girls will be brothers and sisters. In such a situation a deeper sense of unity
and patriotism will grow in their minds.
In The Republic Plato has said— “There cannot be any greater evil than discord or
distraction and plurality. Again, there cannot be any greater good than the bond of unity”.
There is unity where there is community of pleasures and pains.
In Plato’s view to think separately and do separately and not to think of the interests of the
ideal state is immoral. So, for the sake of the ideal state, feeling of unity must be
encouraged and it should be nurtured from the very childhood.

Evaluation:
Half Communism
Plato’s communism has been criticized as “half Communism” due to the fact that it is not
the Communism of the whole society, but of the’ half society. He has prescribed
communistic way of life only for rulers and soldiers and not for other classes or sections of
society. He believed that non-communistic way of life (i.e., ownership of private property
and accumulation of wealth) by guardians and soldiers would invite corruption among the
members of these two classes. But the prescription of communism for about half of the
society will divide it into two parts—one half will be deprived of the benefits of private
property and accumu-lation of wealth, and the other half will enjoy the benefits.

• Such a division of society, the critics observe, will frustrate the noble and lofty
purpose of communism. Plato believed that ownership of private property would
create dissension among the members of society which might not be ideal for an
ideal state. .
• If this argument is accepted (for the sake of argument of course) we are of opinion
that any sort of private property is always harmful. It is not true that it is harmful for
any particular class and harmless for another class.
• It is said that Plato gave top priority to the idea of unity of state and he believed that
there could be no greater good than unity. Ernest Barker does not agree with Plato.
He says—”He pushed the organic conception too far.”
• Plato laid excessive faith on the organic concept of state. But the experience teaches
us that there cannot be solid state of unity among all the sections of society. Various
sections of society will try to mould their lives in their own ways and for greater
welfare and benefit of society that variety must be accepted. For the sake of artificial
unity diversity cannot be sacrificed.
• Every section of society has its own will and this demands that only through the
institution of private property each section will be able to translate it will into reality.
But by prescribing the abolition of private property Plato wanted to abolish the will
of a part of society.
Plato had practically inflicted injustice upon these two classes
 • Another criticism which has been levelled against the concept of communism
enunciated in The Republic is that the state is composed of various parts, and family
is an important part of the state. But by suggesting that no family for guardian and
soldier classes Plato had practically inflicted injustice upon these two classes and it is
irony that this prescription is in the name of justice.
• The state is no doubt the supreme political organization and aims at supreme good.
But this cannot cover all aspects of human life. Even a state cannot fulfil all the
objectives of an individual.
• Family has a definite and purposeful role in society and this should be allowed to
play the race. If it is forced to discontinue, human life will be barren. Man can
develop the finer and artistic objectives through the institutions of family and private
property and, if these are abolished, the devel-opment of these qualities will be in
critical position.
• It is unfortunate that a genius like Plato dismally failed to realize the good effects of
family and private property. Unlimited property is no doubt harmful, but a limited
amount of private property is always admissible. Even the 1982 Constitution of China
recognizes private property.
We shall now turn to the brighter aspects of Plato’s theory of Communism. Maxey, the
renowned interpreter of Western political thought, makes the following observation about
Plato’s theory of Communism:

• “Virtually all socialistic and communistic thought has its roots in Plato. Were he alive
today Plato would be the reddest of Reds and would no doubt hasten to Russia with
the same expectant enthusiasm he displayed in answering the call of the ancient
tyrant of Syracuse”.
• Another critic has said—”The ideal state of Plato and that of Russian communists
have many elements in common, both regard private property as the sole source of
evil, both would eliminate wealth and poverty, both favour a collective education of
children, exempted from paternal care, both regard art and literature only as a
means of state education, both would control science and ideology in the interests
of the state.
• It is interesting to note that more than two thousand three hundred years ago Plato
realized that private property and accumulation of wealth were the chief sources of
discord and corruption in society. The right to property as a fundamental right of
Indian Constitution was abolished by the 44th amendment.
For proper evaluation and judgment of Plato’s concept of communism we are to go back to
Plato’s time and to understand Plato’s political philosophy in the real perspective. There is
no doubt that he wanted to establish a corruption-free and discord-free society which is
called the ideal state.
He believed that if the guardians and soldiers were engaged in the management of private
property the whole interest of the body-politic will be adversely affected. For this reason he
prescribed that these two classes of people would receive from the general store of the
society what is absolutely required.
Theory of Philosopher king.

Theory of Soul.

A common, but simplistic, characterization of the differences between the two philosophers claims
to find a marked dichotomy between the two:

Plato is interested in transcendent truth while Aristotle is more interested in “real life.”

Plato is focuses on the theoretical and abstract while Aristotle on the practical and concrete.

Plato says poetry is a dangerous pack of lies while Aristotle says it is “philosophical” and can teach us
about the human condition.