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THERMODYNAMICS

2 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. INTRODUCTION

 Energy in a Thermodynamic System can be transferred in three ways namely Work, Heat
and By mass.

 A closed System and its Surroundings can interact By work transfer and Heat transfer,
whereas open system can interact By work, Heat and mass transfer (because mass also
carries energy).

2. WORK TRANSFER

 Work is one of the basic modes of heat transfer. In mechanics work can be defined as force
multiplied by distance moved by object. We call this mechanical work.
 In thermodynamic also this concept of work from mechanic is taken.
 Work is said to be done by a system if the sole effect on things external to the system can
be reduced to raising of a weight.
 The important words from above definitions are “Sole effect”, “external” and “reduced”.
 Consider the Battery and motor as system. The motor is driving a fan. When the fan is
replaced by pulley and weight, the weight can be raised by distance x. Thus sole effect or
ultimate effect external to system is raising of weight.

Fig.1

Fig.2

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 Work done = W × x, The weight was not actually raised, but this effect can be reduced to
raising of weight.
 Now consider Battery, motor, and fan as system.

Fig.3
 Now also Fan can be replaced by pulley and weight, But the affect of raising weight would
be within system Boundary, hence no work would be said to done.
2.1. SIGN CONVENTION FOR WORK TRANSFER
 Work done by system is taken as Positive and work done on system is negative

Fig.4
 Consider a Piston Cylinder arrangement and gas inside as system. If the gas expands,
external work would be raised. Hence Positive work i.e. system is doing work on
external thing.

Fig.5
 Similarly, if the gas inside the Piston-Cylinder is taken as system and it contracts, then
weight is being lower, and work is being done on it, Hence negative work.

Fig.6

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2.2. GENERALIZED EQUATION FOR NON-FLOW WORK OR CLOSED SYSTEM WORK
 Consider a Piston Cylinder arrangement with gas inside as system.
P1 = Initial Pressure
V1 = Initial volume

Fig.7
The Piston moves out to final Position 2.
Let at any intermediate Position,
Pressure = P
Volume = V
If the Process is Quasi-static (the intermediate Position is also in equilibrium.)
For very small movement dx of Piston from this intermediate state
F = PA → acting on Piston.
δ W = Fdx
δ W = P Adx
δ W = P dv
2 2
w=  w   P dv
1 1

w=  P dv ⇒ non-flow or closed system work.

 It we draw a graph between pressure and volume and consider a small part of this
graph, the area of small element on volume axis is

Fig.8
dA = PdV, which is same as work done for non-flow, hence work done in closed system
is the area under the curve when projected on volume axis.

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2.2.1. CONDITIONS FOR APPLYING THE EQUATION  P dv

 The integral  P dv can only be evaluated when the graph between P & V is known this
can only be true when each equilibrium state is known between initial and final state
is given, which in turn demands that process must be reversible or Quasi-static.
 The system must be closed system.
2.2.2. WORK AS A PATH FUNCTION
 Consider two Process between same Initial and Final States.
 ϕ Be a Physical Quantity
2

 If 
1
d  2  1

 Hence ϕ depend only on Initial and final states ϕ is called Point Function
 ϕ = f(state)
 All thermodynamic Properties are point function.
2
 On the upper Hand 
1
d  2  1

 ϕ is not a Point function rather it depends on Path Hence path function.

 Path function are inexact differential δϕ not dϕ
 Consider two process, that are being executed between same initial and final state.

Fig.9
 The two processes are Process 1-a-2 and Process 1-b-2
 As work is the area under the P -v graph projected on volume axis, the area under 1-
a-2 and 1-b-2 is not same, Hence work done in both process is different, although
initial and final state is same. This shows that work depends on path. Hence work is a
Path function.
 It is written as δW not dW.
2

  W  W
1
2  W1

 For non -closed work.

δW = P dv
1
dv = δW ………… (1)
P

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 Integrating factor is defined as the factor which when multiplied by inexact differential
gives exact differential. In above case integrating factor is 1/P.

3. CHARACTERISTICS GAS EQUATION

 The characteristics gas equation or ideal gas equation is

PV = mRT
Where P = Absolute Pressure
T = Absolute temperature
R = Characteristics gas constant
V = Volume

n = moles of gas = mass m


molar mass M
m = n.M
Putting in ideal gas equation.
PV = nMRT

MR = R , R is universal gas constant.

R = 8.314 KJ/Kmol·K
Rair = 0.287 KJ/Kgk
3.1. GAS LAWS
3.1.1. CHARLES LAW
 At constant volume, pressure is directly proportional to temperature
(P  T)V=C

P1 P
 2
T1 T2
 At constant pressure, the volume, is directly proportional to temperature
(V  T)P=C

V1 V
 2
T1 T2
3.1.2. BOYLES LAW
 At constant temperature, pressure is inversely proportional to volume.
1
(P )T=C
V
P1V1 = P2V2

4. NON -FLOW OR CLOSED SYSTEM WORK FOR VARIOUS PROCESS

4.1. REVERSIBLE CONSTANT VOLUME OR ISOCHORIC PROCESS

 In a constant volume process, the working substance is contained in a rigid vessel,
Hence the boundaries of the system are immovable.

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Fig.10
2
W=  P dv , since dv = 0
1

W=0
4.2. REVERSIBLE CONSTANT PRESSURE OR ISOBARIC PROCESS.
 P=C

Fig.11
2

 W =  P dv
1

2
W=P  dv
1

 W = P (V2 – V1)
4.3. REVERSIBLE ISOTHERMAL PROCESS.
 PV = mRT = Constant
PV = C
XY=C ⇒ This is equation of Rectangular Hyperbola.

Fig.12

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2
W=  P dv
1

C
P=
V
2
dv
W= C
1
v
2
dv
W=C 
1
v
V2
W = C ln
V1

V2 V
W = P1V1 ln = P2V2 ln 2
V1 V1
 For Isothermal process
PV = C
Differentiating both sides
dP. V + Pdv=0
dP  P
 ⇒ Slope of reverse Isothermal process.
dV V
4.4. REVERSIBLE ADIABATIC PROCESS
 An adiabatic process is one in which no heat is transferred to or from the substance
 For adiabatic process
Pv  = C

 = adiabatic Index and it is greater than 1.

P = C.v– 

W=  PdV
2
W=
 CV

.dv
1

2
 1 
W = C.  V 
 1   1

W= C
(1  )

V21  V11 
1
W=
(1  )

CV21  CV11 
W= 1 (P2V2 –P1 V1)
(1  )

P1 V1  P2 V2
W=
 1

 We Know for adiabatic process ,PV  = C

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Differentiating both sides
dP. V  +  V  –1 . dv. P =0

dP. V  =–  V  –1 . P dv

dP P
 . ⇒ Slope of reversible adiabatic process.
dV V
 Hence slope of Reversible adiabatic process  times slope of Reversible Isothermal

process.
PV = mRT
mRT
P=
V
 –1
TV =C

T1 V11  T2 V21

Similarly
mRT
V=
P
(T)
PmR =C
P
  C
T P1– =
mR
1
T2  P2  
 
T1  P1 

EXAMPLE 1
Air at 1.02 bar, 22 0C, initially occupying a cylinder volume of 0.015 m 3, is compressed
reversibly and adiabatically by a piston to a pressure of 6.8 bar. Calculate:
(i) The final temperature.
(ii) The final volume.
(iii)The work done.
Sol.
Initial pressure, p1 = 1.02 bar
Initial temperature, T1 = 22 + 273 = 295 K
Initial volume, V1 = 0.015 m3
Final pressure, p2 = 6.8 bar
Law of compression: pvγ = C
(i) Final temperature
Using the relation,
1
T2  p2  
 
T1  p1 

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1.4 1
T2  6.8  1.4
 [∴ γ for air, = 1.4]
295  1.02 
1.4 1
 6.8  1.4
T2  295    507.24K
 1.02 
Final temperature = 507.24 – 273 = 234.24°C.
(ii) Final volume
Using the relation,
p1V2  p2 V2
1

P1  V2  V  P 
   or 2   1 
P2  V1  V1  P2 
1 1
 P   1.02 1.4 3
V2  V1   1   0.015     0.00387m
P
 2  6.8 

Final volume = 0.00387m3.

Now work done on the air,
mR(T1  T2 )
w …(1)
 1

Where m is the mass of air and is found by the following relation.

pV = mRT
p1v1 1.02  105  0.015
m  [∴ R for air = 0.287 × 103]
RT1 0.287  103  295

= 0.01807 kg
0.018070  0.287  103 (295  507.24)
W
(1.4  1)
 2751 J or  2.751 kJ

work done = 2.751 kJ

(-ve sign indicates that work is done on the air)
EXAMPLE 2
0.44 kg of air at 1800C expands adiabatically to three times its original volume and during
the process, there is a fall in temperature to 15 0C.The work done during the process is
52.5kJ.Calculate Cp and Cv.
Sol.
Mass of air, m= 0.44 kg
Initial temperature, T1 = 180 + 273 = 453 K
v2
Ratio  3
v1

Final temperature, T2 = 15 + 273 = 288 K

Work done during the process, W1–2 = 52.5 kJ
Cp =? Cv =?

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For adiabatic process, we have

1
T2  v1 
 
T1  v2 
1
288  1 
 or 0.6357  (0.333)1
453  3 

Taking log on both sides, we get

loge (0.6357) = (γ – 1) loge (0.333)
– 0.453 = (γ – 1) x (–1.0996)
0.453
  1  1.41
1.0996
cp
Also,    1.41
cv
Work done during adiabatic process,
mR(T1  T2 )
W12 
 1

0.44R(453  288)
52.5 
(1.41  1)
52.5(1.41  1)
R   0.296
0.44(453  288)

cp – cv = 0.296 [∴ R = cp – cv]
cp
Also  1.41 or cp  1.41cv
cv
1.41 cv – cv = 0.296
cv = 0.722 KJ/kg K.
cp = 1.018 kJ/kg K
4.5. REVERSIBLE POLYTROPHIC PROCESS
 A process is said to be a polytrophic process if pressure and volume follows the relation
PVn = C
 Generally n > 1, n < Y
P1v1  P2v2
 (W) =
n 1

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EXAMPLE 3
1 kg of ethane (perfect) gas is compressed from 1.1 bar, 27°C according to a law pv 1.3 =
constant, until the pressure is 6.6 bar. Calculate the work done.
Molecular weight of ethane = 30,
cp = 1.75 kJ/kg K.
Sol.
Mass of ethane gas. m = 1 kg
Initial pressure, p1 = 1.1 bar
Initial temperature T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Final pressure, p2 = 6.6 bar
Law of compression, pV1.3= C
Now, characteristic gas constant,

Universal gas constart (R 0 )

R
Molecular weight (M)

8314
  277.13Nm / kg K  277.31J / kg K
30
= 0.277 kJ/kg K
cp – cv = R
cv = cp – R = 1.75 – 0.277 = 1.473 kJ/kg k

cp 1.75
   1.188
cv 1.473

In case of a polytropic process,

n1 1.31
T2  p2  n
 6.6  1.3
     1.5119
T1  p1   1.1 

T2 = 300 × 1.5119 = 453 .6 K

Now, work done,

R(T1  T2 ) 0.277(300  453.6)

W   141.8kJ/kg
n 1 1.3  1

5. REPRESENT OF ALL PROCESSES IN SINGLE P-V GRAPH

 Any process can be represented as

PVK = C
 Constant Volume
V=C
P1/k. V = C1/k

k
VC

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 Constant Pressure
K =0
P =C
 Isothermal Process
K=1
PV =C
 Reversible adiabatic
K= 

Pv  = C

 Reversible Polytropic
K =n
Pvn = C

Fig.13
OA → Constant Volume → k = ∞
OB→ Reversible adiabatic → k = 

OC→ Reversible Polytropic → k = n

OD→ Isothermal → k = 1
OE→ Constant Process → k = 0

6. OTHER TYPES OF WORK TRANSFER

 There are forms of work other than pdV or displacement work. The following are the
additional types of work transfer which may get involved in system-surroundings
Interactions.
6.1. ELECTRICAL WORK
 When a current flows through a resistor as shown in Fig, taken as a system, there is
work transfer into the system. This is because the current can drive a motor, the motor
can drive a pulley and the pulley can raise a weight.The current flow I, in amperes, is
given by
dC
I 
d

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Fig.14

where C is the charge in coulombs and τ is time in seconds. Thus dC is the charge crossing

a boundary during lime dτ. If E is the voltage potential,

the work is

dW  E  dC

 EI d

2
W  1
EI d

The electrical power will be

dW
W  lim  EI
d 0 d

This is the rate at which work is transferred.

6.2. SHAFT WORK

 When a shaft, taken as the system as shown in Fig., is rotated by a motor, there is

work transfer into the system. This is because the shaft can rotate a pulley which can

raise a weight. If T is the torque applied to the shaft and dθ is the angular displacement

of the shaft the shaft work is

Fig.15
2
W  1
Td

and the shaft power is

2 d
W   1
T
d
 T

where ω is the angular velocity and T is is the torque applied.

6.3. PADDLE-WHEEL WORK OR STIRRING WORK

 As the weight is lowered, and the paddle wheel turns as shown in Fig., there is work
transfer into the fluid system which gets stirred. Since the volume of the system

remains constant,  pdV  0 . If m is the mass of the weight lowered through a distance

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dz and T is the torque transmitted by the shaft in rotating through an angle dθ, the
differential work transfer to the fluid is given by

Fig.16
dW = mgdz = Tdθ
and the total work transfer is
2 2 2
W 1
mgdz  
1
W ' dz  
1
Td

6.4. FLOW WORK

 The flow work, significant only in a flow process or an open system, represents the
energy transferred across the system boundary as a result of the energy imparted to
the fluid by a pump, blower or compressor to make the fluid flow across the control
volume. Flow work is analogous to displacement work.
6.5. WORK DONE IN STRETCHING A WIRE
 Let us consider a wire as the system. If the length of the wire in which there is a
tension F is changed from L to L + dL,
 The infinitesimal amount of work that is done is equal to
dW = – F dL
The minus sign is used because a positive value of dL means an expansion of the wire,
for which work must be done on the wire, i.e., negative work.
For a finite change of length,
2
W 
1
F dL

If we limit the problem to within the elastic limit, where E is the modulus of elasticity,
 is the stress,  is the strain, and A is the cross-sectional area, then
F  A  E A,

since E

dL
d 
L
dW   F dL   E AL d

AEL 2
 
2
W  AL 1
d  
2
2  12

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6.6. WORK DONE IN CHANGING THE AREA OF A SURFACE FILM
 A film on the surface of a liquid has a surface tension, which is a property of the liquid
and the surroundings. The surface tension acts to make the surface area of the liquid
a minimum. It has the unit of force per unit length. The work done on a homogeneous
liquid film in changing its surface area by an infinitesimal amount dA is
dW    d A

where σ is the surface tension (N/m).

2
 W 1
dA

7. HEAT TRANSFER

 The Energy transfer due to temperature difference is known as heat transfer.

7.1. TYPES OF HEAT TRANSFER
7.1.1. SENSIBLE HEAT TRANSFER
 The Heat transfer in which the temperature of the substance under consideration
changes. The temperate may increase or may decrease.
7.2.2. LATENT HEAT TRANSFER
 The heat transfer in which the temperature of the substance under consideration does
not change. i.e. phase change
 Latent Heat of fusion ⇒ Solid to liquid
 Latent Heat of Vaporization ⇒ liquid to vapor
 Latent Heat of sublimation ⇒ direct solid to vapor
 Consider a substance of mass m and it is given heat.

Fig.17
Qm

Q  T

Q  m T
Q = m C ΔT
kJ
C is the specific Heat unit is
kgk

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 Specific Heat is the amount of Heat energy required to raise the temperature of unit
mass of substance through unit degree temperature difference.
 Consider the same amount of substance. In the first case the heat is supplied at
constant volume and in second case the heat is supplied at constant pressure.

Fig.18
 The specific Heat at Constant Pressure greater than specific Heat at constant volume
because in constant pressure Process, the Heat is utilized to raise the temperature and
to do Pdv work
CP > Cv
Cp
=
Cv
7.2. SIGN CONVENTION FOR HEAT TRANSFER

Fig.19
 Heat transfer to system is Positive.
 Heat transfer out of system is negative.
Note: The energy interaction is by heat transfer or by work transfer depend on system
choosen.
For example, consider a heater placed in room.

Fig.20

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 When system is heater and air in room,Energy transfer is by electric work (not due to
temp difference).
 Now, If the system is taken as air only, the energy transfer is By Heat transfer between
air and Heater Rod.

Fig.21
 System is candle + air, the energy transfer is zero, as energy must cross the Boundary

Fig.22
EXAMPLE 4
0.2 m3 of air at 4 bar and 130°C is contained in a system. A reversible adiabatic expansion
takes place till the pressure falls to 1.02 bar.
The gas is then heated at constant pressure till enthalpy increases by 72.5 kJ. Calculate:
(i) The work done
(ii) The index of expansion, if the above processes are replaced by a single reversible
polytropic process giving the same work between the same initial and final states.
Take cp = 1 kJ/kg K,
cv, = 0.714 kJ/kg
Sol.
Initial volume, V1= 0.2m3
Initial pressure, P1 =4 bar= 4 × 105 N/m2
Initial temperature, T1 = 130 + 273 = 403 K
Final pressure after adiabatic expansion,
P2 = 1.02 bar = 1.02 × 105 N/m2

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Increase in enthalpy during constant pressure process

= 72.5 kJ.
(i) Work done
Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic process:
p1V1  p2 V2
1
 p 
v2  V1  1 
 p2 
cp 1 =1.4
Also   
cv 0.714
1
 4  105 1.4
V2  0.2   5 
 0.53m3
 1.02  10 
1
 
Also, T2   p2 


T1  p1 
1
p  
T2  T1  2 
 p1 
1.4 1
 1.02  105  1.4
 403  5   272.7 K
 4  10 

Mass of the gas, m  p1V1 ∴ p V = mRT]

RT1

Where, R = (cp - cv) = (1 – 0.714) kJ/kg K

= 0.286 kJ/kg K = 286 J/kg K or 286 Nm/kg K
4  105  0.2
m  0.694kg
286  403
Process 2-3. Constant pressure:
Q2 –3 = m cp (T3 – T2)
72.5 = 0.694 × 1 × (T3 – 272.7)
72.5
T3   272.7  377K
0.694

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Also, V2  V3
T2 T3

0.53 V
or  3
272.7 377
0.53  377
V3   0.732m3
272.7
Work done by the path 1-2-3 is given by
W1–2-3 = W1–2 + W2–3
p1v1  p2v2
=  p2 (V3  V2 )
 1
5 5
= 4  10  0.2  1.02  10  0.53  1.02  105 (0.732  0.53)
1.4  1

105 (4  0.2  1.02  0.53)

  1.02  105 (0.732  0.53)
0.4
= 64850 + 20604 = 85454 Nm or J
Hence total work done = 85454 Nm or J. (Ans)
(ii) Index of expression, n
If the work done by the polytropic process is the same,
p1V1  p3 V3
W123  W13 
n 1

4  105  0.2  1.02  105  0.732 5336

85454  
(n  1) n 1
5336
n 1
85454
n = 1.062
Hence value of index = 1.062.
i.e. Heat supplied = 84.5 kJ/kg
EXAMPLE 5
0.1 m3 of an ideal gas at 300 K and 1 bar is compressed adiabatically to 8 bar. It is then
cooled at constant volume and further expanded isothermally so as to reach the condition
from where it started. Calculate
(i) Pressure at the end of constant volume cooling.
(ii) Change in internal energy during constant volume process.
(iii) Net work done
Assume cp = 14.3 kJ/kg K and cv = 10.2 kJ/kg K.
Sol.
V1 = 0.1 m3; T1 = 300 K , p1 = 1 bar ; cp = 14.3 kJ/kg K :
cv = 10.2 kJ/kg K.

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(i) Pressure at the end of constant volume cooling, p 3:

cp 14.3
   1.402
cv 10.2

Characteristic gas constant,

R = cp-cv = 14.3 –10.2 = 4.1 kJ/kg K
Considering process 1-2, we have

p1v  1  p2v 
2

1 1
 p   1 1.402
v2  v1   1   0.1     0.0227m3
p
 2  8 
1 1.4021
T p  
8 1.402
A 2  2    1.815
T1  p1  1

T2 = T1 × 1.815 = 300 × 1.815 = 544.5 K

Considering process 3 – 1, we have
p3V3 = p1V1
p1v1 1  0.1
p3    4.4 bar (∵ V3 – V2)
V3 0.0227

(ii) Change in internal energy during constant volume process, (U 3 – U2):

p1v1 (1  105 )  0.1

Mass, m    0.00813kg
RT1 (4.1  1000)  300

Change in internal energy during constant volume process 2-3,

U3 – U2 = mcv (T3 – T2)

= 0.00813 × 10.2 (300 – 544.5) (∵ T3 = T1)

= – 20.27 kJ. (Ans)

(- ve sign means decrease in internal energy)

• During constant volume cooling process, temperature and hence internal energy is

reduced. This decrease in internal energy equals to heat flow to surroundings since work

done is zero.

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(iii) Net work done and heat transferred during the cycle :

p1v1  p2v2 mR(T1  T2 )

w12  
 1  1

0.00813  4.1(300  544.5)

  20.27kJ
1.402  1

W2 – 3 = 0 since volume remains constant

v  p 
W31  p3v3 loge  1   p1v1 loge  3  (∵ p3v3 = p1v1)
 v3   p1 

 4.4 
 (1  105 )  0.1  loge  
 1 

=1486 Nm (or J) or 14.82 kJ

net work done = W1 – 2 + W2 – 3 + W3 –1

= (–20.27) + 0 + 14.82 = –5.45 kJ

(–ve sign indicates that work has been done on the system.)

EXAMPLE 6

0.15m3 of an ideal gas at a pressure of 15 bar and 550 K is expanded isothermally to 4

times the initial volume. it is then cooled to 290 K at constant volume and then

compressed back polytropically to its initial state.

Calculate the net work done during the cycle.

Sol.
V2
Given : v1 = 0.15m3: p1 = 15 bar: T1 = T2 = 550 K: = 4; T3 = 290 K
V1

Considering the isothermal process 1 – 2, we have

p1v1
p1v1  p2v2 or p2 
v2

15  0.15
p2   3.75 bar
(4  0.15)

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Work done , W1–2 = p1V1 loge  V2 

 V1 

= (15 × 105) × 0.15 × loge(4)

= 311916 J = 311.9 kJ
Considering constant volume process 2–3,
We get
V2 = V3 = 4 × 0.15 = 0.6 m3
P2 P
 3
T2 T3

T3 290
p3  p2   3.75   1.98 bar
T2 550

W2–3 = 0 ... since volume remains constant

Consider polytropic process 3 – 1:
n
p V 
p3 V  p V or 1   3 
n
3
n
1 1
P3  V1 

Taking log on both sides, we get

loge (p1/p3) = n loge(V3/V1)

loge (p1 / p3 ) loge (15 / 1.98)

n  =1.46
loge (V3 / V1 ) loge (4)

p3 V3  p1V1 1.98  105  0.6  15  105  0.15

W31  
n 1 (1.46  1)

= – 230869 J or – 230.87 kJ
Net work done = W1–2 + W2–3 +W3 – 1
= 311.9 + 0 + (–230.87) = 81.03 KJ
EXAMPLE 7
A system consisting of 1 kg of an ideal gas at 5 bar pressure and 0.02 m3 volume executes
a cyclic process comprising the following three distinct operations:
(i) Reversible expansion to 0.08 m 3 volume, 1.5 bar pressure, presuming pressure to be
a linear function of volume (p = a + b V),
(ii) Reversible cooling at constant pressure and
(iii) Reversible hyperbolic compression according to law pV = constant.
This brings the gas back to initial conditions.
(a) Sketch the cycle on p-V diagram.
(b) Calculate the work done in each process starting whether it is done on or by the
system and evaluate the net cyclic work

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Sol.

Given:
m = 1 kg ; p1 = 5 bar ; V1 = 0.02m3; V2 = 0.08m3 ,p2 = 1.5 bar.
(i) p-V diagram: p-V diagram of the cycle is shown in Fig.
(ii) Work done and heat transfer:
• Process 1-2 (Linear law):
P = a + bV ...(Given)
The values of constants a and b can be determined from the values of pressure and
volume at the state points 1 and 2.
5 = a + 0.02b …(i)
1.5 = a + 0.08b …(ii)
From (i) and (ii) we get, b = – 58.33 and a = 6.167
2 2
W12   pdV  (a  bV)dV
1 1

2
=
 (6.167  58.33V)dv
1

0.08
5 V2
 10 6.167V  58.33 
2 0.02

(0.082  0.022 )
 105 6.167(0.08  0.02)  58.33   103 kJ  19.5kJ
2

This is work done by the system

Process 2 – 3 (constant pressure)
P3 = P2 = 1.5 bar
The volume V3 can be worked out from the hyperbolic compression 3-1, as follows:
p1v1 5  0.02
p1v1  p3v3 or v3    0.0667m3
p3 1.5

W2–3 = p2(V3 – V2) = 1.5 × 105 (0.0667 – 0.08) × 10 –3

kJ = –1.995kJ

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• Process 3 - 1 (hyperbolic process):
V 
W31  p3v3 loge  1 
 V3 

 0.02 
 (105  1.5)  0.0667 loge  3
  10 kJ  12.05 kJ
 0.0667 
This is the work done on the system
Net work done,
Wnet = W1–2 + W2–3 + W3–1
= 19.5 + (– 1.995) + (–12.05) = 5.445 kJ

8. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

First law of thermodynamics is to relate the various form of energy and energy interaction.
Its states that “Energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a process; it can only
change forms”.
It is also known as “conservation of energy principle”

Fig.23: Conservation of Energy

From the above statement we can say that, energy leaving the system must be equal to the
energy supplied to the system.
Ein = Eout
E1  E2  E3  E4  E5  E6  E7

9. VARIOUS FORMS OF ENERGY

Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, internal,
electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear etc, and the sum of these all kind of energy is total
energy of a system.
It is denoted by ‘E’.
E = Mechanical Energy + Thermal Energy +Internal Energy+ potential Energy + Kinetic
Energy+ Chemical Energy ETC.
9.1 Mechanical Energy - The mechanical energy can be defined as the form of energy that
can be converted to mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical
device such as an ideal turbine.
9.2 Thermal Energy – Energy flow due to temperature difference is comes under the
thermal energy. It is also known as heat energy.

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9.3 Internal energy - Internal energy is defined as the sum of all the microscopic forms of
energy of a system.
9.4 Kinetic Energy – it is similar to mechanical energy, where the energy is due to motion
of fluid.
9.5 Potential Energy – potential energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its
position relative to others.

10. ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT

Heat –
Consider two body A & B having temperature T A & TB (TA >TB) respectively. When these two
body came in contact with each other (or kept in the vicinity of each other) then there will be
transfer of energy will takes place from high temperature body to low temperature body.
“The energy transfer because of the temperature difference is known as Heat”
Sometimes heat transfer takes place without the change in temperature but due to effect of
If mass of the body B is m and specific heat of the body is C
Then heat gain by the body B or heat transfer between both the body will be given by
Q  mC(TA  TB )

Specific heat – from the above expression, we can say that

“Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass by unit
degree centigrade (or Kelvin)”
Q Q
C 
m(TA  TB ) m.T

Unit -
Q kJ kJ
C  or
m.T kg  K kg  C

NOTE – value of specific heat varies with the process for gases whereas in case of solid and
liquid it remains constant irrespective of process because solid and liquid both can be assumed
to be incompressible.
Values of specific heat for air and water
kJ kJ
Cp = 1.005 ,CV = 0.718
kg  K kg  K

kJ
Cwater = 4.18
kg  K

TYPES OF HEAT –
(i) Sensible Heat (ii) Latent Heat
(i) Sensible Heat –
Heat transfer because of the temperature difference between two bodies is known as sensible
heat.
Q  mCT

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(ii) Latent Heat –
Energy released or absorbed by a substance when it is subjected to change in phase.
latent heat of fusion - Amount of energy absorbed during melting of a substance is called
the latent heat of fusion and is equivalent to the amount of energy released during freezing.
latent heat of vaporization - Amount of energy absorbed during vaporization is called the
latent heat of vaporization and is equivalent to the energy released during condensation.
It depends upon at what temperature and pressure phase change occurs
Sign Convention-
Heat supplied to the system is taken as positive.
Heat rejected from the system is taken as negative.

11. FIRST LAW FOR A CLOSED SYSTEM UNDERGOING A CYCLE

As per the first law for closed system undergoing a cycle, net heat interaction in a cycle is equal
to the net Work interaction.
( W)cycle  J( Q)cycle

where J is the Joule’s equivalent. This is also expressed in the form

 dW   dQ
where the symbol  denotes the cyclic integral for the closed path.
This is the first law for a closed system undergoing a cycle.

Fig.24: Closed System Undergoing A Cycle

12. 1st LAW FOR A CLOSED SYSTEM UNDERGOING A CHANGE OF STATE (for a process)

The expression ( W)cycle  ( Q)cycle applies only to systems undergoing cycles, and the

algebraic summation of all energy transfer across system boundaries is zero.

But if a system undergoes a change of state during which both heat transfer and work transfer
are involved, the net energy transfer will be stored or accumulated within the system.
If Q is the amount of heat transferred to the system and W is the amount of work transferred
from the system during the process

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Then, net energy transfer (Q – W) will be stored in the system.
Energy in storage is neither heat nor work, and is given the name internal energy or simply,
the energy of the system.
Therefore, Q – W – ΔE
where ΔE is the increase in the energy of the system
Q = ΔE + W

13. CONSEQUENCES OF 1ST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Various conclusion can be drawn from the 1st law of thermodynamics

(i) Heat is a path function
Process 1-A-2-B-1 constitute a cycle
So, from the 1st law of thermodynamics,

 dW   dQ
W1 A 2  W2 B 1  Q1 A 2  Q2 B 1
(i)
Similarly, Process 1-A-2-C-1 constitute a cycl e
W1 A 2  W2 B 1  Q1 A 2  Q2 B 1
(ii)
Subtracting (ii) from (i)
W2 B 1  W2 C 1  Q2 B 1  Q2 C 1

Since,
W2 B 1  W2 C 1  0

Hence, Q2 B 1  Q2 C 1  0

Q2 B 1  Q2 C 1

Hence, heat transfer does not depend only end point but also depends upon the followed by
the process.

Fig.25: Heat is A Path Function

(ii) Energy-a property of the system
Consider a system which changes its state from state 1 to state 2 by following the path A, and
returns from state 2 to state 1 by following the path B.

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Fig.26: Energy is A Property of System

So, the system undergoes a cycle.
Writing the first law for path A
Q1 A 2  1 A 2  W1 A 2

1 A 2  Q1 A 2  W1 A 2

and for path B

Q2 B 1  2 B 1  W2 B 1

Q2 B 1  2 B 1  W2 B 1

The processes A and B together constitute a cycle,

So, from the 1st law of thermodynamics,

 dW   dQ
W1 A 2  W2 B 1  Q1 A 2  Q2 B 1

Q1 A 2  W1 A 2  W2 B 1  Q2 B 1

Q1 A 2  W1 A 2  (Q2 B 1  W2 B 1 )

E1 A 2  E2 B 1

Similarly,
Q1 A 2  W1 A 2  (Q2 C 1  W2 C 1 )

E1 A 2  E2 C 1

Thus,
E2 B 1  E2 C 1

Therefore, it is seen that the change in energy between two states of a system is the same,
whatever path the system may follow in undergoing that’ change of state.
Therefore, energy has a definite value for every state of the system. Hence, it is a point function
and a properly of the system.
The energy E is an extensive property.
The cyclic integral of any property is zero, because the final state is identical with the initial
state.

 dE  0 ,
(iii) Energy of isolated system is Constant.
From the 1st law of thermodynamics,
Q = ΔE + W

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As we know that, for an isolated system,
Heat and work interaction from the surrounding is zero.
So, Q =0, W=0
Thus, 0 = ΔE +0
E=0  E2 -E1 =0

E2 =E1

Thus, Energy of isolated system is Constant.

(iv) Perpetual motion machine of first kind-PMM1 is not possible.
A machine which continuously supply mechanical work without consuming some other form of
energy, such a fictitious machine is called a perpetual motion machine of the first kind or PMM1.
PMM1 is thus impossible.

Fig.27: Perpetual Motion Machine of First Kind

As per the 1st law of thermodynamics for a close cycle

 dW   dQ
Here,  dW  W,  dQ  0
Thus,  dW   dQ
Thus, PMM1 violates the 1st law of thermodynamics.
Example - A stationary mass of gas is compressed without friction from an initial state of 0.3
m3 and 0.105 MPa to a final state of 0.15 m3 and 0.105 MPa, the pressure remaining constant
during the process. There is a transfer of 37.6 kJ of heat from the gas during the process. How
much does the internal energy of the gas change?
Sol.
Given,
P1 =0.105MPa =P2 = P
V1 = 0.2m3, V2 = 0.15m3
First law for a stationary system in a process gives
Q = ΔU + W
W12  P(V2  V1 )

W = 0.105 (0.15 – 0.30) MJ = – 15.75 kJ

Q1–2 = – 37.6 kJ
Thus,
– 37.6 kJ = U2 – U1 – 15.75 kJ

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 U2 – U1 – 21.85 kJ
The internal energy of the gas decreases by 21.85 kJ in the process.

14. EXPRESSION OF HEAT FOR DIFFERENT PROCESSES

(i) Constant volume (V = C)

From the 1st law of thermodynamics
dQ = dU + dW
for a close system
dW = PdV
thus,
dQ = dU + PdV
for constant volume V = c
So
dV  0  PdV  0

dQ = dU (i)
for constant volume process,
dQ = mcvΔT (ii)
from equation (i) & (ii)
dU = mcvΔT
thus,
For a constant-volume process
T2
( u) v  
T1
cv  dT

The specific heat of a substance at constant volume cV is defined as the rate of change of
specific internal energy with respect to temperature when the volume is held constant, i.e.,
 u 
cv   
Tv

For constant volume which can be rewritten as

Q
cv   
  T v

Note:
1. The expression dU = mcvΔT is applicable for all process because it contains all properties.
2. Internal energy is a function of temperature only for ideal gas.
(ii) Constant Pressure (P = C)
From the 1st law of thermodynamics
dQ = dU + dW
for a close system
dW = PdV
thus,

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dQ = dU + PdV
for constant pressure P = C
PdV  d(PV)

So,
dQ = dU + d(PV)
from the rule pf differentiation,
d(f1  x   f2  x )  df1  x   df2  x 

Thus,
dU  d PV   d(U  PV)

dQ  d(U  PV)

Enthalpy (H)
It represents the total heat content of the system and mathematical expression is
H = U + PV
Thus,
dH = d(U+PV)
dQ  d(U  PV)  dH

At constant pressure
dQ = mcPΔT
So,
Change in enthalpy of a process, dH = mcPΔT
Thus,
The specific heat at constant pressure cp is defined as the rate of change of enthalpy with
respect to temperature when the pressure is held constant.
 h 
cP   
  T P

For constant pressure which can be rewritten as

Q
cP   
  T P

For a constant pressure process

T2
h   cp dT
T1

Specific Enthalpy,h
Summation of specific internal energy and flow work.
H V V
h  P 
m m m
 h  u  P

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Flow work: It is amount of work which is required to displace a infinitely small fluid element
to enter or exit from the control volume known as flow work.
(iii) Isothermal process, T= C
From the 1st law of thermodynamics
dQ = dU + dW
sicne,
dU = mCvdT & dT =0
so
dU =0
thus,
dQ = dW
for and isothermal process,
V2 P
dW  P1V1 ln  P1V1 ln 1
V1 P2

& P1 V1  P2 V2

V2 P
dQ  dW  P1 V1 ln  P1V1 ln 1
V1 P2

For an isothermal process work done and heat transferred both are equal and ther is no change
in internal energy of the system
Since,
ΔT = 0
Thus, the value of specific heat is
Q Q
C  
m.T m.0
(iv) Adiabatic Process
It is a process in which there is no heat interaction between system and surrounding i.e. Q =
0
Thus, the value of specific heat is
Q 0
C   0
m.T m.T
(v) Polytropic process
From the 1st law of thermodynamics
dQ  dU  dW

dU  mCVdT  mCV  TF  TI 

PI VI  PF VF
dW 
n 1
Where, n = polytropic index
PI VI  PF VF
dQ  mCV (TF  TI ) 
n 1

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as we know,
R
Cv 
 1

mR P V  PF VF
dQ  (T  TI )  I I
 1 F n 1

From ideal gas equation

PV  mRT
PI VI  PF VF  mR(TI  TF )  mR(TF  TI )

mR(TF  TI )   PI VI  PF VF 

PI VI  PF VF PIVI  PF VF
dQ  
n 1  1

PI VI  PF VF  n  1
dQ  1  
n1   1

PI VI  PF VF    1  n  1 
dQ   
n 1   1 

PI VI  PF VF    n 
dQ   
n 1   1
As we know,
PI VI  PF VF
Wpolytropic 
n 1
   n
dQ     Wpolytropic
  1
Comparing it with
Q
C 
m.T

n   
Cpolytropic  Cv  
n  1

15. STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION(SFEE)

As a fluid flows through a certain control volume, its thermodynamic properties may vary along
the space & time.
if the rates of flow of mass and energy through the control surface change with time, then it is
said to be unsteady flow. the mass and energy within the control volume also would change
with time.
if the rates of flow of mass and energy through the control surface does change with time, then
it is said to be steady flow.

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Fig.28: Steady flow Energy Equation

A1, A2 – cross-section of stream, m2
m1, m2 – mass flow rate, kg/s
P1, P2 – pressure, absolute, N/m2
v1, v2 – Specific volume, m3/kg
u1, u2 – Specific internal energy, J/kg
C1, C2 – Velocity, m/s
Z1, Z2 - Elevation above an arbitrary datum, m
dQ .
- Q = Net rate of heat transfer through the control surface, J/s
dt
dW
= W = Net rate of work transfer through the control surface, J/s
dt
A steady flow system has been shown in which one stream of fluid enters and one another
stream leaves the control volume. There is no accumulation of mass or energy within the
control volume, and the properties at any location within the control volume are not changing
with time.
mass balance –
By the conservation of mass, if there is no accumulation of mass within the control volume,
the mass flow rate entering must equal the mass flow rate leaving,
m1  m2  1 A1 V1  2 A2 V2  m

A1V1 A2 V2

v1 v2
This equation is known of continuity.
Energy balance
By the conservation of Energy, if there is no accumulation of energy within the control volume,
then, energy entering must equal to energy leaving.
Ein = Eout
U  KE1  PE1  PV1  Q  U2  KE2  PE2  PV2  Q
1 1
mu1  mC12  mgz1  P1V1  Q  mu2  mC22  mgz2  P2 V2  Q
2 2
 1   1 
m  u1  P1v1  C12  gz1   Q  m  u2  P2 v2  C22  gz2   W
 2   2 
As we know, h = u + pv

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 1   1 
m  h1  C12  gz1   Q  m  h2  C22  gz2   W
 2   2 
The above equation of is steady flow energy equation.
It can also be derived from first law,
dQ = dE + dW
where dE = summation of all form of energy
dE  dU  dKE  dPE  d(PV)
dQ  dU  dKE  dPE  d(PV)  dW

dQ  U2  U1  KE2  KE1  PE2  PE1  P2 V2  P1V1  dW

 1   1 
m  u1  P1v1  C12  gz1   Q  m  u2  P2 v2  C22  gz2   W
 2   2 

 1   1 
m  h1  C12  gz1   Q  m  h2  C22  gz2   W
 2   2 

16. APPLICATIONS OF STEADY FLOW PROCESSES

(i) Nozzle and Diffuser

A nozzle is a device of variable cross section which increases the velocity or Kinetic Energy of
a fluid at the expense of its pressure.
Whereas, A Diffuser is a device of variable cross section which increases the Pressure Energy
of a fluid at the expense of its kinetic energy.
Both devices are work transforming device in which one form of energy is transformed into
another form so no work interaction will be there.

Fig.29: Nozzle & Diffuser

If the inlet is 1-1 then it will work as diffuser
If the inlet is 2-2 then it will work as nozzle
Assumption –
(a) Nozzle is completely insulated so no heat transfer, Q = 0
(b) No work interaction, so W = 0
(c) nozzle is assumed to be horizontal thus potential energy can be neglected
Thus, from SFEE
 1   1 
m  h1  C12  gz1   Q  m  h2  C22  gz2   W
 2   2 

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 1   1 
m  h1  C12  0   0  m  h2  C22  0   0
 2   2 
1 2 1
h1  C1  h2  C22
2 2
It is the general equation of the nozzle.
If the energy at the inlet is very low as compared to the outlet
C1≪≪C2
Then C1  0

1 2 1 1
h1  C1  h2  C22  h1  0  h2  C22
2 2 2
1 2 1
h1  C1  h2  C22
2 2
C2  2(h1  h2 )

Similarly, in case of diffuser

If the energy at the inlet is very low as compared to the outlet
C2≪≪C1
Then C2  0

C1  2(h2  h1 )

Example - In a nozzle air at 627°C and twice atmospheric pressure enters with negligible
velocity and leaves at a temperature 27°C. Determine velocity of air at exit, assuming no heat
loss and nozzle being horizontal. Take CP = 1.005 kJ/kg.K for air.
Solution:
Applying steady flow energy equation with inlet and exit states as 1, 2 with no heat and work
interaction and no change in potential energy.
C12 C2
h1   h2  2
2 2
Given that, C1 = 0, negligible inlet velocity
C2 = 2(h1  h2 )

Exit velocity, C2 = 2Cp (T1  T2 )

Given, T1 = 900 K, T2 = 300 K

or C2 = 2  1.005  103 (900  300)

C2 = 1098.2 m/s
Exit velocity = 1098.2 m/s
(ii) Turbine and compressor –
Turbines are power producing device in which the fluid imparts its energy to the rotor and due
to which mechanical energy generates.

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Whereas compressor or pump are power consuming device in which the mechanical energy of
the rotor is given to the fluid which results in increase in temperature and pressure of the fluid.
Both devices are work transferring device in which work input is required from the outside in
case of compressor whereas work is produced in case of turbine
Assumption –
(a) Nozzle is completely insulated so no heat transfer, Q = 0
(b) nozzle is assumed to be horizontal thus potential energy can be neglected
(c) kinetic energy is very low as compare to enthalpy so kinetic energy of the fluid is neglected.
From SFEE

 1   1 
m  h1  C12  gz1   Q  m  h2  C22  gz2   W
 2   2 

For turbine W is positive

m h1  0  0)  0  m h2  0  0   W

mh1  mh2  W  W  mh1  mh2

W  m h1  h2 

Similarly, for compressor,

W is Negative

W  m h1  h2 

W  m h2  h1 

Example - An air compressor requires shaft work of 200 kJ/kg of air and the compression of
air causes increase in enthalpy of air by 100 kJ/kg of air. Cooling water required for cooling the
compressor picks up heat of 90 kJ/kg of air. Determine the heat transferred from compressor
to atmosphere.
Solution:
Work interaction, W = – 200 kJ/kg of air
Increase in enthalpy of air = 100 kJ/kg of air
Total heat interaction, Q = Heat transferred to water + Heat transferred to atmosphere
Writing steady flow energy equation on compressor, for unit mass of air entering at 1 and
leaving at 2.

C12 C2
h1   gZ1  Q  h2  2  gZ2  W
2 2
Assuming no change in potential energy and kinetic energy:
ΔKE = ΔPE = 0
Q = (h2 – h1) + W
Q = 100 + (–200)
Q = – 100 kJ/kg of air

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Also
Q = – 100 = Heat transferred to water + Heat transferred to atmosphere
or
– 100 = (–90) + Heat transferred to atmosphere
Heat transferred to atmosphere = –10 kJ/kg of air
(iii) Boiler and condenser
Both are a type of heat exachanger in which energy from high energy fluid is imparted to low
energy fluid.
In boiler, heat is being absorbed by working fluid at constant pressure,
Whereas in condenser heat is being rejected by working fluid at constant pressure.
Assumption –

(a) No work interaction, so W = 0

(b) nozzle is assumed to be horizontal thus potential energy can be neglected.

(c) There is no change in kinetic energy so dKE =0

From SFEE

For Boiler heat supplies is positive

 1   1 
m  h1  C12  gz1   Q  m  h2  C22  gz2   W
 2   2 

For Boiler heat supplied is positive

m h1  0  0   Q  m h2  0  0   0

mh1  Q  mh2  Q  mh2  mh1

Q  m h2  h1 

For Condenser heat rejected is Negative

Thus,

Q  m h1  h2 

(iv) Throttling device -

When a fluid flows through a constricted passage, like a partially opened valve, an orifice, or a

porous plug, there is an appreciable drop in pressure, and the flow is said to be throttled.

Assumption –

(a) Nozzle is completely insulated so no heat transfer, Q = 0

(b) No work interaction, so W = 0

(c) nozzle is assumed to be horizontal thus potential energy can be neglected.

(d) There is no change in kinetic energy so dKE =0

From SFEE

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 1   1 
m  h1  C12  gz1   Q  m  h2  C22  gz2   W
 2   2 

m h1  0  0  0  m h2  0  0  0

mh1  mh2

h1  h2

During the throttling process enthalpy of fluid remains constant whereas pressure of fluid

decrease.

It is an irreversible process.

Example - In a stream power station, steam flows steadily7 through a 0.2 m diameter pipeline
from the boiler to the turbine. At the boiler end, the steam conditions are found to be; p = 4
MPa, t = 400°C, h = 3213.6 kJ/kg, and v = 0.073 m 3/kg. At the turbine end, the conditions
are found to be: p = 3.5 MPa, t = 392°C, h = 3202.6 kJ/kg, and v = 0.084 m 3/kg. There is a
heat loss of 8.5 kJ/kg from the pipeline. Calculate the steam flow rate.
Sol.

Writing the steady flow energy equation for the control volume as shown in Fig.

C12 Q C2 W
h1   Z1g   h2  2  Z2g 
2 m 2 m
Here, there is no change in datum, so change in potential energy will be zero.

A1 C1 A2C2
Now 
v1 v2

A1 C1 v2 v 0.084
∴ C2 =   2 C1  C  1.15 C1
v1 A2 v1 0.073 1

and W  0

C12 Q C2
h1    h2  2
2 m 2
(C22  C12 )  10 3 Q
∴ = h1 – h 2 + = 3213.6 – 3202.6 + (–8.5) = 2.5 kJ/kg
2 m
C12 (1.152  12 ) = 5 × 103

C12 = 15,650 m2/s2

C1 = 125.1 m/s

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
A1C1  (0.2)2 m2  125.1 m/s
∴ Mass flow rate w =  4
v1 0.073 m3 /kg
m = 53.8 kg/s

17. FREE EXPANSION

It is also known as unrestrained expansion

Expansion against vacuum is known as free expansion
It is a case of irreversible process and
Since the system is insulated and gas is expanding against the vacuum thus, in the case of
free expansion in an insulated chamber
dQ = 0 dW = 0

Fig.30: Free Expansion of Gas

From the 1 law of thermodynamics =
st

dQ = dE +dW
0 = dE + 0
dE = 0

18. UNSTEADY FLOW

In this type of flow, the flow rate is changing with respect to time, so these are also known as
variable flow process.
Mass balance - The rate at which the mass of fluid within the control volume is accumulated
is equal to the net rate of mass flow across the control surface.
min – mout =maccumulated
Let us assume
mi = mass at the entry of control volume
m1 = initial mass inside the control volume
m2 = final mass inside the control volume
me = mass at the exit/outlet of control volume.
d
dt
 
mcontrol surface  mi  me

Energy balance –

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The rate of accumulation of energy within the control volume is equal to the net rate of energy
flow across the control surface.
Ein – Eout = Eaccumulated
Rate of energy increase = Rate of energy inflow – Rate of energy outflow
dEcons. d d
 Eentering  E
dt dt dt leaving

Fig.31: Control Volume of Unsteady State

 V2 
Eentering  mi  hi  i  Zig   Q
 2 
d d   V2  
Eentering   mi  hi  i  Zig   Q 
dt dt   2  
 V2 
Eleaving  me  he  e  Zeg   W
 2 
d d   V2  
Eleaving   me  he  e  Zeg   W 
dt dt   2  

d d   V2   d   V2  
Eaccululated   mi  hi  i  Zig   Q    me  he  e  Zeg   W 
dt dt   2   dt   2  
Assumptions
1. Neglecting KE changes
2. Neglecting PE changes
E = U + KE + PE
E =U
d d d
dt
Uaccululated 
dt
 i 1  Q 
mh
dt
meh2  W
dU mi dhi hi dmi dQ medhe dme dw
     he 
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
neglecting the variation of enthalpy at inlet and outlet with respect to time
dhi dhe
 0
dt dt
dU dmi dQ dme dw
 mi  0  hi   me  0  he 
dt dt dt dt dt
dU . dQ . dw
 mi hi   me he 
dt dt dt

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Application
(i) Bottle filling process -

Fig.32: Filling of Bottle

In this case,
Mass is not leaving the system boundary, so me = 0
Bottle is initially vacuum and work against Vacuum is zero, W =0
System is insulated, Q = 0
d
dt
 
mcontrol surface  mi  me  mi

dU . dQ . dw .
 mi hi   me he   mi hi
dt dt dt
dU dmi
 hi
dt dt
dU
 mh
i i
dt
U2  U1  mh
i i

m2u2  m1u1  mh
i i

Since initially mass in the bottle is zero, so m 1= 0

m2u2  mh
i i

As we know,
Mass of gas entering the bottle = final mass inside the bottle
mi =m2
m2u2  m2hi

u2  hi

u2  Cv T2 & hi  Cp Ti

Cv T2 Cp Ti

Cp
T2  Ti  Ti
Cv
T2  Ti
Thus, if the working fluid is ideal gas there the final temperature inside the tank is γ times the
temperature of supply line.

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(ii) Charging or discharging of tank –

Fig.33: Charging & Discharging of Tank

Let us consider a tank discharging a fluid into a supply line.
Mass is not leaving the system boundary, so me = 0
Initially it is vacuum so m1 = 0
Bottle is initially vacuum and work against Vacuum is zero, W =0
System is insulated, Q = 0
d
dt
 
mcontrol surface  mi  me  mi

dU . dQ . dw .
 mi hi   me he   mi hi
dt dt dt
Here mass in supply line is continuously changing
Thus,
d(mu)
i dmi
 hi
dt dt
mdu  udm  hdmi

h = u + Pv
midu  udm  (u  Pv)dmi (m)

midu  udmi  udmi  Pvdmi

midu  Pvdmi

dmi du

mi Pv

Also, V = vm = const.
vdmi + midv = 0
dmi dv
or 
mi v
thus,
du dv du Pdv
  
Pv v v v

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The pressure in the supply line remains constant

du d Pv  du d Pv 
   0
v v v v
d u  Pv 
 0  dh  0
v
dh  0  dQ  0
Thus, this shows the discharging from a tank is adiabatic process.
For charging the tank

 (hdm) in  U v  m2v2  m1u1

mphp  m2u2  m1u1

Where the subscript p refers to the constant state of the fluid in the pipeline.
If the tank is initially empty, m1 = 0.
mphp = m2u2
Since
m p = m2
h p = u2
Enthalpy is converted to internal energy.
If the fluid is an ideal gas, the temperature of the gas in the tank after it is charged is given
by
cpTp = cvT2
T2 = γ Tp

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PRACTICE QUESTION

1. The specific heat at constant pressure of one kg fluid undergoing a non-flow constant pressure
process is given by
 40 
Cp  2.5  kJ / kgC where T is in °C.
 T  20 
The pressure during the process is maintained at 2 bar and volume changes from 1 m 3 to 1.8 m3
and temperature changes from 50°C to 450°C. Determine :
(i) Heat added
(ii) Work done
(iii)Change in internal energy.
(iv) Change in enthalpy.
Ans. (i)1076 kJ; (ii) 160 kJ; (iii) 916 kJ ; (iv) 1076 kJ
2. 1 kg of nitrogen (molecular weight 28) is compressed reversibly and isothermally from 1.01 bar,
20°C to 4.2 bar. Calculate the work done and the heat flow during the process. Assume nitrogen
to be a perfect gas.
Ans. W = 124 kJ/kg, Q = – 124 kJ/kg
3. Air at 1.02 bar, 22°C initially occupying a cylinder volume of 0.015 m 3, is compressed reversibly
and adiabatically by a piston to a pressure of 6.8 bar.
Calculate :
(i) The final temperature
(ii)The final volume
(iii) The work done on the mass of air in the cylinder.
Ans. (i) 234.5°C, (ii) 0.00388 m3; (iii) 2.76 kJ)
4. 1 kg of a perfect gas is compressed from 1.1 bar, 27°C according to a law pv 1.3
= constant, until
the pressure is 6.6 bar. Calculate the heat flow to or from the cylinder walls,
(i) When the gas is ethane (molecular weight 30). which has
Cp = 1.75 kJ/kg K.
(ii) When the gas is argon (molecular weight 40, which has
Cp = 0.515 kJ/kg K.
Ans. (i) 84.5 kJ/kg, (ii) –59.4 kJ/kg
5. 1 kg of air at 1 bar, 15°C is compressed reversibly and adiabatically to a pressure of 4 bar.
Calculate the final temperature and the work done on the air.
Ans. 155°C; 100.5 kJ/kg
6. 1 kg of air at 1.02 bar, 20°C is compressed reversibly according to a law pv 1.3 = constant, to a
pressure of 5.5 bar . calculate the work done on the air and heat flow to or from the cylinder walls
during the compression.
Ans. 133.5 kJ/kg: – 33.38 kJ/kg
7. If a gas of volume 6000 cm and at pressure of 100kPa is compressed quasi statically according
3

to pV2 = constant until the volume becomes 2000cm3, determine the final pressure and the work
transfer.
Ans. 900kPa, – 1.2 kJ

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8. A gas expands from an initial state with P1 = 340 kPa and
V1 = 0.0425 m3 to a final state where P2 = 136 kPa. If the pressure- volume relationship during
the process is pV2 = constant.
determine the work in KJ.
Ans. 5.31 kJ
9. An engine is tested by means of a water brake at 1000 rpm. The measured torque of the engine
is 10000 mN and the water consumption of the brake is 0.5 m 3/s, its inlet temperature being
20°C. Calculate the water temperature at exit, assuming that the whole of the engine power is
ultimately transformed into heat which is absorbed by the cooling water.
Ans. 20.5°C
10. In a cyclic process, heat transfers are + 14.7 kJ, – 25.2 kJ, – 3.56 kJ and + 31.5 kJ. What is the
net Work for this cyclic process?
Ans. 17 kJ
11. An imaginary engine receives heat and does work on a slowly moving piston at such rates that
the cycle of operation of 1 kg of working fluid can be represented as a circle 10 cm in diameter
on a p-v diagram on which 1 cm = 300 kPa and 1 cm = 0.1 m3/kg. (a) How much work is done
by each kg of working fluid for each cycle of operation? (b) The thermal efficiency of an engine is
defined as the ratio of work done and heat input in a cycle. If the heat rejected by the engine in
a cycle is 1000 kJ per kg of working fluid, what would be its thermal efficiency?
Ans. (a) 2356.19 kJ/kg, (b) 0.702
12. A gas undergoes a cycle consisting of three processes beginning at an initial state where p 1 = 1
bar, V1 = 1.5 m3 and U1 = 512 kJ. The processes are as follows:
(a) Process 1–2: Compression with pV = constant to p2 = 2 bar, U2 = 690 kJ
(b) Process 2–3: W23 = 0, Q23 = – 150 kJ, and
(c) Process 3–1: W31 = + 50 kJ. Neglecting KE and PE changes, determine the heat interactions
Q12 and Q31.
Ans. 74 kJ, 22 kJ
13. A gas undergoes a thermodynamic cycle consisting of the following processes:
(i) Process 1–2: Constant pressure p = 1.4 bar, V1 = 0.028 m3, W12 = 10.5 kJ,
(ii) Process 2–3: Compression with pV = constant, U3 = U2,
(iii) Process 3–1: Constant volume, U1 – U3 = – 26.4 kJ. There are no significant changes in KE
and PE. (a) Sketch the cycle on a p-V diagram. (b) Calculate the net work for the cycle in kJ. (c)
Calculate the heat transfer for process 1–2 (d) Show that  Q   W .
cycle cycle

Ans. (b) – 8.28 kJ, (c) 36.9kJ

14. A fluid contained in a cylinder receives 150 Id of mechanical energy by means of a paddle wheel,
together with 50 kJ in the form of heat. At the same time, a piston in the cylinder moves in such
a way that the pressure remains constant at 200 kN/m 2 during the fluid expansion from 2m 3 to
5m3. What is the change in internal energy and in enthalpy?
Ans. – 400 kJ, + 200 kJ

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15. A stationary system consisting of 2 kg of the fluid of Problem 4.8 expands in an adiabatic process
according to pv1.2 = constant. The initial conditions are 1 MPa and 200°C, and the final pressure
is 0.1 MPa. Find W and ΔE for the process. Why is the work transfer not equal to  pdV ?
Ans. W = 217.35, ΔE = – 217.35 kJ,  pdV = 434.4 kJ
16. A mixture of gases expands at constant pressure from 1 MPa, 0.03 m 3 to 0.06 m3 with 84 kJ
positive heat transfer. There is no work other than that done on a piston. Find ΔE for the gaseous
mixture.
Ans. 54 kJ
17. A mass of 8 kg gas expands within a flexible container so that the p-v relationship is of the form
pv1.2 = const. The initial pressure is 1000 kPa and the initial volume is 1 m 3. The final pressure is
5 kPa. If specific internal energy of the gas decreases by 40 kJ/kg, find the heat transfer in
magnitude and direction.
Ans. + 2615 kJ
18. A nozzle is a device for increasing the velocity of a steadily flowing stream. At the inlet to a certain
nozzle, the enthalpy of the fluid passing is 3000 kJ/kg and the velocity is 60 m/s. At the discharge
end, the enthalpy is 2762 kJ/kg. The nozzle is horizontal and there is negligible heat loss from it.
(a) Find the velocity at exist from the nozzle, (b) If the inlet area is 0.1 m 2 and the specific volume
at inlet is 0.187 m3/kg, find the mass flow rate. (c) If the specific volume at the nozzle exit is
0.498 m3/kg, find the exit area of the nozzle.
Ans. (a) 692.5 m/s,(b) 32.08 kg/s(c) 0.023 m2
19. In an oil cooler, oil flows steadily through a bundle of metal tubes submerged in a steady stream
of cooling water. Under steady flow conditions, the oil enters at 90°C and leaves at 30°C, while
the water enters at 25°C and leaves at 70°C. The enthalpy of oil at t°C is given by
h = 1.68t + 10.5 × 10–4 t2 kJ/kg
What is the cooling water flow required for cooling 2.78 kg/s of oil?
Ans. 1.473 kg/s
20. A turbo compressor delivers 2.33 m /s of air at 0.276 MPa, 43°C which is heated at this pressure
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to 430°C and finally expanded in a turbine which delivers 1860kW. During the expansion, there
is a heat transfer of 0.09 MJ/s to the surroundings. Calculate the turbine exhaust temperature if
changes in kinetic and potential energy are negligible. Take cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK
Ans. 157°C
21. Air at 8 bar 100°C flows in a duct of 15 cm diameter at rate of 150 kg/min. It is throttled by upto
4 bar pressure. Determine the velocity of air after throttling and also show that enthalpy constant
before and after throttling.
Ans. 37.8 m/s
22. Determine the power required by a compressor designed to compress atmospheric through inlet
area of 90 cm2 with velocity of 50 m/s and leaves with velocity of 120 m/s from exit area of 5
cm2. Consider heat losses to environment to be 10% of power input to compressor.
Ans. 50.4 kW

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23. Determine the power available from a steam turbine with following details;
Steam flow rate = 1 kg/s
Velocity at inlet and exit = 100 m/s and 150 m/s
Enthalpy at inlet and exit = 2900 kJ/kg, 1600 kJ/kg
Change in potential energy may be assumed negligible.
Ans. 1293.75 kW
24. Determine the heat transfer in emptying of a rigid tank of 1 m 3 volume containing air at 3 bar and
27°C initially. Air is allowed to escape slowly by opening a valve until the pressure in tank drops
to 1 bar pressure. Consider escape of air in tank to follow polytrophic process with index n = 1.2
Ans. 76.86 kJ

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