TITLE: ASSIGNMENT 3

CURRENT ISSUES IN MARINE COMMUNITY

DEVELOPMENT

Lecturer: KENNEDY AARON AGUOL

Matric No. Name:

BA21110674 AMIER WAFI BIN MOHAMMAD RAFIZAN
INTRODUCTION

Global warming is causing sea levels to rise, threatening coastal

population centers. Many pesticides and nutrients used in agriculture
end up in the coastal waters, resulting in oxygen depletion that kills
marine plants and shellfish. Factories and industrial plants discharge
sewage and other runoff into the oceans.

Human activities are threatening the health of the world's oceans.

More than 80 percent of marine pollution comes from land-based
activities. From coral bleaching to sea level rise, entire marine
ecosystems are rapidly changing.

Global warming is causing alterations in ocean chemistry and many

oceanic processes, and it is threatening many species of marine
animals that cannot cope with higher temperatures. Overfishing is a
serious problem in many parts of the world. Conservationists
advocate creating expansive marine reserves to protect the
biodiversity of the oceans.
ARTICLE 1

REFERENCE
Effects of global warming
The signs of global warming are everywhere, and are more complex than just
climbing temperatures.

CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

What causes climate change? And how does it relate to global warming? Learn about the impact
and consequences of climate change and global warming for the environment and our lives.
4 MIN READ

The planet is warming, from North Pole to South Pole. Since

1906, the global average surface temperature has increased by more
than 1.6 degrees Fahrenheit (0.9 degrees Celsius)—even more in
sensitive polar regions. And the impacts of rising temperatures aren’t
waiting for some far-flung future–the effects of global warming are
appearing right now. The heat is melting glaciers and sea ice, shifting
precipitation patterns, and setting animals on the move.

Many people think of global warming and climate change as

synonyms, but scientists prefer to use “climate change” when
describing the complex shifts now affecting our planet’s weather and
climate systems. Climate change encompasses not only rising average
temperatures but also extreme weather events, shifting wildlife
populations and habitats, rising seas, and a range of other impacts.
All of these changes are emerging as humans continue to add heat-
trapping greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.

Scientists already have documented these impacts of climate change:

  Ice is melting worldwide, especially at the Earth’s poles. This
includes mountain glaciers, ice sheets covering West Antarctica
and Greenland, and Arctic sea ice. In Montana's Glacier National
Park the number of glaciers has declined to fewer than 30 from
more than 150 in 1910.
 Much of this melting ice contributes to sea-level rise. Global sea
levels are rising 0.13 inches (3.2 millimeters) a year, and the rise
is occurring at a faster rate in recent years.
 Rising temperatures are affecting wildlife and their habitats.
Vanishing ice has challenged species such as the Adélie
penguin in Antarctica, where some populations on the western
peninsula have collapsed by 90 percent or more.
 As temperatures change, many species are on the move. Some
butterflies, foxes, and alpine plants have migrated farther north
or to higher, cooler areas.
 Precipitation (rain and snowfall) has increased across the globe,
on average. Yet some regions are experiencing more severe
drought, increasing the risk of wildfires, lost crops, and drinking
water shortages.
 Some species—including mosquitoes, ticks, jellyfish, and crop
pests—are thriving. Booming populations of bark beetles that
feed on spruce and pine trees, for example, have
devastated millions of forested acres in the U.S.

Other effects could take place later this century, if warming

continues. These include:

 Sea levels are expected to rise between 10 and 32 inches (26

and 82 centimeters) or higher by the end of the century.
 Hurricanes and other storms are likely to become stronger.
Floods and droughts will become more common. Large parts of
the U.S., for example, face a higher risk of decades-long
"megadroughts" by 2100.
  Less freshwater will be available, since glaciers store about
three-quarters of the world's freshwater .
 Some diseases will spread, such as mosquito-
borne malaria (and the 2016 resurgence of the Zika virus).
 Ecosystems will continue to change: Some species will move
farther north or become more successful; others, such as polar
bears, won’t be able to adapt and could become extinct.

ARTICLE 2

Where Global Warming Went: Into

the Pacific
Stronger trade winds bury "missing" heat under the surface, study says.
BYBEN JERVEYFOR NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

PUBLISHED FEBRUARY 11, 2014

• 3 MIN READ

A lot of the energy from global warming has been hiding lately under
the surface of the Pacific Ocean—and in the future it will come back
out in a burst of heat, a new study concludes.

The study published in Nature Climate Change  finds that equatorial

trade winds have been blowing harder over the Pacific for the past
two decades, forcing more heat down into the ocean.

Since 2001, the average air temperature at Earth's surface has risen
more slowly than it did in previous decades. Climate change
skeptics have seized upon the "pause"  to argue that global warming
has stopped, using the current cold winter in the U.S.  to buttress
their case.

Global warming clearly hasn't stopped—the ten hottest years on

record have all occurred since 1998, with 2010 being the hottest ever.
But climate scientists are nonetheless trying to understand why the
atmosphere has been warming more slowly than before, even as
concentrations of heat-trapping greenhouse gases have continued to
rise.

A growing body of research suggests that some of the missing heat

has been going into the Pacific.

Trading Heat

The new study was led by Matthew England of the Australian

Research Council Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science .
He and his colleagues used observations and detailed computer
simulations to tease out the effect of trade winds on surface
temperatures. As the winds blow west along the Equator, they push
warm water ahead of them, piling it up in a warm pool in the western
Pacific.

Since the 1990s, the winds have strengthened by as much as 50

percent in some areas. The "strong trade winds," says study co-
author Gerald Meehl of the U.S. National Center for Atmospheric
Research, "are bringing cooler water to the surface in the equatorial
Pacific and mixing more heat into the deeper ocean."

In effect, the researchers say, the missing heat from global warming
is being stored in a deeper warm pool in the western Pacific. England
and his colleagues calculated that the stronger trade winds have
reduced the global average surface temperature by 0.1-0.2 degrees
Celsius (0.18-0.36 degrees Fahrenheit)—enough, they write, "to
account for much of the hiatus in surface warming observed since
2001."

"Without the 20 or so years of strengthened wind," says England, "we

would've seen quite significant warming over the past decade."
What Goes Down, Must Come Up

The intensification of the trade winds results in part from a natural

El Nino-like climate cycle called the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation ,
England says. But the extent of it is unprecedented in the
observational record, and it's not fully understood. Figuring out the
cause of the intensification is important: It might allow researchers
to predict when the winds will slack off again, allowing the heat now
stored in the Pacific to come belching out again.

"You can't keep pumping heat into the ocean," says England,
"shoveling it in year after year, without eventually seeing that heat
interacting again with the atmosphere and warming the atmosphere.

"In due course, the atmosphere will warm up as though the hiatus
never occurred. But regardless of when it ends—in a couple of years
or in a whole decade—our research suggests the warming will be
quite rapid."

ARTICLE 3

WHY FEWER BLACKTIP SHARKS ARE MIGRATING TO

FLORIDA
WATCH: Each year, thousands of blacktip sharks migrate between Florida and North Carolina, but
warmer waters are causing some to skip the trip the Florida.
BYERIC NIILER

PUBLISHED MARCH 9, 2018

• 4 MIN READ

The annual migration of blacktip sharks from

southern Florida to North Carolina  has begun—and researchers who
track this amazing ritual say there are seeing only about one-third
the usual number.
The sharks—all male—swim south during the coldest months of the
year and head north when spring arrives to mate with females. But
for the past two years, many sharks are staying north, thanks to the
East Coast's warming waters.

That could be a problem. These traveling sharks keep Florida's

coastal ecosystem healthy by weeding out weak and sick fish, and
thereby helping to preserve coral reefs and seagrasses.

Stephen Kajiura, a marine biologist at Florida Atlantic University,

has been tracking blacktips for 15 years, climbing into a single-engine
Cessna 172 and flying low over Florida's crystal-clear waters with a
camera poking out the window.

He and his crew then jump in a boat to tag some sharks with a small
acoustic device, or a longer-lasting satellite receiver. In past years,
they've counted as many as 15,000 sharks in a single group. But not
this season. (See our favorite shark videos of all time .)

"This year has been strange," Kajiura says. "Last year was unusually
warm all winter: The water temperatures never got below 73.4
Fahrenheit. This year, the temperatures have risen dramatically to
78.8 Fahrenheit. It's now even hotter than this time last year."

Heading North
The underwater heatwave is the result of seasonal variability—just
like there are cool summers and warm winters on land.

But over time, Kajiura believes this migrant shark population will
permanently shift northward in response to long-term rising ocean
temperatures, which are linked to global climate change. Many of
these changes are already underway.

In fact, the waters off the northeastern U.S. have warmed faster than
more than 99 percent of the world's oceans in the past decade,
according to Vince Saba, a marine biologist at the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration's Northeast Fisheries Science
Center.
"We are seeing a northern shift in most of our fish stocks: winter
flounder, summer flounder, herring, and mackerel," Saba said.
"Some of those species are part of the coastal sharks' diet."

Incredible Photos of Sharks in the Wild

1 / 29
<p>Pacific angelshark. Santa Catalina Island, California</
Pacific angelshark. Santa Catalina Island, California

PHOTOGRAPH BY DAVID DOUBILET, NAT GEO IMAGE COLLECTION

Since 1960, the patch of ocean from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,
to the Gulf of Maine has warmed by 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit. While
that might not seem like much, to fish and other marine life, it's the
difference between life and death. (Read about a new species of shark
discovered in Florida .)
"We can put on a coat, or if you are a lizard you can bask in the sun;
but fish don’t have that option," said Malin Pinsky, a marine ecologist
at Rutgers University. "Fish can’t escape temperatures. Even half a
degree or a degree can be a lot for their ability to survive and
reproduce."

That's why the blacktip sharks, just like cod, dogfish, and a host of
other fish species, are moving north to get more comfortable—and
follow their food supply.

Dangerous Catch
Swimmers and surfers might see more of these sharks along the
northeastern coast. Although they're not aggressive, some people
have been bitten by sharks that mistake their legs or feet for food.
(Read the psychology behind our fear of shark attacks .)

Fishermen are affected by the shift in fish populations, too.

Commercial boats based in North Carolina used to spend a day at sea

catching valuable summer flounder, returning home at night. Now
they are forced to sail hundreds of miles north to fill their hold—
which is more expensive and makes for a more dangerous catch.

ARTICLE 4

Ocean warming
  The ocean absorbs most of the excess heat from greenhouse gas
emissions, leading to rising ocean temperatures.
 Increasing ocean temperatures affect marine species and ecosystems.
Rising temperatures cause coral bleaching and the loss of breeding
grounds for marine fishes and mammals.
 Rising ocean temperatures also affect the benefits humans derive from the
ocean – threatening food security, increasing the prevalence of diseases
and causing more extreme weather events and the loss of coastal
protection.
 Achieving the mitigation targets set by the Paris Agreement on climate
change and limiting the global average temperature increase to well
below 2°C above pre-industrial levels is crucial to prevent the massive,
irreversible impacts of ocean warming on marine ecosystems and their
services.
 Establishing marine protected areas and putting in place adaptive
measures, such as precautionary catch limits to prevent overfishing, can
protect ocean ecosystems and shield humans from the effects of ocean
warming.

  
   What is the

issue?     Why is it

important ?      What can be done? 

What is the issue ?
The ocean absorbs vast quantities of heat as a result of increased concentrations of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, mainly from fossil fuel consumption. The Fifth
Assessment Report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) in 2013 revealed that the ocean had absorbed more than 93% of the excess
heat from greenhouse gas emissions since the 1970s. This is causing ocean
temperatures to rise.

Data from the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) shows

that the average global sea surface temperature – the temperature of the upper few
metres of the ocean – has increased by approximately 0.13°C per decade over the
past 100 years. A 2012 paper published in the journal Geophysical Research
Letters  revealed that the deep ocean is also affected, with one third of the excess
heat absorbed 700 m below the sea surface. Modelling studies published in IPCC’s
2013 Report predict that there is likely to be an increase in mean global ocean
temperature of 1-4oC by 2100.

The distribution of excess heat in the ocean is not uniform, with the greatest ocean
warming occurring in the Southern Hemisphere and contributing to the subsurface
melting of Antarctic ice shelves.
The ocean’s ability to absorb excess heat has shielded humans from even more
rapid changes in climate. Without this oceanic buffer, global temperatures would
have risen much more than they have done to date. IPCC’s Fourth Assessment
Report published in 2007 estimated that the Earth had experienced a warming of
0.55°C since the 1970s. According to an analysis by the Grantham Institute, if the
same amount of heat that has gone into the top 2,000 m of the ocean between 1955
and 2010 had gone into the lower 10 km of the atmosphere, the Earth would have
seen a warming of 36°C.

back to top

Why is it important ?
Ocean warming leads to deoxygenation – a reduction in the amount of oxygen
dissolved in the ocean – and sea-level rise – resulting from the thermal expansion of
sea water and continental ice melting. The rising temperatures, coupled with ocean
acidification (the decrease in pH of the ocean due to its uptake of CO2), affect marine
species and ecosystems and, consequently, the fundamental benefits humans derive
from the ocean. 

Impact on marine species and ecosystems

Marine fishes, seabirds and marine mammals all face very high risks from increasing
temperatures, including high levels of mortalities, loss of breeding grounds and
mass movements as species search for favourable environmental conditions. Coral
reefs are also affected by increasing temperatures which cause coral bleaching and
increase their risk of mortality.

Impact on humans
A 2012 report by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
estimates that marine and freshwater capture fisheries and aquaculture provide 4.3
billion people with about 15% of their animal protein. Fisheries and aquaculture are
also a source of income for millions of people worldwide. By altering distributions of
fish stocks and increasing the vulnerability of fish species to diseases, ocean
warming is a serious risk to food security and people’s livelihoods globally.
Economic losses related to ocean warming are likely to run from tens to hundreds of
millions of dollars.

Rising temperatures also affect vegetation and reef-building species such as corals
and mangroves, which protect coastlines from erosion and sea-level rise. Rising sea
levels and erosion will particularly affect low-lying island countries in the Pacific
Ocean, destroying housing and infrastructure and forcing people to relocate.
The rise in sea surface temperatures is causing more severe hurricanes and the
intensification of El Niño events bringing droughts and floods. This can have
significant socio-economic and health effects in some regions of the world.

Warming ocean temperatures are linked to the increase and spread of diseases in
marine species. Humans risk direct transmission of these diseases when consuming
marine species, or from infections of wounds exposed in marine environments.

As climate change tightens its grip, the effects are being felt across the planet. The
global ocean plays a key role and has so far soaked up most of the carbon dioxide
and excess heat human activities have produced. But it is also vulnerable. Already
some significant changes are underway, and the climate disruption to our seas
looks set to worsen.

1. Rising temperatures
About 90% of the excess heat trapped by atmospheric greenhouse gases is
eventually soaked up by the world’s oceans. Because oceans are so big, the
temperature change to the seawater can seem small – the sea surface layer has
warmed by just over 0.5C in the last century. That’s still enough to cause
significant disruption, and the warming is accelerating.

Things expand as they warm, becoming less dense and taking up more space. The
oceans are no different. Indeed, between 1993-2010, thermal expansion is thought
to have raised sea levels by an average of 1.1 millimetres a year, accounting for
much of the overall rise we have seen.
ARTICLE 5

The ocean and climate change

 The ocean is being disproportionately impacted by increasing carbon
dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) from human
activities.
 This causes changes in water temperature, ocean
acidification and deoxygenation, leading to changes in oceanic circulation
and chemistry, rising sea levels, increased storm intensity, as well
as changes in the diversity and abundance of marine species.
 Degradation of coastal and marine ecosystems threatens the physical,
economic and food security of local communities, as well as resources for
global businesses.
 Climate change weakens the ability of the ocean and coasts to
provide critical ecosystem services such as food, carbon storage, oxygen
generation, as well as to support nature-based solutions to climate
change adaptation.
 The sustainable management, conservation and restoration of coastal
and marine ecosystems are vital to support the continued provision of
ecosystem services on which people depend. A low carbon emissions
trajectory is indispensable to preserve the health of the ocean.
   What is the

issue?     Why is it

important ?      What can be done? 

ARTICLE 6

What is the issue ?

At the front line of climate change, the ocean, the coastlines and coastal
communities are being disproportionately impacted by increasing carbon dioxide
(CO2) and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities.

The ocean plays a central role in regulating the Earth’s climate. The Fifth
Assessment Report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) in 2013 revealed that it has thus far absorbed 93% of the extra energy from
the enhanced greenhouse effect, with warming now being observed at depths of
1,000 m. As a consequence, this has led to increased ocean stratification (prevention
of water mixing due to different properties of water masses), changes in ocean
current regimes, and expansion of depleted oxygen zones. Changes in the
geographical ranges of marine species and shifts in growing seasons, as well as in
the diversity and abundance of species communities are now being observed. At the
same time, weather patterns are changing, with extreme events increasing in
frequency.

Atmospheric warming is leading to the melting of inland glaciers and ice, causing
rising sea levels with significant impacts on shorelines (coastal erosion, saltwater
intrusion, habitat destruction) and coastal human settlements. The IPCC projects
global mean sea level to increase by 0.40 [0.26–0.55] m for 2081–2100 compared
with 1986–2005 for a low emission scenario, and by 0.63 [0.45–0.82] m for a high
emission scenario. Extreme El Niño events are predicted to increase in frequency
due to rising GHG emissions.

CO2 emissions are also making the ocean more acidic, making many marine species
and ecosystems increasingly vulnerable. Ocean acidification reduces the ability of
marine organisms, such as corals, plankton and shellfish, to build their shells and
skeletal structures. It also exacerbates existing physiological stresses (such as
impeded respiration and reproduction) and reduces growth and survival rates during
the early life stages of some species. 
Global Warming Hits
Marine Life Hardest
The lack of thermal refugia in the ocean means marine life has nowhere to escape from
rising sea temperatures.
By Mary Caperton Morton2 May 2019
PRINT
Sea creatures like this black sea bass at Gray's Reef National Marine
Sanctuary in Georgia are more vulnerable to climate change than
terrestrial species. Credit: NOAA

One of the best ways to cool down on a hot day is to jump in the ocean. But that
doesn’t mean that marine animals have it easy in the face of warming global
temperatures. In fact, a new study finds that marine life is more susceptible to
extreme heat waves than land-based animals.

“Animals have ways to cope with extreme heat waves wherever they might live,
such as seeking shade or burrowing underground,” says Malin Pinsky, an ecologist
at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, N.J., and lead author of the new study,
published in  Nature. “We were interested in how accessible temperature refugia
are to both marine and terrestrial species and how that might affect their
susceptibility to high temperatures.”

“It’s much easier to escape a heat wave on land than in the

ocean.”
The team calculated the thermal safety margin—the difference between the hottest
temperature that an organism can safely tolerate and the hottest body temperature
when in the coolest part of their environment—for 88 marine and 299 terrestrial
cold-blooded species. They found that marine species are more likely to live near
their upper thermal limit than land-based species in part because terrestrial species
have more access to thermal refugia such as shade or underground dens.

“It’s much easier to escape a heat wave on land than in the ocean,” Pinsky says. “It
does get cooler the deeper you go, but not all marine life is equipped to dive
deeper. Also, many species live on the ocean bottom, and they have nowhere to
go.”

Many major extinctions have hit marine species harder than terrestrial species,
including the greatest loss of life, the Permian-Triassic mass extinction around 252
million years ago, when 95% of marine and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species
went extinct.

“It’s not strictly a matter of getting too hot,” Pinsky says. “At higher temperatures,
an organism’s demand for oxygen goes up, and that likely plays a role in high
marine mortality rates as well.”

Overall, the study found that marine species are moving out of their historical
ranges at twice the rate of land-dwelling species.

“We used to just say, ‘well as it gets hotter, organisms will all
migrate polewards to higher latitudes,’ but as this study
shows, it’s not that simple.”

“We know that marine species tend to colonize new areas faster than land species.
The ocean has fewer barriers to migration than the land,” where species may be
limited by terrain features or water availability, says Pinsky.

The new study offers a unique look at how organisms are coping with climate
change, says Anthony Richardson, a mathematical ecologist at the University of
Queensland who penned an accompanying News and Views article in the same
issue of  Nature. “We used to just say, ‘well as it gets hotter, organisms will all
migrate polewards to higher latitudes,’ but as this study shows, it’s not that
simple.”
The next step will be to expand the thermal safety margin database to include more
species. “I’d like to see more biodiversity represented, including invertebrates,
mollusks, and warm-blooded animals,” says Richardson.

Pinsky is also interested in how early life stages fare at temperature extremes.

“Eggs and larvae are often the most sensitive in terms of temperature and oxygen
levels,” he says. “Understanding which life stages, species, and ecosystems will be
most severely affected by warming will be important for guiding conservation and
management efforts as climate change advances.

ARTICLE 7

Is global warming causing marine

diseases to spread?
March 28, 2016 11.06am BST
Author

1. Charlotte Eve Davies

Postdoctoral Researcher at the Institute of Marine Sciences and Limnology, Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México (UNAM)

Disclosure statement

Charlotte Eve Davies has received funding from the Marine Management Organisations Fisheries Challenge Fund and currently
receives funding from the National Autonomous University of Mexico
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Coral affected by black band disease, Bahamas. James St. John/Flickr, CC BY

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Global climate change is altering the world’s oceans in many ways. Some
impacts have received wide coverage, such as shrinking Arctic sea ice, rising
sea levels and ocean warming. However, as the oceans warm, marine
scientists are observing other forms of damage.

My research focuses on diseases in marine ecosystems. Humans, animals

and plants are all susceptible to diseases caused by bacteria, viruses,
parasites and fungi. Marine diseases, however, are an emerging field.
Infectious agents have the potential to alter ocean life in many ways. Some
threaten our food security by attacking important commercial species, such
as salmon. Others, such as bacteria in oysters, may directly harm human
health. Still others damage valuable marine ecosystems – most
notably coral reefs.

To anticipate these potential problems, we need a better understanding of

marine diseases and how climate change affects their emergence and
spread.

Warming waters promote marine diseases

Recent studies show that for some marine species diseases are spreading
and increasing. Climate change may also promote the spread of infectious
agents in oceans. Notably, warming water temperatures can expand these
agents’ ranges and introduce diseases to areas where they were previously
unknown.

Many diseases of marine species are secondary opportunist infections that

take advantage when a host organism is stressed by other conditions, such
as changes in pH, salinity or temperature. A bacterium that is dormant
(and therefore noninfective) at a certain temperature may thrive at a
slightly higher temperature.

One well-documented example is the emergence of epizootic shell disease

(ESD) in American lobsters. This disease, thought to be caused by bacteria,
is characterized by lesions that penetrate inward from a lobster’s shell
surface towards the inner flesh, making infected lobsters unmarketable.
ESD can also kill lobsters by making it difficult for them to shed their shells
in order to grow.
An American lobster with epizootic shell disease (ESD).  para_sight/flickr
In the 1990s, following almost a decade of above-normal summer
temperatures, ESD affected so many lobsters that the Atlantic States
Marine Fisheries Commission declared that the Southern New England
fishery (Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York and Rhode Island) was
in collapse and recommended closing it. Fishery models that incorporated
shell disease offered convincing evidence that ESD was a major factor in the
decline of the stock. This episode underscores the importance of
considering marine diseases in stock assessments and fishery management.

Now there are concerns that ESD will continue to spread north to Maine’s
US$465.9 million lobster fishery. In 2015 the Gulf of Maine showed record
high abundances of lobster, making it one of the most productive fisheries
in the world.

However, sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of Maine have increased

faster than 99 percent of the global ocean over the past decade, warming
three times faster than the global average. Since temperature is a primary
factor in the spread of this disease, observers fear that it could have
devastating effects on Maine’s lobster fishery.

There is also a risk that ESD could spread from American lobsters to other
fisheries. Seafood wholesalers have imported live American lobsters into
Europe for decades, which can result in their escape into the wild. Last
summer the United Kingdom’s Marine Management
Organization warned U.K. fishermen that because the European lobster
shares similar habitats, food sources and diseases with the American
lobster, ESD could spread between the species.
As a doctoral student at Swansea University, U.K., I collaborated with the
New England Aquarium in Boston, Massachusetts to investigate this
possibility. While we found that European lobsters were more likely to
develop shell disease when reared in the presence of American lobsters, on
the positive side, they don’t seem to get the same shell disease as American
lobsters.

This means that European lobsters may be better equipped to deal with
outbreaks of ESD. But with sea surface temperatures in U.K. coastal waters
rising since the 1980s by around 0.2-0.9 degrees Celsius per decade, it is
important to monitor U.K. waters for this disease.

European lobsters with mild, none and severe shell disease.  Andrew Rowley/Swansea University

Tropical disease
Now I am now studying the Panuliris argus_1 virus (PaV1) in the
Caribbean spiny lobster, where the picture is more dire. Discovered around
2000, this virus is present from the Florida Keys to Venezuela. It can infect
up to 60 percent of lobsters in some areas. Laboratory studies indicate that
lobsters held in high-temperature seawater and exposed to PaV1 develop
active and more intense infections much more quickly than those held
at lower temperatures.
Studies from 1982 to 2012 show that waters in the Caribbean are warming,
with the most significant temperature increase occurring over the past 15
years – approximately the period when PaV1 appeared. If PaV1 continues to
spread, it could have significant effects on the health of Caribbean reefs as a
whole, as well as on the valuable Caribbean lobster fishery.

Monitoring more diseases

Many other species are also showing increasing effects from marine
diseases. The frequency of coral diseases has increased significantly over
the last 10 years, causing widespread mortality among reef-building coral,
which are home to more than 25 percent of all marine fish species.

In the Pacific, more than 20 species of sea stars were devastated by a

wasting disease that ranged from Mexico all the way up to Alaska in 2013
and 2014. Research suggests that 90 percent of some populations were
wiped out, and some adult populations have been reduced to a quarter of
pre-outbreak numbers.

Scientists believe the cause is a virus which becomes more active in warmer
conditions. In both field surveys and laboratory experiments, starfish were
found to react faster to the disease in warmer water than in cooler
temperatures.
Starfish on the shore at Umpqua Lighthouse State Park - Winchester Bay, Oregon.  skipplitt/flickr
As the oceans continue to warm, it is crucial to understand how our actions
are affecting marine life. Some species will not be able to withstand the
increase in temperature. The most recent U.S. National Climate Change
Assessment projects that outbreaks of marine diseases are likely to increase
in frequency and severity as waters warm under climate change.
Researchers are working around the world to determine whether and how
species will survive disease events in our increasingly altered oceans.

ARTICLE 8
 Th
e total observed rise in sea level for the 1993-2010 period was an average of 3.2mm every
year, with contributions from various other sources, including water stored on land, in forms
such as snow. (Graphic: Manuel Bortoletti / China Dialogue Ocean)
Warmer water also influences the atmosphere above it. Increased sea surface
temperatures are associated with making hurricanes and tropical cyclones more
powerful, potentially increasing the number of the most severe category 4 or 5
storms that strike islands and coastal areas. Warmer water can also dissolve less
carbon dioxide, which means more will stay in the atmosphere to accelerate global
warming.

Just like on land, rising temperatures in the oceans generate damaging heatwaves.
They occur when unusual weather conditions or water currents cause above-
average water temperatures for at least five consecutive days. But they can last for
months or even years. A marine heatwave called “The Blob” hung around the
northern Pacific from 2013-2015 and killed a million seabirds on the west coast of
the United States.
ARTICLE 9

EFFECTS OF
GLOBAL
WARMING ON
OUR OCEANS
Our oceans are critical to human health. Without them, we simply cannot survive. But
right now our oceans are seriously threatened by global warming and it could cost us
dearly.

Ocean ecosystems recycle nutrients and regulate greenhouse gases. In the right
balance, these processes ensure a healthy system. However, if our oceans overheat it
has dire consequences.

Our coastline is also one of Australia's major tourist attractions. If we destroy it, we
not only lose one of our greatest natural assets; we lose all the people it attracts and
the dollars they inject into our economy.
On top of that, the oceans themselves bring Australia enormous wealth. Fisheries and
aquaculture are worth more than $2 billion to our country.

To protect our oceans, we have to take two serious steps right now: prepare for a
changing climate, and address the root causes of global warming that are placing our
marine environments at risk.

Impacted species
 
 
 
 Green turtle

 Hawksbill turtle

Impacts
 
By 2030 it is estimated that sea surface temperatures will rise by 0.6-0.9 ºC in the
southern Tasman Sea and off the Northwest Shelf of Western Australia, and 0.3-0.6
ºC elsewhere.

This drastic temperature change can cause ocean acidification and impact
dramatically on marine life, as demonstrated by the mass coral bleaching on the Great
Barrier Reef. In the first few months of 2016, the Reef experienced the worst coral
bleaching event we’ve ever seen, triggered by the mining and burning of fossil fuels
like coal and gas.

The scale of this loss is staggering. Around half of all corals north of Lizard Island to
the tip of Cape York (a distance of approximately 1,000 kilometres) died. From Lizard
Island south to Cairns, around 16% of corals died. Overall, 22% of the Great Barrier
Reef's corals died in just a few months. Compared to previous coral bleaching events
in 1998 and 2002, this loss was far worse.

Warmer temperatures also result in the expansion of the water's mass, which causes
sea levels to rise. This leads to more erosion, threatening low-lying islands and coastal
cities.

We can already feel the impacts of global warming, and these will continue if we fail
to take serious climate change action now.
 

ARTICLE10
WHAT EFFECT IS GLOBAL
WARMING HAVING ON OUR
OCEANS?
 Our oceans play a critical role in sustaining life on Earth. They hold approximately 97% of the
planet’s water, help to shape weather patterns, and support countless ecosystems and food chains.
However, this immeasurably valuable resource is now under threat from the impacts of global
warming, including rising ocean temperatures, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. © GLOBAL
WARMING IMAGES / WWF FACT SHEET Causes It is estimated that some 480 billion tonnes of carbon
dioxide (CO2) have been emitted into the atmosphere over the last two centuries as a result of
humankind’s use of fossil fuels and our destruction of forests. This CO2 has contributed to a
greenhouse effect, whereby certain gases trap heat in the atmosphere rather than allowing it to be
released into space. As CO2 emissions have increased, so too have temperatures across the planet.
Globally, 2016 was the warmest year on record since 1880, and 16 of the 17 warmest recorded years
have occurred since 2001. © GLOBAL WARMING IMAGES / WWF Impacts Global warming threatens
to profoundly change our oceans in ways that will have dire consequences. Warmer temperatures
are leading to the melting of polar ice caps, resulting in the dumping of fresh water into the ocean
and raised sea levels. Such rises threaten coastal communities, low-lying Pacific Islands and
ecosystems such as estuaries and marshlands. The average global sea level rose by nearly 20
centimetres in the 20th century. In Australia, storm surges have caused massive erosion events on
our beaches. Approximately 70% of the world’s beaches have been reduced during the last century.
The potential implications for Australia’s tourism industry and our quality of life are significant. ©
GLOBAL WARMING IMAGES / WWF Funafuti atol, Tuvalu is in a battle against global warming.

ARTICLE 11
WHAT EFFECT IS GLOBAL
WARMING HAVING ON OUR
OCEANS?
Global warming also threatens to destroy the Great Barrier Reef and other coral ecosystems. Rising
ocean temperatures cause coral bleaching, which has severely damaged the Reef three times in the
past 19 years, with the summer of 2016 witnessing the worst coral bleaching event ever to hit the
area. Australia’s surrounding sea surface temperature – the main cause of coral bleaching – has
increased by 1 °C since 1910. Meanwhile, warmer ocean temperatures are also increasing the
severity of damaging weather events, such as storms and floods, as well as ocean acidification, due
to the sea water absorbing billions of tonnes of CO2 out of the atmosphere.

GLOBAL WARMING EFFECTS AROUND THE WORLD

Salt Water
Although marine species are more difficult to see and less well studied than land and
freshwater species, they are known to be experiencing some of the same—and
some different—effects from global warming.
 See how the effects of global warming in the North Sea ripple up the ocean food chain—and find other hot
spots where sea life is at risk on the Climate Hot Map.

 Forced migrations. Cold-water species are on the move, seeking cooler, deeper, or higher-latitude
waters, while warm-water species are moving to places formerly too cold for their survival.

 Disease. Scientists are detecting marine diseases, such as lobster-shell disease, in waters historically
thought to be too cold. There is some indication that higher ocean temperatures—between 86 and 95°
Fahrenheit (30 to 35° Celsius)—promote optimal growth of several coral pathogens.

 Coral bleaching. As seawater temperatures rise above the range that corals can tolerate, they are
expelling their symbiotic algae and exposing white skeletons—a process known as bleaching.

 Harm to wetlands. Coastal wetlands, salt marshes, and mangroves are highly vulnerable to
inundation as sea levels rise, unless they can migrate inland unimpeded. More frequent droughts in
upland and coastal areas may also reduce the flow of freshwater into these brackish ecosystems,
contributing to marsh dieback and shoreline retreat. Freshwater from melting land ice and extreme
rainfall—the results of global warming—dilutes salinity levels near shore, potentially disrupting the
delicate balance among creatures in these productive waters.

In addition, retreating sea ice exerts a cascading influence on marine ecosystems. For example, it
affects ocean bottom-dwelling species that depend on plankton blooms near the ice edge, on up the marine food
chain to the commercially valuable fish species that lived where the ice edge used to be.

Also, oceans become more acidic as they absorb carbon dioxide. The aragonite, a crystal form of calcium
carbonate, formed by tiny organisms then become too corroded to survive in high-pressure or cold waters
including some parts of the shallow North Pacific, the souther ocean and the deepest waters of the ocean.
ARTICLE 12

If left unchecked, global

warming will cause damage to
marine life: Study
The findings are based on the Ocean 2015 Initiative, which examined the
latest studies on how climate change is projected to affect oceans.




By: AFP |
July 3, 2015 9:07:48 am

A dead sea turtle washed ashore at Pass Christian, Mississippi. More than 425 turtles are known
to have died in the spill zone. (Source: AP)
If necessary measures aren’t taken, global warming will cause irreversible damage to marine
life in the world’s oceans, forcing fish to search for cooler waters and destroying valuable
coral reefs, an international study said today.
Keeping global average temperatures within two degrees Celsius above pre-industrial
temperatures is the only way to stave off the worst effects of climate change on the Earth’s
oceans, which provide 90 per cent of the planet’s habitable space, said the study in the journal
Science.
The findings are based on the Ocean 2015 Initiative, which examined the latest studies on
how climate change is projected to affect oceans, marine life and hundreds of billions of
dollars in goods and services they provide each year.
[related-post]
“All the species and services we get from the ocean will be impacted,” said co-author
William Cheung, associate professor at the University of British Columbia.
The team considered a business-as-usual scenario, and compared that to the effect of
introducing big cuts in carbon dioxide emissions in order to keep temperature rise below two
degrees Celsius by 2100, as outlined by the Copenhagen accord.
“The condition of the future ocean depends on the amount of carbon emitted in the coming
decades,” said the study.
“Immediate and substantial reduction of CO2 emissions is required in order to prevent the
massive and effectively irreversible impacts on ocean ecosystems and their services that are
projected” with business-as-usual scenarios.
Unless changes are made, “fish will migrate away from their current habitats 65 percent
faster, resulting in changes to biodiversity and ecosystem functions,” said the study, led by
Jean-Pierre Gattuso of the French National Center for Scientific Research.
Over time, the ocean will become less capable of absorbing carbon emissions from the
burning of fossil fuels.
Such pollution leads to rising acidification and harms marine life.
Sea level rise, loss of oxygen in the waters and disease are also top threats linked to pollution.
Even though recent research has suggested certain types of corals may be able to adapt to
warming waters, the study said it was “doubtful that corals will be able to adapt quickly
enough to maintain populations under most emissions scenarios, especially where
temperature keeps increasing over time.”
Researchers said their findings should help inform the global climate talks being held in Paris
later this year.
According to Phillip Williamson, science coordinator of the UK Ocean Acidification
(UKOA) research program, the paper gives a “powerful and succinct summary” of science
that is already well known to experts, “but it’s good to have the evidence brought together.”

ARTICLE 13

60% Fish Species May Not Survive

Global Warming, Study Finds
CLIMATE CHANGEBIODIVERSITYRESEARCH & SCIENTIFIC STUDIES

By Sally Ho Published on Jul 21, 2020 Last updated Mar 22, 2021

2  Mins Read
A new study reveals that climate change will impact fish species far
more than previously thought. Finding that embryos and spawning
adults are more susceptible to warming ocean temperatures,
researchers say that if global heating continues unabated, by 2100,
up to 60% of fish species around the world will be unable to survive.
Even if the world manages to limit temperature rise to the Paris
Agreement’s goal of 1.5 °C, it would be too hot for 10% of fish
species. 

Using observational, experimental and phylogenetic data to assess thermal tolerance

levels of almost 700 marine and freshwater species from all climate zones,
researchers found that in the worst-case scenario of 5°C of  global warming, as many
as 60% of global fish species will struggle to survive by 2100. 

The study, published in Science Magazine, calculated these figures after data showed
that spawning adults and embryos consistently have narrower tolerance ranges than
larvae and nonreproductive adults, making them more vulnerable to temperature
rise. Compared to the 27.5°C average range tolerance for adults, spawning adults
and embryos are only able to cope with an average range of 7.2°C and 8.4°C
respectively. 

The main reason why spawners are unable to cope with hotter ocean temperatures is
due to their higher oxygen requirements. Oxygen is more soluble in cold
temperatures.  

Even if the world manages to meet the Paris Agreement goal of limiting temperature
rise to 1.5°C, the researchers concluded that the oceans would still be too hot for
10% of fish species to cope. 

It reveals that fish species will be affected by climate change more than previously
thought, with prior studies suggesting that just 5% of fish species would struggle to
survive with 5°C of global warming. The latest figures are considered more accurate
because they are not based on the analysis of adult fish alone, but considers the
range of life stages, from spawning and non-spawning adults, larvae and embryos.

“We can say 1.5°C is not paradise, there will be changes.” said Hans-Otto Pörtner at
the Alfred Wegener Institute in Germany, a researcher involved in the study. “But we
can limit those changes if we manage to stop climate change.” 

Among the species that the authors of the paper highlighted were most at risk
include some of the most commercially valued fish species, such as Atlantic cod,
sockeye salmon and Alaska pollock. 
Aside from climate change, fish species are already under overwhelming pressure
due to overfishing as the demand for seafood continues to rise. Experts have
estimated that with the current rate of overfishing, we could be looking at no fish left
by as soon as 2050 – just three decades on from now. 

The study is yet another alarm bell calling for government leaders to take urgent
action on climate change, which will not only have an impact on the land, air and
more frequent and volatile weather patterns, but also the biodiversity of the ocean.

ARTICLE 14
Ocean warming has caused ‘sustainable’
fish stocks to drop by 4% since 1930s

Warming of the world’s oceans has caused the total

amount of fish that can be caught sustainably to fall
by an average of 4% globally since the 1930s, a
study finds.

Damage to harvests has been particularly severe around the UK in

the North and Irish seas, the data shows, where the maximum
sustainable yield has dropped by up to 35%. Fish particularly
affected in the North Sea include Atlantic cod, sole and haddock.
The risk posed by warming is compounded by overfishing, which
presents “a one-two punch” for fish, the lead author tells Carbon
Brief. “Overfishing makes fisheries more vulnerable to warming,
and continued warming will hinder efforts to rebuild overfished
populations.”

The findings show that the threat of climate change to the world’s
fish stocks is “not something for the distant future”, another scientist
tells Carbon Brief.

Battered

Climate change is causing ocean temperatures to rise at an

increasingly rapid rate, research shows. This warming is having a
striking impact on marine life, including by driving mass coral
bleaching and increasing the chances of deadly marine heatwaves.

The new study, published in Science, looks back from 1930 to 2010
to see how ocean warming has impacted commercial fish stocks. It
covers more than 235 economically important populations of fish in
38 world regions.

To do this, the researchers estimated how warming has influenced

the “maximum sustainable yield” – the total amount of fish that can
be taken by fishing without reducing the stock for the next year – for
different populations across the world.
This involved using population models and ocean warming data to
“hindcast” changes in fish population growth rate, explains lead
author Dr Chris Free, a researcher from the University of California,
Santa Barbara. He tells Carbon Brief:

“We used maps of ocean temperature over time to see if ocean

warming has influenced the growth of 235 marine fish and
invertebrate populations around the world.

“Our results suggest that the overall effect has been a 4% loss in
food provisioning potential around the world through to 2010. In
some regions, like the East China Sea and North Sea, losses in food
provisioning potential have been much higher, up to 15-35%.”

However, it is important to note that the study was not able to

investigate the impact of warming on every fish stock, he says:

“It’s important to be clear that we couldn’t assess all fisheries

globally and were only able to assess a large sample. The
populations we assessed generate a third of global catch.”

(Fish missing from the analysis include those that are relied on for
smallholder fishing in tropical regions, he says. This is because
historical data for these populations is scant.)

It is also worth noting that the study does not look at all the ways
that climate change can impact fish. For example, the research does
not consider the impacts of “ocean acidification”, which occurs as
 seawater absorbs CO2, or “ocean deoxygenation”, the loss of
oxygen from parts of the sea.

Winners and losers

The study finds that, out of the 235 fish populations, 19 (8%) have
been “significantly” negatively impacted by ocean warming and 9
(4%) have been positively impacted. For the rest of the populations
studied, the impact of warming was “insignificant”.

ARTICLE 15
The chart below indicates the influence of warming on each of the
28 fish stocks. The measure displayed on the y-axis represents how
much maximum sustainable yields would change with each degree
of global warming, Free explains:

“A value of +0.1 means a degree of warming would increase

population growth rate and maximum sustainable yield by 10% and
a value of -0.1 means a degree of warming would decrease
population growth rate and maximum sustainable yield by 10%.”
The influence of ocean warming on the maximum sustainable yields of 28 fish stocks. Results are
shown per degree of global warming, with figures above zero indicating a positive influence and
figures below zero indicating a negative influence. Data source: Free et al. (2019). Chart by
Carbon Brief using Highcharts

The results show that fish populations close to the UK, including in
the North and Irish Seas, are the most affected by ocean warming.
Fish particularly impacted include Atlantic cod, sole and haddock.

This could be because ocean warming has caused a decline in the

availability of “zooplankton” – microscopic marine animals which
fish feed on – in the North Sea, Free says:

“We suspect that North Sea fish populations have seen declines in
productivity due to the impact of ocean warming on zooplankton.
Other research has shown that ocean warming has resulted in more
autumn-spawning zooplankton and fewer spring-spawning
zooplankton, the latter of which are critical to the growth and
survival of juvenile fish.”

The North Sea is home to one of the world’s largest cod populations.
This stock is particularly important to countries in Europe, including
the UK, Denmark, Norway and Germany.
Global distribution of Atlantic cod. Source: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations (FAO)

By contrast, the population of cod in the Northern Gulf of St

Lawrence, which could have benefited from ocean warming, is an
important stock for Canada.

Cod in this gulf could have benefited from warming because waters

here are relatively cool, meaning small temperature increases could
make conditions more favourable in the short term, Free says:

“We see evidence that populations living at the cool end of their
range have benefitted from warming – but this benefit is unlikely to
persist if continued warming pushes these population past their
temperature tolerance.”
 The map below, which is taken from the paper, gives an indication
of how ocean warming has impacted sustainable fish yields in
different world regions.

On the map, blue indicates a positive percentage change in

maximum sustainable yield between the periods 1930-39 and 2001-
10, while red indicates a negative percentage change. The size of the
circle gives a picture of the size of the fish stocks (in millions of
tonnes), while the number inside the circle shows the number of
populations in the region.

The impact of ocean warming on global fish stocks. Blue indicates a positive percentage
change in maximum sustainable yield between the periods 1930-39 and 2001-10, while red
indicates a negative percentage change. The size of the circle represents the size of the fish
stocks (in millions of tonnes), while the number inside the circle shows the number of
populations in the region. Dotted lines indicate major world fishing regions. Source: Free et al.
(2019)

Packing a punch

Another finding of the results is that populations that have suffered

from overfishing were more likely to be threatened by ocean
warming. Overfishing occurs when fishing fleets take more fish than
is sustainable. At present, around one-third of the world’s fish stocks
are overfished, according to the FAO.

One reason that overfishing could make fish more vulnerable to

warming is that the largest and most healthy fish tend to be taken –
and they are the ones most likely to be able to withstand warming,
Free says:

“Overfishing presents a one-two punch: overfishing makes fisheries

more vulnerable to warming and continued warming will hinder
efforts to rebuild overfished populations.”

This finding is important, but it may be too early to say there is a

causal link specifically between overfishing and warming, says Dr
Thomas Cameron, a fish ecologist from the University of Essex who
was not involved in the study. He tells Carbon Brief:

“Populations that were found to have responded negatively to

temperature were also slow growers, large and of a greater total
biomass and found mainly in Europe or the China and Japanese
seas. [These] traits would attract fishing pressure. So, it’s not yet
clear if the association between fishing and warming is shown to be
mechanistic or caused by correlation.”
 Overall, the findings show how warming can impact commercial
fish populations, he adds:

“This work provides compelling evidence that there are dangers to

marine food production from warming seas – at least over the scale
of 10-15 years. Whether fish population movement [into] new areas
can overcome this remains to be seen.”

The research reinforces the message that climate change is already

having a large impact on the world’s fish, says Bryony Townhill, a
marine climate change scientist at the UK government’s Centre for
Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas). She tells
Carbon Brief:

“Studies such as this show that climate change is not something for
the distant future, but that increasing temperatures are already
causing changes in the oceans.”

ARTICLE 16

3 Effects of Climate Change in the

Marine Environment
OCEAN RELATED NEWS
Climate change is a global problem that has the potential affect a variety of different
ecosystems. Marine environments are one such ecosystem that rising temperatures can impact
on a wide scale. Variations in climate temperature have recently caused overall changes in
coral reefs, animal behavior, and sea level rising, all of which can lead to unbalance in marine
ecosystems.

As global temperatures increase, coral reefs are one type of habitat that has been experiencing
major degradation. As water temperatures increase, coral reefs experience coral bleaching
with the death of sensitive species of algae that inhabit them. These algae live symbiotically
with coral, and when these algae die the reefs die with them.

Along with the destructive impact that temperature changes have on coral reefs, these
changes can also affect animal behavior. Many marine animals are only adapted to a small
range of temperatures, and so they cannot easily survive in a warmer environment. Therefore,
temperature changes are causing many marine species to move further north to compensate
for changes in their environment. In addition, changes in marine ecosystems can affect the
reproduction of animals like sea turtles. Sea turtles, among other marine animals, are
dependent on temperature to determine the sex of their offspring. Therefore changes in
climate could quickly lead to changes in male to female ratios in these species.

Finally, one of the major impacts of climate

change is the rise in sea levels due to the melting of glaciers with warming temperatures.
While the rise in sea levels has the potential to impact coastal cities and islands, it will also
negatively affect marine ecosystems. Many marine plants are dependent on photosynthesis in
order to generate energy. However, with rising sea levels, the ability of these plants to obtain
energy from the sun could be greatly diminished in the years to come.
In our lifetime, rising global temperatures have the potential to greatly impact the balance of
marine ecosystems throughout the world. Therefore, when it comes to coral reef stability,
animal behavior, and rising sea levels, much work will be needed in the future to maintain
healthy marine environments across the globe.

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