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THERMODYNAMICS

3 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. INTRODUCTION

 The first law of thermodynamic was applied to processes involving closed and open system.
As energy is a conserved property, it is reasonable to conclude that a process must satisfy
first law to occur. However, satisfying the first law alone does not ensure that process will
actually take place.
 It is common experience that a cup of hot coffee left in a cooler room eventually cools off.
This process satisfy the first law of thermodynamic as amount of energy lost by coffee is
equal to energy gained by surrounding. Now let us consider the reverse process the hot
coffee getting even hotter in a cooler room as a result of heat transfer from room air. This
process never takes place, although satisfy Ist law of thermodynamic. Hence all processes
proceed in certain direction.
 Thus second law of thermodynamic asserts that.
(i) A process can occur in certain direction.
(ii) Energy has quality as well quantity.
 A process if to occur must satisfy both 1st law and 2nd law.

2. THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIR

 A TER is a Hypothetical body which have relatively very large thermal heat capacity, that
can supply or absorb finite amount of heat without undergoing any change in temperature.
Q = mc ΔT
Q
T 
mc

 ΔT = 0, mc has to be large c is the specific heat capacity, which all the material have finite,
hence for ΔT to be zero, mc has to be very large, which can be possible when m’ is very
large, Hence large water bodies such as oceans, lakes, rivers atmospheric air can be modeled
as thermal energy reservoir.
 A two phase system can also be modeled as reservoir since it can absorb and release large
quantities while remaining of constant temperature.
 A body does not actually have to be large to be modeled as reservoir. Any physical body
whose thermal energy capacity is large relative to amount of energy.
 Source ⇒ A thermal energy reservoir that supplies energy in form of heat is called source

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Fig:1: Thermal energy source

 Sink ⇒ A thermal energy reservoir that absorbs energy in the form of heat is called sink.

Fig:2:Thermal energy sink

3. HEAT ENGINE

 Heat engine is a device which converts the part of heat energy into work and rejects
remaining to sink or surrounding.

Fig:3:Heat engine
 Heat engines are characterized by following
1. They receive heat from high temperature source.
2. They convert part of this heat into work.
3. They reject the remaining waste heat to low temperature sink.
4. They operate on cycle.
 Heat engines and other cyclic devices usually involve a fluid to and from which heat is
transferred while undergoing a cycle this fluid is called working fluid.
 Steam power plant is one of heat engine

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3.1. THERMAL EFFICIENCY
 The fraction of the heat input that is converted to net work output is known as thermal
efficiency and is the measure of the performance of heat engine.

Fig:4: Thermal efficiency of heat engine

Wnet Net work output
 
Q1 Total Heat input
By energy conservation
Q1 = Wnet + Q2
Wnet = Q1 – Q2
Q2
 1
Q1

Q1 = magnitude of heat transfer between the source and cyclic device

Q2 = magnitude of heat transfer between cyclic device and sink.

Fig:5
 Hence heat engine 2 is performing better than heat engine 1.
 The thermal efficiency of the SI engines is about 25%, 40% for diesel engine, 60% for
combined gas steam power plant.
EXAMPLE 1
A heat engine receives heat at the rate of 1500 kJ/min and gives an output of 8.2 kW
Determine:
(i) The thermal efficiency;
(ii) The rate of heat rejection.

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Sol.

Heat received by the heat engine,

Q1 = 1500 kJ/min
1500
 = 25 kJ/s
60
Work output W = 8.2 kW = 8.2 kJ/s.
W
(i) Thermal efficiency, th 
Q1
82
 = 0.328 = 32.8%
25
Hence, thermal efficiency = 32.8%
(ii) Rate of heat rejection,
Q2 = Q1 – W = 25 – 8.2
= 16.8 kJ/s
Hence, the rate of heat rejection = 16.8 kJ/s.

4. REFRIGERATOR

 A refrigerator is a device which maintains lower temperature as compared to surrounding.As

lower temperature is to be maintained continuously, refrigerator must operate on cycle.

Fig:6: Refrigerator

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 The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed as coefficient of performance.
Desire effect
Cop 
Work Input
 For refrigerator ,Desired effect is removing Q2.
Q2
CopR 
Wnet in

(W)net in = Q1 – Q2
Q2
CopR 
Q1  Q2

 This equation is valid for reversible as well as irreversible cycle.

 The COP may or may not be greater than 1, that’s why a new term coefficient of performance
is used.
EXAMPLE 2
Find the co-efficient of performance and heat transfer rate in the condenser of a refrigerator in
kJ/h which has a refrigeration capacity of 12000 kJ/h when power input is 0.75 kW.
Sol.
Refer Fig.

Refrigeration capacity, Q2 = 12000 kJ/h

Power input. W = 0.75 kW = 0.75 × 60 × 60 kJ/h
Co-efficient of performance, C.O.P.:
Heat transfer rate:
Heat absorbed at lower temperature
C.O.P.refrigerator 
Work input
Q2 12000
C.O.P.   = 4.44
W 0.75  60  60
Hence C.O.P. = 4.44. (Ans.)
hence transfer rate in condenser = Q1
According to the first law
Q1 = Q2 + W = 12000 + 0.75 × 60 × 60 = 14700 kJ/h
Hence, heat transfer rate = 14700 kJ/h.

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5. HEAT PUMP

 Heat pump is a device which maintains higher temperature compared to surroundings.

Fig:7: Heat pump

Desire effect
CophP 
Net Work Input

Q1
Cop hP 
Wnet in

(W)net in = Q1 – Q2
Q1
Cop hP 
Q1  Q2

 This equation is valid for reversible as well as irreversible heat pump.

 Since Q1 > Wnet in, the Cop of heat pump is always greater than 1.
 The thermodynamic cycle of refrigerator and heat pump are, but they differ in their objective
and the temperature limits under which they operate.
Example 3
A house requires 2 × 105 kJ/h for heating in winter. Heat pump is used to absorb heat from
cold air outside in winter and send heat to the house. Work required to operate the heat pump
is 3 × 104 kJ/h. Determine:
(i) Heat abstracted from outside;
(ii) Coefficient of performance.
Sol.
(i) heat requirement of the house, Q1 or heat rejected)
= 2 × 105 kJ/h
Work required to operate the heat pump,
W = 3 × 104 kJ/h
Now, Q1 = W + Q2
when Q2 is the heat abstracted from outside.

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 2 × 105 = 3 × 104 + Q2
Thus Q2 = 2 × 105 – 3 × 104
= 200000 – 30000 = 170000 kJ/h
Hence, heat abstracted from outside = 170000 kJ/h.
Q1
(ii) (C.O.P) heat pump =
Q1  Q2

2  105
 = 6.66
2  105  170000
Hence, coefficient of performance = 6.66.
Note. If the heat requirements of the house were the same but this amount of heat had to be
abstracted from the house and rejected out, i.e., cooling of the house in summer, we have
Q2 Q
(C.O.P) refrigerator =  2
Q1  Q2 W

170000
 = 5.66
3  104
Thus the same device has two values of C.O.P. depending upon the objective.

6. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COP OF A HEAT PUMP AND REFRIGERATOR OPERATING

BETWEEN SAME TEMPERATURE LIMITS

Q2
CopR 
Q1  Q2
…… (1)
Q1
Cop hP 
Q1  Q2
…… (2)
Q1 Q2
Cop hP  Cop R  
Q1  Q2 Q1  Q2

Fig:8: Relationship between COP of refrigerator & Heat pump

CophP  CopR  1
CophP  1  CopR

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7. SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC

The second law of thermodynamic consists of two statements Kelvin-plank statement and

Clausius statement.

7.1. KELPIN PLANCK STATEMENT

It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single

reservoir and produce a net amount of work.

Fig:9:Impossible device by Kelvin Planck statement

Hence a heat engine can not 100% efficiency this limit to the efficiency is not due friction

or other dissipative effect but applies to both idealized and actual heat engines.

Fig:10: Possible device by Kelvin Planck statement

7.2. CLAUSIUS STATEMENT

It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other

than the heat transfer of heat from a lower temperature body to a higher temperature

body.

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Fig:11:Impossible & Possible device by Clausius statemnt

Both the Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements of second law are negative statements
and a negative statements cannot be proved.
7.3. EQUIVALENCE OF THE TWO STATEMENTS
The Kelvin-Planck and the Clausius statements are equivalent in their consequences and
either statements can be used as expression of second law of thermodynamic. Any device
that violates the Kelvin-Planck statement also violates the Clausius statement and vice-
versa.
7.3.1. VIOLATION OF KELVIN-PLANCK STATEMENT
Consider a heat engine, refrigerator combination operating between the same two
reservoirs. The heat engine is assumed to have in violation of Kelvin-Planck statement, a
thermal efficiency of 100% and therefore it converts all the heat input into work. This
work is now supplied to a refrigerator that removes heat in amount Q2 from low-
temperature reservoir and rejects heat in amount Q1 + Q2 to high temperature reservoir.

Fig:12:Violation of kelvin Planck statement

The combination of two device can be viewed as a refrigerator that transfer heat Q 2 from
a cooler body to worker body without requiring input from outside. Therefore violation of
Clausius statement.

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7.3.2. VIOLATION OF CLAUSIUS STATEMENT
Consider a heat engine, refrigerator combination operating between the same two
reservoirs, the refrigerator is assumed to be violating the Clausius statement, transferring
heat from low temperature to high temperature without any work input.

Fig:13:Violation of Clausius statement

This system is equivalent to heat engine which is 100% efficient, hence violation of
Kelvin-Planck statement.

8. PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINE

Any device which violate any of the two thermodynamic laws is called a perpetual motion
machine.
A device which violate the first low of thermodynamic is called perpetual motion machine of
first kind. (PMM1)

Fig:14: Perpetual motion machine of first kind

A device which violates the second law of the thermodynamic is called perpetual motion
machine of 2nd kind (pmm2)

Fig:15: Perpetual motion machine of second kind

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9. IRREVERSIBILITIES

 The factor that causes a process to be irreversible are called irreversibilities.

 The irreversibilities of a process may be due to either one or both of the following.
(1) Lack of equilibrium.
(2) Involvement of dissipative effect.
9.1. IRREVERSIBILITIES DUE TO LACK OF EQUILIBRIUM
The lack of equilibrium (mechanical, thermal, chemical) between the system and its
surrounding or between two systems, or two part of same system.
9.1.1. HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH FINITE TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
Consider a can of soda left in a warm room. Heat is transferred from warmer room to
cooler soda. The only way this process can be reversed is to provide refrigeration. At the
end of process, the soda will be restored to its initial state, but surrounding will not be,
hence irreversible process.
9.1.2. LACK OF PRESSURE EQUILIBRIUM
When there exists a difference in pressure between the system and its surroundings, or
within the system itself, then both the system and its surroundings or system done will
undergo a change of state with non-quasi static process. Hence reverse cannot be done
without producing any other effect.
9.2. IRREVERSIBILITY DUE TO DISSIPATIVE EFFECT
Friction is a familiar form of irreversibility associated with bodies in motion. When two
bodies in contact are forced to move relative to each other, a friction force that opposes
the motion develops at the interface of these two bodies, and some work is needed to
overcome this friction force, the energy supplied as work is eventually converted to heat.
When the direction of motion is reversed, the bodies are restored to their original position,
but the interface does not cool, and heat is not converted to work. Since the system and
surrounding can not be returned to their original states, therefore this process is
irreversible process. Therefore any process that involves friction is irreversible.
9.3. INTERNALLY AND EXTERNALLY REVERSIBLE
A process is called internally reversible if no irreversibilities occur within the boundaries
of system during process.
A process is called externally reversible if no irreversibilities occur outside the system
boundary during process i.e. The heat transfer between a reservoir process if outer
surface of system is at temperature of reservoir.
A process is called totally reversible or simply reversible, if it involves no irreversibilities
within the system or surroundings.

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10. CARNOT CYCLE (REVERSIBLE CYCLE)

Carnot cycle is the best-known reversible cycle. The theoretical heat engine that operates on

Carnot cycle is called Carnot heat engine.

Consider a closed system that consists of a gas contained in on a adiabatic cylinder device the

insulation of cylinder heat is such that it mag be removed to bring the cylinder into contact

with reservoirs to provide heat transfer.

The four reversible process that make up the Carnot cycle are as follows

(1) Reversible Isothermal Expansion

Initially the gas is at state 1. The cylinder head is in close contact with source at T 1. The gas is

allowed to expand slowly. As the gas expands, the temperature of gas tends to decrease. But

as soon as temperature drops by an infinitesimal amount dT, some heat is transferred from

reservoir into gas, raising gas temp to T1. Thus gas temperature is kept constant.

(2) Reversible Adiabatic expansion.

At state 2, the reservoir that was in contact with cylinder head is removed and replaced by

insulation. The gas continues to expand slowly.

(3) Reversible Isothermal compression.

At state 3, the insulation at cylinder heat is removed and cylinder is brought in contact with

sink of temp T2. The Isothermal compression of gas occurs.

(4) Reversible adiabatic compression.

State 4 is such that when the low temperature reservoir is removed, the insulation is put back

on cylinder head and gas is compressed in reversible manner to reach state 1.

Fig:16:Carnot cycle

1-2 ⇒ Isothermal process ⇒ slow

2-3 ⇒ Reversible adiabatic ⇒ fast

3-4 ⇒ Reversible isothermal ⇒ slow

4-1 ⇒ Reversible adiabatic ⇒ fast.

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11. CARNOT THEOREM OR PRINCIPLES

The conclusions pertaining to the thermal efficiency of reversible and irreversible heat engines
are known as carnot principles.
(1) The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a reversible
one operating between same two reservoirs.
(2) The efficiency of all reversible heat engine operating between same two reservoir are same.
(3) Efficiency of a reversible cycle depends only on temperature limit.
Proof
Let as consider two engines E1 and E2 let E1 be irreversible engine and E2 be reversible engine.

Let us assume  irrev  rev

Fig:17:Proof of carnot theorem

W1 W2
 irrev  , rev 
Q1 Q1

W1  W2 , W1  Q1  Q2

Q3  Q2 , W2  Q1  Q3

As E2 is a reversible engine, let us reverse the engine

Fig:18: Reversed Engine 2

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The combined system is then

Fig:19: Violation of Clausius statement

Hence it is the violation of Kelvin-Planck statement and hence assumption is wrong. Similarly
if we take the efficiency of both engines to be same, it would lead to violation of Clausius
statement.

12. THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE

A temperature scale that is independent of the properties of the substance that are used to
measure temperature is called thermodynamic temperature scale.
Consider two reversible heat engines E1 and E2 that are operating in series.

Fig:20: Thermodynamic temperature scale

Q2 Q3
1  1  , 2  1 
Q1 Q2

Since they are reversible engines, their efficiency only depends on temperature limits.
1  f  T1, T2 

2  f  T2 , T3 

Q2
1  f  T1, T2 
Q1

Q2
 1  f  T1, T2 
Q1

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Q1 1

Q2 1  f  T1, T2 

Q1
   T1, T2 
Q2
Similarly
Q2
   T2 , T3 
Q3

Now let us consider an engine E3 which is reversible engine operating between (T 1, T3) and

with input heat Q1.

Fig:21:Single reversible engine

3  f  T1, T3 

Q1
   T1, T3 
Q3

Since

Q1 Q Q
 1 2
Q3 Q2 Q3

  T1, T3     T1, T2     T2, T3 

It can only be possible

  T1 
When   T1 , T3   ,Such that   T2  is canceled out in above equation.
  T3 

Base on Kelvin experiments

  T   T , temperature in Kelvin

Hence

Q1 T
 1 ⇒ This equation is only valid for reversible cycle.
Q2 T2

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12.1. EFFICIENCY OF REVERSIBLE HEAT ENGINE.

Fig:22: Efficiency of reversible heat engine.

Q
 1 2
Q1
Q2 T
When HE is reversible,  2
Q1 T1
T2
hrev  1 
T1
Example 4
What is the highest possible theoretical efficiency of a heat engine operating with a hot
reservoir of furnace gases at 2100°C when the cooling water available is at 15°C?
Sol.
Temperature of furnace gases, T1 = 2100 + 273 = 2373 K
Temperature of cooling water, T2 = 15 + 273 = 288 K
T2 288
Now, max  carnot  1  1 = 0.878 or 87.8%
T1 2373

Example 5
A Carnot cycle operates between source and sink temperatures of 250°C and – 15°C. If
the system receives 90 kJ from the source, find:
(i) Efficiency of the system;
(ii) The net work transfer:
(iii) heat rejected to sink.
Sol.
Temperature of source, T1 = 250 + 273 = 523 K
Temperature of sink, T2 = – 15 + 273 = 258 K
Heat received by the system, Q1 = 90 kJ
T2 258
(i) carnot  1  1 = 0.506 = 0.506 = 50.6%.
T1 523
 W
(ii)The network transfer, W  carnot  Q1  carnot  
 Q1 
= 0.506 × 90 = 45.54 kJ
(iii)Heat rejected to the sink, Q2 = Q1 – W  W  Q1  Q2 
= 90 – 45.54 = 44.46 kJ

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Example 6
An inventor claims that his engine has the following specifications:
Temperature limits ...... 750°C and 25°C
Power developed ...... 75 kW
Fuel burned per hour ...... 3.9 kg
Heating value of the fuel ...... 74500 kJ/kg
State whether his claim is valid or not.
Sol.
Temperature of source, T1 = 750 + 273 = 1023 K
Temperature of sink, T2 = 25 + 273 = 298 K
We know that the thermal efficiency of Carnot cycle is the maximum between the
specified temperature limits.
T2 298
Now, carnot  1   1 = 0.7086 or 70.86%
T1 1023
The actual thermal efficiency claimed,
Work done 75  1000  60  60
thermal   = 0.9292 or 92.92%.
Heat supplied 3.9  74500  1000
Since thermal  carnot , therefore claim of the inventor is not valid (or possible.)

Example 7
A cyclic hear engine operates between a source temperature of 800°C and a sink
temperature of 30°C. What is the least rate of heat rejection per kW net output of the
engine?
Sol.
For a reversible engine, the rate of heat rejection will be minimum as shown in Fig.

T2
max  rev  1 
T1
30  273
1
800  273
= 1 – 0.282 = 0.718

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Wnet
Now  max = 0.718
Q1

1
 Q1  = 1.392 kW
0.718
Now Q2 = Q1 – Wnet = 1.392 – 1 = 0.392 kW
This is the least rate of heat rejection.
Example 8
A Carnot engine absorbs 200 J of heat from a reservoir at the temperature of the normal
boiling point of water and rejects heat to a reservoir at the temperature of the triple
point of water. Find the heat rejected, the work done by the engine and the thermal
efficiency.
Sol.
Q1 = 200 J at T1 = 373.15 K
T2 = 273.16 K
T2 273.16
Q2 = Q1 = 200 × = 146.4 J
T1 373.15
W = Q1 – Q2 = 53.6 J
W 53.6
  = 0.268
Q1 200
Example 9
It is proposed that solar energy be used to warm a large collector plate. This energy
would, in turn, be transferred as heat to a fluid within a heat engine, and the engine
would reject energy as heat to the atmosphere, Experiments indicate that about 1880
kJ/m2 h of energy can be collected when the plate is operating at 90°C. Estimate the
minimum collector area that would be required for a plant producing 1 kW of useful
shaft power. The atmospheric temperature may be assumed to be 20°C.
Sol.
The maximum efficiency for the heat engine operating between the collector plate,
temperature and the atmospheric temperature Fig. as follows:
T2 293
 max  1   1 = 0.192
T1 363

The efficiency of any actual at engine operating between these temperatures would be
less than this efficiency.
W 1kJ / s
 Qmin   = 5.21 kJ/s
max 0.192

= 18756 kJ/h
 maximum area required for the collector plate

18756
=9.976 ≈ 10 m2
1880

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Example 10
Two Carnot engines work in series between the source and sink temperature of 550 K
and 350 K. If both engines develop equal power determine the intermediate
temperature.
Sol.
Fig. shows the arrangement of the system.
Temperature of the source, T1 = 550 K
Temperature of the sink, T3 = 350 K

Intermediate temperature, T2:

The efficiencies of the engines HE1 and HE2 are given by
W T  T2 W
1   1  …. (i)
Q1 T1 Q2  W

W T  T3 W
2   2  …. (ii)
Q2 T2 Q3  W

From eqn. (i) we get

 T  T2 
W   Q2  W   1 
 T1 
  T  T2    T1  T2 
 W 1   1    Q2  
  T1    T1 

T   T  T2 
 W  2   Q2  1 
 T1   T1 
 T  T2 
 W  Q2  1  …. (iii)
 T2 

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From eqn. (ii), we get
 T  T3 
W  Q2  2  ….. (iv)
 T2 

Now from eqns. (iii) and (iv), we get

T1 - T2 = T2 – T3
2T2 = T1 + T3 = 550 + 350
 T2 = 450 K
Hence intermediate temperature = 450 K

12.2. REVERSIBLE REFRIGERATOR

Q2 1
Cop R 
Q1  Q2

Q1
1
Q2

Fig:23
When the refrigerator is reversible
Q1 T
 1
Q2 T2
T2
CopR 
T1  T2

Similarly for reversible heat pump

Q1 T1
CopHP 
Q1  Q2

T1  T2

Example 11
A domestic food refrigerator maintains a temperature of – 12°C. The ambient air
temperature is 35°C. If heat leaks into the freezer at the continuous rate of 2 kJ/s
determine the least power necessary to pump this heat out continuously.
Sol.
Freezer temperature,
T2 = –12 + 273 = 261 K
Ambient air temperature,

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T1 = 35 + 273 = 308 K
Rate of heat leakage into the freezer = 2 kJ/s
Least power required to pump the heat:
The refrigerator cycle removes heat from the freezer at the same rate at which heat
leaks into it.

For minimum power requirement

Q2 Q1

T2 T1

Q2 2
Q1   T1  308 = 2.36 kJ/s
T2 261
W = Q1 – Q2
= 2.36 – 2 = 0.36 kJ/s = 0.36 kW
Hence least power required to pump the heat continuously
0.36 kW.
Example 12
A reversible heat engine operates between two reservoirs at temperature 700°C and
50°C. The engine drives a reversible refrigerator which operates between reservoirs at
temperatures of 50°C and – 25°C. The heat transfer to the engine is
2500 kJ and the net work output of the combined engine refrigerator plant is 400 kJ.
(i) Determine the heat transfer to the refrigerant and the net heat transfer to the
reservoir at 50°C:
(ii) Reconsider (i) given that the efficiency of the heat engine and the C.O.P. of the
refrigerator are each 45 percent of their maximum possible values.
Sol.
Temperature, T1 = 700 + 273 = 973 K
Temperature, T2 = 50 + 273 = 323 K
Temperature, T3 = - 25 + 273 = 248 K
The heat transfer to the heat engine, Q1 = 2500 kJ

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Refer Fig.

The network output of the combined engine refrigerator plant,

W = W1 – W2 = 400 kJ.
(i) Maximum efficiency of the heat engine cycle is given by
T2 323
max  1  1 = 0.668
T1 973

W1
Again, = 0.668
Q1

 W1 = 0.668 × 2500 = 1670 kJ

T3 248
C.O.P.max 
T2  T3

323  248
= 3.306

Q4
Also, C.O.P. = = 3.306
W2

Since, W1 – W2 = W = 400 kJ
W2 = W1 – W= 1670 – 400 = 1270 kJ
 Q4 = 3.306 × 1270 = 4198.6 kJ
Q3 = Q4 + W2 = 4198.6 + 1270 = 5468.6 kJ
Q2 = Q1 – W1 = 2500 – 1670 = 830 kJ.
heat rejection to the 50°C reservoir
= Q2 + Q3 = 830 + 5468.6 = 6298.6kJ.
(ii) Efficiency of actual heat engine cycle,
 = 0.45  max = 0.45 × 0.668 = 0.3

 W1 =  × Q1 = 0.3 × 2500 = 750 kJ

 W2 = 750 – 400 = 350 kJ

C.O.P. of the actual refrigerator cycle,
Q4
C.O.P. = = 0.45 × 3.306 = 1.48
W2

 Q4 = 350 × 1.48 = 518 kJ

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Q3 = 518 + 350 = 868 kJ
Q2 = 2500 – 750 = 1750 kJ
Heat rejected to 50°C reservoir
= Q2 + Q3 = 1750 + 868 = 2618 kJ

13. CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY

Q
The cyclic integral of is less than or equal to zero.
T
Q
 T
0

Q
 T
 0 ⇒ Reversible cycle

Q
 T
 0 ⇒ Cycle is Irreversible

13.1. REVERSIBLE CYCLE

Fig:24
Q Q1 Q2

rev
T

T1

T2

We know that for reversible process

Q1 T
 1
Q2 T2

Q1 Q2

T1 T2

Q
Hence  T
0

13.2. IRREVERSIBLE CYCLE

Consider a irreversible heat engine operating b/w T1 & T2
Q Q1 Q3

irrev
T

T1

T2

Imagine a reversible engine operating between same limit

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Q1 T
 1
Q2 T2

Q1 Q2

T1 T2

Q Q2 Q3

irrev
T

T2

T2

Fig:25
Q Q2  Q3

irrev
T

T2

rev  irrev

Q2  Q3

Q
Hence  T
0

Example 13
300 kJ/s of heat is supplied at a constant fixed temperature of 290°C to a heat engine.
The heat rejection takes place at 8.5°C. The following results were obtained:
(i) 215 kJ/s are rejected.
(ii) 150 kJ/s are rejected.
(iii) 75 kJ/s are rejected.
Classify which of the result report a reversible cycle or irreversible cycle or impossible
results.
Sol.
Heat supplied at 290°C = 300 kJ/s
Heat rejected at 8.5°C : (i) 215 kJ/s, (ii) 150 kJ/s, (iii) 75 kJ/s.
Applying Clausius inequality to the cycle or process, we have:
Q 300 215
(i) 
cycle
T

290  273

8.5  273

= 0.5328 – 0.7637 = – 0.2309 < 0.

 Cycle is irreversible. (Ans.)

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Q 300 150
(ii) 
cycle
T
 
290  273 8.5  273

= 0.5328 – 0.5328 = 0
 Cycle is reversible. (Ans.)

Q 300 75
(iii) 
cycle
T
 
290  273 8.5  273

= 0.5328 – 0.2664 = 0.2664 > 0.

This cycle is impossible by second law of thermodynamics, i.e., Clausius inequality.
Example 14
A steam power plant operates between boiler temperature of 160°C and condenser
temperature of 50°C. Water enters the boiler as saturated liquid and steam leaves the
boiler as saturated vapor. Verify the Clausius inequality for the cycle.
Given : Enthalpy of water entering boiler = 687 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy of steam leaving boiler = 2760 kJ/kg
Condenser pressure = 0.124 × 105 N/m2.
Sol.
Boiler temperature, T1 = 160 + 273 = 433 K
Condenser temperature, T2 = 50 + 273 = 323 K
From steam tables:
Enthalpy of water entering boiler, hf1 = 687 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of steam leaving boiler, h2 = 2760 kJ/kg,
Condenser pressure = 0.124 × 105 N/m2
Boiler pressure = 6.18 × 105 N/m2 ......(corresponding to 160°C)
Enthalpy of vapor leaving the turbine, h3 = 2160 kJ/kg
(assuming isentropic expansion)
Enthalpy of water leaving the condenser, hf4 = 209 kJ/kg
Now Qboiler, Q1 = h2 – hf1 = 2760 – 687 = 2073 kJ/kg
and Qcondenser, Q2 = hf4 – h3 = 209 – 2160 = – 1951 kJ/kg

Q Q1 Q2 2073  1951 
 
cycle
T

T1

T2
 
433  323 

= – 1.25 kJ/kg K
< 0. …… Proved.

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PRACTICE QUESTION

1. A heat pump working on the Carnot cycle takes in heat from a reservoir at 5°C and delivers heat

to a reservoir at 60°C. The heat pump is driven by a reversible heat engine which takes in heat

from a reservoir at 840°C and rejects heat to a reservoir at 60°C. The reversible heat engine also

drives a machine that absorbs 30 kW. If the heat pump extracts 17 kJ/s from the 5°C reservoir,

determine

(a) the rate of heat supply from the 840°C source, and

(b) the rate of heat rejection to the 60°C sink.

2. A refrigeration plant for a food store operates as a reversed Carnot heat engine cycle. The store

is to be maintained at a temperature of – 5°C and the heat transfer from the store to the cycle is

at the rate of 5 kW. If heat is transferred from the cycle to the atmosphere at a temperature of

25°C, calculate the power required to drive the plant.

3. A heat engine is used to drive a heat pump. The heat transfers from the heat engine and from

the heat pump are used to heat the water circulating through the radiators a building. The

efficiency of the heat engine is 27% and the COP of the heat pump is 4. Evaluate the ratio of the

heat transfer to the circulating water to the heat transfer to the heat engine.

4. If 20 kJ are added to a Carnot cycle at a temperature of 100°C and 14.6 kJ are rejected at 0°C,

determine the location of absolute zero on the Celsius scale.

5. A heat pump is to be used to heat a house in winter and then reversed to cool the house in

summer. The interior temperature is to be maintained at 20°C. Heat transfer through the walls

and roof is estimated to be 0.525 kJ/s per degree temperature difference between the inside and

outside.

(a) If the outside temperature in winter is 5°C, what is the minimum power required to drive the

heat pump?

(b) If the power output is the same as in part (a), what is the maximum outer temperature for

which the inside can be maintained at 20°C?

6. A heat engine receives half of its heat supply at 1000 K and half at 500 K while rejecting heat to

a sink at 300 K. What is the maximum thermal efficiency of the heat engine?

7. A heat pump provides 3 × 104 kJ/h to maintain a dwelling at 23°C on a day when the outside

temperature is 0°C. The power input to the heat pump is 4 kW. Determine the COP of the heat

pump and compare it with the COP of a reversible heat pump operating between the reservoirs

at the same two temperatures.

8. A solar-powered heat pump receives heat from a solar collector at Th rejects heat to the
atmosphere at Ta and pump heat from a cold space at T c. The three heat transfer rates are Q h, Qa

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and Qc respectively. Derive an expression for the minimum ratio QH/QC in terms of the three
temperatures.
If Th = 400K, Ta = 300 K, Tc = 200 K, QC = 12 kW, what is the minimum Qh? If the collector
captures 0.2 kW/m2, what is the minimum collector area required?
9. A heat engine operating between two reservoirs at 1000 K and 300 K is used to drive a heat pump
which extracts heat from the reservoir at 300 K at a rate twice that at which the engine rejects
heat to it. If the efficiency of the engine is 40% of the maximum possible and the COP of the heat
pump is 50% of the maximum possible, what is the temperature of the reservoir to which the
heat pump rejects heat? What is the rate of heat rejection from the heat pump if the rate of heat
supply to the engine is 50 kW?
10. It takes 10 kW to keep the interior of a certain house at 20°C when the outside temperature is
0°C. This heat flow is usually obtained directly by burning gas or oil. Calculate the power required
if the 10 kW heat flow were supplied by operating a reversible engine with the house as the upper
reservoir and the outside surroundings as the lower reservoir, so that the power were used only
to perform work needed to operate the engine.

ANSWER
1. (a) 47.61 kW, (b) 34.61 kW
2. 0.56 kW
3. 1.81)
4. –270.37°C
5. (a) 403 W, (b) 35.4°C
6. 55%
7. 2.08, 12.87
8. 26.25 kW, 131.25 m2
9. 326.5 K, 86 kW
10. 0.683 kW

****

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