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Lecture 7: Propagation, Dispersion and Scattering: Satellite Remote Sensing SIO 135/SIO 236
Lecture 7: Propagation, Dispersion and Scattering: Satellite Remote Sensing SIO 135/SIO 236
Lecture 7: Propagation,
Dispersion and Scattering
Jensen
Jensen2005
2005
Atmospheric Scattering
Jensen
Jensen
2005
2005
Rayleigh scattering
• Rayleigh scattering is molecular scattering and occurs when the
diameter of the molecules and particles are many times smaller than the
wavelength of the incident EMR
Rayleigh scattering
Jensen
Jensen
2005
2005
Rayleigh scattering
• Responsible for the blue sky. The short
wavelengths (violet/blue) are more efficiently
scattered than the longer wavelengths
(orange/red). Blue sky is a result of the
preferential scattering of the short
wavelength light.
Rayleigh scattering
The approximate amount of Rayleigh scattering in the atmosphere in
optical wavelengths (0.4 – 0.7 µm) may be computed using the
("m) algorithm:
Rayleigh scattering cross-section ("
• For visible light, water vapor, dust, and other particles ranging from a
few tenths of a micrometer to several micrometers in diameter are the
main scattering agents. The amount of scatter is greater than Rayleigh
scatter and the wavelengths scattered are longer.
Non-selective scattering
• Non-selective scattering is produced when there are particles in the
low atmosphere several times the diameter of the radiation being
transmitted. This type of scattering is non-selective, i.e. all wavelengths
of light are scattered, not just blue, green,
or red. Thus, water droplets, which make
up clouds and fog banks, scatter all
wavelengths of visible light equally well,
causing the cloud to appear white
• Scattering can
severely reduce the
information content
of remotely sensed
data to the point that
the imagery looses
contrast and it is difficult to differentiate
one object from another.
Absorption of EMR by atmosphere
window
Jensen
Jensen2005
2005
Interactions under consideration
• Interaction of EMR with the atmosphere
• This is the speed at which the crests and roughs of the wave
move in the propagation direction
• Group velocity vg = d#
dk
Refraction
• When EMR passes from one medium to
another, it changes direction (bends) at the
interface because of the difference in
speed of the wave in the media.
loss tangent
For a plasma if n> 0 the waves are slowed as they travel through the
ionosphere. If n < 0, n is purely imaginary and all the energy is reflected
off the ionosphere. Under typical ionospheric conditions, low-frequency
radio waves reflect while higher frequency microwaves can propagate
through. Since the ionosphere is dispersive (i.e. speed depends on %) a
dual frequency microwave instrument (a radar altimeter or GPS) can
measure the total electron content of a column of ionosphere and can use
this to correct for the delay along the path of one or both frequencies.
Absorption
! Substance is opaque to the
incident radiation
! Portion of EMR is converted to
heat energy (re-radiated)
Interaction of EMR with matter
source detector
source spectrum
reflected spectrum
Radiance
F
(
2) Quasi-specular
3) Lambertian
4) Minnaert model
6) Henyey-Greenstein of backscatter
The reflectivity (or albedo, for light) of the surface is the ratio of:
total power reflected
total power incident
2*
r(() = r(') d)
0
r can depend on the incidence angle (
If we vary ( over all possible angles and average r we get the diffuse
albedo:
2*
rd = r(() d) / 2*
0
Reflectivity vs reflectance
• Reflectivity measures the fractional amplitude of the reflected
electromagnetic field, while reflectance refers to the fraction of incident
electromagnetic power that is reflected at an interface.
Rayleigh criterion
The Rayleigh criterion is used to discriminate between smooth and rough
surfaces.
+path length = 2 +h
+h cos (
(
Phase difference = 2* 2 +h
+h cos (
! +h
! " c-
Rr = --------------
2 cos #
Surface is considered smooth if phase difference < */2
strong return
Jensen,
Jensen,2008
2008
Radar backscatter
For angles less than about 25º smoother surfaces have higher backscatter
than rougher surfaces
Surface Roughness
• Surface roughness is the terrain property that most strongly influences
the strength of the EMR backscatter.
Backscattering coefficients
Surface melting in Greenland
Image from optical sensor Image from
AVNIR-2 on July 3, 2008 (day) PALSAR two
weeks later
(night).
Melt ponds appear blue in the left image and are either black or brighter than the
surroundings in the right image.
Black: very little of PALSAR’s radar signal is returned to the satellite, indicating that the
surface is smooth, unfrozen water.
Bright gray: some of PALSAR’s radar signal returns to the satellite, suggesting that the
frozen surface contains many air bubbles or that the water surface is ruffled but
unfrozen.
SAR images of 100 to 175km area in western Greenland. The left image acquired by
JERS-1 in October 1992; right image acquired by ALOS August and in October of 2008.
Surface melting in Antarctica
Dark wish-bone shaped feature is a
surface meltstream, only active during
austral summer
a (' b
0 x
AO = a and OB = b
The total amplitude scattered from direction ( into direction ' is:
. .
E= e -i((x) dx = e -ik,x e ik-z(x) dx
-. -.
E = / [ eik-z(x)] but z(x) << ! so expand exponential in a Taylor series and lose higher power terms:
. .
eik-z(x) = 1 + ik-z(x) - (k-z)2 +… E= e -ik,x dx + ik- z(x) e -ik,x dx
-. -.
2!
&-function &(k,) at , = 0 (which is the specular component ( = ')
. .
E= e -ik,x dx + ik- z(x) e -ik,x dx
-. -.
&-function &(k,) at , = 0
.
Let z(x) = z(q) e iqx dq
-. ..
2nd term becomes = ik- z(q) e -i(q-k,)x dq dx
-.-.
. .
= ik- z(q) e -i(q-k,)x dx dq
-. -.
2* &(q-k,)
.
= 2* ik- z(q) &(q-k,) dq dx
-.
This integral selects the topography with q = k,
Bragg scattering Page 53-55 Rees
.
E= e -ik,x dx + ik- z(x) e -ik,x dx
-. -.
&-function &(k,) at , = 0
.
Let z(x) = z(q) e iqx dq
-. .
2nd term becomes = 2* ik- z(q) &(q-k,) dq dx
-.
2* = 2* 2 sin ' !s = !r
!s !r 2 sin '
• As the incidence angle of the ERS SAR is oblique (23º) to the local mean angle of
the ocean surface, there is almost no direct specular reflection except at very high sea
states.
• It is therefore assumed that at first approximation Bragg resonance is the primary
mechanism for backscattering radar pulses.
• The Bragg equation defines the ocean wavelengths for Bragg scattering as a
function of radar wavelength and incidence angle
!s = !r
2 sin '
• The short Bragg-scale waves are formed in response to wind stress. If the sea
surface is rippled by a light breeze with no long waves present, the radar backscatter
is due to the component of the wave spectrum which resonates with the radar
wavelength.
Radar imaging
• Radar does not detect the visible colour of the surface, but detects the
moisture (or lack of it) and EM properties of the surface
• Radar systems record the phase and polarisation (orientation of EM) of
the reflected pulse
• Radar produces images with speckle due to the coherent nature of the
system
• Radar produces images with certain geometric distortions such as slant
range geometry, image layer and shadowing
Subsurface penetration
For imaging radars, two types of penetration must be considered --
atmospheric and surface
Submarine detection
• A wide range of ship sizes may be detected under a variety of sea-state conditions.
Radar can infer ship size, and if a wake is present, its speed and direction of travel.
• Oil slicks and natural surfactants are imaged through the localised
suppression of Bragg scale waves.
• Oil spills also have a darker tone with respect to the surrounding ocean
background.
• Detection of an oil spill is strongly dependent upon the wind speed. At
wind speeds > 10 m/s, the slick will be broken up and dispersed, making it
difficult to detect.
• Small incidence angles are optimum for oil spill detection.
• Detection will also depend on the spill size and image resolution.
Scatterometry
• Scatterometry is a form of radar remote sensing that can measure various
geophysical properties of surfaces and volumes based on the amplitude of
microwave electromagnetic pulses that are transmitted from and scattered
back to an antenna aboard the spacecraft.
http://cires.colorado.edu/~maurerj/scatterometry/what_is_scatterometry.htm
Wind speed retrieval by scatterometer
Example: SeaWinds scatterometer on
QuikScat -- a microwave radar designed
specifically to measure ocean near-
surface wind speed and direction.
glaze
sastrugi
sastrugi
MISR (Multi-angle Imaging Spectro-Radiometer) can detect this effect and quantify it
Our algorithm:
• red channel (275m)
• ±60° view fore/aft
DESCRIPTION OF THE MISR INSTRUMENT (Cf and Ca !cameras")
Camera
Angles
o o o o
±70.5 , ±60.0 , ±45.6 , ±26.1 , 0 o
• normalized difference ratio:
Spectral 448 nm (Blue), 558 nm (Green), Cf - Ca
Bands 672 nm (Red), 866 nm (near IR)
275 ! 275 m (all bands in nadir camera and Cf + Ca
red bands in all other cameras)
Pixel Size 1.1! 1.1 km (blue, green, and near-IR bands in
fore and aft cameras)
Swath Width 380 km
MOA Optical Snow
Grain Size Mapping